: Please answer 3 of the following questions in essay form.
Question 1: Please describe at least four family types mentioned in class. Question 2: Describe the association between women’s education and fertility. Provide reasons for this association. Question 3: Describe the role of culture in explaining gender hierarchy mentioned in class and the textbook. Question 4: Could different levels of prenatal hormones affect the development of female and male brains? What are the consequences of this?
Please pay special attention to: The following lectures: Lecture 1, Gender: Everybody has/does one. Lecture 3, Family and Gender Inequality. Lecture 4, Sexuality in the Arab World. Textbook Chapter 1 Gender: Everybody has/does one
Introduction to Sociology of Gender
Sociology 028
Family and Gender Inequality
Dr. Dina Aly
Week 3
Fall 2021
Friendly Reminder: Please make use of the office hours on Friday 3:00 noon to
6:00pm weekly
https://tmannino4890.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/he-can-do-it11.jpeg
The Family
Source: https://online.csp.edu/blog/family-science/the-evolution-of-american-family-structure/
Defining Family
The family is easily one of the oldest institutions in the world. It
has existed from ancient times to the present, and over the
centuries, it has changed, although very slowly. But what do we
mean by the word family? It is not easy to define, and perhaps
none of us has thought before about defining it. Sure, you have
your mother, father, brothers and sisters, and you call them your
family. Why restrict to only these individuals?
For purposes of this class, I would like to rely on an official
definition as used in US Government documents. The US Census
Bureau defines a family as “…a group of two people or more (one
of whom is the householder) related by birth, marriage, or
adoption and residing together.” This definition is useful for
research and statistical manipulation, but it definitely has
limitations. For example, if the group of two or more people do not
live together, are they a family? Consider the fact that there is a
high degree of mobility (migration) within the US. There is also the
possibility that job demands could cause one or two partners to
live in different states or even different countries. Are they family?
Over the centuries, as laws and norms have changed,
conceptions of family structure or composition have changed as
well. The current or ongoing (controversial) 2020 US Census
provides individuals the opportunity to point out that they are part
of a same-sex couple, either married or unmarried. The category,
same-sex couple appearing in an American Census would have
been unthinkable in 1790 when the first census was undertaken
or 20 to 30 years ago because social norms were heavily set
against the notion of individuals of the same sex having sex
together.
The American family has undergone a major transformation. For
example, two-parent households are declining. Divorce,
remarriage (following first marriage) and cohabitation are
increasing. US families are smaller now than they did, say fifty
years ago, both due to the growth of single-parent households
and the drop in fertility. When one examines the National Survey
of Family Growth (collected by the National Center for Health
Statistics, part of the Department of Health and Human Services)
there has been a gradual drop in children ever born per woman or
parental desire to have more children.
https://stock.adobe.com/images/cartoon-primitive-people-character-set-vector-protoman-neanderthal-cavemanprimeval-family-evolution-illustration/155033414
https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/family-development-stages-set-including-couple-737091790
Selected Family Types
(1) Nuclear family
In popular parlance, this family is also referred to as the conjugal
family or family of procreation. Nuclear families consist of married
partners and their children. In western industrial societies, this
type of family is common, but globally, it is not the most common
type of family. For better or for worse, this western (nuclear)
family idea is spreading due to globalization, penetration of
developing countries by cultural norms of developed countries,
and also via modernization and development.
(2)Single Parent Family
This family type comprises a single person/parent (single in terms
of marital status) raising one or more children on his or her own.
The family may include a single mum with her children, a single
father with his kids, or a single person with their kids. The single
parent family is the biggest change society has seen in terms of
transformation in family structures.
(3)Extended Family
Across the world, the extended family is the most typical or
common type. Extended families are an extension of the nuclear
family by adding grandmothers, grandfathers, uncles, nieces,
cousins, and so on. They span at least three generations:
grandparents, married offspring, and grandchildren.
(4)Childless Family
There need not be children (biological or otherwise) for a family to
exist. There are couples who cannot have children of their own.
There are other couples that freely decide not to have children. A
family scholar (Julie Edwards 2009) refers to the childless family
as the “forgotten family.” Childless families will typically have two
partners living and working together.
(5)Step or Blended Family
After divorce or separation or following the death of a partner or
spouse individuals may decide to remarry. If the remarriage
occurs, the result is blended on the side of each former partner.
The new (blended) family comprises a new husband, wife, or
spouse and their children from previous marriages or
relationships.
(6)Grandparent Family
In our times, many grandparents are taking care of their
grandchildren for a variety of reasons, a lot of which have to do
with the ever changing nature of culture, economic pressure, the
criminal justice system, differentials in mortality, abandonment,
etc. Some grandparents, often on fixed income may go back to
work or find other sources of income to help raise their
grandchildren.
(7)Family by Choice:
This is a relatively new recognized type of family in modern and
industrial countries like the United States. The family by choice is
a result of years in industrial nations when people had a family but
the government or legal system did not officially recognize it. The
group especially hurt by failure of government was the LGBTQ
(Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer) community. It was
this community that popularized family by choice to describe a
family not recognized by the legal system. Family by choice
includes adopted children, live-in partners, and relative of each
member of the household, and close friends.
Transformation in Gender Relations
As the family structure has changed, so have been changes in
gender relations. Changes in gender relations and the quest for
equality have been incremental, but there is evidence that trends
are heading in directions that perhaps few realized in the early
20th century.
https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/12/17/1-the-american-family-today/ Figure 1
Figure 1 presents evidence (small) of changes in family structure
in the US. The data used by the PEW Research Institute is the
2014 American Community Survey and census information of
1960 and 1980.
In 1960, 73% of families comprised two parents in their first
marriage. That number had declined to 61% in 1980, and by
2014, less than 50% of those families were in the US. Especially
notable is the increase in single parent families in the same period
(9%, 1960; 19%, 1980, and 26%, 2014). Data from the National
Survey of Family Growth (NCHS, 2016) show similar figures.
We should be concerned though with a potentially troubling
development in figure 1. This is the percentage of children without
parents. It has not changed a whole lot from the 4% in 1960 to 5%
in 2014. Who are these children, and how do they end up without
parents? Perhaps this should be a topic for one or more of you to
write your papers about? Are there issues of immigration and
detention of parents (family separation) and inability of the
government to trace parents of over 540 children? What did ICE
(DHS, aka US government) do to their parents? There are
legitimate questions to ask in the cause of justice. Why deport
parents seeking asylum and leave their children behind? If you
watched the Presidential Debate last night, family separation
came up.
Figure 2. Decline in Two-Parent Families in US
https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/12/17/1-the-american-family-today/
Figure 2 further adds to the thesis that the two parent family
system has undergone a decline.
Figure 3: Marriage not needed to have Children
https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/12/17/1-the-american-family-today/
Another major transformation in gender relations is that since the
1970s, it has increasingly become evident and perhaps accepted
by many Americans that one does not need to be married in order
to have children. Going back to colonial days, and then coming to
the establishment of the US government in 1789, it was not
socially acceptable (by both women and men) to have children
outside of marriage. That position appears to have changed, and
we see racial/ethnic differences as well. Mothers and fathers,
religious groups, and social conservatives believed that God had
ordained that for children to be properly socialized they must be
born in, and grow within a marital relationship. There were also
not so veiled insinuations that sex outside marriage was a sin
(evil).
Figure 4. Education and Out of Wedlock Births
https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/12/17/1-the-american-family-today/
A further arena of change in gender relations is the association
between education and fertility. Figure 4 shows that the higher
the level of women’s education, the lower the fertility, measured
as number of children. In demography, one reason given for this
is that more women have entered the labor force, and due to
demands of work, fewer children are allowed. Labor force
participation is one explanation, but it could also be just the mere
desire for women to postpone child bearing until they have
accomplished their education and started careers. By the time
they do these, they are much older to have children due to the life
cycle. Fertility is more likely between ages 15 and 44.
In the US, we should note that children are quite expensive, and
safety nets widely available in other industrialized countries are
expensive in the US and are not provided by the government. In
some industrial nations, such as Sweden, Norway and other
Scandinavian countries, free childcare is provided by government
programs. In the US, a woman with a child is on her own to deal
with KinderCare and other fee for service providers.
Labor Force Participation
The 20th century experienced a radical increase in the number of
women participating in labor markets in the United States and
across industrialized countries. In the 20th century through what
we are living now, substantial and sustained increases in the
labor force participation of women in the US remains a
remarkable aspect of economic and social change.
Figure 5. Labor Force Participation Rates of US Women
Source: https://ourworldindata.org/female-labor-force-participation-key-facts October 16,
2017
Figure 5 illustrates female labor force participation rates in the
US, by marital status. As we can see, the marked upward trend
observed for the general female population is mainly driven by the
trend among married women.
Sociology028
Dr. Dina Aly Ezzat
Gender: Everybody has/does one
Lecture 2
Fall 2021
To assess the importance of studying
sociology of gender, consider the
following stories:
At the Cairo Film Festival in November
2018, Rainier Yousef a 45 year old
woman wore what was called a ‘revealing’
dress. She was arrested and charged
with “inciting debauchery.” Rainier was
tried and sentenced to 5 years in prison.
Source: BBC News, 2018
On the 16th of November 2017, an Egyptian
court ordered 21 year old Egyptian pop music
singer Shyma Ahmed to be jailed on
allegations of “inciting debauchery” after a
music video was released in which she
allegedly appeared almost nude in front of
men.
Source: BBC News, 2018
A well-known 34 year old professor, was
enclosed by her husband in their home with all
windows closed for 12 years. She could go to
work, but did nothing else. The husband was
afraid that other men might see and desire his
wife because she was beautiful. This woman
has three children (Ezzat, 2015).
A sixty year old woman with 7 grown children
had been married for about 40 years. During
that period, her husband did not allow her to
go out of the house without him
accompanying her. Her husband would not
allow her to look through the window.
He actually made a very small hole in the
floor of the closed balcony for his wife to be
able to enjoy looking at people on the street,
but prevented other men from looking at his
beautiful wife. The woman is still in this
situation after 40 years of such inhumane
treatment (Ezzat, 2015).
Turning a blind eye to violence against women
could lead to more anti female violence
because there is no accountability.
In many societies, there are fixed gender roles.
Men generally control decision-making, which
limits women’s independence.
A common feature or theme of all these
stories is how their society views women,
especially their bodies, and how women are
treated.
Women tend to be treated with disrespect and
as objects to be used for male pleasure or
service.
Given that men dominate many societies, they
write the laws, and call the shots.
The stories show a prevailing pattern of social control over
women, their bodies, and their behaviors especially in the sexual
realm.
–Somehow, the female body is for men, and men must determine
when it is appropriate to see it.
–They show a high degree of social conservatism and acceptance
of women’s oppression. This societal conservatism itself is what I
believe is a major determinant of support for intimate partner
violence.
The stories also present a good starting
point for beginning an Introduction to a
Sociology of Gender class, as we shall
be looking largely at gender disparities
regarding different social phenomena
and in different institutions, such as
family, marriage, education, the
workplace and across cultures
Sexuality in the Arab World (A)
Introduction to Sociology of Gender
Sociology 028
Dr. Dina Aly
Fall 2021
The Lecture outline
Background: Who are Arabs?
Sexuality in Arab Nations
Premarital Sex: the Double Standard
Courtship
Public Display of Affection (Hugging)
Marriage: Why is it so expensive to get married?
Divorce
The topic of today’s lecture is Sexuality in the Arab World. Before
Talking about sexuality, however, I would like to provide a brief
description of the concept: ARABS. Who are they, and in which
countries do they live in the Middle East region? This provides a
geographical and historical context for further discussion.
Who are Arabs?
Arabs are defined by the US Census Bureau as “individuals or
persons originating from one of the countries of the Middle East or
North Africa.” Within the broader US racial mosaic, Arabs are also
considered by the Census Bureau as White/Caucasian although some
Arabs do not like this designation. Some simply prefer a category
called Middle Easterners.
As evident in every racial/ethnic group, official designations are
not always accurate, and can generate debate and
dis/agreement. The designation of who is an Arab is somewhat
subject to interpretation even by governments in the Arab world.
In Egypt, for example, there are Arabs, but there is a sizable
group of individuals that trace their origin to the Pharaonic period
(or what some call ‘Ancient Egyptians.’ They do not consider
themselves Arab, although they are among the oldest inhabitants
of Egypt.
In the wider Arab racial/ethnic label, Arabs are not homogeneous.
There is a great deal of differences among them, including skin
tone or complexion. Arabs range from the very dark or brown to
the very white or pale. Does the label “White” makes any sense?
Then when we say the Middle East, what do we mean? The area
used to be called Near East, and for years before the First World
War, it was part of the Ottoman Empire based in modern Turkey.
At one point in history, all or most of North Africa was simply
African. The spread of the Ottoman Empire led to conquests and
domination so that by the beginning of the First World War, a lot
of countries in North Africa had come under Ottoman rule, and
eventually Arab rule under the administration of Kings.. Egypt for
e
Figure 1: Arab Countries
https://theodora.com/wfbcurrent/league_of_arab_states_member_states.html
Western Sahara is not considered Arab because there is ongoing
civil war there between West Africans that want independence
and Morocco (Arab) which insists on keeping the country as a
colony.
The Arab countries are traditionally listed as 22. Most are
members of the Arab League, although some in the league have
observer status. The league is defined as “an intergovernmental
organization (IGO), a voluntary association of independent African
and Middle East countries whose peoples are mainly Arabic
speaking” (Arab League 2019).
Video:
Sexuality
In Arab social history, what is general agreed is that sex was once
a source of happiness, creativity and vitality. Today, the word
‘sex’ itself is rarely mentioned in public or private discourse, and it
has become a taboo topic, especially in Arab media, most of
which is controlled or patrolled by governments.
It is plausible that to some extent the situation was once like this
in Western societies, including the United States. Like in Arab
societies, people become uncomfortable if there are any
discussions of sex in public. Yet it is in the open on American TV,
on radio, and especially in adverts (commercials). Everyone is
doing it, but nobody should talk about it, and in some
environments, there could even be sanctions if mentioned.
Premarital Sex
There is a premium on virginity in Arab cultures. At the same time,
there is a double standard in that while virginity is enforced via
social norms and expectations for women, it is not so socially
important for men. A man may have sex before marriage many
times and with different women; no one cares, and though it may
be an open secret in the community, there is no accountability.
On the other hand, if a woman were to have sex, she becomes a
target of gossip by other women, men, and even relatives; her
value as a marriage prospect is diminished, and she is considered
or called ‘bad woman.’ She finds is difficult to make friends among
fellow women, as they may think the now ‘sexed’ woman might
have undue influence on other women and lead them astray.
Even worse, her having premarital sex is considered dishonor for
her potential husband’s family.
In Islamic teaching, although both men and women are expected
to remain chaste before marriage. But in Arab culture the
emphasis is on women remaining celibate. As we may imagine,
the emphasis on women to not have sex before marriage can be
a source of pain and frustration for many single/never married
women. The frustration and anger can be pronounced by knowing
that a lot of unmarried men are engaging in sex.
Courtship
In this US, individuals are pretty much permitted to engage in
courtship (aka dating) prior to engagement and marriage. It is
likely that this has evolved as young people have pushed society
and norms to change over time. In Arab nations, there is no room
for dating. A woman goes from her family of conception to the
family of orientation largely through ‘arranged’ marriages.
Practices may be changing due to modernization and
globalization but the norm is from accepting a man you have
never seen, suddenly presented to you, and he becomes your
husband. Lack of courtship and frowning on premarital sex have
contradictions in that virginity is very highly valued in Arab
societies.
In an analysis of wave 6 of the World Values Survey, I found that
70% of men said it was acceptable (for men) to have sex before
marriage, but less than 30% of women said it was acceptable for
them. At the same time, the majority of men said they wanted to
marry a virgin. How could 70 percent of men feel that premarital
sex was fine, but wish to marry virgins? Where will they come
from?