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Foundations
of Group Behavior9
9-1 Distinguish between the different
types of groups.
9-2 Describe the punctuated-equilibrium
model of group development.
9-3 Show how role requirements change
in different situations.
9-4 Demonstrate how norms exert
influence on an individual’s behavior.
9-5 Show how status and size differences
affect group performance.
9-6 Describe how issues of cohesiveness
and diversity can be integrated for
group effectiveness.
9-7 Contrast the strengths and weak-
nesses of group decision making.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
So
ur
ce
: X
u
Ji
ng
/X
in
hu
a
/
A
la
m
y
Li
ve
N
ew
s
/A
la
m
y
S
to
ck
P
ho
to
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 286 29/09/17 3:09 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 287
Employability Skills Matrix (ESM)
Myth or
Science
?
Career
OBjectives
An Ethical
Choice
Point/
Counterpoint
Experiential
Exercise
Ethical
Dilemma
Case
Incident 1
Case
Incident 2
Critical
Thinking !
! ! ! ! ! !
Communication ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Collaboration ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Knowledge
Application and
Analysis
! ! ! ! ! !
Social
Responsibility ! ! ! ! ! !
A TALE OF TWO COPS
Imagine listening to a recording of a 911 phone call in which the caller
describes two police officers drawing their weapons during a traffic stop,
followed by the sound of a window shattering. If you asked two people to
listen to this 911 call, would both people agree whether the officer should
have drawn a gun during the phone call? The answer is maybe.
Lisa Mahon was driving with her friend, Jamal, and two children when
she was pulled over by Officer Fucari for not wearing her seat belt. Lisa
became uneasy when the officer, rather than running her driver’s license
and plates, put her license and registration in his pocket and asked for her
friend Jamal’s license. Jamal did not have his license with him, so he knelt
down to grab his bag and retrieve another form of identification. Officer Fuc-
ari, along with another police officer on the scene, pulled their weapons and
pointed them at the car. At this point, Lisa grew concerned and called 911.
There is much debate over what happened next. After the officers drew
their weapons, Officer Fucari asked both Lisa and Jamal to step out of the
vehicle, but, as Lisa told the dispatcher on the 911 call, she and Jamal were
scared to step out of the car. When they refused to step out of their vehicle,
the officers broke the passenger side window, used a Taser on Jamal, then
forcibly removed Jamal from the car. Jamal was arrested for failure to aid an
officer and resisting law enforcement, while Lisa was issued a ticket for not
wearing a seat belt.
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M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 287 29/09/17 3:09 pm
288 PART 3 The Group
A video of the incident was also released to the public. After viewing the
video and listening to the 911 call, many people have different interpreta-
tions of what happened that day. Some individuals believe that the officers
could reasonably have suspected that Jamal was reaching for a weapon
and that drawing their guns was thus justified. These viewers may also
believe that the officers used an acceptable amount of force in the situa-
tion, given that Jamal refused to follow orders. Many other viewers, however,
believe that the officers treated Lisa and Jamal differently because of their
race (Lisa and Jamal are African American). They suggest that the officers
were unusually suspicious of them and point out that Jamal was asked to
identify himself even though he was not driving the car. In addition, many
viewers believe that it was reasonable for Lisa and Jamal not to step out of
the vehicle when guns were pointing at them.
Source: Based on I. Glass and B. Reed, “Cops See It Differently, Part One,” This American
Life, February 6, 2015, https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/547/
transcript.
As individuals, we all belong to groups based on our occupations, race, gen-
der, and many other categories. When we are part of a group, it changes
our perception of the situation. In the chapter-opening vignette above, identi-
fication with a racial group may make us more likely to identify with Lisa and
Jamal, who were frightened by the officers’ actions and by the weapons drawn
on them. If we work in law enforcement, however, we may be more likely to side
with the police officers, believing that they were serving their roles as police
officers by using force when a citizen did not respond to orders.
These disagreements are very common, especially in cases where a police
officer used force on an African American. When speaking of relations with the
African American community, Chief Ed Flynn of the Milwaukee Police Depart-
ment noted that many African Americans in high-crime areas have strong
antipathy toward law enforcement, partly because “the police have often been
in the middle of great conflict and not infrequently been agents of social con-
trol to preserve a status quo.”
Tensions between African American communities and law enforcement
officers highlight one of the pitfalls of group identification. Some groups can
exert a powerful positive influence, and others can create bias. The objectives
of this chapter and Chapter 10 are to familiarize you with group and team
concepts, provide you with a foundation for understanding how groups and
teams work, and show you how to create effective working units. Let’s begin by
defining a group.
Defining and Classifying Groups
In organizational behavior, a group is two or more individuals, interacting
and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.
Groups can be either formal or informal. A formal group is defined by the
organization’s structure, with designated work assignments and established
tasks. In formal groups, the behaviors that team members should engage in
are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. The six members of
9-1 Distinguish between the
different types of groups.
group Two or more individuals, interacting
and interdependent, who have come together
to achieve particular objectives.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 288 29/09/17 3:09 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 289
an airline flight crew are a formal group, for example. In contrast, an informal
group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Infor-
mal groups in the work environment meet the need for social contact. Three
employees from different departments who regularly have lunch or coffee
together are an informal group. These types of interactions among individuals,
though informal, deeply affect their behavior and performance.
Social Identity
People often feel strongly about their groups, partly because, as research indi-
cates, shared experiences amplify our perception of events.1 Also, according to
research in Australia, sharing painful experiences, in particular, increases our
felt bond and trust with others.2 Why do people form groups, and why do they
feel so strongly about them? Consider the celebrations that follow when a sports
team wins a national championship. The winner’s supporters are elated, and
sales of team-related shirts, jackets, and hats skyrocket. Fans of the losing team
feel dejected, even embarrassed. Why? Even though fans have little to do with
the actual performance of the sports team, their self-image can be wrapped up
in their identification with the group. Our tendency to personally invest in the
accomplishments of a group is the territory of social identity theory.
Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the
failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to whatever
happens to the group.3 When your group does well, you bask in reflected glory,
and your own self-esteem rises. When your group does poorly, you might feel
bad about yourself, or you might reject that part of your identity, similar to
fair-weather fans. If your group is devalued and disrespected, your social iden-
tity might feel threatened, and you might endorse deviant behaviors to restore
your group’s standing.4 Social identities can even lead people to experience
pleasure as a result of seeing another group suffer. We often see these feelings
of schadenfreude in the joy fans experience when a hated team loses.5
People develop many identities through the course of their lives. You might
define yourself in terms of the organization you work for, the city you live in,
your profession, your religious background, your ethnicity, and/or your gen-
der. Over time, some groups you belong to may become more significant to you
than others, A U.S. expatriate working in Rome might be very aware of being
from the United States, for instance, but doesn’t give national identity a sec-
ond thought when transferring from Tulsa to Tucson.6 We may thus pick and
informal group A group that is neither
formally structured nor organizationally deter-
mined; such a group appears in response to
the need for social contact.
formal group A designated work group
defined by an organization’s structure.
social identity theory Perspective that
considers when and why individuals consider
themselves members of groups.
Jeffrey Webster, director of human
resources at a Nissan plant in Missis-
sippi, also serves as the director of
the plant’s gospel choir. Choir mem-
bers are a diverse group of employees
who identify with each other because
they all share a love of singing and
performing for fellow workers, com-
pany executives, state officials, and
community events.
Source: Rogelio V. Solis/AP Images
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 289 29/09/17 3:09 pm
290 PART 3 The Group
choose which of our social identities are salient to the situation, or we may find
that our social identities are in conflict, such as the identities of business leader
and parent.7
Our social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with
other people, and research indicates they bring us better health and lower lev-
els of depression because we become less likely to attribute negative situations
to internal or insurmountable reasons.8 To experience these good outcomes,
however, we need to feel that our social identities are positive.9
Until now, we’ve discussed social identities primarily in a cultural con-
text. However, the identity we may feel with respect to our organization is
only one aspect of our work-related identities (see OB Poll). Within our
organizations and work groups, we can develop many identities through
(1) relational identification, when we connect with others because of our
roles, and (2) collective identification, when we connect with the aggregate
characteristics of our groups. We can identify with groups within our team,
our work group, and our organizations. Often, our identification with our
work groups is stronger than with our organizations, but both are important
to positive outcomes in attitudes and behaviors. The strength of our iden-
tification may vary, depending on how unique a group is within an organi-
zation.10 Low identification to the group may lead to problems. If we have
low identification with our organizations, we may experience decreased sat-
isfaction and engage in fewer organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs).11
Similarly, we are less likely to apply to organizations that do not correspond
to our collective identities.12
Ingroups and Outgroups
Ingroup favoritism occurs when we see members of our group as better than
other people, and people not in our group as all the same. Recent research
suggests that people with low openness and/or low agreeableness are more sus-
ceptible to ingroup favoritism.13
ingroup favoritism Perspective in which we
see members of our ingroup as better than
other people, and people not in our group as
all the same.
Most People Report Drinking with Coworkers Is Acceptable
Note: Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM) survey of 501 individuals and how drinking is viewed in their organization at a range of work-
related activities.
Source: Based on S. M. Heathfield, “To Drink or Not to Drink: Does Alcohol Drinking Mix Safely with Work Events?,” About.com Guide, 2013,
http://humanresources.about.com/od/networking/qt/drink_i3.htm.
At a holiday party
At a meal with a client or customer
At a meal during a job interview
At a meal with coworkers
At the celebration of
a company milestone
At a retirement party
70%
40%
32%
28%
22%
4% 14%
Never
OB POLL
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 291
Whenever there is an ingroup, there is by necessity an outgroup, which
is sometimes everyone else but is usually an identified group known by the
ingroup’s members. For example, if my ingroup is the Republican Party in
U.S. politics, my outgroup might be anyone in the world who is not a Repub-
lican, but it’s more likely to be the other U.S. political parties, or perhaps just
Democrats.
When there are ingroups and outgroups, there is often animosity between
them. One of the most powerful sources of ingroup–outgroup feelings is the
practice of religion, even in the workplace. One global study, for instance,
found that when groups became heavily steeped in religious rituals and discus-
sions, they became especially discriminatory toward outgroups and aggressive if
the outgroups had more resources.14 Consider an example from another study
of a U.K. Muslim organization that supported Al-Qaeda and identified moder-
ate U.K. Muslims as its outgroup. The Al-Qaeda ingroup was not neutral toward
the moderate outgroup; instead, the ingroup denounced the moderates, deni-
grating them as deviant and threatening outward aggression.15
Social Identity Threat
Ingroups and outgroups pave the way for social identity threat, which is akin
to stereotype threat (see Chapter 6). With social identity threat, individuals
believe they will be personally negatively evaluated due to their association
with a devalued group, and they may lose confidence and performance effec-
tiveness. One study found, for example, that when subjects from high and low
socioeconomic backgrounds took a high-pressure math test, the low-status
subjects who felt social identity threat could be as confident as the high-
status subjects only when they were first deliberately encouraged about their
abilities.16
Stages of Group Development
outgroup The inverse of an ingroup, which
can mean everyone outside the group but is
more usually an identified other group.
9-2 Describe the punctuated-
equilibrium model of group
development.
Temporary groups with finite deadlines pass through a unique sequencing
of actions (or inaction) called the punctuated-equilibrium model, shown in
Exhibit 9-1. The stages in this model include the following: (1) The first meet-
ing sets the group’s direction, (2) the first phase of group activity is one of iner-
tia and thus slower progress, (3) a transition takes place exactly when the group
has used up half its allotted time, (4) this transition initiates major changes,
(5) a second phase of inertia follows the transition, and (6) the group’s last
meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.17 Alternative models
suggest that teams progress through a formation stage, a conflict resolution or
“storming” stage, a “norming” stage where members agree on roles and make
decisions, and a “performing” stage where members begin to work collabora-
tively. The forming, storming, norming, and performing stages may occur at
phase one of the punctuated equilibrium model, while a second performing
and conforming stage may occur in the second phase, following a short period
of reforming group norms and expectations.18
punctuated-equilibrium model A set of
phases that temporary groups go through
that involves transitions between inertia and
activity.
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M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 291 29/09/17 3:09 pm
292 PART 3 The Group
diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. As we’ll see, one of the tasks in under-
standing behavior is grasping the role a person is currently playing.
Bill is a plant manager with EMM Industries, a large electrical equipment
manufacturer in Phoenix. He fulfills a number of roles—employee, member
of middle management, and electrical engineer. Off the job, Bill holds more
roles: husband, father, Catholic, tennis player, member of the Thunderbird
Country Club, and president of his homeowners’ association. Many of these
roles are compatible; some create conflicts. How does Bill’s religious commit-
ment influence his managerial decisions regarding layoffs, expense padding,
and provision of accurate information to government agencies? A recent offer
of promotion requires Bill to relocate, yet his family wants to stay in Phoenix.
Can the role demands of his job be reconciled with the demands of his hus-
band and father roles?
Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals. Like
Bill, we all play a number of roles, and our behavior varies with each. But how
do we know each role’s requirements? We draw on our role perceptions to
frame our ideas of appropriate behaviors and to learn the expectations of our
groups.
Role Perception
Our view of how we’re supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception.
We get role perceptions from stimuli all around us—for example, friends,
books, films, and television, as when we form an impression of politicians from
House of Cards. Apprenticeship programs allow beginners to watch an expert so
they can learn to act as they should.
Role Expectations
Role expectations are the way others believe you should act in a given context.
A U.S. federal judge is viewed as having propriety and dignity, while a football
coach may be seen as aggressive, dynamic, and inspiring to the players.
In the workplace, we look at role expectations through the perspective of the
psychological contract: an unwritten agreement that exists between employees
and employers. This agreement sets out mutual expectations.20 Management
is expected to treat employees justly, provide acceptable working conditions,
role A set of expected behavior patterns
attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit.
role perception An individual’s view of
how he or she is supposed to act in a given
situation.
role expectations How others believe a
person should act in a given situation.
Let’s discuss each stage of the punctuated-equilibrium model. At the first
meeting, the group’s general purpose and direction is established and then a
framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which the group
will approach its project emerges, sometimes in the first few seconds of the
group’s existence. Once set, the group’s direction is solidified and is unlikely to
be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. This is a period of inertia—
the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action,
even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions.
One of the most interesting discoveries in studies was that groups experi-
enced a transition precisely halfway between the first meeting and the official
deadline—whether members spent an hour on their project or 6 months. The
midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members’ aware-
ness that their time is limited and they need to get moving. This transition ends
phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of
old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised
direction for phase 2, a new equilibrium or period of inertia in which the group
executes plans created during the transition period.
The group’s last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to finish
its work. In summary, the punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes groups as
exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary changes
triggered primarily by members’ awareness of time and deadlines. This is not the
only model of group stages by far, but it is a dominant theory with strong support.
Keep in mind, however, that this model doesn’t apply to all groups but is suited
to the finite quality of temporary task groups working under a time deadline.19
Group Property 1: Roles
Work groups shape members’ behavior, and they also help explain individual
behavior as well as the performance of the group itself. Some defining group
properties are roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness, and diversity. We’ll discuss
each in the sections that follow. Let’s begin with the first group property, roles.
Shakespeare said, “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women
merely players.”* Using the same metaphor, all group members are actors, each
playing a role, a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occu-
pying a given position in a social unit. We are required to play a number of
9-3 Show how role require-
ments change in different
situations.
The Punctuated-Equilibrium ModelExhibit 9-1
A
First
Meeting
Phase 1
CompletionPhase 2
Transition
(High)
(Low) (A+B)/2
Time
Pe
rfo
rm
an
ce
B
*William Shakespeare, As You Like It, D. C. Heath & Company, 1904.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 292 29/09/17 3:09 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 293
diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. As we’ll see, one of the tasks in under-
standing behavior is grasping the role a person is currently playing.
Bill is a plant manager with EMM Industries, a large electrical equipment
manufacturer in Phoenix. He fulfills a number of roles—employee, member
of middle management, and electrical engineer. Off the job, Bill holds more
roles: husband, father, Catholic, tennis player, member of the Thunderbird
Country Club, and president of his homeowners’ association. Many of these
roles are compatible; some create conflicts. How does Bill’s religious commit-
ment influence his managerial decisions regarding layoffs, expense padding,
and provision of accurate information to government agencies? A recent offer
of promotion requires Bill to relocate, yet his family wants to stay in Phoenix.
Can the role demands of his job be reconciled with the demands of his hus-
band and father roles?
Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals. Like
Bill, we all play a number of roles, and our behavior varies with each. But how
do we know each role’s requirements? We draw on our role perceptions to
frame our ideas of appropriate behaviors and to learn the expectations of our
groups.
Role Perception
Our view of how we’re supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception.
We get role perceptions from stimuli all around us—for example, friends,
books, films, and television, as when we form an impression of politicians from
House of Cards. Apprenticeship programs allow beginners to watch an expert so
they can learn to act as they should.
Role Expectations
Role expectations are the way others believe you should act in a given context.
A U.S. federal judge is viewed as having propriety and dignity, while a football
coach may be seen as aggressive, dynamic, and inspiring to the players.
In the workplace, we look at role expectations through the perspective of the
psychological contract: an unwritten agreement that exists between employees
and employers. This agreement sets out mutual expectations.20 Management
is expected to treat employees justly, provide acceptable working conditions,
role A set of expected behavior patterns
attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit.
role perception An individual’s view of
how he or she is supposed to act in a given
situation.
role expectations How others believe a
person should act in a given situation.
psychological contract An unwritten agree-
ment that sets out what a manager expects
from an employee, and vice versa.
Les Hatton, manager of a Recreational
Equipment, Inc. (REI), store in Man-
hattan, pumps up employees before
the store’s grand opening. Part of the
psychological contract between REI
and its employees is the expectation
that salespeople will display enthusi-
asm and generate excitement while
welcoming and serving customers.
Source: Matt Payton/AP Images
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 293 29/09/17 3:09 pm
294 PART 3 The Group
clearly communicate what is a fair day’s work, and give feedback on how well
employees are doing. Employees are expected to demonstrate a good attitude,
follow directions, and show loyalty to the organization. When a psychological
contract also focuses on relationships between employers (or supervisors) and
employees, employees may also be more likely to engage in organizational citi-
zenship behaviors (OCBs).21
What happens if management is derelict in its part of the bargain? We can
expect negative effects on employee performance and satisfaction. One study
among restaurant managers found that violations of the psychological contract
were related to greater intentions to quit, while another study of a variety of
different industries found psychological contracts were associated with lower
levels of productivity, higher levels of theft, and greater work withdrawal.22
There is evidence that perceptions of psychological contracts vary across
cultures. In France, where people are individualistic and power is more asym-
metric, contracts are perceived as self-interested yet favoring the more pow-
erful party. In Canada, where people are individualistic but power is more
symmetric, contracts are perceived as self-interested yet focused on balanced
reciprocity. In China, where people are collectivistic and power is more
asymmetric, contracts are perceived as going beyond the work context into
employees’ lives. And in Norway, where people are collectivistic but power
is more symmetric, contracts are perceived as more relational and based on
trust.23
Role Conflict
When compliance with one role requirement may make it difficult to comply
with another, the result is role conflict.24 At the extreme, two or more role
expectations may be contradictory. For example, if you, as a manager, were to
provide a performance evaluation of a person you mentored, your roles as eval-
uator and mentor may conflict. Similarly, we can experience interrole conflict25
when the expectations of our different, separate groups are in opposition. An
example can be found in work–family conflict, which Bill experiences when
expectations placed on him as a husband and father differ from those placed
on him as an executive with EMM Industries. Bill’s wife and children want to
remain in Phoenix, while EMM expects its employees to be responsive to the
company’s needs and requirements. Although it might be in Bill’s financial
and career interests to accept a relocation, the conflict centers on choosing
between family and work role expectations. Indeed, a great deal of research
demonstrates that work–family conflict is one of the most significant sources of
stress for most employees.26
Within organizations, most employees are simultaneously in occupations,
work groups, divisions, and demographic groups, and these identities can con-
flict when the expectations of one clash with the expectations of another.27 Dur-
ing mergers and acquisitions, employees can be torn between their identities as
members of their original organization and of the new parent company.28 Multi-
national organizations have also been shown to lead to dual identification—
with the local division and with the international organization.29
Role Play and Assimilation
The degree to which we comply with our role perceptions and expectations—
even when we don’t agree with them initially—can be surprising. One of the
most illuminating role and identity experiments was done a number of years
ago by psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his associates.30 They created a
“prison” in the basement of the Stanford psychology building; hired emotion-
ally stable, physically healthy, law-abiding students who scored “normal average”
interrole conflict A situation in which the
expectations of an individual’s different,
separate groups are in opposition.
role conflict A situation in which an
individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations.
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 295
on personality tests; randomly assigned them the role of either “guard” or
“prisoner”; and established some basic rules.
It took little time for the prisoners to accept the authority positions of the
guards and for the mock guards to adjust to their new authority roles. Con-
sistent with social identity theory, the guards came to see the prisoners as a
negative outgroup, and they developed stereotypes about the “typical” prisoner
personality type. After the guards crushed a rebellion attempt on the second
day, the prisoners became increasingly passive. Whatever the guards dished
out, the prisoners took. The prisoners actually began to believe and act like
they were inferior and powerless. Every guard, at some time during the simula-
tion, engaged in abusive, authoritative behavior. One said, “I was surprised at
myself. . . . I made them call each other names and clean the toilets out with
their bare hands. I practically considered the prisoners cattle, and I kept think-
ing: ‘I have to watch out for them in case they try something.’ ” Surprisingly,
during the entire experiment—even after days of abuse—not one prisoner said,
“Stop this. I’m a student like you. This is just an experiment!” The researchers
had to end the study after only 6 days because of the participants’ pathological
reactions.
What can we conclude from this study? Like the rest of us, the partici-
pants had learned stereotyped conceptions of guard and prisoner roles from
the mass media and their own personal experiences in power and powerless
Myth or Science?
Gossip and Exclusion Are Toxic for Groups
The statement above is not neces-
sarily true, but it is counterintuitive.
Let’s explore the conditions.
What is gossip? Most of us might
say gossip is talking about oth-
ers, sharing rumors, and speculat-
ing about others’ behaviors; gossip
affects a person’s reputation. We
might also say gossip is malicious,
but according to researchers, it can
serve positive social functions, too.
Prosocial gossip can expose behavior
that exploits other people, which can
lead to positive changes. For exam-
ple, if Julie tells Chris that Alex is bul-
lying Summer, then Chris has learned
about Alex’s poor behavior through
gossiping. Chris might refuse to part-
ner with Alex on a work project, which
might limit Alex’s opportunities with
the organization, preventing him from
bullying more people. Alternatively, as
the gossip spreads, Alex might feel
exposed for his behavior and con-
form to group expectations against
bullying behavior. In fact, according to
research, Alex is likely to cooperate
with the group in response to the gos-
sip, and others hearing and spreading
the gossip are likely also to cooperate
by not acting on their impulses toward
bad behavior.
What about excluding Alex? There
are two types of exclusion in the work-
place: leaving someone out of a group
and ostracizing an individual. Both lead
to the same end—the person isn’t
part of the group. While simply leaving
someone out of a group might not send
a message of exclusion, ostracism cer-
tainly does. Ostracism is more of a felt
punishment than gossip because it is
more direct. Research indicates that
ostracized individuals cooperate to a
greater degree when they are around
the group to show a willingness to con-
form, hoping to be invited back into the
group.
Can gossip and ostracism work
together? Yes, according to a recent
study. When subjects were given an
opportunity to gossip about the work
of another subject, that subject coop-
erated more than before; when the
opportunity to gossip was paired with
the ability to ostracize, that subject
cooperated to a much greater degree.
Thus, gossip and exclusion may pro-
vide groups with benefits, at least when
the gossip is confined to truthful work-
related discussion, when the opportu-
nity still exists to rejoin the group with
full standing, and when the group norms
are positive.
Sources: Based on M. Cikara and J. J. Van
Bavel, “The Neuroscience of Intergroup
Relations: An Integrative Review,” Perspec-
tives on Psychological Science 9, no. 3
(2014): 245–74; M. Feinberg, R. Willer,
and M. Schultz, “Gossip and Ostracism Pro-
mote Cooperation in Groups,” Psychologi-
cal Science 25, no. 3 (2014): 656–64; and
I. H. Smith, K. Aquino, S. Koleva, and J. Gra-
ham, “The Moral Ties That Bind . . . Even to
Out-Groups: The Interactive Effect of Moral
Identity and the Binding Moral Foundations,”
Psychological Science (2014): 1554–62.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 295 29/09/17 3:09 pm
296 PART 3 The Group
relationships gained at home (parent–child), in school (teacher–student), and
in other situations. This background allowed them to assume roles easily and
rapidly and, with a vague notion of the social identity of their roles and no
prior personality pathology or training for the parts they were playing, to exe-
cute extreme forms of behavior consistent with those roles.
A reality television show that was a follow-up to the Stanford experiment
was conducted by the BBC.31 The BBC results were dramatically different from
those of the Stanford experiment, partially because the show used a less intense
simulated prison setting. The “guards” were far more careful in their behav-
ior, limiting their aggressive treatment of “prisoners” and expressing concerns
about how their actions might be perceived. In short, they did not fully take
on their authority roles, possibly because they knew their behavior was being
observed by millions of viewers. These results suggest that less intense situations
evoke less extreme behavior, and abuse of roles can be limited when people are
made conscious of their behavior.
Group Property 2: Norms
Did you ever notice that golfers don’t speak while their partners are putting?
Why not? The answer is norms.
All groups have established norms—acceptable standards of behavior
shared by members that express what they ought to do and ought not to do
under certain circumstances. It’s not enough for group leaders to share their
opinions—even if members adopt the leaders’ views, the effect may last only
3 days!32 When agreed to by the group, norms influence behavior with a mini-
mum of external controls. Different groups, communities, and societies have
different norms, but they all have them.33 Let’s discuss the levels of influence
that norms can exert over us, starting with our emotions.
Norms and Emotions
Have you ever noticed how the emotions of one member of your family, espe-
cially strong emotions, can influence the emotions of the other members? A
family can be a highly normative group. So can a task group whose members
work together on a daily basis, because frequent communication can increase
the power of norms. A recent study found that, in a task group, individuals’
emotions influenced the group’s emotions, and vice versa. This may not be sur-
prising, but researchers also found that norms dictated the experience of emo-
tions for the individuals and for the groups—in other words, people grew to
interpret their shared emotions in the same way.34 As we discovered in Chap-
ters 5 and 6, our emotions and moods can shape our perspective, so the nor-
mative effect of groups can have a powerful influence on group attitudes and
outcomes.
Norms and Conformity
As a member of a group, you desire acceptance by the group. Thus, you are sus-
ceptible to conforming to group norms. Considerable evidence suggests that
groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their atti-
tudes and behaviors to match the group’s standard.35 The impact that group
pressures for conformity can have on an individual member’s judgment was
demonstrated in studies by Solomon Asch and others.36 Asch made up groups
of seven or eight people who were asked to compare two cards. One card had
one line, and the other had three lines of varying length, one of which was
9-4 Demonstrate how norms
exert influence on an
individual’s behavior.
norms Acceptable standards of behavior
within a group that are shared by the group’s
members.
conformity The adjustment of one’s
behavior to align with the norms of the group.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 296 29/09/17 3:09 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 297
identical to the line on the one-line card, as Exhibit 9-2 shows. The difference
in line length was obvious; in fact, under ordinary conditions, subjects were
incorrect less than 1 percent of the time in announcing which of the three lines
matched the single line.
The experiment began with sets of matching exercises. Everyone gave the
right answers. On the third set, however, the first subject, who was part of the
research team, gave an obviously wrong answer—for example, saying “C” in
Exhibit 9-2 was the same as “X.” The next subject, also on the research team,
gave the same wrong answer, and so forth. Now the dilemma confronting the
subject, who didn’t know any of the subjects were on the research team, was this:
Should he or she publicly state a perception that differed from the announced
position of the others or give an incorrect answer that agreed with the others?
The results over many experiments showed 75 percent of subjects gave at
least one answer that conformed—that they knew was wrong but was consis-
tent with the replies of other group members—and the average conformer
gave wrong answers 37 percent of the time. This suggests that we feel the
pressure toward conformity with group norms. Other recent research with
moral decision making indicated an even stronger effect of conformity when
subjects found the nonconforming ideas not just incorrect but objection-
able.37 Does that mean we are mere robots? Certainly not. The flip side of
the 37 percent of conforming responses is the 63 percent of independent
responses, and 95 percent gave the correct (nonconforming) response at
least once. Therefore, we feel the pressure to conform, but it is not a perfect
predictor of what we will do. Furthermore, we don’t tend to like the pressure
we feel to conform. Asch wrote, “Those who participated in this challenging
experiment agreed nearly without exception that independence was prefer-
able to conformity.”38
Do individuals conform to the pressures of all groups to which they belong?
Obviously not, because people belong to many groups whose norms vary and
sometimes are contradictory. People conform to their reference groups, in
which a person is aware of other members, defines him- or herself as a member
or would like to be a member, and feels group members are significant to him
or her. The implication, then, is that all groups do not impose equal confor-
mity pressures on their members.
Norms and Behavior
Norms can cover any aspect of group behavior.39 As we’ve mentioned, norms in
the workplace significantly influence employee behavior. This may seem intui-
tive, but full appreciation of the influence of norms on worker behavior did not
occur until the Hawthorne Studies conducted between 1924 and 1932 at the
Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago.40
reference groups Important groups to which
individuals belong or hope to belong and with
whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
Examples of Cards Used in Asch’s StudyExhibit 9-2
X A B C
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 297 29/09/17 3:09 pm
298 PART 3 The Group
An Ethical Choice
Using Peer Pressure as an Influence Tactic
W e’ve all experienced peer
pressure, and it can be hard
to behave differently from
your friends and coworkers. As more
work in organizations is performed in
groups and teams, the possibilities
and pitfalls of such pressure have
become an increasingly important ethi-
cal issue for managers.
Peer pressure can be a positive
force in some ways. In groups where
high effort and performance are the
norms, peer pressure from coworkers,
whether direct or indirect, can encour-
age high performance from those not
meeting expectations. A group with a
norm toward behaving ethically could
also use peer pressure to minimize
negative behavior. Thus, peer pressure
can promote all sorts of good behav-
iors, from donating to charity to volun-
teering at the local soup kitchen.
However, peer pressure can also
be destructive. It can create a feeling
of exclusion in those who do not go
along with group norms and can be
very stressful and hurtful for those who
don’t see eye-to-eye with the rest of
the group. Peer pressure itself can be
an unethical practice that unduly influ-
ences workers’ behavior and thoughts.
And while groups might pressure oth-
ers into good behavior, they can just as
easily sway them to bad behavior.
Should you use group peer pres-
sure? As a leader, you may need to.
One survey found that only 6 percent
of leaders reported being able to suc-
cessfully influence their employees
on their own. Peer pressure hastens
a group toward consensus, and levels
of peer pressure predict how much the
leader can control the group. If you use
peer pressure to encourage individuals
to work toward team goals and behave
consistently with organizational values,
it can enhance ethical performance.
But your behavior should emphasize
acceptance and rewarding of posi-
tive behavior, rather than rejection
and exclusion, as a means of getting
everyone to behave consistently in the
group.
Sources: Based on E. Estrada and E. Vargas-
Estrada, “How Peer Pressure Shapes Con-
sensus, Leadership, and Innovations in Social
Groups,” Scientific Reports 3 (2013), article
number 2905; A. Verghese, “The Healing
Power of Peer Pressure,” Newsweek, March
14, 2011, www.newsweek.com; J. Meer,
“Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? Peer Pres-
sure in Charitable Solicitation,” Journal of
Public Economics 95, no. 7–8 (2011): 926–
41; and L. Potter, “Lack Influence at Work?
Why Most Leaders Struggle to Lead Posi-
tive Change,” Yahoo, May 14, 2013, http://
finance.yahoo.com/news/lack-influence-why-
most-leaders-121500672.html.
In the studies, the researchers first examined the relationship between the
physical environment and productivity. As they increased the light level for
the experimental group of workers, output rose for that unit and the control
group. But as they dropped the light level, productivity continued to increase.
In fact, productivity in the experimental group decreased only when the light
intensity had been reduced to that of moonlight, leading researchers to believe
that group dynamics, rather than the environment, influenced behavior.
The researchers next isolated a small group of women assembling tele-
phones so their behavior could be observed more carefully. Over the next
several years, this small group’s output increased steadily, and the number of
personal and sick absences was approximately one-third of that in the regular
production department. It became evident that this group’s performance was
significantly influenced by its “special” status. The members thought they were
in an elite group, and that management showed concern about their interests
by engaging in experimentation. In essence, workers in both the illumination
and assembly experiments were really reacting to the increased attention they
received.
A wage incentive plan was then introduced in the bank wiring observation
room. The most important finding was that employees did not individually
maximize their output. Rather, their role performance became controlled by
a group norm. Members were afraid that if they significantly increased their
output, the unit incentive rate might be cut, the expected daily output might
be increased, layoffs might occur, or slower workers might be reprimanded. So
the group established its idea of a fair output—neither too much nor too little.
Members helped each other ensure their reports were nearly level, and the
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 298 29/09/17 3:09 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 299
norms that the group established included a number of behavioral “don’ts.”
Don’t be a rate-buster, turning out too much work. Don’t be a chiseler, turning
out too little work. Don’t squeal on any of your peers. The group enforced its
norms with name calling, ridicule, and even punches to the upper arms of vio-
lators. It thus operated well below its capability, using norms that were tightly
established and strongly enforced.
Positive Norms and Group Outcomes
One goal of every organization with corporate social responsibility (CSR) initia-
tives is for the organization’s values (or the values of the CEO and executives)
to hold normative sway over employees.41. After all, if employees aligned their
thinking with the organization’s positive norms, these norms would become
stronger and the probability of positive impact would grow exponentially. We
might expect the same outcomes from political correctness (PC) norms. But
what is the effect of strong positive norms on group outcomes? The popular
thinking is that, to increase creativity in groups, for instance, norms should be
loosened. However, research on gender-diverse groups indicates that strong PC
norms increase group creativity. Why? Clear expectations about male-female
interactions reduce uncertainty about group expectations,42 which allows the
members to express their creative ideas more easily, without combating stereo-
type norms.
Positive group norms may well beget positive outcomes, but only if other
factors are present, too. For instance, in a recent study a high level of group
extraversion predicted helping behaviors more strongly when there were posi-
tive cooperation norms.43 As powerful as norms can be, though, not everyone
is equally susceptible to positive group norms. Individual personalities factor
in, too, as well as the level of a person’s social identity with the group. Also, a
recent study in Germany indicated that the more satisfied people were with
their groups, the more closely they followed group norms.44
From studies of employees at the
Western Electric Company’s Haw-
thorne Works in Chicago, researchers
gained valuable insights into how indi-
vidual behavior is influenced by group
norms. They also learned that money
was less of a factor in determining
worker output than were group stan-
dards, sentiments, and security.
Source: Hawthorne Museum of Morton College
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 299 29/09/17 3:09 pm
300 PART 3 The Group
Negative Norms and Group Outcomes
LeBron is frustrated by a coworker who constantly spreads malicious and unsub-
stantiated rumors about him. Lindsay is tired of a member of her work group
who, when confronted with a problem, takes out his frustration by yelling and
screaming at her and other members. And Mi-Cha recently quit her job as a
dental hygienist after being sexually harassed by her employer.
What do these illustrations have in common? They represent employees
exposed to acts of deviant workplace behavior.45 As we discussed in Chapter 3,
counterproductive work behavior (CWB) or deviant workplace behavior (also
called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility) is voluntary behavior that violates
significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of
the organization or its members. Exhibit 9-3 provides a typology of deviant
workplace behaviors, with examples of each.
Few organizations will admit to creating or condoning conditions that
encourage and maintain deviant behaviors. Yet they exist. As we discussed
before, a work group can become characterized by positive or negative attri-
butes. When those attributes are negative, such as when a work group is high
in psychopathy and aggression, the characteristics of deceit, amorality, and
intent to harm others are pronounced.46 Second, employees have been report-
ing an increase in rudeness and disregard toward others by bosses and cowork-
ers in recent years. Workplace incivility, like many other deviant behaviors, has
many negative outcomes for the victims.47 Nearly half of employees who have
suffered this incivility say that it has led them to think about changing jobs;
12 percent actually quit because of it.48 Also, a study of nearly 1,500 respon-
dents found that, in addition to increasing turnover intentions, incivility at
work increased reports of psychological stress and physical illness.49 Employees
that are repeatedly subjected to incivility feel a sense of injustice and may
lash out at the organization by engaging in deviant behaviors.50 Research sug-
gests that a lack of sleep, which is often caused by heightened work demands
and which hinders a person’s ability to regulate emotions and behaviors, can
also lead to deviant behavior. As organizations have tried to do more with
less, pushing their employees to work extra hours, they may be indirectly facili-
tating deviant behavior.51
deviant workplace behavior Voluntary
behavior that violates significant organiza-
tional norms and, in so doing, threatens the
well-being of the organization or its members.
Also called antisocial behavior or workplace
incivility.
Typology of Deviant Workplace BehaviorExhibit 9-3
Category Examples
Production Leaving early
Intentionally working slowly
Wasting resources
Property Sabotage
Lying about hours worked
Stealing from the organization
Political Showing favoritism
Gossiping and spreading rumors
Blaming coworkers
Personal aggression Sexual harassment
Verbal abuse
Stealing from coworkers
Sources: Based on S. H. Appelbaum, G. D. Iaconi, and A. Matousek, “Positive and Negative Deviant Workplace Behaviors: Causes,
Impacts, and Solutions,” Corporate Governance 7, no. 5 (2007): 586–98; and R. W. Griffin and A. O’Leary-Kelly, The Dark Side of
Organizational Behavior (New York: Wiley, 2004).
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 301
Like norms in general, employees’ antisocial actions are shaped by the
group context within which they work. Evidence demonstrates deviant work-
place behavior is likely to flourish where it’s supported by group norms.52 For
example, workers who socialize either at or outside work with people who are
frequently absent from work are more likely to be absent themselves.53 Thus
when deviant workplace norms surface, employee cooperation, commitment,
and motivation are likely to suffer.
What are the consequences of workplace deviance for groups? Some
research suggests a chain reaction occurs in groups with high levels of dysfunc-
tional behavior.54 The process begins with negative behaviors like shirking,
undermining coworkers, or being generally uncooperative. As a result of these
behaviors, the group collectively starts to have negative moods. These nega-
tive moods then result in poor coordination of effort and lower levels of group
performance.
Norms and Culture
Do people in collectivist cultures have different norms than people in individu-
alist cultures? Of course they do.55 But did you know that our orientation may
be changed, even after years of living in one society? In a recent experiment,
an organizational role-playing exercise was given to a neutral group of subjects;
the exercise stressed either collectivist or individualist norms. Subjects were
then given a task of their personal choice or were assigned one by an ingroup
or outgroup person. When the individualist-primed subjects were allowed per-
sonal choice of the task, or the collectivist-primed subjects were assigned the
task by an ingroup person, they became more highly motivated.56
Group Property 3: Status, and
Group Property 4: Size and Dynamics
We’ve discussed how the roles we play and the norms we internalize tend to
dictate our behavior in groups. However, those are not the only two factors
that influence who we are in a group and how the group functions. Have you
ever noticed how groups tend to stratify into higher- and lower-status members?
Sometimes the status of members reflects their status outside the group setting,
but not always. Also, status often varies between groups of different sizes. Let’s
examine how these factors affect a work group’s efficacy.
Group Property 3: Status
Status—a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members
by others—permeates every society. Even the smallest group shows differences
in member status over time. Status is a significant motivator and has major
behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a disparity between what
they believe their status is and what others perceive it to be.
What Determines Status? According to status characteristics theory, status
tends to derive from one of three sources:57
1. The power a person wields over others. Because they likely control the
group’s resources, people who control group outcomes tend to be per-
ceived as high status.
2. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contribu-
tions are critical to the group’s success tend to have high status.
9-5 Show how status and size
differences affect group
performance.
status A socially defined position or rank
given to groups or group members by others.
status characteristics theory A theory
stating that differences in status characteris-
tics create status hierarchies within groups.
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302 PART 3 The Group
3. An individual’s personal characteristics. Someone whose personal char-
acteristics are positively valued by the group (good looks, intelligence,
money, or a friendly personality) typically has higher status than someone
with fewer valued attributes.
Status and Norms Status has some interesting effects on the power of norms
and pressures to conform. High-status individuals may be more likely to devi-
ate from norms when they have low identification (social identity) with the
group.58 They also eschew pressure from lower-ranking members of other
groups. For instance, physicians actively resist administrative decisions made
by lower-ranking medical insurance company employees.59 High-status people
are also better able to resist conformity pressures than their lower-status peers.
An individual who is highly valued by a group but doesn’t need or care about
the group’s social rewards is particularly able to disregard conformity norms.60
In general, bringing high-status members into a group may improve perfor-
mance, but only up to a point, perhaps because these members may introduce
counterproductive norms.61
Status and Group Interaction People tend to become more assertive when they
seek to attain higher status in a group.62 They speak out more often, criticize
more, state more commands, and interrupt others more often. Lower-status
members tend to participate less actively in group discussions; when they pos-
sess expertise and insights that could aid the group, failure to fully utilize these
members reduces the group’s overall performance. But that doesn’t mean a
group of only high-status individuals would be preferable. Adding some high-sta-
tus individuals to a group of mid-status individuals may be advantageous because
group performance suffers when too many high-status people are in the mix.63
Status Inequity It is important for group members to believe the status hier-
archy is equitable. Perceived inequity creates disequilibrium, which inspires
Aaron Rodgers has high status as the
quarterback of the Green Bay Packers
football team. His status derives from
his ability to contribute to his team’s
success in winning games. Rodgers’s
teammates and coaches value his
character, leadership skills, expertise
in calling plays, and ability to throw
touchdown passes accurately while on
the move.
Source: Matt Ludtke/FR155580/AP Images
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 303
various types of corrective behaviors. Hierarchical groups can lead to resent-
ment among those at the lower end of the status continuum. Large differences
in status within groups are also associated with poorer individual performance,
lower health, and more pronounced intentions for the lower-status members to
leave the group.64
Groups generally agree within themselves on status criteria; hence, there
is usually high concurrence on group rankings of individuals. Business execu-
tives may use personal income or the growth rate of their companies as deter-
minants of status. Government bureaucrats may use the size of their budgets,
and blue-collar workers may use their years of seniority. Managers who occupy
central positions in their social networks are typically seen as higher in status by
their subordinates, and this position actually translates into greater influence
over the group’s functioning.65
Groups generally form an informal status order based on ranking and com-
mand of needed resources.66 Individuals can find themselves in conflicts when
they move between groups whose status criteria are different, or when they join
groups whose members have heterogeneous backgrounds. Cultures also differ
in their criteria for conferring status upon individuals. When groups are het-
erogeneous, status differences may initiate conflict as the group attempts to
reconcile the separate hierarchies. As we’ll see in Chapter 10, this can be a
problem when management creates teams of employees from varied functions.
Status and Stigmatization Although it’s clear that your own status affects the
way people perceive you, the status of people with whom you are affiliated can
also affect others’ views of you. Studies have shown that people who are stigma-
tized can “infect” others with their stigma. This “stigma by association” effect
can result in negative opinions and evaluations of the person affiliated with
the stigmatized individual, even if the association is brief and purely coinciden-
tal. Of course, many of the foundations of cultural status differences have no
merit in the first place. For example, men interviewing for a job were viewed
as less qualified when they were sitting next to an obese woman in a waiting
room. Another study looking at the effects of being associated with an over-
weight person found that even when onlookers were told the target person
and the overweight person were unrelated, the target person was still devalued.
Similarly, leaders of predominantly African American work groups also suffer
from stigma by association, resulting in lower performance appraisals by their
peers.67
Group Status Early in life, we acquire an “us and them” mentality.68 You may
have correctly surmised that if you are in an outgroup, your group is of lower
status in the eyes of the associated ingroup’s members. Culturally, sometimes
ingroups represent the dominant forces in a society and are given high status,
which can create discrimination against their outgroups. Low-status groups,
perhaps in response to this discrimination, are likely to leverage ingroup favor-
itism to compete for higher status.69 When high-status groups then feel the
discrimination from low-status groups, they may increase their bias against the
outgroups.70 With each cycle, the groups become more polarized.
Group Property 4: Size and Dynamics
Does the size of a group affect the group’s overall behavior? Yes, but the effect
depends on what dependent variables we examine.71 Groups with a dozen or
more members are good for gaining diverse input.72 If the goal is fact-finding
or idea-generating, then larger groups should be more effective.73 Smaller
groups of about seven members are better at doing something productive.74
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304 PART 3 The Group
One of the most important findings about the size of a group concerns
social loafing, the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working
collectively than when alone.75 Social loafing directly challenges the assump-
tion that the productivity of the group as a whole should at least equal the sum
of the productivity of the individuals in it, no matter what the group size.
What causes social loafing? It may be a belief that others in the group are
not carrying their fair share. If you see others as lazy or inept, you can reestab-
lish equity by reducing your effort. But simply failing to contribute may not be
enough for someone to be labeled a free rider. Instead, the group must believe
the social loafer is acting in an exploitive manner (benefitting at the expense
of other team members).76 Another explanation for social loafing is the diffu-
sion of responsibility. Because group results cannot be attributed to any single
person, the relationship between an individual’s input and the group’s output
is clouded. Individuals may then be tempted to become free riders and coast
on the group’s efforts.77
The implications for Organizational Behavior (OB) are significant. When
managers use collective work situations, they must also be able to identify indi-
vidual efforts. Greater performance diversity creates greater social loafing the lon-
ger a group is together, which decreases satisfaction and performance.78
Social loafing appears to have a Western bias.79 It’s consistent with individu-
alist cultures, such as the United States and Canada, that are dominated by self-
interest. It is not consistent with collectivist societies, in which individuals are
motivated by group goals. When research is compared across cultures, groups
from Eastern cultures had significantly lower rates of social loafing.
Research indicates that the stronger an individual’s work ethic is, the less
likely that person is to engage in social loafing.80 Also, the greater the level of
conscientiousness and agreeableness in a group, the more likely that perfor-
mance will remain high whether there is social loafing or not.81 There are ways
to prevent social loafing: (1) set group goals, so the group has a common pur-
pose to strive toward; (2) increase intergroup competition, which focuses on
the shared group outcome; (3) engage in peer evaluations; (4) select members
who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups; and (5) base group
social loafing The tendency for individuals
to expend less effort when working collectively
than when working individually.
Young employees of Alibaba’s Tmall
online shopping site celebrate their
group’s achievement of increasing
the volume of sales orders during
China’s “Singles Day” shopping event.
Although social loafing is consistent
with individualistic cultures, in collec-
tivist societies such as China, employ-
ees are motivated by group goals and
perform better in groups than they do
when they are working individually.
Source: Han Chuanhao Xinhua News Agency/Newscom
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 305
rewards in part on each member’s unique contributions.82 Recent research
indicates that social loafing can be counteracted by publicly posting individual
performance ratings for group members, too.83 Although no magic bullet will
prevent social loafing, these steps should help minimize its effect.
Group Property 5: Cohesiveness, and
Group Property 6: Diversity
For a group to be highly functioning, it must act cohesively as a unit, but not
because all the group members think and act alike. In some ways, the proper-
ties of cohesiveness and diversity need to be valued way back at the tacit estab-
lishment of roles and norms—will the group be inclusive of all its members,
regardless of differences in backgrounds? Let’s discuss the importance of group
cohesiveness first.
Group Property 5:
Cohesiveness
Groups differ in their cohesiveness—the degree to which members are
attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group. Some work groups
are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of time together, the
group’s small size or purpose facilitates high interaction, or external threats
have brought members close together.
Cohesiveness affects group productivity. Studies consistently show that the
relationship between cohesiveness and productivity depends on the group’s
performance-related norms.84 If norms for quality, output, and cooperation
with outsiders are high, a cohesive group will be more productive than a less
cohesive group. But if cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low,
productivity will be low. If cohesiveness is low and performance norms are
high, productivity increases, but less than in the high-cohesiveness/high-norms
situation. When cohesiveness and performance-related norms are both low,
productivity tends to fall into the low-to-moderate range. These conclusions are
summarized in Exhibit 9-4.
What can you do to encourage group cohesiveness? Here are some ideas:
(1) Make the group smaller, (2) encourage agreement with group goals,
(3) increase the time members spend together, (4) increase the group’s status
and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership, (5) stimulate competi-
tion with other groups, (6) give rewards to the group rather than to individ-
ual members, and (7) physically isolate the group.85
9-6 Describe how issues of
cohesiveness and diversity
can be integrated for group
effectiveness.
cohesiveness The degree to which group
members are attracted to each other and are
motivated to stay in the group.
Relationship among Group Cohesiveness,
Performance Norms, and Productivity
Exhibit 9-4
High
productivity
High
High
Low
Cohesiveness
Pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
N
or
m
s
Low
productivity
Low
Moderate
productivity
Moderate to
low productivity
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 305 29/09/17 3:10 pm
306 PART 3 The Group
Group Property 6: Diversity
The final property of groups that we consider is diversity in the group’s mem-
bership, or the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or differ-
ent from, one another. Overall, studies identify both costs and benefits from
group diversity.
Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages
of a group’s tenure; this often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates.
One study compared groups that were culturally diverse and homogeneous
(composed of people from the same country). On a wilderness survival test,
the groups performed equally well, but the members from the diverse groups
were less satisfied with their groups, were less cohesive, and had more conflict.86
Another study examined the effect of differences in tenure on the performance
of 67 engineering research and development groups.87 When most people had
roughly the same level of tenure, performance was high, but as tenure diversity
increased, performance dropped off. There was an important qualifier: Higher
levels of tenure diversity were not related to lower performance for groups when
there were effective team-oriented human resources (HR) practices. More spe-
cifically, groups in which members’ values or opinions differ tend to experience
more conflict, but leaders who can get the group to focus on the task at hand
and encourage group learning are able to reduce these conflicts and enhance
discussion of group issues.88 Gender diversity can also be a challenge to a group,
but if inclusiveness is stressed, group conflict and dissatisfaction are lowered.89
You may have correctly surmised that the type of group diversity matters.
Surface-level diversity—in observable characteristics such as national origin,
race, and gender—alerts people to possible deep-level diversity—in underlying
attitudes, values, and opinions. One researcher argues, “The mere presence
of diversity you can see, such as a person’s race or gender, actually cues a team
that there’s likely to be differences of opinion.”90 Surface-level diversity may
subconsciously cue team members to be more open-minded in their views.91
For example, two studies of MBA student groups found surface-level diversity
led to greater openness. The effects of deep-level diversity are less understood.
Research in Korea indicates that putting people with a high need for power with
those with a low need for power can reduce unproductive group competition,
whereas putting individuals with a similar need for achievement may increase
task performance.92
Although differences can lead to conflict, they also provide an opportunity
to solve problems in unique ways. One study of jury behavior found diverse
juries were more likely to deliberate longer, share more information, and
make fewer factual errors when discussing evidence. Altogether, the impact of
diversity on groups is mixed. It is difficult to be in a diverse group in the short
term. However, if members can weather their differences, over time diversity
may help them be more open-minded and creative and to perform better. For
example, gender diversity has been found to improve group performance in
Chinese work groups.93 On the other hand, even positive effects are unlikely
to be especially strong. As one review stated, “The business case (in terms of
demonstrable financial results) for diversity remains hard to support based on
the extant research.”94 Yet other researchers argue that we shouldn’t overlook
the effects of homogeneity, many of which can be detrimental.95
diversity The extent to which members of
a group are similar to, or different from, one
another.
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 307
One possible side effect in diverse teams—especially those that are diverse
in terms of surface-level characteristics—is faultlines, or perceived divisions
that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences
such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education.
For example, let’s say that group A is composed of three men and three
women. The three men have approximately the same amount of work experi-
ence and background in marketing. The three women have about the same
amount of work experience and background in finance. Group B has three
men and three women, but they all differ in terms of their experience and
backgrounds. Two of the men are experienced, while the other is new. One of
the women has worked at the company for several years, while the other two are
new. In addition, two of the men and one woman in group B have backgrounds
in marketing, while the other man and the remaining two women have back-
grounds in finance. It is thus likely that a faultline will result in subgroups of
males and females in group A but not in group B, based on the differentiating
characteristics.
Research on faultlines has shown that splits are generally detrimental to
group functioning and performance. Subgroups may compete with each other,
which takes time away from core tasks and harms group performance. Groups
that have subgroups learn more slowly, make more risky decisions, are less cre-
ative, and experience higher levels of conflict. Subgroups may not trust each
other. Satisfaction with subgroups is generally high, but the overall group’s sat-
isfaction is lower when faultlines are present.96
Are faultlines ever a good thing? One study suggested that faultlines based
on differences in skill, knowledge, and expertise could be beneficial when the
groups were in organizational cultures that strongly emphasized results. Why?
A results-driven culture focuses people’s attention on what’s important to the
company rather than on problems arising from subgroups.97 Another study
showed that problems stemming from strong faultlines based on gender and
educational major were counteracted when their roles were crosscut and the
group as a whole was given a common goal to strive for. Together, these strate-
gies force collaboration between members of subgroups and focus their efforts
on accomplishing a goal that transcends the boundary imposed by the fault-
line.98 Faultlines that are split along task-relevant characteristics may boost per-
formance in certain organizations by promoting division of labor.99
Overall, although research on faultlines suggests that diversity in groups is
potentially a double-edged sword, recent work indicates they can be strategi-
cally employed to improve performance.
Group Decision Making
The belief—characterized by juries—that two heads are better than one has
long been accepted as a basic component of the U.S. legal system and those
of many other countries. Many decisions in organizations are made by groups,
teams, or committees. We’ll discuss the advantages of group decision making,
along with the unique challenges that group dynamics bring to the decision-
making process. Finally, we’ll offer some techniques for maximizing the group
decision-making opportunity.
Groups versus the
Individual
Decision-making groups may be widely used in organizations, but are group
decisions preferable to those made by an individual alone? The answer depends
on a number of factors. Let’s begin by looking at the strengths and weaknesses
of group decision making.
faultlines The perceived divisions that split
groups into two or more subgroups based on
individual differences such as sex, race, age,
work experience, and education.
9-7 Contrast the strengths
and weaknesses of group
decision making.
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308 PART 3 The Group
Strengths of Group Decision Making Groups generate more complete informa-
tion and knowledge. By aggregating the resources of several individuals, groups
bring more input as well as heterogeneity into the decision process. They offer
increased diversity of views. This opens up the opportunity to consider more
approaches and alternatives. Finally, groups lead to increased acceptance of a
solution. Group members who participate in making a decision are more likely
to support it enthusiastically and to encourage others to accept it later.
Weaknesses of Group Decision Making Group decisions are time-consuming
because groups typically take more time to reach a solution. There are confor-
mity pressures. The desire by group members to be accepted and considered an
asset to the group can squash any overt disagreement. Group discussion can
be dominated by one or a few members. If they’re low- and medium-ability mem-
bers, the group’s overall effectiveness will suffer. Finally, group decisions suffer
from ambiguous responsibility. In an individual decision, it’s clear who is account-
able for the final outcome. In a group decision, the responsibility of any single
member is diluted.
Effectiveness and Efficiency Whether groups are more effective than individ-
uals depends on how you define effectiveness. Group decisions are generally
more accurate than the decisions of the average individual in a group, but they
are less accurate than the judgments of the most accurate person.100 In terms
of speed, individuals are superior. If creativity is important, groups tend to be
more effective. And if effectiveness means the degree of acceptance of achiev-
able solutions, the nod again goes to the group.101
But we cannot consider effectiveness without also assessing efficiency. With
few exceptions, group decision making consumes more work hours than hav-
ing an individual tackle the same problem. The exceptions tend to be instances
in which, to achieve comparable quantities of diverse input, the single decision
maker must spend a great deal of time reviewing files and talking to other peo-
ple. In deciding whether to use groups, then, managers must assess whether
increases in effectiveness are more than enough to offset the reductions in
efficiency.
In summary, groups are an excellent vehicle for performing many steps in
the decision-making process and offer both breadth and depth of input for
information gathering. If group members have diverse backgrounds, the alter-
natives generated should be more extensive and the analysis more critical.
When the final solution is agreed on, there are more people in a group deci-
sion to support and implement it. These pluses, however, may be more than
offset by the time consumed by group decisions, the internal conflicts they
create, and the pressures they generate toward conformity. We must be care-
ful to define the types of conflicts, however. Research in Korea indicates that
group conflicts about tasks may increase group performance, while conflicts in
relationships may decrease performance.102 In some cases, therefore, we can
expect individuals to make better decisions than groups.
Groupthink and Groupshift
Two by-products of group decision making, groupthink and groupshift, can
affect a group’s ability to appraise alternatives objectively and achieve high-
quality solutions.
Groupthink relates to norms and describes situations in which group pres-
sures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minor-
ity, or unpopular views. Groupthink attacks many groups and can dramatically
groupthink A phenomenon in which the
norm for consensus overrides the realistic
appraisal of alternative courses of action.
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 309
Career OBjectives
Can I fudge the numbers and not take the blame?
I’ve got a great work group, except for
one thing: The others make me omit
negative information about our group’s
success that I’m in charge of as the
treasurer. They gang up on me, insult
me, and threaten me, so in the end I
report what they want. They say omit-
ting the negative information is not
really wrong, and it doesn’t violate our
organization’s rules, but on my own I
would report everything. I need to stay
in the group or I’ll lose my job. If we
are called out on the numbers, can I
just put the blame on the whole group?
— Jean-Claude
Dear Jean-Claude:
The short answer is that, because you
are in a leadership role in the group,
you may not have the option of blam-
ing the others. Further, you may be held
individually accountable as a leader for
the outcomes of this situation.
Your dilemma is not unusual. Once
we think of ourselves as part of a col-
lective, we want to stay in the group and
can become vulnerable to pressures
to conform. The pressure you’re get-
ting from multiple members can make
you aware that you’re in the minority in
the group, and taunting can make you
feel like an outsider or lesser member;
therefore threats to harm your group
standing may feel powerful.
So you have a choice: Submit to the
pressure and continue misrepresenting
your group’s success, or adhere to the
responsibility you have as the treasurer
and come clean. From an ethical stand-
point, we hope you don’t consider the
first option an acceptable choice. To
make a change, you may be able to use
social identification to your advantage.
Rather than challenging the group as a
whole, try meeting with individual group
members to build trust, talking to each
as fellow members of a worthy group
that can succeed without any ethical
quandaries. Don’t try to build a coali-
tion; instead, build trust with individu-
als and change the climate of the group
to value ethical behavior. Then the next
time you need to report the numbers,
you can call upon the group’s increased
ethical awareness to gain support for
your leadership decisions.
Sources: Based on M. Cikara and J. J. Van
Bavel, “The Neuroscience of Intergroup Rela-
tions: An Integrative Review,” Perspectives
on Psychological Science 9, no. 3 (2014):
245–74; M. A. Korsgaard, H. H. Brower,
and S. W. Lester, “It Isn’t Always Mutual: A
Critical Review of Dyadic Trust,” Journal of
Management 41, no. 1 (2015): 47–70; and
R. L. Priem and P. C. Nystrom, “Exploring
the Dynamics of Workgroup Fracture: Com-
mon Ground, Trust-with-Trepidation, and
Warranted Distrust,” Journal of Management
40, no. 3 (2014): 674–795.
The opinions provided here are of the manag-
ers and authors only and do not necessar-
ily reflect those of their organizations. The
authors or managers are not responsible for
any errors or omissions, or for the results
obtained from the use of this information.
In no event will the authors or managers,
or their related partnerships or corporations
thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for
any decision made or action taken in reliance
on the opinions provided here.
hinder their performance.103 Groupshift describes the way group members
tend to exaggerate their initial positions when discussing a given set of alterna-
tives to arrive at a solution. In some situations, caution dominates and there is
a conservative shift, while in other situations groups tend toward a risky shift.104
Let’s look at each phenomenon in detail.
groupshift A change between a group’s
decision and an individual decision that a
member within the group would make; the
shift can be toward either conservatism
or greater risk but it generally is toward a
more extreme version of the group’s original
position.
Groupthink Groupthink appears closely aligned with the conclusions Solo-
mon Asch drew in his experiments with a lone dissenter. Individuals who hold
a position different from that of the dominant majority are under pressure to
suppress, withhold, or modify their true feelings and beliefs. As members of a
group, we find it more pleasant to be in agreement—to be a positive part of the
group—than to be a disruptive force, even if disruption would improve effec-
tiveness. Groups that are more focused on performance than learning are espe-
cially likely to fall victim to groupthink and to suppress the opinions of those
who do not agree with the majority.105
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M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 309 29/09/17 3:10 pm
310 PART 3 The Group
Does groupthink attack all groups? No. It seems to occur most often when
there is a clear group identity, when members hold a positive image of their
group that they want to protect, and when the group perceives a collective
threat to its positive image.106 One study showed that those influenced by
groupthink were more confident about their course of action early on;107 how-
ever, groups that believe too strongly in the correctness of their course of action
are more likely to suppress dissent and encourage conformity than groups that
are more skeptical about their course of action.
What can managers do to minimize groupthink?108 First, they can monitor
group size. People grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases,
and although there is no magic number that will eliminate groupthink, indi-
viduals are likely to feel less personal responsibility when groups are larger than
about 10 members. Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an
impartial role. Leaders should actively seek input from all members and avoid
expressing their own opinions, especially in the early stages of deliberation. In
addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the role of dev-
il’s advocate, overtly challenging the majority position and offering divergent
perspectives. Yet another suggestion is to use exercises that stimulate active dis-
cussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group or intensifying
identity protection. Have group members delay discussion of possible gains so
they can first talk about the dangers or risks inherent in a decision. Requir-
ing members to focus initially on the negatives of an alternative makes the
group less likely to stifle dissenting views and more likely to gain an objective
evaluation.
Groupshift or Group Polarization There are differences between group deci-
sions and the individual decisions of group members.109 In groups, discussion
leads members toward a more extreme view of the position they already held.
Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take on more
risk. We can view this group polarization as a special case of groupthink. The
group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm—toward greater
caution or more risk—that develops during discussion.
The shift toward polarization has several explanations.110 It’s been argued,
for instance, that discussion makes the members more comfortable with each
other and thus more willing to express extreme versions of their original posi-
tions. Another argument is that the group diffuses responsibility. Group deci-
sions free any single member from accountability for the group’s final choice,
so a more extreme position can be taken. It’s also likely that people take
extreme positions because they want to demonstrate how different they are
from the outgroup.111 People on the fringes of political or social movements
take on ever-more-extreme positions just to prove they are really committed to
the cause, whereas those who are more cautious tend to take moderate posi-
tions to demonstrate how reasonable they are.
So how should you use the findings on groupshift? Recognize that group
decisions exaggerate the initial position of individual members, the shift has
been shown more often to be toward greater risk, and which way a group will
shift is a function of the members’ prediscussion inclinations.
We now turn to the techniques by which groups make decisions. These
reduce some of the dysfunctional aspects of group decision making.
Group Decision-Making Techniques
The most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting
groups. Members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal inter-
action to communicate. But as our discussion of groupthink demonstrated,
interacting groups Typical groups in which
members interact with each other face-to-
face.
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 311
interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members
toward conformity of opinion. Brainstorming and the nominal group tech-
nique can reduce problems inherent in the traditional interacting group.
Brainstorming Brainstorming can overcome the pressures for conformity that
dampen creativity112 by encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding
criticism. In a typical brainstorming session, a half-dozen to a dozen people sit
around a table. The group leader states the problem in a clear manner so all
participants understand. Members then freewheel as many alternatives as they
can in a given length of time. To encourage members to “think the unusual,”
no criticism is allowed, even of the most bizarre suggestions, and all ideas are
recorded for later discussion and analysis.
Brainstorming may indeed generate ideas—but not very efficiently. Research
consistently shows individuals working alone generate more ideas than a group
in a brainstorming session. One reason for this is “production blocking.” When
people are generating ideas in a group, many are talking at once, which blocks
individuals’ thought process and eventually impedes the sharing of ideas.113
Nominal Group Technique The nominal group technique may be more effective.
This technique restricts discussion and interpersonal communication during
the decision-making process. Group members are all physically present, as in a
traditional meeting, but they operate independently. Specifically, a problem is
presented and then the group takes the following steps:
1. Before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes
down ideas about the problem.
2. After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the group. No
discussion takes place until all ideas have been presented and recorded.
3. The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
4. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The
idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.
The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits a
group to meet formally but does not restrict independent thinking. Research
generally shows nominal groups outperform brainstorming groups.114
Each of the group decision techniques has its own set of strengths and weak-
nesses. The choice depends on the criteria you want to emphasize and the
cost–benefit trade-off. As Exhibit 9-5 indicates, an interacting group is good for
achieving commitment to a solution, brainstorming develops group cohesive-
ness, and the nominal group technique is an efficient means for generating a
large number of ideas.
brainstorming An idea-generation process
that specifically encourages any and all
alternatives while withholding any criticism
of those alternatives.
nominal group technique A group decision-
making method in which individual members
meet face-to-face to pool their judgments in a
systematic but independent fashion.
Evaluating Group EffectivenessExhibit 9-5
Type of Group
Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Brainstorming Nominal
Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High
Social pressure High Low Moderate
Money costs Low Low Low
Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate
Task orientation Low High High
Potential for interpersonal conflict High Low Moderate
Commitment to solution High Not applicable Moderate
Development of group cohesiveness High High Moderate
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312 PART 3 The Group
Summary
We can draw several implications from our discussion of groups. First, norms
control behavior by establishing standards of right and wrong. Second, status
inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity and will-
ingness to remain with an organization. Third, the impact of size on a group’s
performance depends on the type of task. Fourth, cohesiveness may influence
a group’s level of productivity, depending on the group’s performance-related
norms. Fifth, diversity appears to have a mixed impact on group performance,
with some studies suggesting that diversity can help performance and others
suggesting the opposite. Sixth, role conflict is associated with job-induced ten-
sion and job dissatisfaction.115 Groups can be carefully managed toward posi-
tive organizational outcomes and optimal decision making. The next chapter
will explore several of these conclusions in greater depth.
Implications for Managers
” Recognize that groups can have a dramatic impact on individual behavior
in organizations, to either positive or negative effect. Therefore, pay spe-
cial attention to roles, norms, and cohesion—to understand how these
are operating within a group is to understand how the group is likely to
behave.
” To decrease the possibility of deviant workplace activities, ensure that
group norms do not support antisocial behavior.
” Pay attention to the status aspect of groups. Because lower-status people
tend to participate less in group discussions, groups with high status dif-
ferences are likely to inhibit input from lower-status members and reduce
their potential.
” Use larger groups for fact-finding activities and smaller groups for
action-taking tasks. With larger groups, provide measures of individual
performance.
” To increase employee satisfaction, make certain people perceive their job
roles accurately.
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 313
Diverse Work Groups Are Smarter and More Innovative
POINT
B irds of a feather flock together, but when it comes to busi-
ness, it may be better for pigeons to flock with crows. Employ-
ees may feel more comfortable working with people who are
similar to them, but this comfort may come at the cost of success.
Time after time, research demonstrates that more diverse com-
panies have the most success. A global analysis of 2,400 compa-
nies demonstrated that the presence of at least one female employee
on an executive board leads to higher net income growth and return
on equity. Diversity at lower levels of the organization may also be
helpful: Companies with more diverse work groups have higher finan-
cial returns than companies with fewer minority or female employees.
Diverse groups think smarter. When people are asked to work with
people who are different from them, they are forced out of their com-
fort zone, leading to more critical thinking and innovation. In mock
juries, for example, more ethnically heterogenous juries made more
accurate decisions and supported their decisions with more facts
from the case. Teams of heterogenous financial professionals also
performed better on tasks where they were asked to price stocks in
a stock market simulation. In addition, a recent analysis of research
and design teams in Spain found that teams with greater gender
diversity created more innovative products. Other types of diversity
may also be beneficial. In a murder mystery task, groups with a mix
of organizational tenure were more likely to guess the correct suspect.
When cultural diversity of businesses in the United Kingdom were
analyzed, more culturally diverse leadership teams created more new
products.
So the next time you’re worried about working with someone
you don’t have a lot in common with, remember the words of Maya
Angelou: “In diversity there is beauty and there is strength.”
COUNTERPOINT
T here is some evidence that having diverse leadership may
benefit companies. What about the research showing that
diversity is linked to lower employee morale and well-being,
slower decision making, and increased conflict? Organizations
with more diverse work groups are also more likely to be sued for
discrimination.
Sometimes more diverse tasks can boost innovation and critical
thinking skills, but those advantages may not be worth forcing
employees to work with people they feel uncomfortable with. When
employees are forced to participate in diversity initiatives, it can lead
to more stress. Over half feel that they have to modify their behavior
significantly to feel like they fit in. If employees try to act like their
peers rather than acknowledging their differences, it doesn’t just lead
to stress. Research has shown that any advantages on task creativity
disappear when team members don’t openly discuss and acknowl-
edge their differing backgrounds.
Even if employees feel comfortable enough to express themselves,
that’s no guarantee that they will actually get along. Group members
with diverse racial, gender, and educational backgrounds might have
a slight advantage over homogenous groups in some tasks. Yet they
can be less effective when group members have different values.
When group members have different values because, for example,
they have different cultural backgrounds, it may be difficult for the
group to overcome these differences.
It may be tempting to think that a diverse team is better, but
remember, there’s a reason like attracts like.
Sources: Based on S. Bailey, “Why Diversity Is Bad for Business (and Inclusion Is the Answer),” Forbes, May 20, 2014,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/sebastianbailey/2014/05/20/why-we-should-prioritize-the-i-in-d-and-i/#2c6b0e54600d;
D. Rock, H. Grant, and J. Grey, “Diverse Teams Feel Less Comfortable—and That’s Why They Perform Better,” Harvard Business
Review, September 22, 2016, https://hbr.org/2016/09/diverse-teams-feel-less-comfortable-and-thats-why-they-perform-
better; and D. Rock and H. Grant, “Why Diverse Teams Are Smarter,” Harvard Business Review, November 4, 2016, https://
hbr.org/2016/11/why-diverse-teams-are-smarter.
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314 PART 3 The Group
CHAPTER REVIEW
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
9-1 What are the different types of groups?
9-2 What are the key components of the punctuated-
equilibrium model?
9-3 How do role requirements change in different
situations?
9-4 How do group norms influence an individual’s
behavior?
9-5 How do status and size differences affect group
performance?
9-6 How can cohesiveness and diversity support
group effectiveness?
9-7 What are the strengths and weaknesses of group
(versus individual) decision making?
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APPLICATION AND EMPLOYABILITY
Groups have a powerful influence on individuals, lead-
ing to both positive and negative consequences. Peer
pressure and norms may be beneficial when they help
individuals perform better and engage in prosocial
behaviors. Yet groups may also exert influences that
harm other groups, encourage conformity, and lead
to poor decision making. By gaining an understanding
of group behaviors, you can better understand how to
encourage positive outcomes and avoid negative out-
comes in the workplace among your coworkers, super-
visors, and subordinates. In this chapter, you learned
valuable lessons about communication, collaboration,
and social responsibility when facing peer pressure from
coworkers, listening to gossip about a peer, and decid-
ing whether peer pressure is an ethically sound strategy
for motivating employees. You also utilized your critical
thinking skills while exploring the advantages and pitfalls
of diverse work groups. In the next section, you will con-
tinue to develop these skills, as well as apply your knowl-
edge and analytical skills to surviving the wild alone and
in a group, assess whether to violate a psychological con-
tract, explore the downfalls of hoping for a consensus
in American politics, and explore how a group divided
affected a military campaign.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE Surviving the Wild: Join a Group or Go It Alone?
You are a member of a hiking party. After reaching base
camp on the first day, you decide to take a quick sunset
hike by yourself. After a few exhilarating miles, you turn
around for the return to camp. On your way back, you
realize you are lost. You shout for help, to no avail. It is
now dark—and getting cold.
Your Task
Without communicating with anyone else in your group,
read the following scenarios and choose the best answer.
Keep track of your answers on a sheet of paper. You have
10 minutes to answer the 10 questions.
Questions
9-8. The first thing you decide to do is to build a fire.
However, you have no matches, so you use the bow-
and-drill method. What is the bow-and-drill method?
a. A dry, soft stick is rubbed between the hands
against a board of supple green wood.
b. A soft green stick is rubbed between the hands
against a hardwood board.
c. A straight stick of wood is quickly rubbed back
and forth against a dead tree.
d. Two sticks (one being the bow, the other the drill)
are struck to create a spark.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 314 29/09/17 3:10 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 315
9-9. It occurs to you that you can also use the fire as
a distress signal. How do you form the interna-
tional distress signal with fire?
a. Fires in random order
b. Fires in a square
c. Fires in a cross
d. Fires in a line
9-10. You are very thirsty. You go to a nearby stream
and collect some water in the small metal cup
you have in your backpack. How long should you
boil the water?
a. 15 minutes
b. A few seconds
c. 1 minute
d. It depends on the altitude.
9-11. You are very hungry, so you decide to eat what
appear to be edible berries. When performing
the universal edibility test, what should you do?
a. Do not eat for 2 hours before the test.
b. If the plant stings your lip, confirm the sting by
holding it under your tongue for 15 minutes.
c. If nothing bad has happened 2 hours after diges-
tion, eat half a cup of the plant and wait again.
d. Separate the plant into its basic components
and eat each component, one at a time.
9-12. Next, you decide to build a shelter for the evening.
In selecting a site, what do you not have to consider?
a. It must contain material to make the type of
shelter you need.
b. It must be free of insects, reptiles, and
poisonous plants.
c. It must be large enough and level enough for
you to lie down comfortably.
d. It must be on a hill so you can signal rescuers
and keep an eye on your surroundings.
9-13. In the shelter, you notice a spider. You heard
from a fellow hiker that black widow spiders
populate the area. How do you identify a black
widow spider?
a. Its head and abdomen are black; its thorax is red.
b. It is attracted to light.
c. It runs away from light.
d. It is dark with a red or orange marking on the
female’s abdomen.
9-14. After getting some sleep, you notice that the
night sky has cleared, so you decide to try to find
your way back to base camp. You believe you can
use the North Star for navigation. How do you
locate the North Star?
a. Hold your right hand up as far as you can and
look between your index and middle fingers.
b. Find Sirius and look 60 degrees above it and to
the right.
c. Look for the Big Dipper and follow the line
created by its cup end.
d. Follow the line of Orion’s belt.
9-15. You come across a fast-moving stream. What is
the best way to cross it?
a. Find a spot downstream from a sandbar, where
the water will be calmer.
b. Build a bridge.
c. Find a rocky area, because the water will be
shallow and you will have hand- and footholds.
d. Find a level stretch where it breaks into a few
channels.
9-16. After walking for about an hour, you feel several
spiders in your clothes. You don’t feel any pain,
but you know some spider bites are painless.
Which of these spider bites is painless?
a. Black widow
b. Brown recluse
c. Wolf spider
d. Harvestman (daddy longlegs)
9-17. You decide to eat some insects. Which insects
should you avoid?
a. Adults that sting or bite
b. Caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor
c. Hairy or brightly colored ones
d. All the above
Group Task
Next, break into groups of five or six people. Once the
group comes to an agreement for what to do in each situ-
ation, write your decision on the same sheet of paper you
used for your individual answers.
Scoring Your Answers
Your instructor will provide you with the correct answers,
which are based on expert judgments in these situations.
Once you have received the answers, calculate (A) your
individual score, (B) your group’s score, (C) the average
individual score in the group, and (D) the best individu-
al score in the group. Write these down and consult with
your group to ensure that they are accurate.
A. Your individual score !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
B. Your group’s score !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
C. Average individual score in group !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
D. Best individual score in group !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Discussion Questions
9-18. How did your group (B) perform relative to
yourself (A)?
9-19. How did your group (B) perform relative to the
average individual score in the group (C)?
9-20. How did your group (B) perform relative to the
best individual score in the group (D)?
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 315 29/09/17 3:10 pm
316 PART 3 The Group
9-21. Compare your results with those of other
groups. Did some groups do a better job of
outperforming individuals than others?
9-22. What do these results tell you about the
effectiveness of group decision making?
9-23. What can groups do to make group decision
making more effective?
9-24. What circumstances might cause a group to
perform worse than its best individual?
CASE INCIDENT 1 The Calamities of Consensus
When it is time for groups to reach a decision, many turn
to consensus. Consensus, a situation of agreement, seems
like a good idea. To achieve consensus, groups must coop-
erate and collaborate, which ultimately produces higher
levels of camaraderie and trust. In addition, if everyone
agrees, the prevailing wisdom says that everyone will be
more committed to the decision.
However, the need for consensus can sometimes be det-
rimental to group functioning. Consider the “fiscal cliff”
faced by the U.S. government toward the end of 2012. The
White House and Congress needed to reach a deal that
would reduce the swelling budget deficit. However, many
Republicans and Democrats stuck to their party lines,
refusing to compromise. Many viewed the end product
that achieved consensus as a less-than-optimal solution.
The public gave Congress an approval rating of only 13
percent, expressing frustration with the lack of compro-
mise, but the group may not have been able to function
well partly because of the need for consensus in the face
of partisanship.
If consensus is reached, does that mean the decision is
the right one? Critics of consensus-based methods argue
that any decisions ultimately reached are inferior to deci-
sions using other methods such as voting or having team
members provide input to their leader, who then makes
the final decision. Critics also argue that, because of pres-
sures to conform, groupthink is much more likely, and
decisions reached through consensus are simply those
everyone dislikes the least.
Questions
9-28. Is consensus a good way for groups to make
decisions? Why or why not?
9-29. Can you think of a time when a group of which you
were a part relied on consensus? How do you think
the decision turned out?
9-30. Martin Luther King Jr. once proclaimed, “A genuine
leader is not a seeker of consensus but a modeler
of consensus.” What do you think he meant by that
statement? Do you agree with it? Why or why not?
ETHICAL DILEMMA Is It Okay to Violate a Psychological Contract?
As we discussed in this chapter, there is an inherent psy-
chological contract in many organizations. Supervisors
and upper managers are supposed to treat employees with
respect, provide sound working conditions, and commu-
nicate expectations and feedback clearly. In exchange,
employees work hard and remain loyal to the organiza-
tion. Mutual expectations are established through psycho-
logical contracts. Yet because the psychological contract is
an informal rather than a formal agreement, there may
be no repercussions when an employer or an employee
violates that agreement.
There are many situations where violating the psycho-
logical contract between an employer and employee may
seem appealing. Managers can save money if they provide
employees with less desirable working conditions, or if
they lay off employees that have been loyal to the organi-
zation. Employees can violate the contract by not working
hard or leaving the organization. It may also be unclear
whether the psychological contract has been violated at all
because employer and employee expectations may have
not been clearly communicated. Nonetheless, when one
party does not hold up her or his end of the deal, there
may still be consequences. If managers do not provide fair
working conditions, employees may shirk their job respon-
sibilities. On the other hand, if an employee does not do
good work, managers may withhold privileges from the
employee.
Questions
9-25. Is it ever ethical for a manager or subordinate to
violate a psychological contract? What if violating
a psychological contract may have negative con-
sequences for some employees but benefit other
employees?
9-26. Are there situations where an employer may think
an employee has violated a psychological contract
but that employee does not believe they have done
anything wrong? Are there situations where an
employee may feel that his or her employer has
violated a psychological contract, but the employer
feels that she or he has done nothing wrong?
9-27. Employees may react to psychological contract
violations in a variety of ways. Not all of these reac-
tions may be ethical. What is an ethical way for an
employee to react? What is an unethical way for
an employee to react?
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 316 29/09/17 3:10 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 317
Sources: Based on D. Leonhardt, “When the Crowd Isn’t Wise,” The New York Times, July 8, 2012,
SR BW 4; and K. Jensen, “Consensus Is Poison! Who’s with Me?,” May 20, 2013, https://www.forbes
.com/sites/keldjensen/2013/05/20/consensus-is-poison-whos-with-me/#66603a297ce9.
CASE INCIDENT 2 Intragroup Trust and Survival
When 10 British Army soldiers on a 10-day training exer-
cise descended into Low’s Gully, a narrow chasm that cuts
through Mt. Kinabalu in Borneo, each knew “the golden
rule for such expeditions—never split up.” Yet the fit-
test three struggled out of the jungle with concussions,
malaria, and infected wounds 19 days later, two more
terribly ill soldiers found a village the next day, and the
remaining five emaciated and injured men were rescued
from a cave by a helicopter on day 33. What happened?
On a surface level, the near-tragic fracturing of the
group began with a logical division of labor, according
to the training’s initiators, Lieutenant Colonel Neill and
Major Foster:
Because the group would be one of mixed abilities, and
the young British and NCOs [non-commissioned o”cers]
were likely to be fitter and more experienced than the
Hong Kong soldiers, the team would work in two halves on
the harder phases of the descent. The British, taking ad-
vantage of Mayfield’s expertise (in rock climbing), would
set up ropes on the di”cult sections, while he [Neill] and
Foster would concentrate on bringing the Hong Kong
soldiers down. Every now and then the recce (reconnais-
sance) party would report back, and the expedition would
go on down in one unit until another reconnaissance party
became necessary.
The men reported that from then on, perilous climbing
conditions, debilitating sickness, and monsoon rains perma-
nently divided the group. A review board found differently,
blaming Neill’s and Foster’s leadership and their decision
to take some less-experienced soldiers on the exercise.
No rulings were made about the near-catastrophic deci-
sion to divide the group, but closer inquiries show that
this temporary work group of diverse members who were
not previously acquainted started out with a high level of
intragroup trust that dissolved over time. The resulting
faultlines, based on members’ similarities and differences
and the establishment of ad hoc leaders, may have been
inevitable.
Initially, all group members shared the common
ground of soldier training, clear roles, and volunteer com-
mitment to the mission. When the leaders ignored the
soldiers’ concerns about the severity of conditions, lack
of preparation, and low level of communication, however,
trust issues divided the group into subgroups. The initial
reconnaissance party established common ground and
trust that allowed them to complete the mission and reach
safety, even though they divided yet again. Meanwhile, the
main group that stayed with the leaders in the cave under
conditions of active distrust fractured further.
We will never know whether it would have been better
to keep the group together. However, we do know that this
small group of soldiers trained to stay together for survival
fractured into at least four subgroups because they didn’t
trust their leaders or their group, thus endangering all
their lives.
Questions
9-31. How was the common ground established by the
reconnaissance subgroups different from the com-
mon ground established by the cave subgroups?
9-32. Do you think the group should have fractured as it
did? Why or why not?
9-33. When the exercise was designed, Neill created a
buddy system based on similarity of soldiers’ back-
grounds (rank, unit, age, fitness, skills level). The
first group out of the jungle was assigned buddies
and one other: two lance corporals and one corpo-
ral from the same unit (regular army), ages 24–26
with good fitness levels, all top roping and abseil-
ing (TR&A) instructors. The second group out was
assigned buddies: a sergeant and a lance corporal
from the same unit (elite regular army), ages 25
and 37, good fitness levels, both with Commando
Brigade skills. The group left in the cave split into:
a lieutenant colonel and a major (buddies), one
from the regular army and one from the part time
territorial army, ages 46 and 54, fair fitness level,
one TR&A and one ski instructor. The second fac-
tion was the three from the Hong Kong unit—a
lance corporal and two privates, ages 24–32, fair
to good fitness levels, one with jungle training
and two novices. Would you have set up the buddy
system Neill did? Why or why not, and if not, what
would you have changed?
Sources: Based on M. A. Korsgaard, H. H. Brower, and S. W. Lester, “It Isn’t Always Mutual: A Critical
Review of Dyadic Trust,” Journal of Management 41, no. 1 (2014): 47–70; R. L. Priem and P. C. Nystrom,
“Exploring the Dynamics of Workgroup Fracture: Common Ground, Trust-with-Trepidation, and
Warranted Distrust,” Journal of Management 40, no. 3 (2014): 764–95; and “The Call of Malaysia’s
‘Conquerable’ Mount Kinabalu,” BBC, June 5, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-33020356.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 317 29/09/17 3:10 pm
318 PART 3 The Group
ENDNOTES
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7 Karelaia and Guillen, “Me, a Woman and a
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9 T. Schmader, K. Block, and B. Lickel, “Social
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22 M. D. Collins, “The Effect of Psychological
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MyLab Management Writing Assignments
If your instructor has assigned this activity, go to www.pearson.com/mylab/management for auto-graded
writing assignments as well as the following assisted-graded writing assignments:
9-34. Refer again to Case Incident 1. What are some ways groups can improve the effectiveness of consensus
methods to make decisions?
9-35. After reading Case Incident 2, do you feel subgroups are good or bad? Why or why not? What might be the
alternative?
9-36. MyLab Management only—additional assisted-graded writing assignment.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 318 29/09/17 3:10 pm
Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 319
Casual, Limited-Service Restaurant Environ-
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Management 29, no. 4 (2010): 736–42; and
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Transactional and Relational Breach,” Journal
of Business and Psychology 25, no. 4 (2010):
555–68.
23 D. C. Thomas, S. R. Fitzsimmons,
E. C. Ravlin, K. Y. Au, B. Z. Ekelund, and
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24 R. L. Kahn, D. M. Wolfe, R. P. Quinn, J. D.
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25 Ibid.
26 See, for example, F. T. Amstad, L L. Meier,
U. Fasel, A. Elfering, and N. K. Semmer, “A
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Various Outcomes with a Special Emphasis on
Cross-Domain Versus Matching-Domain Rela-
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27 Wilson and Baumann, “Capturing a More
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of Work.”
28 D. Vora and T. Kostova. “A Model of Dual
Organizational Identification in the Context
of the Multinational Enterprise,” Journal of
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29 C. Reade, “Dual Identification in Multi-
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30 S. Drury, S. A. Hutchens, D. E. Shuttles-
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31 S. A. Haslam and S. Reicher, “Stressing the
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32 Y. Huang, K. M. Kendrick, and R. Yu, “Con-
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33 M. S. Hagger, P. Rentzelas, and N. K. D.
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34 E. Delvaux, N. Vanbeselaere, and B. Mesquita,
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35 R. B. Cialdini and N. J. Goldstein, “Social
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36 P. Kundu and D. D. Cummins, “Morality
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37 Ibid.
38 R. A. Griggs, “The Disappearance of Inde-
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39 S. Sansfacon and C. E. Amiot, “The Impact
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40 J. S. Hassard, “Rethinking the Hawthorne
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41 M. K. Chin, D. C. Hambrick, and L .K.
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42 J. A. Goncalo, J. A. Chatman, M. M. Duguid,
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43 E. Gonzalez-Mule, D. S. DeGeest, B. W.
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44 T. Masson and I. Fritsche, “Adherence to
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45 See R. J. Bennett and S. L. Robinson, “The
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46 M. A. Baysinger, K. T. Scherer, and J. M.
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76 A. W. Delton, L. Cosmides, M. Guemo,
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77 S. J. Karau and K. D. Williams, “Social Loaf-
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78 C. Rubino, D. R. Avery, S. D. Volpone, et al.,
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79 Karau and Williams, “Social Loafing.”
80 D. L. Smrt and S. J. Karau, “Protestant
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81 M. C. Schippers, “Social Loafing
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82 A. Gunnthorsdottir and A. Rapoport,
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83 Lount and Wilk, “Working Harder or
Hardly Working?”
84 Gunnthorsdottir and Rapoport, “Embed-
ding Social Dilemmas in Intergroup Competi-
tion Reduces Free-Riding”; and Stark, Shaw,
and Duffy, “Preference for Group Work, Win-
ning Orientation, and Social Loafing Behavior
in Groups.”
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Foundations of Group Behavior CHAPTER 9 321
85 L. L. Greer, “Group Cohesion: Then and
Now,” Small Group Research (December 2012):
655–61.
86 D. S. Staples and L. Zhao, “The Effects of
Cultural Diversity in Virtual Teams versus
Face-to-Face Teams,” Group Decision and
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87 N. Chi, Y. Huang, and S. Lin, “A Double-
Edged Sword? Exploring the Curvilinear
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ing Role of Team-Oriented HR Practices,”
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(2009): 698–726.
88 K. J. Klein, A. P. Knight, J. C. Ziegert, B. C.
Lim, and J. L. Saltz, “When Team Members’
Values Differ: The Moderating Role of Team
Leadership,” Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes 114, no. 1 (2011):
25–36; and G. Park and R. P. DeShon, “A Multi-
level Model of Minority Opinion Expression
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Journal of Applied Psychology 95, no. 5 (2010):
824–33.
89 J. S. Chun and J. N. Choi, “Members’ Needs,
Intragroup Conflict, and Group Performance,”
Journal of Applied Psychology 99, no. 3 (2014):
437–50.
90 M. Rigoglioso, “Diverse Backgrounds and
Personalities Can Strengthen Groups,” Stan-
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91 K. W. Phillips and D. L. Loyd, “When Sur-
face and Deep-Level Diversity Collide: The
Effects on Dissenting Group Members,” Orga-
nizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
99 (2006): 143–60; and S. R. Sommers, “On
Racial Diversity and Group Decision Making:
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position on Jury Deliberations,” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology (April 2006):
597–612.
92 Chun and Choi, “Members’ Needs, Intra-
group Conflict, and Group Performance.”
93 Y. Zhang and L. Hou, “The Romance of
Working Together: Benefits of Gender Diver-
sity on Group Performance in China,” Human
Relations 65, no. 11 (2012): 1487–508.
94 E. Mannix and M. A. Neale, “What Differ-
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Reality of Diverse Teams in Organizations,”
Psychological Science in the Public Interest
(October 2005): 31–55.
95 E. P. Apfelbaum, K. W. Phillips, and J.
A. Richeson, “Rethinking the Baseline in
Diversity Research: Should We Be Explaining
the Effects of Homogeneity?,” Perspectives on
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96 See M. B. Thatcher and P. C. Patel, “Group
Faultlines: A Review, Integration, and Guide
to Future Research,” Journal of Management 38,
no. 4 (2012): 969–1009.
97 K. Bezrukova, S. M. B. Thatcher, K. A. Jehn,
and C. S. Spell, “The Effects of Alignments:
Examining Group Faultlines, Organizational
Cultures, and Performance,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 97, no. 1 (2012): 77–92.
98 R. Rico, M. Sanchez-Manzanares, M. Antino,
and D. Lau, “Bridging Team Faultlines
by Combining Task Role Assignment and
Goal Structure Strategies,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 97, no. 2 (2012): 407–20.
99 D. Cooper, P. C. Patel, and S. B. Thatcher,
“It Depends: Environmental Context and
the Effects of Faultlines on Top Management
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100 B. L. Bonner, S. D. Sillito, and M. R.
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of Intra-Group Influence,” Organizational
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102 Chun and Choi, “Members’ Needs, Intra-
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103 I. L. Janis, “Groupthink,” Psychology Today 5,
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104 E. Burnstein, E. L. Miller, A. Vinokur, S.
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105 G. Park and R. P. DeShon, “A Multilevel
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Team Decision-Making Effectiveness,” Journal
of Applied Psychology 95, no. 5 (2010): 824–33.
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108 See N. Richardson Ahlfinger and J. K.
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Conformity Predisposition,” Social Behavior
& Personality 29, no. 1 (2001): 31–41; and
S. Schultz-Hardt, F. C. Brodbeck, A. Mojzisch,
R. Kerschreiter, and D. Frey, “Group Decision
Making in Hidden Profile Situations: Dissent
as a Facilitator for Decision Quality,” Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology 91, no. 6
(2006): 1080–93.
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Quality: Amplification and Attenuation of the
Framing Effect,” International Journal of Fore-
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110 M. P. Brady and S. Y. Wu, “The Aggregation
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Psychology 37, no. 1 (2007): 191–201.
112 See R. P. McGlynn, D. McGurk, V. S.
Effland, N. L. Johll, and D. J. Harding,
“Brainstorming and Task Performance in
Groups Constrained by Evidence,” Organiza-
tional Behavior and Human Decision Processes
(January 2004): 75–87; and R. C. Litchfield,
“Brainstorming Reconsidered: A Goal-Based
View,” Academy of Management Review 33, no. 3
(2008): 649–68.
113 N. L. Kerr and R. S. Tindale, “Group
Performance and Decision-Making,” Annual
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114 C. Faure, “Beyond Brainstorming: Effects
of Different Group Procedures on Selection
of Ideas and Satisfaction with the Process,”
Journal of Creative Behavior 38 (2004): 13–34.
115 P. L. Perrewe, K. L. Zellars, G. R. Ferris,
A. M. Rossi, C. J. Kacmar, and D. A. Ralston,
“Neutralizing Job Stressors: Political Skill
As an Antidote to the Dysfunctional Conse-
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ment Journal (February 2004): 141–52.
M09_ROBB9329_18_SE_C09.indd 321 29/09/17 3:10 pm
322
Understanding
Work Teams10
10-1 Analyze the continued popularity of
teams in organizations.
10-2 Contrast groups and teams.
10-3 Contrast the five types of team
arrangements.
10-4 Identify the characteristics of
effective teams.
10-5 Explain how organizations can
create team players.
10-6 Decide when to use individuals
instead of teams.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
So
ur
ce
: S
ho
ja
L
ac
k/
Al
am
y
S
to
ck
P
ho
to
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 322 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 323
Myth or
Science?
Career
OBjectives
An Ethical
Choice
Point/
Counterpoint
Experiential
Exercise
Ethical
Dilemma
Case
Incident 1
Case
Incident 2
Critical
Thinking ! ! ! ! ! !
Communication ! ! !
Collaboration ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Knowledge
Application and
Analysis
! ! ! ! ! !
Social
Responsibility ! ! !
Employability Skills Matrix (ESM)
A SOLUTION TO GROWING PAINS
In 2015, Aytekin Tank was the CEO of Jotform, a global company that spe-
cializes in online form-building tools. After a decade of building his start-
up, the company was expanding rapidly and doing well, in part to Tank’s
commitment to hiring talent. Despite a commitment to hiring top talent and
fostering a supportive and innovative work culture, this growth came at a
cost. Tank could see his company losing momentum, and the young entre-
preneur could not put his finger on why. When Jotform began to grow, the
CEO explored ways to recapture the advantages of having a smaller team.
“I looked back to the time when we had around five people. I tried to figure
out what had changed: why we moved so fast when we were five people,
why we felt like a family when we were that small.”
The solution, Tank found, was to restructure his organization into cross-
functional teams. This approach was pioneered in the twenty-first century
by Jack Welch (shown here), CEO of General Electric (GE), who believed
dividing employees by function led to slower and poorer decisions. Welch’s
cross-functional or boundaryless organization created forums where employ-
ees with different roles within the company could meet and coordinate deci-
sion making. Welch found that GE became more efficient when employees
from marketing, finance, engineering, and many other sectors had a chance
to work together. It has been over twenty years since Welch popularized
cross-functional teams, and many organizations have found that adopting
a cross-functional structure gives them a competitive edge over more tradi-
tional companies.
Tank found that, by dividing his company into cross-functional teams,
he was able to re-create the close-knit, efficient structure of the smaller
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 323 29/09/17 3:22 pm
324 PART 3 The Group
organization that Jotform used to be. In this new structure, team members
came from several different parts of the organization, allowing for better com-
munication across different functions. Teams typically had a web designer, a
programmer, and a marketing analyst (or similar position), all working on solu-
tions to organizational problems. Once these teams were formed, Tank also
made sure that each team had their own meeting space and a budget for fun
activities like weekly lunches. Besides building morale, the Jotform leader
believed that cross-functional teams allowed team members to bond and ulti-
mately begin to trust each other. His goal was to breed cooperation rather
than competition. Tank also made sure to keep Jotform’s teams small, allow-
ing employees to feel greater ownership over their successes and failures.
By having team members from several different functions, employees could
see how their work affected other parts of Jotform for better—or worse. The
last ingredient in Tank’s cross-functional teams was autonomy—freedom to
make decisions that have an impact on other parts of the organization, tackle
problems the way they want, and work the way they want.
Tank’s decision has given his company the same edge it did when it was
smaller. After restructuring the company, Jotform experienced increased pro-
ductivity. By mixing different functions of the company into teams, employees
could make decisions more quickly. Teams had more diverse skill sets, so
they were able to tackle any problems the company faced with greater cre-
ativity by using varied perspectives from different parts of the company.
Even though the move was successful, Tank admits that he was afraid of
trying something new in the beginning. Still, he realizes that in order to con-
tinue to grow the company, he had to take a risk. “Change can be difficult
for people and for companies,” Tank has said when discussing the move to
cross-functional teams. “However, if your current system is not effective and
you don’t take the initiative to improve via change, staying the course can be
disastrous.”
Sources: Based on J. Boss, “5 Reasons Why This CEO Leverages Cross Functional Teams
for Better Business Performance,” Forbes, February 13, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/
sites/deniserestauri/2017/07/19/how-this-woman-made-the-jump-and-beat-impostor-
syndrome/#377b26a46460, accessed April 9, 2017; R. Ashkenas, “Jack Welch’s Approach
to Breaking Down Silos Still Works,” Harvard Business Review, September 9, 2015, www.hbr
.com/2015/09/jack-welchs-approach-to-breaking-down-silos-still-works, accessed April 9,
2017; and A. Tank, “How to Scale Your Company with Small Teams,” Entrepreneur, Decem-
ber 9, 2016, www.entrepreneur.com/article/285917, accessed April 9, 2017.
Are cross-functional teams the best, as Aytekin Tank’s story suggests? There
are many different ways to build a successful team. In this chapter, we will
consider different types of teams and how a team’s composition, context, and
team processes lead to success or failure.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 324 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 325
Why Have Teams Become So Popular?
Why are teams popular? In short, because we believe they are effective. “A team
of people happily committed to the project and to one another will outperform
a brilliant individual every time,” writes Forbes publisher Rich Karlgaard.1 In
some ways, he’s right. Teams can sometimes achieve feats an individual could
never accomplish.2 Teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events
than traditional departments or other forms of permanent groupings. They can
quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband. They are an effective means to
democratize organizations and increase employee involvement. And research
indicates that our involvement in teams positively shapes the way we think as
individuals, introducing a collaborative mindset about even our personal deci-
sion making.3
The fact that organizations have embraced teamwork doesn’t necessarily
mean teams are always effective. Team members, as humans, can be swayed by
fads and herd mentality that can lead them astray from the best decisions. What
conditions affect their potential? How do members work together? Do we even
like teams? Maybe not, according to the OB Poll. To answer these questions,
let’s first distinguish between groups and teams.
Differences Between Groups and Teams
Groups and teams are not the same thing. In Chapter 9, we defined a group as
two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who work together to
achieve particular objectives. A work group is a group that interacts primarily
to share information, make decisions, and help each group member perform
within his or her area of responsibility.
Work groups have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work with
joint effort, so the group’s performance is merely the summation of each member’s
individual contribution. There is no positive synergy that would create an overall
level of performance greater than the sum of the inputs. A work group is a collec-
tion of individuals doing their work, albeit with interaction and/or dependency.
A work team, on the other hand, generates positive synergy through coordi-
nation. The individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the
sum of the individual inputs.
In both work groups and work teams, there are often behavioral expecta-
tions of members, collective normalization efforts, active group dynamics, and
some level of decision making (even if just informally about the scope of mem-
bership). Both may generate ideas, pool resources, or coordinate logistics such
as work schedules; for the work group, however, this effort is limited to informa-
tion gathering for decision makers outside the group.
Whereas we can think of a work team as a subset of a work group, the team
is constructed to be purposeful (symbiotic) in its member interaction. The dis-
tinction between a work group and a work team should be kept even when the
terms are mentioned interchangeably in different contexts. Exhibit 10-1 high-
lights the differences between them.
10-1 Analyze the continued
popularity of teams in
organizations.
10-2 Contrast groups and
teams.
work group A group that interacts primarily
to share information, make decisions, and
help each group member perform within his
or her area of responsibility.
work team A group whose individual efforts
result in performance that is greater than the
sum of the individual inputs.
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M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 325 29/09/17 3:22 pm
326 PART 3 The Group
The definitions help clarify why organizations structure work processes by
teams. Management is looking for positive synergy that will create increased
performance. The extensive use of teams creates the potential for an organi-
zation to generate greater outputs with no increase in employee head count.
Notice, however, that we said potential. There is nothing magical that ensures
the achievement of positive synergy in the creation of teams. Merely calling a
group a team doesn’t automatically improve its performance. As we show later,
effective teams have certain common characteristics. If management hopes to
gain increases in organizational performance through the use of teams, their
teams must possess these characteristics.
Teams serve an
important function
Prefer to work
in teams 25%
95%
0% 25% 50%
The percent who report . . .
75% 100%
OB POLL
Is Teamwork a Good Thing?
Source: Based on “University of Phoenix Survey Reveals Nearly Seven in Ten Workers Have Been Part of Dysfunctional Teams,” downloaded on June 9, 2013,
from www.prnewswire.com.
Comparing Work Groups and Work TeamsExhibit 10-1
Share information
Neutral (sometimes negative)
Individual
Random and varied
Goal
Synergy
Accountability
Skills
Work Groups Work Teams
Collective performance
Positive
Individual and mutual
Complementary
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Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 327
Types of Teams
Teams can make products, provide services, negotiate deals, coordinate proj-
ects, offer advice, and make decisions.4 In this section, we first describe four
common types of teams in organizations: problem-solving teams, self-managed work
teams, cross-functional teams, and virtual teams (see Exhibit 10-2). Then we will
discuss multiteam systems, which utilize a “team of teams” and are becoming
increasingly widespread as work increases in complexity.
Problem-Solving Teams
Quality-control teams have been in use for many years. Originally seen most
often in manufacturing plants, these were permanent teams that generally met
at a regular time, sometimes weekly or daily, to address quality standards and
any problems with the products made. Also, the medical field in particular has
recently implemented quality teams to improve their services in patient care.
Problem-solving teams like these rarely have the authority to implement their
suggestions unilaterally, but if their recommendations are paired with imple-
mentation processes, some significant improvements can be realized.
Self-Managed Work Teams
As we discussed, problem-solving teams only make recommendations. Some
organizations have gone further and created teams that also implement solu-
tions and take responsibility for outcomes.
Self-managed work teams are groups of employees (typically 10 to 15 in
number) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs; these teams take
on some supervisory responsibilities.5 The responsibilities usually include plan-
ning and scheduling work, assigning tasks to members, making operating deci-
sions, taking action on problems, and working with suppliers and customers.
Fully self-managed work teams even select their own members who evaluate
each other’s performance. When these teams are established, former super-
visory positions take on decreased importance and are sometimes eliminated.
Research results on the effectiveness of self-managed work teams have not
been uniformly positive. Some research indicates that self-managed teams may
be more or less effective based on the degree to which team-promoting behav-
iors are rewarded. For example, one study of 45 self-managing teams found that
when team members perceived that economic rewards such as pay depended
on input from their teammates, performance improved for both individuals
and the team as a whole.6
A second area of research focus has been the impact of conflict on self-
managed work team effectiveness. Some research indicates that self-managed
10-3 Contrast the five types
of team arrangements.
problem-solving teams Groups of 5 to
12 employees from the same department
who meet for a few hours each week to
discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency,
and the work environment.
self-managed work teams Groups of 10 to
15 employees who take on responsibilities of
their former supervisors.
Four Types of TeamsExhibit 10-2
Self-managed
?
Cross-functional Virtual
Technology
Problem-solving
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 327 29/09/17 3:22 pm
328 PART 3 The Group
communication links such as wide-area networks, corporate social media, vid-
eoconferencing, and e-mail—whether members are nearby or continents apart.
Nearly all teams do at least some of their work remotely.
Virtual teams should be managed differently than face-to-face teams in an
office, partially because virtual team members may not interact along tradi-
tional hierarchical patterns. Because of the complexity of interactions, research
indicates that shared leadership of virtual teams may significantly enhance
team performance, although the concept is still in development.14 For virtual
teams to be effective, management should ensure that (1) trust is established
among members (one inflammatory remark in an e-mail can severely under-
mine team trust), (2) progress is monitored closely (so the team doesn’t lose
sight of its goals and no team member “disappears”), and (3) the efforts and
products of the team are publicized throughout the organization (so the team
does not become invisible).15 Managers should also carefully select who will be
a member of a virtual team because working on a virtual team may require dif-
ferent competencies.16
It would be a mistake to think virtual teams are an easy substitute for face-to-
face teams. While the geographical reach and immediacy of online communi-
cation make virtual teams a natural development, managers must make certain
this type of team is the optimal choice for the desired outcome and then main-
tain an oversight role throughout the collaboration.
virtual teams Teams that use computer
technology to tie together physically dispersed
members in order to achieve a common goal.
teams are not effective when there is conflict. When disputes arise, members
often stop cooperating and power struggles ensue, which lead to lower group
performance and learning, though this may depend on the structure of roles
within the team.7 However, other research indicates that when members feel
confident that they can speak up without being embarrassed, rejected, or pun-
ished by other team members—in other words, when they feel psychologically
safe—conflict can be beneficial and boost team performance.8
Research has also explored the effect of self-managed work teams on mem-
ber behavior. Here again the findings are mixed. Although individuals on teams
report higher levels of job satisfaction than other individuals, studies indicate they
sometimes have higher absenteeism and turnover rates. One large-scale study of
labor productivity in British establishments found that, although using teams
improved individual (and overall) labor productivity, no evidence supported
the claim that self-managed teams performed better than traditional teams with
less decision-making authority.9 On the whole, it appears that, for self-managing
teams to be advantageous, a number of facilitating factors must be in place.
Cross-Functional Teams
Starbucks created a team of individuals from production, global public rela-
tions (PR), global communications, and U.S. marketing to develop the Via
brand of instant coffee. The team’s suggestions resulted in a product that
would be cost-effective to produce and distribute and that was marketed with
a tightly integrated, multifaceted strategy.10 This example illustrates the use of
cross-functional teams, made up of employees from about the same hierarchi-
cal level but different work areas who come together to accomplish a task.
Cross-functional teams are an effective means of allowing people from
diverse areas within or even between organizations to exchange information,
develop new ideas, solve problems, and coordinate complex projects. Due to the
high need for coordination, however, cross-functional teams are not simple to
manage. First, it makes sense for power shifts to occur when different expertise is
needed because the members are at roughly the same level in the organization,
which creates leadership ambiguity. A climate of trust thus needs to be devel-
oped before shifts can happen without undue conflict.11 Second, the early stages
of development are often long because members need to learn to work with
higher levels of diversity and complexity. Third, it takes time to build trust and
teamwork, especially among people with different experiences and perspectives.
Organizations have used horizontal, boundary-spanning teams for decades,
and we would be hard-pressed to find a large organization or product launch
that did not use them. Major automobile manufacturers—Toyota, Honda,
Nissan, BMW, GM, Ford, and Chrysler—currently use this form of team to
coordinate complex projects, as do other industries. For example, Cisco relies
on specific cross-functional teams to identify and capitalize on new trends
in several areas of the software market. Its teams are the equivalent of social-
networking groups that collaborate in real time to identify new business oppor-
tunities in the field and then implement them from the bottom up.12
In sum, the strength of traditional cross-functional teams is the collabora-
tive effort of individuals with diverse skills from a variety of disciplines. When
the unique perspectives of these members are considered, these teams can be
very effective.
Virtual Teams
The teams described in the preceding section do their work face-to-face,
whereas virtual teams use computer technology to unite physically dispersed
members and achieve a common goal.13 They collaborate online—using
cross-functional teams Employees from
about the same hierarchical level but from
different work areas who come together to
accomplish a task.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 328 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 329
communication links such as wide-area networks, corporate social media, vid-
eoconferencing, and e-mail—whether members are nearby or continents apart.
Nearly all teams do at least some of their work remotely.
Virtual teams should be managed differently than face-to-face teams in an
office, partially because virtual team members may not interact along tradi-
tional hierarchical patterns. Because of the complexity of interactions, research
indicates that shared leadership of virtual teams may significantly enhance
team performance, although the concept is still in development.14 For virtual
teams to be effective, management should ensure that (1) trust is established
among members (one inflammatory remark in an e-mail can severely under-
mine team trust), (2) progress is monitored closely (so the team doesn’t lose
sight of its goals and no team member “disappears”), and (3) the efforts and
products of the team are publicized throughout the organization (so the team
does not become invisible).15 Managers should also carefully select who will be
a member of a virtual team because working on a virtual team may require dif-
ferent competencies.16
It would be a mistake to think virtual teams are an easy substitute for face-to-
face teams. While the geographical reach and immediacy of online communi-
cation make virtual teams a natural development, managers must make certain
this type of team is the optimal choice for the desired outcome and then main-
tain an oversight role throughout the collaboration.
virtual teams Teams that use computer
technology to tie together physically dispersed
members in order to achieve a common goal.
Harley-Davidson Motor Company uses
cross-functional teams at all levels
of its organization in creating new
products, such as its first electric
motorcycle, shown here. From product
conception to launch, cross-functional
teams include Harley employees
from product planning, engineering,
design, marketing, manufacturing, and
purchasing.
Source: Lucas Jackson/Reuters/Alamy Stock Photo
Multiteam Systems
The types of teams we’ve described so far are typically smaller, stand-alone teams,
although their activities relate to the broader objectives of the organization.
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330 PART 3 The Group
As tasks become more complex, teams often grow in size. Increases in team size
are accompanied by higher coordination demands, creating a tipping point at
which the addition of another member does more harm than good. To solve
this problem, organizations use multiteam systems, collections of two or more
interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal. In other words, multi-
team systems are a “team of teams.”17
To picture a multiteam system, imagine the coordination of response
needed after a major car accident. There is the emergency medical services
team, which responds first and transports the injured to the hospital. An emer-
gency room team then takes over, providing medical care, followed by a recov-
ery team. Although the emergency services team, emergency room team, and
recovery team are technically independent, their activities are interdependent,
and the success of one depends on the success of the others. Why? Because
they all share the higher goal of saving lives.
Some factors that make smaller, more traditional teams effective do not nec-
essarily apply to multiteam systems and can even hinder their performance.
One study showed that multiteam systems performed better when they had
“boundary spanners” whose jobs were to coordinate with members of the
other subteams. This reduced the need for some team member communica-
tion, which was helpful because it reduced coordination demands.18 Leader-
ship of multiteam systems is also much different than for stand-alone teams.
While leadership of all teams affects team performance, a multiteam leader
must both facilitate coordination between teams and lead each team. Research
indicated teams that received more attention and engagement from the orga-
nization’s leaders felt more empowered, which made them more effective as
they sought to solve their own problems.19 Multiteam systems may have higher
multiteam system A collection of two or
more interdependent teams that share a
superordinate goal; a team of teams.
An Ethical Choice
The Size of Your Meeting’s Carbon Footprint
Despite being in different countries
or even on different continents,
many teams in geographically
dispersed locations communicate with-
out regularly meeting face-to-face, and
their members may never meet each
other in person. Although the merits of
face-to-face versus electronic commu-
nication have been debated, there may
be a strong ethical argument for virtual
teams.
Keeping team members where they
are, as opposed to having them travel
every time they need to meet, may be
in line with corporate social responsi-
bility (CSR) initiatives. A very large pro-
portion of airline, rail, and car transport
is for business purposes and contrib-
utes greatly to global carbon dioxide
emissions. When teams are able to
meet virtually rather than face-to-face,
they dramatically reduce their carbon
footprint.
In a globally connected world, how
might you minimize your organization’s
environmental impact from business
travel? Several tips might get you
started thinking about ways that virtual
teams can be harnessed for greater
sustainability:
1. Encourage all team members to
think about whether a face-to-face
meeting is really necessary. Try to
utilize alternative communication
methods whenever possible.
2. Communicate as much as pos-
sible through virtual means. This
includes e-mail, telephone calls, and
videoconferencing.
3. When traveling to team meetings,
choose the most environmentally
responsible travel methods possible.
Also, check the environmental pro-
!le of hotels before booking rooms.
4. If the environmental savings are
not enough motivation to reduce
travel, consider the !nancial savings.
According to one survey, businesses
spend about 8 to 12 percent of their
entire budget on travel. Communicat-
ing electronically can therefore result
in two bene!ts: (1) it’s cheaper and
(2) it’s good for the environment.
Sources: Based on P. Tilstone, “Cut Carbon …
and Bills,” Director, May 2009, 54; L. C. Lat-
imer, “6 Strategies for Sustainable Busi-
ness Travel,” Greenbiz, February 11,
2011, www.greenbiz.com; and F. Gebhart,
“Travel Takes a Big Bite out of Corporate
Expenses,” Travel Market Report, May 30,
2013, downloaded June 9, 2013, from www
.travelmarketreport.com.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 330 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 331
performance when planning is decentralized, but they may also have more
problems with coordination.20
In general, a multiteam system is the best choice either when a team has
become too large to be effective or when teams with distinct functions need to
be highly coordinated.
Creating Effective Teams
Teams are often created deliberately but sometimes evolve organically. Take
the rise of team “hives” over the past 5 years for an organic example. Freelanc-
ing is typically the solo work of people who are highly specialized in their fields
and can provide expertise to organizations on a short-term basis. The difficulty
is for the freelancers to market themselves effectively to organizations, and for
organizations to find freelancers who fit their needs. To bridge this gap, free-
lancers form teams with other freelancers from complementary specialties to
present a cohesive working unit—a hive—to clients. This team-based approach
has proven very successful.21
Many people have tried to identify factors related to team effectiveness. To
help, some studies have organized what was once a large list of characteristics
into a relatively focused model.22 Exhibit 10-3 summarizes what we currently
know about what makes teams effective. As you’ll see, it builds on many of the
group concepts introduced in Chapter 9.
In considering the team effectiveness model, keep in mind two points. First,
teams differ in form and structure. The model attempts to generalize across
all varieties of teams but avoids rigidly applying its predictions to all teams.23
10-4 Identify the characteris-
tics of effective teams.
Team Effectiveness ModelExhibit 10-3
Team effectiveness
Process
• Common purpose
• Specific goals
• Team efficacy
• Team identity
• Team cohesion
• Mental models
• Conflict levels
• Social loafing
Composition
• Abilities of members
• Personality
• Allocating roles
• Diversity
• Cultural differences
• Size of teams
• Member preferences
Context
• Adequate resources
• Leadership and
structure
• Climate of trust
• Performance evaluation
and reward systems
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 331 29/09/17 3:22 pm
332 PART 3 The Group
Use it as a guide. Second, the model assumes that teamwork is preferable to
individual work. Creating “effective” teams when individuals can do the job bet-
ter is like perfectly solving the wrong problem. Third, let’s consider what team
effectiveness means in this model. Typically, team effectiveness includes objec-
tive measures of the team’s productivity, managers’ ratings of the team’s perfor-
mance, and aggregate measures of member satisfaction.
We can organize the key components of effective teams into three general
categories. First are the resources and other contextual influences that make
teams effective. The second relates to the team’s composition. Finally, process vari-
ables are events within the team that influence effectiveness. We will explore
each of these components next.
Team Context: What Factors Determine Whether
Teams Are Successful?
The four contextual factors most significantly related to team performance are
adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate of trust, and a performance
evaluation and reward system that reflects team contributions.
Adequate Resources Teams are part of a larger organization system; every work
team relies on resources outside the group to sustain it. A scarcity of resources
directly reduces the ability of a team to perform its job effectively and achieve
its goals. As one study concluded after looking at 13 factors related to group
performance, “perhaps one of the most important characteristics of an effec-
tive work group is the support the group receives from the organization.”24
This support includes timely information, proper equipment, adequate staff-
ing, encouragement, and administrative assistance. Racially diverse teams are
less likely to be provided with the resources necessary for team performance.25
Leadership and Structure Teams can’t function if they can’t agree on who is to
do what and ensure all members share the workload. Agreeing on the specifics
of work and how they fit together to integrate individual skills requires lead-
ership and structure, either from management or from team members them-
selves. In self-managed teams, members absorb many of the duties typically
assumed by managers. A manager’s job then becomes managing outside (rather
than inside) the team. Leader personality, engagement, and leadership style all
have an impact on team effectiveness.26
As we mentioned before, leadership is especially important in multiteam sys-
tems. Here, leaders need to delegate responsibility to teams and play the role of
facilitator, making sure the teams work together rather than against one another.27
Climate of Trust Trust is the foundation of leadership; it allows a team to accept
and commit to the leader’s goals and decisions. Members of effective teams
exhibit trust in their leaders.28 They also trust each other. Interpersonal trust
among team members facilitates cooperation, reduces the need to monitor each
other’s behavior, and bonds individuals through the belief that members won’t
take advantage of them. Members are more likely to take risks and expose vul-
nerabilities when they can trust others on their team. The overall level of trust
in a team is important, but the way trust is dispersed among team members also
matters. Trust levels that are asymmetric and imbalanced between team mem-
bers can mitigate the performance advantages of a high overall level of trust—in
such cases, coalitions form that often undermine the team as a whole.29
Trust is a perception that can be vulnerable to shifting conditions in a team
environment. Also, trust is not unequivocally desirable. For instance, recent
research in Singapore found that, in high-trust teams, individuals are less likely
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 332 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 333
to claim and defend personal ownership of their ideas, but individuals who do
still claim personal ownership are rated as lower contributors by team members.30
This “punishment” by the team may reflect resentments that create negative
relationships, increased conflicts, and reduced performance.
Performance Evaluation and Reward System Individual performance evalua-
tions and incentives may interfere with the development of high-performance
teams. Thus, in addition to evaluating and rewarding employees for their indi-
vidual contributions, management should utilize hybrid performance systems
that incorporate an individual member component to recognize individual
contributions and a group reward to recognize positive team outcomes.31
Group-based appraisals, profit sharing, small-group incentives, and other sys-
tem modifications can reinforce team effort and commitment.
Team Composition
Maria Contreras-Sweet, former head of the U.S. Small Business Administration,
said, “When I’m building a team, I’m looking for people who are resourceful.
I need people who are flexible, and I really need people who are discreet….
Discreetness also speaks to integrity.”32 These are good qualities, but they are
not all that we should consider when staffing teams. The team composition cat-
egory includes variables that relate to how teams should be staffed: the abilities
and personalities of team members, allocation of roles, diversity, cultural dif-
ferences, size of the team, and members’ preferences for teamwork. As you can
expect, opinions vary widely about the type of members leaders want on their
teams, and some evidence suggests that compositions may be more important
at different stages of team development.
Abilities of Members It’s true we occasionally read about an athletic team of
mediocre players who, because of excellent coaching, determination, and pre-
cision teamwork, beat a far more talented group. But such cases make the news
precisely because they are unusual. A team’s performance depends in part on
the knowledge, skills, and abilities of individual members.33 Abilities set limits
on what members can do and how effectively they will perform on a team.
Research reveals insights into team composition and performance. First,
when solving a complex problem such as reengineering an assembly line, high-
ability teams—composed of mostly intelligent members—do better than lower-
ability teams. High-ability teams are also more adaptable to changing situations;
they can apply existing knowledge more effectively to new problems.
Finally, the ability of the team’s leader matters. Smart team leaders help
less intelligent team members when they struggle with a task. A less intelligent
leader can, conversely, neutralize the effect of a high-ability team.34
Personality of Members We demonstrated in Chapter 5 that personality signifi-
cantly influences individual behavior. Some dimensions identified in the Big
Five personality model are particularly relevant to team effectiveness.35 Con-
scientiousness is especially important to teams. Conscientious people are good
at backing up other team members and sensing when their support is truly
needed. Conscientious teams also have other advantages—one study found
that behavioral tendencies such as organization, achievement orientation, and
endurance were all related to higher levels of team performance.36
Team composition can be based on individual personalities to good effect.
Suppose an organization needs to create 20 teams of 4 people each and has 40
highly conscientious people and 40 who score low on conscientiousness. Would
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 333 29/09/17 3:22 pm
334 PART 3 The Group
the organization be better off (1) forming 10 teams of highly conscientious
people and 10 teams of members low on conscientiousness, or (2) “seeding”
each team with 2 people who scored high and 2 who scored low on conscien-
tiousness? Perhaps surprisingly, evidence suggests option 1 is the best choice;
performance across the teams will be higher if the organization forms 10 highly
conscientious teams and 10 teams low in conscientiousness. The reason is that
a team with varying conscientiousness levels will not work to the peak perfor-
mance of its highly conscientious members. Instead, a group normalization
dynamic (or simple resentment) will complicate interactions and force the
highly conscientious members to lower their expectations, thus reducing the
group’s performance.37
Myth or Science?
Team Members Who Are “Hot” Should Make the Play
Before we tell you whether this
statement is true or false, we
need to take a step back and
ask: “Can individuals go on ‘hot’
streaks?” In teams, and especially
in sports, we often hear about play-
ers who are on a streak and have the
“hot hand.” Basketball player LeBron
James scores five baskets in a row,
golfer Rory McIlroy makes three bird-
ies in a row for the European Ryder
Cup team, and tennis player Serena
Williams hits four aces in a row dur-
ing a doubles match with her sister
Venus. Most people (around 90 per-
cent) believe LeBron, Rory, and Ser-
ena score well because they are on
a hot streak, performing above their
average.
Although people believe in the hot
hand, the scores tell the story. About
half the relevant studies have shown
that the hot hand is possible, while
the remaining half show it is not. But
perception can influence reality, so per-
haps the more important question is
whether belief in the hot hand affects
teams’ strategies. One study of volley-
ball players showed that coaches and
players allocate more balls to players
who are believed to have the hot hand.
Is this a good strategy? If the hot play-
er’s performance is actually lower than
her teammates’, then giving her more
balls to hit will hurt the team because
the better players aren’t getting enough
chances to hit, while she gets more
chances to perform.
Considering the research to date,
the opening statement appears to be
false.
Sources: Based on M. Raab, B. Gula, and G.
Gigerenzer, “The Hot Hand Exists in Volleyball
and Is Used for Allocation Decisions,” Journal
of Experimental Psychology: Applied 18, no. 1
(2012): 81–94; T Gilovich, R. Vallone, and A.
Tversky, “The Hot Hand in Basketball: On the
Misperception of Random Sequences,” Cog-
nitive Psychology 17 (1985): 295–314; and
M. Bar-Eli, S. Avugos, and M. Raab, “Twenty
Years of ‘Hot Hand’ Research: The Hot Hand
Phenomenon: Review and Critique,” Psychol-
ogy, Sport, and Exercise 7 (2006): 525–53.
Members of a research team at the
innovation lab of Swiss bank UBS
are testing digital, virtual reality, and
other new technologies to attract a
young generation of investors and to
help current clients visualize complex
investment portfolios. Team members
have the technical expertise and skills
needed to function as a high-ability
team.
Source: Arnd Wiegmann/Reuters
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 334 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 335
What about the other traits? Teams with a high level of openness to experi-
ence tend to perform better, and research indicates that constructive task conflict
enhances the effect. Open team members communicate better with one another
and throw out more ideas, which makes teams composed of open people more
creative and innovative.38 Task conflict also enhances performance for teams with
high levels of emotional stability.39 It’s not so much that the conflict itself improves
performance for these teams, but that teams characterized by openness and emo-
tional stability are able to handle conflict and leverage it to improve performance.
The minimum level of team member agreeableness matters, too: Teams do worse
when they have one or more highly disagreeable members, and a wide span in
individual levels of agreeableness can lower productivity. Research is not clear
on the outcomes of extraversion, but a recent study indicated that a high mean
level of extraversion in a team can increase the level of helping behaviors, particu-
larly in a climate of cooperation.40 Thus the personality traits of individuals are as
important to teams as the overall personality characteristics of the team.
Allocation of Roles Teams have different needs, and members should be
selected to ensure that all the various roles are filled. A study of 778 major
league baseball teams over a 21-year period highlights the importance of assign-
ing roles appropriately.41 As you might expect, teams with more experienced
and skilled members performed better. However, the experience and skill of
those in core roles who handled more of the workflow of the team, and were
central to all work processes (in this case, pitchers and catchers), were espe-
cially vital. In other words, put your most able, experienced, and conscientious
workers in the most central roles in a team.
We can identify nine potential team roles (see Exhibit 10-4). Successful
work teams have selected people to play all these roles based on their skills
and preferences.42 (On many teams, individuals will play multiple roles.) To
increase the likelihood that team members will work well together, managers
need to understand the individual strengths each person can bring to a team,
select members with their strengths in mind, and allocate work assignments
that fit with members’ preferred styles.
Diversity of Members In Chapter 9, we discussed the effect of diversity on
groups. How does team diversity affect team performance? The degree to which
members of a work unit (group, team, or department) share a common demo-
graphic attribute, such as age, sex, race, educational level, or length of service
in the organization, is the subject of organizational demography. Organiza-
tional demography suggests that attributes such as age or the date of joining
should help predict turnover. The logic goes like this: Turnover will be greater
among those with dissimilar experiences because communication is more dif-
ficult and conflict is more likely. Increased conflict makes membership less
attractive, so employees are more likely to quit. Similarly, the losers of a conflict
are more apt to leave voluntarily or be forced out.43 The conclusion is that
diversity negatively affects team performance.
Many of us hold the optimistic view that diversity is a good thing—diverse
teams should benefit from differing perspectives. Two meta-analytic reviews
show, however, that demographic diversity is essentially unrelated to team
organizational demography The degree
to which members of a work unit share a
common demographic attribute, such as
age, sex, race, educational level, or length
of service in an organization, and the impact
of this attribute on turnover.
MyLab Management Try It
If your professor has assigned this activity, go to www.pearson.com/
mylab/management to complete the Mini Sim.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 335 29/09/17 3:22 pm
336 PART 3 The Group
performance, while a third review suggests that race and gender diversity are
actually negatively related to team performance.44 Other research findings
are mixed. One qualifier is that gender and ethnic diversity have more nega-
tive effects in occupations dominated by white or male employees, but in more
demographically balanced occupations or when attitudes toward diversity are
more positive, diversity is less of a problem. Diversity in function, education, and
expertise are positively related to team performance, but these effects are small
and depend on the situation. Diversity may also have a negative effect when
trust between members is already low.
Proper leadership can improve the performance of diverse teams.45 For
example, one study of 68 teams in China found that teams diverse in knowledge,
skills, and ways of approaching problems were more creative but only when their
leaders were transformational (see Chapter 12 for definition) and inspiring.46
Cultural Differences We have discussed research on team diversity regarding a
number of differences. But what about cultural differences? Evidence indicates
that cultural diversity interferes with team processes, at least in the short term,47
but let’s dig a little deeper: What about differences in cultural status? Though
it’s debatable, people with higher cultural status are usually in the majority or
ruling race group of their nations. Researchers in the United Kingdom found
that cultural status differences affected team performance whereby individuals
in teams with more high cultural-status members than low cultural-status mem-
bers realized improved performance . . . for every member.48 This suggests not
that diverse teams should be filled with individuals who have high cultural sta-
tus in their countries but that we should be aware of how people identify with
their cultural status even in diverse group settings.
Key Roles of TeamsExhibit 10-4
Team
Adviser
Creator
Promoter
Assessor
Organizer
Producer
Controller
Maintainer
Linker
Fights external
battles
Ini
tia
tes
cr
ea
tiv
e
id
ea
s
Champions ideas
after they’re initiated
Offers insightful
analysis of options
Provides
structure
Exa
mine
s d
eta
ils
an
d e
nfo
rce
s ru
les
Pr
ov
id
es
d
ire
ct
io
n
an
d
fo
llo
w
-th
ro
ug
h
C
oordinates and
integrates
Encourages the search
for more information
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 336 29/09/17 3:22 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 337
In general, cultural diversity seems to be an asset for tasks that call for a
variety of viewpoints. But culturally heterogeneous teams have more difficulty
learning to work with each other and solving problems. The good news is that
these difficulties seem to dissipate with time.
Size of Teams Most experts agree that keeping teams small is key to improving
group effectiveness.49 Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos uses the “two-pizza” rule, say-
ing, “If it takes more than two pizzas to feed the team, the team is too big.”50
Psychologist George Miller claimed that “the magical number [is] seven, plus
or minus two,” for the ideal team size.51 Author and Forbes publisher Rich
Karlgaard writes, “Bigger teams almost never correlate with a greater chance of
success” because the potential connections between people grow exponentially
as team size increases, thus complicating communications.52
Career OBjectives
Is it wrong that I’d rather have guys on my team?
Please don’t call me sexist; women
are great colleagues and equally
effective managers, but I’d rather have
men on my team. It’s more relaxing
for me, and for the other guys I think,
because we naturally understand each
other and can talk freely. The teams
with all men that I’ve been in have all
been very productive.
—Jorge
Dear Jorge,
With all the talk currently focused on
gender diversity in organizations, your
viewpoint is refreshingly honest. And
your preferences are not uncommon.
Researchers who studied 8 years of
employee surveys from a large U.S.
organization found that individuals were
happier on teams mainly of their own
gender, whereas those on diverse teams
reported less happiness, trust, and coop-
eration. Researcher Sara Fisher Ellison
noted, “People are more comfortable
around other people who are like them.”
In some ways, the preference for
our own gender in teams is an ugly
truth. After all, if there hadn’t been
gender diversity initiatives and protec-
tions, a majority of professional posi-
tions may still be closed to women in
masculine cultures like Japan, Austria,
and Venezuela (see Hofstede’s cultural
values in Chapter 5). The value sys-
tem in many countries has fortunately
changed, with increased recognition
of team diversity’s potential for higher
morale, trust, and satisfaction. Notice
that these are values as opposed to
the reported reality from the paragraph
above. Ellison concluded that there is
a “mismatch between the kind of work-
place people think they would like and
the actual workplace that would make
them happier.”
Don’t think this is your ticket to
male-only teams, though. Happiness
aside, this study found that diverse
teams realized significantly greater rev-
enues, productivity, and performance.
Other research in Spain indicated that
gender-diverse teams realize novel solu-
tions and radical innovation at a greater
rate. Still other research suggested that
gender-diverse teams perform better
than male-dominated ones in sales and
profits. The contextual climate is key,
however. One meta-analysis found that
gender equality and collectivism were
important conditions for task perfor-
mance in diverse teams, a Danish study
indicated that diverse top management
teams realized higher financial perfor-
mance only when the structure sup-
ported cross-functional team work, and
a study in South Korea indicated that
cooperative group norms can lower the
negative effects of gender diversity.
What all this means for you is that,
while you may naturally prefer to work
with men, it’s not good for business.
You would be better off putting your
efforts into creating an egalitarian atmo-
sphere and choosing your teammates
based on what they can contribute to
your team.
Sources: Based on C. Diaz-Garcia, A. Gonzalez-
Moreno, and F. Jose Saez-Martinez, “Gen-
der Diversity within R&D Teams: Its Impact
on Radicalness of Innovation,” Innovation-
Management Policy & Practice 15, no. 2 (2013):
149–60; S. Hoogedoorn, H.”Oosterbeek, and
M. van Praag, “The Impact of Gender Diver-
sity on the Performance of Business Teams:
Evidence from a Field Experiment,” Manage-
ment Science 59, no. 7 (2013): 1514–28;
N.”Opstrup and A. R. Villadsen, “The Right Mix?
Gender Diversity in Top Management Teams
and Financial Performance,” Public Adminis-
tration Review (2015): 291–301; M. Schneid,
R.”Isidor, C. Li, et al., “The Influence of Cultural
Context on the Relationship between Gender
Diversity and Team Performance: A Meta-
Analysis,” International Journal of Human
Resource Management 26, no. 6 (2015):
733–56; J. Y. Seong and D.-S. Hong, “Gender
Diversity: How Can We Facilitate Its Positive
Effects on Teams?” Social Behavior and Per-
sonality 41, no. 3 (2013): 497–508; and R. E.
Silverman, “Do Men and Women Like Working
Together?,” The Wall Street Journal, December
16, 2014, D2.
The opinions provided here are of the manag-
ers and authors only and do not necessar-
ily reflect those of their organizations. The
authors or managers are not responsible for
any errors or omissions, or for the results
obtained from the use of this information.
In no event will the authors or managers, or
their related partnerships or corporations
thereof, be liable to you or anyone else for
any decision made or action taken in reliance
on the opinions provided here.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 337 29/09/17 3:22 pm
338 PART 3 The Group
Generally speaking, the most effective teams have five to nine members.
Experts suggest using the smallest number of people who can do the task.
Unfortunately, managers often err by making teams too large. It may require
only four or five members to develop an array of views and skills, and coordi-
nation problems can increase as team members are added. When teams have
excess members, cohesiveness and mutual accountability decline, social loafing
increases, and people communicate less. Members of large teams have trouble
coordinating with one another, especially under time pressure. When a natural
working unit is larger and you want a team effort, consider breaking the group
into subteams.53
Member Preferences Not every employee is a team player. Given the option,
many employees will select themselves out of team participation. When people
who prefer to work alone are required to team up, there is a direct threat to the
team’s morale and to individual member satisfaction.54 This suggests that, when
selecting team members, managers should consider individual preferences
along with abilities, personalities, and skills. High-performing teams are likely
to be composed of people who prefer working as part of a group.
Team Processes
The final category related to team effectiveness includes process variables such
as member commitment to a common purpose, establishment of specific team
goals, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesion, mental models, a managed
level of conflict, and minimized social loafing. These variables are especially
important in larger teams and in teams that are highly interdependent.55
Why are processes important to team effectiveness? Teams should create
outputs greater than the sum of their inputs. Exhibit 10-5 illustrates how group
processes can have an impact on a group’s actual effectiveness.56 Teams are
often used in research laboratories because they can draw on the diverse skills
of various individuals to produce more meaningful research than researchers
A Japanese nurse (left) served on a
seven-member medical team formed
by the International Committee of the
Red Cross and deployed to the Philip-
pines after a typhoon hit Mindanoa
Island. The small team of health care
workers had the capacity to respond
quickly and effectively in providing
patients with emergency medical care.
Source: KYDPL KYODO/AP Images
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 338 29/09/17 3:23 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 339
working independently—that is, they produce positive synergy, and their pro-
cess gains exceed their process losses.
Common Plan and Purpose Effective teams begin by analyzing the team’s mis-
sion, developing goals to achieve that mission, and creating strategies for
achieving the goals. Teams that consistently perform better have a clear sense
of what needs to be done and how.57 This sounds obvious, but many teams
ignore this fundamental process.
Members of successful teams put a tremendous amount of time and effort
into discussing, shaping, and sharing a purpose that belongs to them collectively
and individually. This common purpose, when accepted by the team, becomes
what GPS is to a ship captain: It provides direction and guidance under any
conditions. Like a ship following the wrong course, teams that don’t have good
planning skills are doomed, executing the wrong plan.58 Teams should agree on
whether their purpose is to learn about and master a task or simply to perform
the task; evidence suggests that differing perspectives on learning versus perfor-
mance lead to lower levels of team performance overall. Teams that emphasize
learning are also more likely to agree on common goals, and identification with
a team is also easier when members strongly identify with the team.59
Effective teams show reflexivity, meaning they reflect on and adjust their
purpose when necessary. A team must have a good plan, but team members
need to be willing and able to adapt when conditions call for it.60 Reflexivity is
especially important for teams that have had poor performance in the past.61
Some evidence suggests that teams high in reflexivity are better able to adapt to
conflicting plans and goals among team members.62
Specific Goals Successful teams translate their common purpose into specific,
measurable, and realistic performance goals. Specific goals facilitate clear com-
munication. They help teams maintain their focus on getting results.
Consistent with the research on individual goals, team goals should be chal-
lenging. Difficult but achievable goals raise team performance on those criteria
for which they’re set. For instance, goals for quantity tend to increase quantity,
goals for accuracy increase accuracy, and so on.63
Team Efficacy Effective teams have confidence in themselves; they believe they
can succeed. We call this team efficacy.64 Teams that have been successful raise
their beliefs about future success, which in turn motivates them to work harder.
In addition, teams that have a shared knowledge of individual capabilities can
strengthen the link between team members’ self-efficacy and their individual
creativity because members can solicit informed opinions from their team-
mates more effectively.65
What can management do to increase team efficacy? Two options are help-
ing the team achieve small successes that build confidence and providing train-
ing to improve members’ technical and interpersonal skills. The greater the
abilities of team members, the more likely the team will develop confidence
and the ability to deliver on that confidence.
reflexivity A team characteristic of
reflecting on and adjusting the master
plan when necessary.
team efficacy A team’s collective belief
that they can succeed at their tasks.
Effects of Group ProcessesExhibit 10-5
Potential group
effectiveness
+ =–Process
gains
Process
losses
Actual group
effectiveness
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 339 29/09/17 3:23 pm
340 PART 3 The Group
Team Identity In Chapter 9, we discussed the important role of social identity
in people’s lives. When people connect emotionally with the groups they’re in,
they are more likely to invest in their relationship with those groups. It’s the same
with teams. For example, research with soldiers in the Netherlands indicated
that individuals who felt included and respected by team members became more
willing to work hard for their teams, even though as soldiers they were already
called upon to be dedicated to their units. Similarly, when team identity is strong,
team members who are highly motivated by performance goals are more likely to
direct their efforts toward team goals rather than individual goals. Therefore, by
recognizing individuals’ specific skills and abilities, as well as creating a climate of
respect and inclusion, leaders and members can foster positive team identity and
improved team outcomes.66 Managers should pay special attention to fostering
team identity in virtual teams. Team identity may be lower in virtual teams, which
can lead to lower effort on the part of virtual team members.67
Organizational identity is important, too. Rarely do teams operate in a
vacuum—more often teams interact with other teams, requiring interteam
coordination. Individuals with a positive team identity but without a positive
organizational identity can become fixed to their teams and unwilling to coor-
dinate with other teams within the organization.68
Team Cohesion Have you ever been a member of a team that really gelled, one
in which team members felt connected? The term team cohesion describes a
situation in which members are emotionally attached to one another and moti-
vated toward the team because of their attachment. Team cohesion is a useful
tool to predict team outcomes. For example, a large study in China recently
indicated that if team cohesion is high and tasks are complex, costly invest-
ments in promotions, rewards, training, and so forth, yield greater profitable
team creativity. Teams with low cohesion and simple tasks, on the other hand,
are not likely to respond to incentives with greater creativity.69
Team cohesion is a strong predictor of team performance such that when
cohesion is harmed, performance may be, too. Negative relationships are one
driver of reduced cohesion. To mitigate this effect, teams can foster high levels
of interdependence and high-quality interpersonal interactions. Team cohe-
sion is higher in teams with female team leaders when teams are larger and
more functionally diverse. Team cohesion is also higher in teams with shared
leadership and when leaders are fair.70
Mental Models The members of an effective team share accurate mental
models—organized mental representations of the key elements within a team’s
environment that team members share.71 (Team mission and goals pertain to what
a team needs to be effective; mental models pertain to how a team does its work.) If
team members have the wrong mental models, which is particularly likely in teams
under acute stress, their performance suffers.72 One review of 65 independent
studies found that teams with shared mental models engaged in more frequent
interactions with one another, were more motivated, had more positive attitudes
toward their work, and had higher levels of objectively rated performance.73 If
team members have different ideas about how to do things, however, the team will
fight over methods rather than focus on what needs to be done.74
Individuals who normally function in action teams—teams with specialists
engaged in intense, interdependent, and unpredictable tasks—are likely to
share mental models. Even though they are often under acute stress, their per-
formance levels can be high because the stress has been normalized through
the expected context. These action teams have learned that the best way to
share mental models is to voice them. An anesthetic team in a hospital is one
team identity A team member’s affinity
for and sense of belongingness to his or her
team.
team cohesion A situation when team
members are emotionally attached to one
another and motivated toward the team
because of their attachment.
mental model Team members’ knowledge
and beliefs about how the work gets done
by the team.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 340 29/09/17 3:23 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 341
example of an action team with shared mental models. For example, research
in Switzerland found that anesthetic teams communicated two distinct types of
messages while in an operation: vocally monitoring each others’ performance
(not to criticize but to keep a vocal record of events), and “talking to the room”
(announcements to everyone such as “Patient’s blood pressure is dropping”).
The study found that high- and low-performing teams communicated in these
ways equally often; what mattered to performance was the sequencing of the
communication to maintain a shared mental model. High-performing teams
followed up monitoring dialogue with assistance and instructions, and talking-
to-the-room dialogue with further team dialogue.75 The message seems simple:
To maintain shared mental models, share conversation about what is happen-
ing while the team is in operation!
Conflict Levels Conflict has a complex relationship with team performance,
and it’s not necessarily bad. Relationship conflicts—those based on interpersonal
incompatibility, tension, and animosity toward others—are almost always dys-
functional. However, when teams are performing nonroutine activities, dis-
agreements about task content—called task conflicts—stimulate discussion,
promote critical assessment of problems and options, and can lead to better
team decisions, though it may not lead to more innovative products. The posi-
tive (and negative) effects of conflict on performance may be smaller or larger
depending on many factors, such as the task type, setting, and how perfor-
mance is measured.76 Task conflict is beneficial when members are open to
experience and emotionally stable.77 Task conflict may also be beneficial when
some team members perceive high task conflict while other team members per-
ceive low task conflict.78 According to one study conducted in China, moder-
ate levels of task conflict during the initial phases of team performance were
positively related to team creativity, but both very low and very high levels of
task conflict were negatively related to team performance.79 In other words,
both too much and too little disagreement about how a team should initially
perform a creative task can inhibit performance.
The way conflicts are resolved can make the difference between effective
and ineffective teams. A study of ongoing comments made by 37 autono-
mous work groups showed that effective teams resolved conflicts by explicitly
Product Hunt founder Ryan Hoover
(on computer) and his entrepreneurial
team are highly cohesive. The com-
pany describes itself as a tight-knit
team whose members share a love of
new tech products, care about people,
and are passionate about building
communities that celebrate tech
creations.
Source: David Paul Morris/Bloomberg/Getty Images
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 341 29/09/17 3:23 pm
342 PART 3 The Group
discussing the issues, whereas ineffective teams had unresolved conflicts that
were focused more on personalities and the way things were said.80
Which teams are more likely to have conflicts than others? It’s not a simple
answer. While we may presume that diversity increases conflicts, the answer is
likely to be much more subtle than that. For example, recent research in Spain
found that when individual team members varied greatly in their perceptions
of organizational support, task conflict increased, communication decreased,
and ultimately team performance suffered.81 If the researchers had instead
compared only the average level of organizational support given to the team
rather than how members perceived the support, they would have missed the
correct causal links. A study of Chinese teams found that teams high in social
capital experienced higher task conflict and lower relationship conflict, but
this was only true after the group had been established for several years.82 Thus
we need to be careful not to overgeneralize.
Social Loafing As we noted earlier, individuals can engage in social loafing
and coast on the group’s effort when their particular contributions (or lack
thereof) can’t be identified. Effective teams undermine this tendency by mak-
ing members individually and jointly accountable for the team’s purpose, goals,
and approach.83 Therefore, members should be clear on what they are indi-
vidually and jointly responsible for on the team.
Turning Individuals into Team Players
We’ve made a case for the value and growing popularity of teams. But many
people are not inherently team players, and many organizations have histori-
cally nurtured individual accomplishments. Teams often fit well in countries
that score high on collectivism, but what if an organization wants to introduce
teams into a work population of individuals born and raised in an individualis-
tic society?
Here are options for managers trying to turn individuals into team players.
Selecting: Hiring Team Players
Some people already possess the interpersonal skills to be effective team play-
ers. When hiring team members, be sure candidates can fulfill their team roles
as well as technical requirements.84
Creating teams often means resisting the urge to hire the best talent no
matter what. For example, the New York Knicks professional basketball team
pays Carmelo Anthony well because he scores a lot of points for his team, but
statistics show he takes more shots than other highly paid players in the league,
which means fewer shots for his teammates.85
As a final consideration, personal traits appear to make some people bet-
ter candidates for working in diverse teams. Teams made of members who like
to work through difficult mental puzzles also seem more effective and able to
capitalize on the multiple points of view that arise from diversity in age and
education.86
10-5 Explain how organizations
can create team players.
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Personal Inventory Assessments
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M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 342 29/09/17 3:23 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 343
Training: Creating Team Players
Training specialists conduct exercises that allow employees to experience the
satisfaction that teamwork can provide. Workshops help employees improve
their problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict management, and
coaching skills. L’Oréal, for example, found that successful sales teams required
much more than a staff of high-ability salespeople. “What we didn’t account for
was that many members of our top team in sales had been promoted because
they had excellent technical and executional skills,” said L’Oréal’s senior vice
president David Waldock. As a result of introducing purposeful team training,
Waldock says, “We are no longer a team just on paper, working independently.
We have a real group dynamic now, and it’s a good one.”87 An effective team
doesn’t develop overnight—it takes time, but good team training has positive
tangible effects on performance regardless of employee and training character-
istics, as evidenced by a recent review of 112 studies of medical team training
programs.88
Rewarding: Providing Incentives to Be a Good Team Player
A traditional organization’s reward system must be reworked to encourage
cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones.89 Hallmark Cards Inc. added
to its basic individual incentive system an annual bonus based on the achieve-
ment of team goals. Whole Foods directs most of its performance-based rewards
toward team performance. As a result, teams select new members carefully so
they will contribute to team effectiveness (and thus team bonuses).90 It is usu-
ally best to set a cooperative tone as soon as possible in the life of a team. As we
already noted, teams that switch from competitive to cooperative do not imme-
diately share information, and they still tend to make rushed, poor-quality deci-
sions.91 Apparently, the low trust typical of the competitive group will not be
readily replaced by high trust with a quick change in reward systems.
New engineering employees of India’s
Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) work
in teams to construct paper boats
during a team-building exercise at the
firm’s training center. Creating team
players is essential to the success of
TCS because employees must collabo-
rate and work cohesively in providing
information technology (IT) consulting
services and business solutions for
global clients.
Source: Namas Bhojani/Bloomberg/Getty Images
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 343 29/09/17 3:23 pm
344 PART 3 The Group
Promotions, pay raises, and other forms of recognition should be given to
individuals who work effectively as team members by training new colleagues,
sharing information, helping resolve team conflicts, and mastering needed new
skills. This doesn’t mean individual contributions should be ignored; rather,
they should be balanced with selfless contributions to the team.
Finally, don’t forget the intrinsic rewards, such as camaraderie, that employ-
ees can receive from teamwork. It’s exciting to be part of a successful team. The
opportunity for personal development of oneself and teammates can be a very
satisfying and rewarding experience.
Beware! Teams Aren’t Always the Answer
Teamwork takes more time and often more resources than individual work.
Teams have increased communication demands, conflicts to manage, and
meetings to run. So the benefits of using teams have to exceed the costs, and
that’s not always possible.92
How do you know whether the work of your group would be better done
in teams? You can apply three tests.93 First, can the work be done better by
more than one person? Good indicators are the complexity of the work and
the need for different perspectives. Simple tasks that don’t require diverse
input are probably better left to individuals. Second, does the work create a
common purpose or set of goals for the people in the group that is more
than the aggregate of individual goals? Many service departments of new-
vehicle dealers have introduced teams that link customer service people,
mechanics, parts specialists, and sales representatives. Such teams can better
manage collective responsibility for ensuring that customer needs are prop-
erly met.
The final test is to determine whether the members of the group are inter-
dependent. Using teams makes sense when there is interdependence among
tasks—the success of the whole depends on the success of each one, and the
success of each one depends on the success of the others. Soccer, for instance,
is an obvious team sport. Success requires a great deal of coordination among
interdependent players. Conversely, swim teams (except possibly for relays) are
not really teams. They are groups of individuals performing individually and
whose total performance is merely the aggregate summation of their individual
performances.
Summary
Few trends have influenced jobs as much as the massive movement of teams into
the workplace. Working on teams requires employees to cooperate with others,
share information, confront differences, and sublimate personal interests for
the greater good of the team. Understanding the distinctions between problem-
solving, self-managed, cross-functional, and virtual teams as well as multiteam
systems helps determine the appropriate applications for team-based work.
Concepts such as reflexivity, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesion, and
mental models bring to light important issues relating to team context, compo-
sition, and processes. For teams to function optimally, careful attention must be
given to hiring, creating, and rewarding team players. Still, effective organiza-
tions recognize that teams are not always the best method for getting the work
done efficiently. Careful discernment and an understanding of organizational
behavior are needed.
10-6 Decide when to use indi-
viduals instead of teams.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 344 29/09/17 3:23 pm
Understanding Work Teams CHAPTER 10 345
Implications for Managers
” Effective teams have adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate
of trust, and a performance evaluation and reward system that reflects
team contributions. These teams have individuals with technical exper-
tise and the right traits and skills.
” Effective teams tend to be small. They have members who fill role
demands and who prefer to be part of a group.
” Effective teams have members who believe in the team’s capabilities, are
committed to a common plan and purpose, and have an accurate shared
mental model of what is to be accomplished.
” Select individuals who have the interpersonal skills to be effective team
players, provide training to develop teamwork skills, and reward individu-
als for cooperative efforts.
” Do not assume that teams are always needed. When tasks will not benefit
from interdependency, individuals may be the better choice.
M10_ROBB9329_18_SE_C10.indd 345 29/09/17 3:23 pm
346 PART 3 The Group
To Get the Most Out of Teams, Empower Them
POINT
If you want high-performing teams with members who like each
other and their jobs, here’s a simple solution: Remove the leash
tied to them by management and let them make their own deci-
sions. In other words, empower them. This trend started a long time
ago, when organizations realized that creating layers of bureaucracy
thwarts innovation, slows progress to a trickle, and merely provides
hoops for people to jump through in order to get anything done.
You can empower teams in two ways. One way is structurally, by
transferring decision making from managers to team members and
giving teams the official power to develop their own strategies. The
other way is psychologically, by enhancing team members’ beliefs
that they have more authority, even though legitimate authority still
rests with the organization’s leaders. Structural empowerment leads
to heightened feelings of psychological empowerment, giving teams
(and organizations) the best of both worlds.
Research suggests that empowered teams benefit in a number of
ways. Members are more motivated. They exhibit higher levels of commit-
ment to the team and the organization. And they perform much better.
Empowerment sends a signal to the team that it is trusted and doesn’t
have to be constantly micromanaged by upper leadership. And when
teams get the freedom to make their own choices, they accept more
responsibility for and take ownership of both the good and the bad.
Granted, responsibility also means that empowered teams must
take the initiative to foster their ongoing learning and development,
but teams entrusted with the authority to guide their own destiny do
just that. So do yourself (and your company) a favor and make sure
that teams, rather than needless layers of middle managers, are the
ones making the decisions that count.
COUNTERPOINT
Empowerment can do some good in certain circumstances, but
it’s certainly not a cure-all.
Yes, organizations have become flatter over the past sev-
eral decades, paving the way for decision-making authority to seep
into lower levels of the organization. But consider that many teams
are “empowered” simply because the management ranks have been
so thinned that there is no one left to make the key calls. Empower-
ment is then just an excuse to ask teams to take on more respon-
sibility without an accompanying increase in tangible benefits
like pay.
In addition, the organization’s leadership already has a good idea
of what it would like its teams (and individual employees) to accom-
plish. If managers leave teams to their own devices, how likely is it
that those teams will always choose what the manager wanted? Even
if the manager offers suggestions about how the team might proceed,
empowered teams can easily ignore that advice. Instead, they need
direction on what goals to pursue and how to pursue them. That’s
what effective leadership is all about.
When decision-making authority is distributed among team mem-
bers, each member’s role is less clear, and members lack a leader
to whom they can go for advice. And finally, when teams are self-
managed, they become like silos, disconnected from the rest of the
organization and its mission. Simply handing people authority is no
guarantee they will use it effectively. So leave the power to make deci-
sions in the hands of those who were assigned leadership roles. After
all, they became leaders for a reason, and they can best guide the
team to stay focused and perform at top levels to maximize organiza-
tional outcomes.
Sources: Based on S. I. Tannenbaum, J. Mathieu, E. Salas, and D. Cohen, “Teams Are Changing: Are Research and Practice
Evolving Fast Enough?” Industrial and Organizational Psychology 5 (2012): 2–24; and R. Ashkenas, “How to Empower Your
Team for Non-Negotiable Results,” Forbes, April 24, 2013, downloaded June 10, 2013, from www.forbes.com.
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