Comment on the following two drafts. The third attached file is an example of how peer review should be done. You need to make at least 10 comments each.
Zing Uttamchandani
In the mid-20th century, both major parties in the United States worked with
public opinion to demonize the Japanese. Due to ongoing wars, the Japanese were
largely distrusted, resulting in a grim period of criminalization, imprisonment, and
internment. During the period of internment, it was impossible for the Japanese to
escape their fate, no matter how much of their community pandered to the U.S.
government.
As the Japanese were being criminalized, the Japanese American Citizens
League (JACL) attempted to work with the government in order to ensure that the
Japanese would be able to live their lives effectively. Acting on behalf of the Japanese
peoples, they often made promises including that the Japanese would swear loyalty to
the U.S. and cooperate with any militaristic actions taken.1 Though these promises were
often untrue, even those who followed through on promises were demonized — those
who cooperated were “the fellows [suspected] the most”. 2 Despite this, as the wars and
internment progressed, the United States began to shift their mentalities — realizing
that their actions were being criticized, they began to reduce their public criminalization
of the Japanese.
Regardless of the United States’ efforts to construct a facade of openness and
cooperation with the Japanese, their actions were deliberately aimed at preventing any
way out of internment, prison, or servitude to the government. A clear demonstration of
this lies in the infamous loyalty test of the Japanese to the United States. Questions 27
and 28 were phrased in a manner that prompted confusion from the Japanese, who
often struggled with the purposely complex grammar of these questions. When
1
2
We hereby refuse, 19
We hereby refuse, 13
Zing Uttamchandani
questioned and asked for clarity, the U.S. Government refused to provide answers,
demonstrating the use of these questions as a means of purposeful criminalization of
the Japanese.3 These challenging prompts were not only a means of confusing the
Japanese, but also dividing them. Those who said no to both questions were, to many,
viewed as disloyal. However, there was a significant portion of them who were proud of
them — who viewed their rejection of the United States as a sign of loyalty to their
people, and as a purposeful rejection of those who had just interned them for years.4
Those who had voted no to questions 27 and 28 were typically sent to prison in place of
internment. However, for the inmates of one internment camp (Tule Lake), their
imprisonment was dismissed by a judge on the grounds of the insanity of requesting
submission to those who had just confined them.5 This was the only case of its kind,
and in all other cases, the government continued to criminalize the Japanese. These
deliberate actions repeatedly allowed the United States government to form loopholes
where it is technically “cooperating”, but is in reality evading all senses of humanity by
confining the Japanese to their fate.
Much as it’s often portrayed as a means of avoiding conflicts, cooperation has
never been the sole solution to tensions. Attempts at cooperation are often veiled
attempts at furthering conflicts with the goal of portraying one side as “uncooperative”.
Particularly when dealing with the United States government, its military-industrial
complex is an entity that needs constant fuel for conflicts, a challenge that often results
in the inescapable demonization of minorities or countries. Without fundamental,
3
We Hereby Refuse citation, 59
No-No Boy, 486
5
Densho Encyclopedia, Tule Lake
4
Zing Uttamchandani
systematic change in the United States’ public opinion and military systems, the
Japanese were doomed to their fate in internment, imprisonment, or other servitude to
the government, regardless of any levels of cooperation or model-type behavior.
Cheyenne Foecke Jacobs
The United States went into World War II after Japanese aircraft attacked the U.S. Navy
Base at Pearl Harbor. American citizens of Japanese descent were viewed as enemies because
the U.S. government feared Japanese-Americans supported their homeland and would act as
“spies” for the Japanese government while living on American soil. The President of the United
States at the time, Franklin Roosevelt, ordered the internment of Japanese-Americans to keep
them in close proximity and gain their trust as loyal citizens.
The Japanese Americans were stripped of their jobs and homes; they were forced to
answer questionnaires created by the U.S. government; these questionnaires were designed to
determine whether or not these citizens were loyal to America. Of these questionnaires, Frank
Abe writes, “All they ask is that you fill out a questionnaire attesting to your loyalty”1 The
questions contradict what the U.S. government is doing to their citizens. These people did not
have a choice to complete this questionnaire: they were damned if they did and were damned if
they didn’t. “In number 28, you ask me to ‘forswear allegiance to the Japanese Emperor.’ If I say
‘yes’ to that, does that become evidence the government can use to claim I am loyal to the
emperor now? Or that I’m somehow disloyal to the United States?”2 No matter how they
answered the questions, the government could manipulate the citizens’ meaning or intent to
respond.
Trust became a major issue between the two parties. The U.S. government did not trust
Japanese-American citizens, and the Japanese-American citizens did not trust the government. “I
read these letters and drink and cry and drink some more because my own people are suffering
so much and there is nothing I can do…She won’t let me send money or food or clothing
1
2
Frank Abe, We Hereby Refuse (2021), 11.
Ibid, 59.
Cheyenne Foecke Jacobs
because she says it’s all a trick of the Americans and that they will take them.”3 The U.S.
government has been disloyal to the Japanese-American citizens, and some of them became
weary to take any action for their families living in their homeland; fearful because they do not
believe the government will let anything be taken overseas in Japan.
On the other hand, some Japanese-American citizens have only been loyal to their
homeland Japan. Many Japanese citizens came to America only for one purpose, and that was to
raise enough money so that they could afford a better life in Japan. “They continued to maintain
their dreams by refusing to learn how to speak or write the language of America and by living
only among their own kind and by zealously avoiding long-term commitments such as the
purchase of a house.”4 These people were seen as the enemies in the government’s eyes.
When placed in internment camps, things did not seem to ameliorate. The JapaneseAmericans started to turn against each other. Even children in the camps were untrustworthy.
One would say to another, “You’re a spy, aren’t you, Kid? Admit it. You give the soldier our
military secrets.”5 The U.S. government was so worried about there being spies that the
Japanese-American citizens started getting the idea that there are indeed spies too; they were
being brainswashed.
The Japanese-American citizens were rightfully angry with America. They were treated
with hate and were seen as aliens from the moment Pearl Harbor was attacked. “It was the way
he felt, stripped of dignity, respect, purpose, honor, all the things which added up to schooling
and marriage and family and work and happiness.”6 The Japanese-Americans were stripped of
3
John Okada, No-No Boy (1957), 504.
Ibid, 496.
5
Lonny Kaneko, The Shoyu Kid (1976), 311.
6
John Okada, No-No Boy (1957), 486.
4
Cheyenne Foecke Jacobs
their lives before the war, and their rights; not one person can prove their loyalty for as long as
they carry their Japanese descent.
Elliott Peck
Throughout the first part of this course we have learned about yellow peril and the
rising tide of color. While ‘Dark Princess’ was in the rising tide of color, it can be related to
both of these topics. Throughout this paper I will be exploring Du Bois’s writing and views
on race. Whether he purposefully perpetrated the orientalist views we explored in yellow
peril or did he try to make it a positive view. What were Du Bois’ views on race and how did
he show it to us.
He was very influential In his writing and ideology because at the time whiteness
dominated the culture and everything around him. He was known for being an activist and for
pushing for the rights of his people through his own writing and some other methods but
mainly through his writing. He created multiple stories featuring African-Americans as the
main character which was not super hard at the time true dark princess he created this
African-American man who would run for political office and his character, “Matthew” was
complex and had multiple ideals that weren’t common in that time at least not common to
see in media.
Du Bois was very honest about how he saw the world especially through multiple
characters such as Sara was there as a support system for Matthew but it not just that she was
pushing for rights of people and one of the reason she was able to do that is because she was
white passing or at least not African American passing as she was referred to as. Sara gets
things because she is white passing which is what Du Bois wants to illustrate in the fourth
section of ‘Dark Princess.” She’s a black woman pushing to help people and the only reason
at least the main reason people listen to her is because she’s passing. I believe he makes her
this way because it illustrates what experience was like for Black people especially black
women during that time period. He purposely has this character that is pushing in society and
is moving things along in society and of this certain skin tone because without that she
wouldn’t be able to get as much done. He wants to make it obvious that this is the reason. He
adds in the part about how she is able to get into the KKK office without them really
questioning if she is black. He has her be hired because she is white passing and that will
help move along the things that Sammy wants. Sara is still black woman but it doesn’t mean
that she doesn’t have more privileges because of this. I believe that is why Du Bois made her
that way he wants it to be clear. He also doesn’t want to make it unrealistic because he is
reflecting society and so it’s already hard enough for women at that time so it would be even
harder for a black woman.
“He is civilization – he is the high goal toward which the world blindly gropes; high in
birth and perfect in courtesy, filled with wide, deep and intimate knowledge of the world’s
past.”1 This quote is about Kautilya’s view on the Japanese Baron. How he is in charge of the
‘underworld.’ I think it’s interesting that Du Bois chose to make him this way. The way
Kautilya thinks of him is as if it’s shocking he is that way.
“Only Talent served from the great Reservoir of All Men of All Races, of All Classes,
of All Ages, of Both Sexes – this is real Aristocracy, real Democracy – the only path to the
great and final Freedom which you so well call Divine Anarchy.”2 While this is Matthew it is
a really good description of what Du Bois thinks about race and the American justice and
political system. He shows in dark princess that he believed that all should be equal. you can
see this through Matthews point of view. I believe that’s the biggest issue with Du Bois’s
dark princess is the subtle orientalism. Though this quote is very different than what are
1
W.E.B. Du Bois, Dark princess: A romance (1928) (New York: Oxford University Press,
2014), 188
2
IBID, 205
sometimes seen in the book. I do not believe the boys did it on purpose I believe he just
subtly perpetrated some of the orientalist issues seen during that time period.
“He had no illusions as to American democracy. He had learned as a porter and in jail
how America was ruled. He knew the power of organized crime, self-indulgence, of industry,
business, corporations, finance, commerce. They all paid for what they wanted the
government to do for them–for their immunity, their appetites; for their incomes, for justice
and the police.”3 Throughout the book Du Bois is very honest about American democracy
and how he views it. It is able to be manipulated easily so that white people in power can get
by unaffected by anything. While Matthew had to fight. This quote is a very clear
interpretation of that.
Throughout a journal article called. “Three Theories of the Race of W. E. B. Du Bois”
there is a breakdown of how he discusses race throughout his life and throughout his work he
is an active but he also has a specific view how it is important to some but not to others. “The
three theories of race of W. E. B. Du Bois follow this pat- tern: race as peculiar shading, or
veil, on the achievements of the great individual; race as the determining feature of the
subject; race as of some importance in a person’s life, but of no particular importance to the
narrative of history, which is toward the elimi- nation of race.”4 You can see if these
particular theories throughout the dark princess quotes and throughout dark princess how it is
important to many of the characters. You can see how many of them believe that it is
3
IBID 93
4
Mostern, Kenneth. “Three Theories of the Race of W. E. B. Du Bois.” Cultural Critique,
no. 34 (1996): 54.
important to work on and have equality but it shouldn’t be important. How race shouldn’t
even matter, but it does.
Du Bois used to character Sara to show the privilege that others have because while
she is a black woman, she does have the privilege that many white people have or at least she
has a part of that. He uses Matthew to show what he thinks of the American democracy and
what he thinks of it at that time. He creates this whole world around his viewpoint.
While he may accidentally perpetrate some stereotypes and orientalism. He creates a
world where over and over again he states that he believes all should be equal. Even if he
uses some of these things in a negative way I do not believe he meant it to be seen in that
way. I believe he meant to make it as realistic as he could and as reflective of the world state
as he could.
Though many believe that Du Bois did this in an almost selfish way. . “…Less
debatable is that the effort to do so led him to talk about the significance of race in a way that
peculiarly captured his own situation, even as it gave his readers striking ways to think about
theirs.” 5 Or that he believed that African should not be part of the identity of black
americans. “While rejecting imputations of racial inequality, he portrayed “African” and
“American” elements in the “divided self” that were, despite some ambivalences,
manifestations of innate, indelible characteristics.”6 He was even known for seeing those
from Africa as lesser than.
5
Bruce, Dickson D. “W. E. B. Du Bois and the Dilemma of ‘Race.’” American Literary
History 7, no. 2 (1995): 340.
6
IBID.
The real question is, did Du Bois truly believe what he wrote in Dark Princess? Or
what he said in his debate?
Sources:
Bruce, Dickson D. “W. E. B. Du Bois and the Dilemma of ‘Race.’” American Literary
History 7, no. 2 (1995): 334–43. http://www.jstor.org/stable/489840.
Du Bois, W.E.B. Dark princess: A romance (1928). New York: Oxford University Press,
2014.
Du Bois, W.E.B. and Lothrop Stoddard. Report of Debate Conducted by the Chicago Forum:
“Shall the Negro Be Encouraged to Seek Cultural Equality?” Chicago: Chicago Forum
Council, 1929.
Mostern, Kenneth. “Three Theories of the Race of W. E. B. Du Bois.” Cultural Critique, no.
34 (1996): 27–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/1354611