The theory application paper is a 10 page paper in which the student
will apply the theory of his/her choice. This paper will also serve as the pap
er to be included in the
senior portfolio. To makes things easier, the paper will be written in three part
Example of Application of Agenda Setting Theory
Twitter and Political Agenda:
Over the last few years, the increase in social media has had a direct effect on political campaigns particularly Twitter. Its unique platform allows users to showcase their political opinion without functioning two directions. It is currently being viewed as a platform for political advancement. Before the use of Twitter, political candidates were using blogs and websites to portray their message and to gain more attention and popularity among their followers. Some of the most followed users on Twitter are past and current Presidents of the United States and other political figures. In terms of retweets, politicians and political parties have been labeled “influentials” on Twitter. Twitter is being used as a resource to gather information, reach a larger audience and engagement, stay up to date with current social and political issues, and to achieve the agenda building role. Twitter helps express public opinion which in turn allows a relationship to form between the media and the public. Some may argue that Twitter is still being used as a place for people to follow celebrity news and the culture of Hollywood more than it is being used for important issues and world news. Some may also argue that Twitter does not have the ability to set an agenda as much as conventional news outlets. A 2015 study found a positive correlation between issue ranks in news coverage and issue ranks in Twitter feeds, suggesting that Twitter and conventional news outlets by and large reflected each other.[54] The influence of Twitter may not always seem direct and can change during different phases.
Non-political application
McCombs and Shaw originally established agenda-setting within the context of a presidential election. Many subsequent studies have looked at agenda setting in the context of an election or in otherwise political contexts. However, more recently scholars have been studying agenda setting in the context of brand community. A brand is defined as what resides in the minds of individuals about a product or service. Brand community is described as a “specialized, non-geographically bound community based on a structured set of social relations among admirers of a brand.
[55]
” Under these definitions more than just material products can qualify as a brand, political candidates or even celebrities could be viewed as a brand as well. The theory can also be applied to commercial advertising, business news and corporate reputation,
[56]
business influence on federal policy,
[57]
legal systems, trials,]roles of social groups, audience control, public opinion, and
public relations
.
UsingCultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
1
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
Yan Mastin
Savannah State University
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
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Introduction
The purpose of this theory application paper is to apply George Gerbner’s Cultivation
Theory, which was originally developed to examine the effects of television on the viewer, to
today’s iteration of social media. Cultivation Theory is one of the most popular and utilized
theories in the Mass Communications arena and can be used to inspect the similar long-term
effects of television and social media. This theory implies that the dramatic and often violent
nature of television content breeds a fearful and negative outlook on the world for heavy
viewers. Basically, the theory suggests heavy viewers project the content on the screen into
their own lives often resulting in anxiety about the dark and mean nature of the world.
Someone who prescribes to Cultivation Theory could easily assume social media has similar
effects as television when it comes to altering the “lens” through which the consumer views the
world around them.
Background
As society’s youth becomes more and more enamored with social media outlets, it is
critical to examine the potential repercussions that come with the heavy use of platforms such as
Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. In the 1970s, George Gerbner and Larry Gross had similar
concerns pertaining to the rise of television viewing in the average American home. Through the
results of multiple extensive research projects, these men concluded there is a “statistically
significant relationship between TV consumption and fear about becoming the victim of a crime”
(Gerbner & Gross 1976). It can be reasonably assumed there are similar perception altering
affects that result from habitual use of social media.
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
3
Since Cultivation Theory was conceived in the 1970s, there has obviously been huge
innovations in mass media including the development of the Internet and Social Media. Despite
originally being developed to explain the marked increase in perceived violence due to habitual
television viewing, this paper will inspect other potential ways that today’s mass media,
specifically social media, “cultivates” society and too what extent.
Similar to television cultivating a misconstrued perception of violence, cultural dynamics,
and appropriate gender roles, there is reason to believe social media cultivates a multitude of its
own misconceptions about reality. The “assumptions about life and the world” that Gerbner was
concerned with are arguably more affected by social media now than by television in the 70s.
Cultivation Theory, which ultimately suggests that the media an audience consumes changes
their perception of reality, is easily applicable to social media despite being developed in the
1970’s because social media is ultimately just another form of pseudo reality.
Social Media is undoubtedly one of the most consumed forms of mass media in human
history and the application of Cultivation Theory to this new form of media allows for a deeper
investigation of how Social Media alters the consumers worldview.
Theoretical Framework
Cultivation Theory, introduced in George Gerbner and Larry Gross’s Living with
Television: The Violence Profile, is a landmark theory in the field of Mass Communications.
Gerbner, who was widely accepted as a brilliant thought leader in the field of mass
communications, was born in Budapest, Hungary in 1919. In 1942, he received his bachelor’s
degree in journalism from the University of California, Berkeley. Despite a long career in
communications, Gerbner is most infamous for the part he played in developing Cultivation
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
4
Theory as well as coining the phrase “mean world syndrome” which describes the generally
negative perceptions of the world held by heavy television viewers. Larry Gross, who was a
professor of communications also played a significant role in the development of the Theory of
Cultivation by co-directing the Cultural Indicators Project along with Gerbner to study how
television content influences the viewer’s attitude and behavior.
Cultivation Theory can ultimately be broken down into three separate areas of
scholarship, or prongs. The first of these prongs is Institutional Process Analysis. Institutional
Process Analysis studies the reasons why media companies generate the messages they do. In the
case of the original television study, “why does Hollywood insist on portraying a substantially
disproportionate amount of violence in its content” would be the topic of scholarship.
The second prong is Message System Analysis which studies the actual content and
message of the media. Gerbner used quantitative data to inspect exactly how much violence
takes place in television otherwise known as an Index of Violence.
The third and final prong of Cultivation Theory is Cultivation Analysis. This component
of the theory involves the research that studies the potential correlation between mass media
content and the worldview of the consumer. Staying with Gerbner’s original application of
Cultivation Theory as an example, Cultivation Analysis would inspect how increased television
consumption effects the consumers fear of violence. In Gerbner’s Cultivation Analysis findings,
heavy viewers perceived their risk of experiencing violence to be 1 out of 10 when in reality
their risk level was closer to 1 out of 10,000.
Literature Review
Cultivation Theory was first used to explain the phenomenon of “mean world syndrome”
as it relates to television but has been applied in several other ways since it’s conception in the
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
5
70s. Today, Cultivation Theory has been applied to alcohol use in music videos, potential effects
of video games, hyper sexuality of homosexuals depicted in television, underrepresentation of
women in television and multiple other ways mass media cultivates the preconceived notions of
its audience.
In 2010, Dr. Sara Netzley did her own Cultivation Analysis of television as it relates to
the depiction of homosexuals. Through her research, Netzley concluded homosexual characters
were portrayed as overly sexual. Similar to the cultivation of a more violent world in Gerbner’s
research, her analysis showed that television may in fact cause the viewer to develop the notion
that gay people are more sexual than their strait counterparts. According to her content analysis
of 98 primetime television programs from 2005-2006, “Gay characters on television were more
likely to be shown in sexual situations than straight characters” (Netzley 2010).
A similar study that inspected how the LGBT community is portrayed on television was
conducted by Jerel Calzo and Monique Ward to study how television shows portrayed
homosexuals in a way that reinforces certain stereotypes about LGBT people. Calzo and Ward
ultimately concluded that despite increased representation, gay people in television shows were
shown as one dimensional and tended to be “lacking stable relationships, being preoccupied with
their sexuality (or not sexual at all), and by perpetuating the perception of gay and lesbian people
as laughable” (Calzo & Ward 2009).
Another application of cultivation theory was implemented by Daniel Romer and
Kathleen Hall Jameison when they inspected how television cultivates the audiences’ perception
of women. They concluded that women are actually twice as likely to be portrayed as victims
than men.
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
6
In 2014, Bradley Bond and Kristin Drogos asserted “Exposure to highly sexualized
television programs has been correlated with emerging adults’ sexual attitudes and behaviors”
(Bond & Drogos 2014). This example of an application of cultivation theory illustrates how
television can cultivate one’s world view to such an extent that it even changes their sexual
attitudes and habits.
Peoples opinions on sexual orientation and gender are not the only issues that can be
cultivated by consuming television according to a study by Stanford Professor Diana Mutz and
Lilach Nir. According to Mutz and Nir, people’s stance on political policy can be significantly
altered by fictional television narratives. Specifically, both positive and negative portrayals of the
justice system had substantial effects on the viewers’ policy preferences as it pertains to the real
life criminal justice system.
All the previously mentioned applications of Cultivation Theory have used the theory to
analyze the cultivating effects of television in different ways. However, television is not the only
form of mass media that Cultivation Theory can be applied too. In the next examples, Cultivation
Theory has been applied to forms of mass media outside of the medium television for which it
was originally conceived.
A study conducted by Dmitri Williams inspects how video games as a medium has
similar cultivating effects as television. In 2006, Williams studied how the interactive nature of
video games could potentially increase it cultivating effects. He concluded there was in fact a
strong cultivating effect due to the dynamic state that the consumer is placed in when playing a
video game. Another form of mass media that had been studied in relation to how it cultivates
the audience is music videos. A study by Kathleen Beullens, Keith Roe, and Jan Bulck
“examined whether the frequent exposure to music video viewing is associated with driving after
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
7
the consumption of alcohol” (Beullens, Roe & Bulck 2012). They concluded through extensive
surveying of adolescents that “music video viewing is a significant marker of later risky driving
behavior and that this relationship is mediated through their attitudes and intentions” (Beullens,
Roe & Bulck 2012).
Research Question(s)
1. In today’s era when essentially every young person has social media, how does
Cultivation Theory apply to social media as a form of mass media?
2. If Cultivation Theory can be applied, what are the actual cultivating effects of mass
media and how does heavy consumption alter the user’s worldview, mental health and
preconceived notions?
The Case
The assertion that will be presented is that there is significant correlation between social
media use and an overall cynical worldview similar to Gerbner’s “Mean World Syndrome”.
Additionally, social media, as a medium, is just as conducive if not more so than television when
it comes to fostering an environment for Cultivation Theory to be applied.
Cultivation Analysis was defined as the “study of the relationships between institutional
processes, message systems, and the public assumptions, images and policies that they cultivate”
(Gerbner 1970). By this definition, social media is uniquely primed for analysis because it is a
massive message system that bombards the consumer with images and policies endlessly. When
Gerbner was first applying Cultivation Theory to television, his thought process was that the
symbolic content presented in television mirrored the viewers reality which is what ultimately
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
8
gave it cultivating power. Michael Morgan, who also studied Cultivation Theory, likened the
phenomenon to the pull of a gravitational field. He claimed the closer the content was to the
viewers reality, the stronger the cultivating effects were on the viewer. When these qualifications
are applied to social media, it is evident social media has a greater potential to cultivate. Social
media, in essence, is a massive web of avatars that are created to parallel reality.
To compound the issue, people on social media tend to portray their life as more fun and
successful than it really is. In other words, users create a façade of their life that only shows the
good. This constant flow of false projections cultivates an unrealistic standard for the consumer
which in turn leads them to be discontent and dissatisfied with their own life. This phenomenon
can materialize in the form of unrealistic body standards, wealth standards and overall
achievement. For example, a celebrity may post a shirtless photo of themselves to promote their
image as an attractive person but they would never post anything about how painful it was to
reach such an absurd physique. In a similar way, a consumer might only see their friends’ posts
about their recent achievements but never about their setbacks or failures they encountered.
When all of this is considered, it is easy to understand how social media cultivates the consumer
into disappointment with their own life and ultimately depression.
Analysis
The claim made by this paper is that social media cultivates the consumer, specifically
creating anxiety and depression primarily through comparison to the unrealistic portrayals
presented through the medium. According to Cultivation Theory, the power of cultivation comes
from the similarity between the synthetic content presented and reality. By this standard, social
media would make a powerful tool for cultivating the audience since social media is essentially
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
9
just an altered version of reality. There is significant research to back this claim. In a study that
tested US adults ages 19 to 32, there was as significant increase in the odds of depression/
anxiety symptoms among high volume social media users (Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Dew, M. A.,
Escobar-Viera, C. G., & Primack, B. A. 2018). In this study, participants were labeled as
“Wired,” “Connected,” “Diffuse Dabblers,” “Concentrated Dabblers,” and “Unplugged” similar
to Gerbner’s characterization of television consumers as “heavy” and “light” viewers. Members
of the “Wired and “Connected” groups, which reported the highest social media usage rates,
were 3 times as likely to experience depression and anxiety symptoms.
In another study of 1,000 teens, 41 percent reported feelings of anxiety, sadness and
depression stemming from social media use. The synthetic content that is consumed through
social media is what ultimately creates the mental health issues in the consumer.
When people’s self-worth is formed relative to the well-manicured photos posted on
various social media platforms, it wreaks havoc on their self-esteem. This phenomenon is, at its
core, a perfect application for Cultivation Theory. If you consider the situation, it is evident the
users worldview is being cultivated in a way that makes their own life seem meaningless and
inadequate.
In conclusion, Cultivation Theory can be applied seamlessly to social media because of
its similarity to content. In fact, it may be more fitting for social media than even television
because of social media’s custom nature that creates content specifically organized to mirror the
user’s personal lifestyle. This perfectly refined mirror image of the user’s life creates a unique
stream of media that can have devastating effects on the consumers psyche.
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
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References
Williams, D. (2006). Virtual Cultivation: Online Worlds, Offline Perceptions. Journal of
Communication. 56(1), p. 69-87.
Jerel P. Calzo M.A. & L. Monique Ward (2009). “Media Exposure and Viewers’ Attitudes
Toward Homosexuality: Evidence for Mainstreaming or Resonance?”. Journal of
Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 53 (2): 280–299.
Netzley, S (2010). “Visibility That Demystifies Gays, Gender, and Sex on Television”. Journal
of Homosexuality. 57 (8): 968–986.
Gerbner, George & Gross, L. (1976). Living With Television: The Violence Profile. The Journal
of communication. 26. 173-99.
Romer, D.; Jamieson, K. H.; Aday, S. (2003). “Television news and the cultivation of fear of
crime”. Journal of Communication. 53 (1): 88–104.
Bond, Bradley J.; Drogos, Kristin L. (2 January 2014). “Sex on the Shore: Wishful Identification
and Parasocial Relationships as Mediators in the Relationship Between Jersey Shore
Exposure and Emerging Adults’ Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors”. Media
Psychology. 17 (1): 102–126.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Broadcasting_%26_Electronic_Media
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Broadcasting_%26_Electronic_Media
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Hall_Jamieson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Communication
Using Cultivation Theory to Inspect the Effects of Social Media on Mental Health
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Mutz, Diana C.; Nir, Lilach (31 March 2010). “Not Necessarily the News: Does Fictional
Television Influence Real-World Policy Preferences?”. Mass Communication and
Society. 13 (2): 196–217.
Beullens, K.; Roe, K.; Van; den Bulck, J. (2012). “Music Video Viewing as a Marker of Driving
After the Consumption of Alcohol”. Substance Use & Misuse. 47 (2): 155–165.
Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Dew, M. A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., & Primack, B. A. (2018). Social
Media Use and Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: A Cluster Analysis. American
journal of health behavior.
Running Head: AGENDA SETTING IN THE DIGITAL ERA 2
Using Agenda Setting Theory in the Era of Digital Media
Savannah State University
Introduction
The purpose of this theory application paper is to use agenda setting theory to explain how over time social media shifted the publics thoughts through their own agenda. Agenda setting theory is that over time, the media shapes the public agenda. The medias agenda are issues emphasized by the news media at a given time. Though over-time as the media progresses, so does our advancements in communication. First it was newspapers, then it was magazines, and in todays time it is social media. With so many different avenues as to who can now set the agenda, it poses the question of who does set the agenda in the digital era, and how does it separate the theory’s traditional and fundamental separation between the media’s agenda and the public’s agenda. Ermias Joseph Asghedom, known professionally as Nipsey Hussle was gunned down in his neighborhood of South-Central Los Angeles on March 31, 2019. Known as a prominent figure in his community for giving back and providing better opportunities for the less fortunate, he was also an influential rapper and songwriter. News of his death broke on social media site such as Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook just minutes after he was shot in the parking lot where his stores were located. By the time he had got to the hospital rumors on social media was that it was a gang related hit, another that the government was involved. This paper will show how agenda setting works in the digital era, and who can set the agenda in the digital era.
Background
Theories behind Nipsey Hussle’s death began to take over social media merely minutes after his death was confirmed. Many seemed to think it was the federal government, due to Hussle’s involvement in the making of a documentary on Dr. Sebi – A self-proclaimed healer of AIDs and all other diseases. Another theory was that his death was gang related, due to Hussle’s well known affiliation with the Rollin 60’s Crips. Because of these theories floating around social media, the publics opinion was able to be persuaded in believing either theory, before actually knowing the true reason of Hussle’s death. Agenda setting theory breaks down into three levels to explain in better detail the process of how the media persuades the public agenda.
One of the issues with agenda setting theory is that now in the digital era, where anyone can set the agenda, it threatens to destroy the fundamentals of the theory and the basis it was set upon between the media’s agenda, and the public’s agenda. Social media is acting in place of newspapers and news outlets in terms of where the public would usually discover important information.
This is significant to todays time because in the digital era anything can easily be manipulated and fabricated by anyone, whereas information from the news media is more honest and accurate in the hand of the gatekeepers -editors and other arbiters of culture who determine what will appear in the mass media. And it is event such as the death of Hussle that could further question who sets the agenda in the digital era. Though it is not only a question of who will set the agenda that is troubled as a result of the digital era, but also the other processes which come from agenda setting, one of which being agenda-melding.
Agenda-melding is the social processes by which we meld agendas from various sources to create pictures of the world that fit our experiences and preferences. It is a social process because agenda melding creates communities. People like to associate themselves with things they can relate to, from the people they hang with, to the media they choose. But if the medias agenda is no longer effective then there is no longer a reason to meld agendas, thus minimizing the number of communities being created as a result.
Using agenda setting theory to explain how over time social media shifted the publics thoughts through their own agenda involving the murder of Hussle. With so many different avenues as to who can now set the agenda, it poses the question of who does set the agenda in the digital era, and how does it separate the theory’s traditional and fundamental ideas as well as how agenda setting theory is used when talking about the late Nipsey Hussle. This paper will show how agenda setting can be applied to the digital era and who sets the agenda in the digital era.
Theoretical Framework
This study draws on Max McCombs and Donald Shaw’s (1972) agenda setting theory to increase our knowledge on how agenda setting works in the digital era, and who sets the agenda based on recent examples in social media. McCombs and Shaw’s agenda setting, is based on their research in the capacity of mass media in influencing the voter’s opinion in the 1968 presidential election. From their research McCombs and Shaw discovered that mass media did affect a certain percentage of the public, in which they frequently referred to information as provided by the media. Along with others, such as the Gallup organization, McCombs and Shaw have been able to amass decades of evidence that documents the power of the press and found that agenda-setting occurs in three ways.
The first level of agenda-setting theory is that the media tell us what to think, and over time the public agenda became the media agenda. The media agenda being the list of issues highlighted by the news media at a given time. The second level is that the media tells us which attributes of issues are most important, by putting emphasis on certain issues over others. The second level of agenda-setting is also known as framing, which is defined by James Tankard -a leading writer on mass communication theory as “the central organizing idea for new content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, and elaboration.” (Griffin, 2018, p. 370). The third level of agenda-setting says that the media tells us which topics go together and examines how the mass media’s issue map impacts the public’s issue map.
Literature Review
Building on the work of McCombs and Shaw (1972) theory of agenda-setting in mass communication several contemporary researchers have established a relationship between agenda-setting and the affects it has on social media and the digital era. In a study, done by David Weaver, of the 2008 U.S. presidential election relying on interviews with voters in Chapel Hill, NC, the site of the original 1968 agenda-setting study. (2010). Found that those voters with a higher level of need for orientation did tend to use traditional news media, particularly newspapers and news web sites, to increase their knowledge of issues. In another study by Gabriel Weimann, Hans-Bernd Brosius in Political Communication in the Online World
Theoretical Approaches and Research Designs. They discuss the rising popularity of the Internet and online social media, noting that people have become more independent from traditional news media. They also study how many traditional media companies are beginning to adapt to some of the new online platforms and social media.
Research Questions
The following three research questions guided the study:
1. In the case of Nipsey Hussle’s death, how do the three levels of agenda-setting theory apply?
2. How does Nipsey Hussle’s death further question who sets the agenda in the digital age?
3. How do people in the digital era describe their perceptions and experiences of the media? Both new media and social media.
The Case
When Nipsey Hussle’s death began to spread around social media few news channels had gotten hold of the story. In the case of Hussle’s death, and the deaths of many other prominent people in society the issue is that social media is acting in place of newspapers and news outlets in terms of where the public would usually discover important information, and what may have taken an few days to reach the nation, now reaches them in merely seconds due to the internet. Using agenda setting theory to explain how over time social media shifted the publics thoughts through their own agenda involving the murder of Hussle. With so many different avenues as to who can now set the agenda, it poses the question of who does set the agenda in the digital era, and how does it separate the theory’s traditional and fundamental ideas as well as how agenda setting theory is used when talking about the late Nipsey Hussle. This paper will show how agenda setting can be applied to the digital era and who sets the agenda in the digital era.
Reference
Gabriel Weimann, H. B. (2015, December 07). A New Agenda for Agenda-Setting Research in the Digital Era | Political Communication in the Online World | Taylor & Francis Group. Retrieved from https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781317480020/chapters/10.4324/9781315707495-3
Maxwell E. McCombs, Donald L. Shaw & David H. Weaver (2014) New Directions in Agenda-Setting Theory and Research, Mass Communication and Society, 17:6, 781-802, DOI:
10.1080/15205436.2014.964871
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THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 1
Intro to Communications Theory –Spring 2020 – Dr. S. Bhuiyan
Paper is due on April 24
Theory Application Paper
Description: The theory application paper is a 9-10-page paper that gives the student the
opportunity to apply one of the theories covered in this course to a real-life situation or media
program
.
Outline
Cover page
Introduction (1/2 page)
Purpose:
Summary of theory:
Summary of the case:
Background Research (1 page)
It is “Ok” to continue from the previous page. No need to break page)
Theoretical Framework (3 pages)
Background (1 page) – Background on the theory (theorist, main premises etc.)
Literature Review (2 pages) – How the theory has been used to explain “things in the
past” (journal articles with studies that used the theory in the past).
Research Question(s) (1/2 page)
RQ1:
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The Case (Summary of the case to be analyzed) (1 page)
Analysis (2 pages)
Claim
Theory premise
Application
Summary
References (10 references)
✓
The final paper is due Monday April 1, 2019
✓ Turn in the previous section (in the same paper, not as a separate file) even if it is not revised. The idea is for us to see the entire paper
coming to life gradually.
✓ Earlier submissions are encouraged. The droboxes are open, so help yourself.
THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 2
General Guidelines
□ Font: Times News Roman
□ Font Size: 12
□ Margins: 1” top, bottom, left, right
□ Style: APA style
□ Platform> Microsoft Office, preferably. You can download for free here. Use your SSU
username and password: https://www.office.com/
□ Write in the third person (no I, You, We).
□ Add page numbers and running head on top left
□ First-level header: centered
Introduction (first-level header)
□ Second-level header: flushed to left
Literature Review (first-level header)
The Agenda-Setting Theory (second-level header)
Review of How the Theory Has Been Used (second-level header)
THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 3
{Cover Page}
Running Head: AGENDA SETTING IN CNN’S COVERAGE OF THE TEXAS’ SHOOTING
The running head
will show next to the
page number.
Using Agenda Setting in the News Coverage of the Texas’ Shooting
Adriana Bastos
Savannah State University
THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 4
me explain
et to
L the paper
Introduction (1/2 page)
you
Remember to write it as a paper (use paragraphs, not bullet points.
The bullet points below are just used to outline the paper)
The purpose of this theory application paper is to use X theory ______ to ______ issue _______.
Summarize the theory (remember to cite using APA style)
Summarize the problem (remember, the problem will be discussed in detail)
Background
1. What is the theory trying to explain? Remember, theory helps us understand how things
work.
2. What is the problem? Why is it relevant to study this issue? Explain in detail.
o Remember to support your argument with statistics, facts, and premises.
Use our friend APA style, as usual.
o In this section, remember to address the problem in the general sense. For
example, if you are using the agenda-setting to discuss bias on Fox News, in this
section, talk about “bias” in the United States; bias in the world; bias in the media.
Always move from the general to the specific. Don’t focus on “Fox News” just
yet. We will do that later in the analysis.
o Use the diagram below to understand how your ideas should flow from beginning
to end.
Introduction Background Literature Research Case Study Analysis Conclusion
• Purpose • Problem in Review Question • Summary of • Your • Brief summary
• Summary of detail • Theory • Main the case argument, your from beggining
theory and background question(your (movie, music, contribution, to end and
problem • How theory curiosity, your whatever you your final thoughts
has been used study) are analyzing) explanation.
Figure 1. A Brief Overview of the Paper from Beginning to End
Theoretical Framework
Theoretical Background (theorist, theory background, theoretical premises, and definitions).
In other words, this section is all about the theory.
Literature Review (how other researchers used this theory to explain different dynamics
in communication. You can organize this section categorical or chronologically).
Categorically: group similar studies together. For example, of the eight studies, four
talked about agenda setting in newspapers and four about agenda setting in online
news. So, you talk about them categorically – one section for agenda setting and
newspapers and another section for agenda setting and online news.
THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 5
Chronologically: talk about the studies keeping the time in perspective. Eight of the
studies were published in the 90s and the others in 2000. So, keep time into perspective.
1. Number of articles: 8 journal articles (studies)
2. Write it as a paper, not a paragraph for each theory.
3. Relate one study to the other. Use good transitions. Tell a story of how this
study has been around explaining how things work.
.
Research Questions
RQ1: Examples of questions. Your theory should give you “clues” of what questions to ask.
1. How differently do CNN and Fox news frame Donald Trump?
2. How is racism portrayed in (X) movie?
The Case
Summarize the case to be analyzed (movie, music video, speech etc.)
Analysis
I learned this “trick” with one of the best theorists I know who taught me at Howard University
and I never forgot it. The secret of a strong theoretical argument is the combination of claim
(your point in the third person “there is racism in the world”, followed by a theoretical premise
(according go Blummer (1969), language is the base of human interaction… Followed by an
example (use the movie, song etc. you are analyzing) and a conclusion (combination of your
claim, theory, example and a final thought).
For each analysis you make, be sure to have a claim (your point, your thesis), supported
by the theory and examples to support your point. For each point you want to make, be
sure to have all these points.
Claim
Theory premise
Application
Conclusion
Do it again… Plan to make 3-6 major points. The page limit is 2, so budget it accordingly.
Conclusion (Final thoughts)
References (at least 10) – 8 must be journal articles
THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 6
Theory Application “helpful” Sheet
Theory Premise Issues/Dynamics Unit of Analysis (Examples)
Humans act toward people, things, and Racism, stereotypes, Analysis of movies with cross-
events on the basis of the meanings they peer pressure, cultural cultural dynamics
assign to them. Once people define a meanings, cultural signs interpretations (Bend it Like
Symbolic situation as real, it has very real Beckham, Nell, 7 seconds final
Interactionism consequences. Without language there deliberations, The Help, Crash
would be no thought, no sense of self, and among many others).
no socializing presence of society within
the individual. Cartoons, TV shows etc.
Rhetoric is the art of discovering all Political speeches Speech in movies (7 Seconds
available means of persuasion. A speaker etc.; The Great Debater etc.)
supports that probability of a message by Speeches in movies
Aristotle’s logical, ethical, and emotional proofs. Political Speeches
Rhetoric Accurate audience analysis results in the
effective invention; arrangement; style; Speech in TV Shows etc.
delivery; and, presumably, memory.
The significant visual sign systems of a Messages and subliminal Analyses of logos, images,
culture affirm the status quo by messages that perpetuate symbols, posters, advertising,
suggesting that the world as it is today is dominant social values postcards, music videos.
natural, inevitable, and eternal. (skinny women in
Mythmakers do this by co-opting neutral beauty-product
Semiotics denotative signs to become signifiers commercials etc.)
without historical grounding in second-
order connotative semiotic systems. Messages and subliminal Beyonce’s “Formation” Video
messages of resistance or any other.
(when messages are used
to challenge the status Get Out and many others
quo
The mass media function to maintain the Anti-minority content in Analysis of racism
ideology of those who already have the media (news, music,
power. Corporately controlled media movies, TV shows, soap Analysis of lack of diverse
Cultural Studies provide the dominant discourse of the operas etc.) content (gender, race, age,
day that frames interpretation of events. place of origin, religion etc.)
Critics should seek not only to interpret
culture, but to change it. Media audiences
do have the capacity to resist hegemony.
Television hasbecome society’s The danger of TV Analysis of violence in
storyteller. Heavy television viewers see serving as societal movies, music, children’s
a vast quantity of dramatic violence, “footprint” shows.
which cultivates an exaggerated belief in
Cultivation a mean and scary world. Mainstreaming The use of violence in Analysis of violence-focused
Theory and resonance are two of the processes TV programming content in a particular network
that create a homogeneous and fearful (analysis of all 25 shows in the
populace. current season etc.)
THE RUNNING HEAD WORDS GO HERE 7
Theory Premise Issues/Dynamics Unit of Analysis
The media tell us (1) what to think about Coverage (or lack of) of Coverage of a particular issue
and (2) how to think about it. The first issues in the news on a network
process (agenda setting) transfers the
Agenda-Setting salience of items on their news agenda to Comparison of coverage
Theory our agenda. The second process
(framing) transfers the salience of Analysis of news, newspapers,
selected attributes to prominence among magazines etc.
the pictures in our heads.
Framing (‘how’ an issue is
covered (angle)
Standpoint
Theory
Man-made language aids in defining, Gender discrimination and
depreciating, and excluding women. Gender discrimination exclusion in music, movies,
Muted Group Because men have primarily shaped TV shows, children’s films
Theory language, women frequently struggle to etc.
make their voices heard in the public
sphere. As women cease to be muted, Analysis of a movie with
men will no longer maintain their corporate gender
position of dominance in society. discrimination
Our textbook has 34 theories that we could not possibly cover in this summer class (I wish we could
Other have
☺
). If you see another theory in the book that interests you, feel free to use it. Theory must come
from our textbook.
Online Collaborative Learning Activities:
The Perceptions of Culturally Diverse Graduate Students
from participating in online collaborative activities, and challenges they encountered in such
environment.
Review of Related Literature
Individuals from different cultures engage in, as well as expect different communication
practices and behaviors during interactions in learning or work environments. Understanding
intercultural communication involves studying links between culture and communication.
Vygotsky’s (1978) constructivist theory identifies personal and cultural backgrounds of learners
as essential factors that influence ways in which students learn and acquire knowledge. Watson,
Ho, and Raman (1994) defined culture as “the beliefs, value systems, norms, mores, myths, and
structural elements of a given organization, tribe, or society” (p. 46). In this study, we considered
culture as one of the major factors that influence diverse students’ experiences in collaborative
processes, communications, and attitudes or behaviors in collaborative group online learning (Shi,
Frederiksen, & Muis, 2013), and we investigated the culturally diverse students’ perceptions of
online collaborative learning activities
(Werstsch, 1998; Zhu, 2009).
Several studies have explored the relationships between cultural backgrounds of students
and their learning experiences in online collaborative learning environments in the following
categories: (1) cultural differences as related to online group processes (e.g., Anakwe &
Christensen, 1999; Thompson & Ku, 2005); (2) how linguistic and cultural backgrounds of the
collaborative partners affect their actions, behaviors, and engagement in the online collaborative
environment (e.g., Kim & Bonk, 2002; Lim & Liu, 2006; Oetzel, 2001); and (3) the differences in
the motivation of the students to work within an online collaborative learning environment (Wang,
2007).
Halverson & Tirmizi, (2008) stated that cultural differences can benefit or disrupt “intra-
group dynamics” (p. 12). They identified the main benefits as the sharing of culturally diverse
knowledge and the preparation of students for working in culturally heterogeneous settings.
Among the major challenges of cultural differences were the need to coordinate clearly different,
culture-specific perceptions of group processes and approaches to communication. Another study
by Tapanes, Smith, and White (2009) that investigated students’ perceptions of online course
found that students with a collectivist cultural background were less motivated to participate in an
asynchronous learning network than students with an individualist cultural background.
A similar study by Fogg, Carlson-Sabelli, Carlson, and Giddens (2013) showed that
African American students tended to be more like assimilators in online learning environments in
contrast to students of other races. Correa and Jeong (2011) examined the differentiated uses of
online participatory technologies among diverse racial and ethnic groups of college students
(African Americans, Caucasians, and other racial/ethnic students). The results from their study
showed that African Americans students valued the technological tools as instruments to help them
connect with online communities and share their identities to augment their voices, while
Caucasian students did not value the tools in this way. The findings also indicated that African
Americans emphasized the idea of self-expression (the ability to express their inner thought and
culture to other students) in contrast to Caucasian students who aimed more at instrumental reasons
like promoting their work.
Online Learning Journal – Volume 21 Issue 4 – December 2017 8
Online Collaborative Learning Activities:
The Perceptions of Culturally Diverse Graduate Students
Several studies (Gunawardena, 2014; Kim & Bonk, 2002; Lim & Liu, 2006; Uzuner, 2009)
reported that the following forms of communication create problems for racially and culturally
diverse students collaborating online: (1) inability to understand specific cultural references in
online discussions; (2) lack of non-linguistic cues; (3) difficulties expressing disagreement; (4)
communicative constraints resulting in less substantive postings; and (5) mismatched
communication patterns (i.e., use of short, content-driven contributions as opposed to long,
relationship-driven contributions or vice versa).
A study by Popov, Biemans, Brinkman, Kuznetsov, and Mulder (2013) examined facilitation
of computer-supported collaborative learning in mixed -versus-same culture dyads. A total of 130
university students worked in dyads on a topic concerned with intercultural communication. The
researchers used a 2 x 2 factorial design to examine the effects of using collaboration scripts on
students’ online collaborative behavior and the quality of their discussions. Results indicated that
students who worked in culturally mixed dyads showed a higher frequency of seeking input and social
interaction than the students in the other types of dyads. Students from the same culture showed a lower
frequency of planning activity than same-culture dyads working without the script. Overall, the same-
culture dyads displayed a higher frequency of contributing activity and higher quality of online
discussion than the mixed-culture dyads. The study recommended that further collaboration in
culturally mixed groups needs more facilitation.
A study by Du, Zhou, Xu, and Lei (2016) explored the perspectives of African American
female students’ experiences of online collaborative learning. The study was conducted at a
university in the southeastern part of the United States using qualitative semi-structured interviews
with nine African American female students in an online instructional design course. The findings
from the study indicated that the perceptions of African American females towards online
collaborative learning revolved around peer support, group member and identity formation, and
challenges of frustration as they respond to different levels of peer participation and interaction.
Similarly, Ke and Kwak (2013) investigated online learning across ethnicity and age groups using
mixed-method analysis with 28 students in an online course via content analysis to include online
interaction, structural equation modeling, and interviews. Results from qualitative analysis of
students’ transcripts by Ke and Kwak (2013) did not show significant benefit or disadvantage
related to the quality and quantity of online interaction of minority students. However, quantitative
results found that minority students had preference for student-to-instructor interactions. Yücel
and Usluel (2016) investigated the processes of knowledge building, interaction, and participation
of students in an online collaborative learning environment, and the relations among them. The
participants were 145 prospective teachers using multiple data sources (log records and content
analysis of knowledge postings). Results from Yücel and Usluel’s study indicated that there was a
significant relationship between the use of opinion building, expressing forms, and knowledge
creation by the students. The results also showed that courses offered in online collaborative
knowledge building environments contributed to students’ expression, opinion building, quality of
interaction, and participation.
Thus, results from several studies (e.g., Kim & Bonk, 2002; Zhao & McDougall, 2008; Zhu,
2009) have indicated that cultural factors play an important role in how students gain and share
knowledge in online collaborative learning activities. However, they failed to recognize the perceptions
of students from culturally diverse backgrounds related to online collaborative learning activities and
the influence it had on their academic performance (Vatrapu & Suthers, 2010; Weinberger et al., 2007).
Additionally, only very few empirical studies have been conducted
Online Learning Journal – Volume 21 Issue 4 – December 2017 9
Online Collaborative Learning Activities:
The Perceptions of Culturally Diverse Graduate Students
about culturally diverse students’ perceptions on online collaborative learning activities (Shi et al.,
2013). Therefore, this study will fill the gaps of knowledge regarding culturally diverse students’
perceptions of cross-cultural online collaborative learning activities.
Theoretical Framework
This study draws on Vygotsky’s (1978) social constructivism theory, and Watson, Ho, and
Raman’s (1994) theory of culture as the theoretical frameworks to advance our understanding
about the perceptions of minority graduate students on online collaborative learning activities.
Vygotsky’s (1978) social constructivism, which is based on his theories about language, thought,
and their mediation by society, recognizes the importance of personal and cultural backgrounds of
learners as major factors that influence ways in which students acquire knowledge (Vygotsky,
1978; Zhu, 2009). Vygotsky’s (1978) work suggests that knowledge is first constructed in a social
context and is then appropriated by individuals (Eggan & Kauchak, 2004). According to social
constructivists, the process of sharing individual perspectives called collaborative elaboration
results in learners constructing understanding together that would not be possible alone (Meter &
Stevens, 2000). We also adopted Watson, Ho, and Raman’s (1994) definition of culture as “the
beliefs, value systems, norms, mores, myths, and structural elements of a given organization, tribe,
or society” (p. 46).
Building on the work of Vygotsky (1978) and Watson, Ho, and Raman’s (1994) theory of
culture, several contemporary researchers have established a relationship between the cultural
backgrounds of students and their participation, behaviors, and engagement in the online
collaborative environments (e.g., Kim & Bonk, 2002; Lim & Liu, 2006; Oetzel, 2001). Thus, in
assessing the quality of the online interactions, cultural factors that are known to play a role in
what students share, expand upon, and gain from a collaborative learning process should also be
considered (e.g., Kim & Bonk, 2002; Zhao & McDougall, 2008; Zhu, 2009). However, many
social and cultural factors have yet to be taken into account in the study of online collaborative
learning (Vatrapu & Suthers, 2010; Weinberger et al., 2007). Very little research has empirically
examined the quality of online discussions involving students with different cultural backgrounds.
In this study, therefore, we considered culture as one of the major factors that influence diverse
students’ experiences in collaborative processes, communications, attitudes, or behaviors in
collaborative group online learning (Shi, Frederiksen, & Muis, 2013), and we investigated the
perceptions of culturally diverse students regarding online collaborative learning activities
(Werstsch, 1998; Zhu, 2009).
Methods
This study employed qualitative research design using semi-structured interviews, focus
group interviews, and a non-participant observation to understand the perceptions of culturally
diverse graduate students about online collaborative learning activities. It also examined the
challenges the participants encounter in such environment. The following three research questions
guided the study:
(1) How do culturally diverse students describe their perceptions and experiences in
online collaborative learning activities?
(2) How do culturally diverse students describe their learning preferences
toward online collaborative learning activities?
Online Learning Journal – Volume 21 Issue 4 – December 2017 10