In this Work Product Assessment, you will use information from the documents provided to demonstrate your ability to engage in personal and professional leadership planning.
Part I: Reflexive Self-Assessments
Read “On Becoming a Critically Reflexive Practitioner.” Pay particular attention to pages 407–412 and pages 418–424. The author argues that critically reflexive practitioners have the ability to “engage their own learning” and surface tacit knowing—thus enabling them to build self-awareness, enhance critical thinking skills, and rethink their conceptualizations of the world.
Consider the differences between critically reflexive means of learning, and traditional objectivist means of learning. Consider the implications of critical reflexive practice and praxis on the education and development of leaders.
With this information in mind, respond to the following prompts and questions:
- Authentic Leadership Self-Assessment
Identify, through critical self-reflection, two strengths and two weaknesses that you have as a leader (or follower), with respect to a focus on the topics of authentic leadership and personal mastery. Be sure to provide some organizational context for each strength and weakness and disguise all names and organizations. (Approximately 300 words)
Explain how and why these leader or follower behaviors are indeed relative strengths and weaknesses, relative to documented leadership best practices and theoretical frameworks about the topics of authentic leadership and personal mastery. (Approximately 400 words)
Note: For Part A, you must draw upon your experiences as a leader and/or a follower and analyze them as they relate to the topics of authentic leadership and personal mastery to achieve a praxis-oriented response (integrating theory with practice). - General Leadership Self-Assessment
Identify, through critical self-reflection, at least two strengths and two weaknesses that you have as a leader (or follower), with respect to any documented best practices or theoretical frameworks about leadership and/or followership that you choose. Be sure to provide some organizational context for each strength and weakness. (Disguise all names and organizations.) (Approximately 300 words)
Explain how and why these leader or follower behaviors are indeed relative strengths and weaknesses, relative to documented best leadership practices and theoretical frameworks about leadership and/or followership that you choose. (Approximately 400 words)
Note: For Part B, you must draw upon your experiences as a leader and/or a follower and analyze them through the lenses of the chosen leadership best practices and theoretical frameworks to achieve a praxis-oriented response (integrating theory with practice).
Part II: Individual Leadership Goal Setting
Self-awareness is an important part of any process of self-improvement. In Part I of this Assessment, you used critical self-reflection to identify specific leadership and/or followership-oriented strengths and weaknesses.
In Part II of this Assessment, you will continue a process of self-reflection and you will identify three leadership-oriented goals that relate to your personal core values and principles, and that also relate to the strengths and weaknesses you articulated in Part I.
Understanding the relationship of core values and principles to goals is important because, unless important leadership goals derive from your values and principles, you are unlikely to buy into them, and others will perceive your goals as inauthentic and not worth committing to help you achieve.
- Setting Leadership Goals
Read “On Setting Leadership Goals.” Consider the relationships between values, principles and both S.M.A.R.T. and B.H.A.G. types of goals. Then, consider your leadership strengths and weaknesses and respond to the following prompts.
Complete the “Dynamic Leadership Personal Values Survey.”
This questionnaire will help you to identify and rank your key values. Be sure to answer all questions honestly, so that you can obtain the most accurate results. After taking the survey and reflecting on your results, determine the three character traits for which you scored highest. Then, rephrase them as values that are relevant to you in your professional life. For instance, if one of your strongest character traits is “critical thinking,” your value statement might be: “I value thinking critically about situations in my life.” (Note: The survey is not to be submitted.)
Using the information completed in step one above, complete the “Leadership Goals Template” as follows:For each of your top three values that you identified in your “Dynamic Leadership Personal Values Survey,” identify three principles that emanate from each value (you will have a total of nine principles). For instance, if your value statement is “I value thinking critically about situations in my life,” your principle might be “It is important to fully understand a situation before making a decision.”
Finally, determine three goals that align with the three most important values, and the single most important principle associated with a particular value, that you have identified. For example, if your principle is, “It is important to fully understand a situation before making a decision,” then your goal might be: “Evaluate career opportunities in my city.”
For one of the three goals, set a very hard-to-reach, stretch, or B.H.A.G. goal.
Note: The leadership strengths and weaknesses you identified in Part I of this Assessment can help you determine, for now, how “feasible” a goal is.
Part III: Individual Leadership Action Plan and Final Reflections
Well-thought-out plans are critical for success, both for yourself and your organization. As psychologist and author Dr. Fitzhugh Dodson said, “Without goals, and plans to reach them, you are like a ship that has set sail with no destination.” (Dodson, n.d.).
In Parts I and II of this Assessment, you identified your leadership strengths and weaknesses and reflected on the important values and principles that have helped you develop leadership-oriented goals.
In this final part of this Assessment, you will take the three leader and/or follower goals that you have set for yourself and outline a general action plan that will help you achieve them.
- Complete all three parts of the “Leadership Goals and Action Plan Worksheet”:
Part A: Values, Principles, and Goals
Part B: Leadership Action Plan
Part C: Reflection on Leadership Action Plan
10.1177/1052562904264440
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER
ON BECOMING A CRITICALLY
REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER
Ann L. Cunliffe
California State University—Hayward
Critically reflexive practice embraces subjective understandings of reality as a
basis for thinking more critically about the impact of our assumptions, values,
and actions on others. Such practice is important to management education,
because it helps us understand how we constitute our realities and identities in
relational ways and how we can develop more collaborative and responsive
ways of managing organizations. This article offers three ways of stimulating
critically reflexive practice: (a) an exercise to help students think about the
socially constructed nature of reality, (b) a map to help situate reflective and
reflexive practice, and (c) an outline and examples of critically reflexive
journaling.
Keywords: reflexivity; social constructionism; journals; ethic
s
SETTING THE SCENE: DEFINITIONS AND REASONS
What is critically reflexive practice and why is it important to manage-
ment education
?
Pollner (1991) defined reflexivity as “an ‘unsettling,’ i.e., an
insecurity regarding the basic assumptions, discourse and practices used in
describing reality” (p. 370). In practical terms, this means examining criti-
cally the assumptions underlying our actions, the impact of those actions, and
from a broader perspective, what passes as good management practice. The
concept of reflexivity has been debated across a variety of disciplines includ-
ing sociology, the natural sciences, and psychology (e.g., Clifford, 1986;
Gergen, 1994; Latour, 1988) and more recently in organization and manage-
ment studies (e.g., Calás & Smircich, 1999; Chia, 1996b; Hardy & Clegg,
407
Author’s Note: Address correspondence to Ann L. Cunliffe, Department of Public Administra-
tion, California State University—Hayward, Hayward, CA 94542; e-mail: acunliff@
csuhayward.edu.
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION, Vol. 28 No. 4, August 2004 407-426
DOI: 10.1177/1052562904264440
© 2004 Organizational Behavior Teaching Society
1997; Weick, 1995). However, it is often difficult to translate the conceptual
and theoretical aspects into practical implications for managing. In this arti-
cle, I suggest that the practice of critical reflexivity is of particular impor-
tance to management education because by thinking more critically about
our own assumptions and actions, we can develop more collaborative,
responsive, and ethical ways of managing organizations.
If we accept that management education is not just about helping manag-
ers become more effective organizational citizens but also about helping
them become critical thinkers and moral practitioners, then critical reflex-
ivity is of particular relevance. Managers and administrators influence oth-
ers—individuals, communities, societies, and the environment (Reynolds,
1999). They find themselves dealing with accelerating rates of change,
uncertainty, and ambiguity and often work in politicized organizations where
they have to deal with a wide variety of ethical issues. Recent scandals (e.g.,
Enron, WorldCom, the FBI’s response to information on terrorist activity)
have raised questions about the nature of ethical action and the pressures
managers face when trying to act in morally responsible ways. Consequently,
it is becoming more important to develop different ways of thinking, organiz-
ing, managing, and relating to people. Critically reflexive practice offers a
way of surfacing these pressures by encouraging us to examine the assump-
tions that decisions are justified solely on the basis of efficiency and profit,
that there is one rational way of managing, that maintaining current manage-
rial practice is paramount, and that as professionals we know what is best for
others. In examining these assumptions, we can uncover their limitations and
possibilities, become less prone to becoming complacent or ritualistic in our
thoughts and actions, and develop a greater awareness of different perspec-
tives and possibilities and of the need to transform old ways of theorizing and
managing. In this article, I explore three ways in which we can help our
students become critically reflexive practitioners.
Critical reflexivity draws upon very different ways of thinking about the
nature of reality as well as a different way of thinking about management
learning. In particular, it means focusing on three issues:
Existential: Who am I and what kind of person do I want to be?
Relational: How do I relate to others and to the world around me?
Praxis: The need for self-conscious and ethical action based on a critical question-
ing of past actions and of future possibilities (Jun, 1994).
It is crucial for educators and students to recognize these issues, because
otherwise critical reflexivity becomes just another technique rather than a
philosophy-driven practice in which we take responsibility for creating our
408 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
social and organizational realities. In the following section, I outline the
assumptions of reality underlying critical reflexivity and their impact on ped-
agogy and learning. In the remainder of the article, I draw on these assump-
tions to offer ways of helping students become critically reflexive
practitioners.
ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE
PRACTICE: IMPLICATIONS FOR LEARNING
The work of Paulo Freire (1972) was instrumental in drawing attention to
the need for critically reflexive practice in education. He suggested that tradi-
tional pedagogies are often emphasized at the expense of critical pedagogies
and that we need to redress the balance. Each draws upon different assump-
tions about the nature of reality and leads to a different way of teaching.
Freire argued that traditional pedagogies encompass the banking approach to
learning and assume that:
• Social reality is objective. There are things out there we act into, for example,
organizational structures, norms, behaviors, and ideologies.
• Learning is a disembodied, structured, cognitive activity. In other words, learn-
ing takes place inside the head as an intellectual activity in which mind and
body, intellect and emotion, thinking and acting are separate.
• We can apply knowledge to practice and use it to change situations, people, and
events. We therefore teach techniques, principles, and models that can be used
to align individual actions with the organizational goals of efficiency and
effectiveness.
Teachers therefore deposit information with students who learn to see the
world in objective ways and separate knowing and being. In practical terms,
this often means teaching management and administration as a system and
set of principles; as relationships involving authority, control, and account-
ability; as a process of making and implementing objective rational deci-
sions; and as a concern with means rather than questioning ends. Critical
thinking, as commonly defined, is also based on this idea that there is a reality
out there that we can analyze in a systematic way, using established concep-
tual knowledge, and to which we can apply universal, rational standards
(Caproni & Arias, 1997; Elder & Paul, 2001). This way of thinking still
requires us to separate ourselves from reality and think about situations
objectively, that is, thinking about reality. In essence, traditional approaches
take the person and subjectivity out of management theory.
Freire (1972) suggested that a critical pedagogy is one that transforms
reality and unites critical thinking and dialogue to develop a more humanistic
approach to learning—one that puts a self-conscious being able to think criti-
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 409
cally about the impact of his or her actions firmly at the center of learning. I
wish to develop the idea of critically reflexive practice by linking Freire’s
ideas with social constructionist conceptions of reality. This is particularly
important because critically reflexive practitioners hold subjective under-
standings of reality and think about the impact of their own actions in creat-
ing reality and knowledge, that is, thinking in realities.
Social constructionism gained prominence with the work of Goffman
(1959), Garfinkel (1967), and Berger and Luckmann (1967). Contemporary
authors have assessed the implications of social constructionism for our
organizational lives (e.g., Cunliffe, 2001; Gergen, 1994; Hatch 1997;
McNamee & Gergen, 1999; Watson 1994; Weick, 1995). Essentially, it is
based on the notion that our social realities and sense of self are created
between us in our everyday interactions and conversations—through our oral
and written language. This reality-constituting process is ongoing and never
fully under our control, because it emerges in the spontaneous, taken-for-
granted, nonverbal/verbal, subjective, un/conscious ways in which we
respond, react, and negotiate meaning with others. Our knowledge of the
world is also constructed through our interaction, and we make sense of what
is happening around us as we interact with our surroundings (Prasad &
Caproni, 1997). Knowledge is not just theory or information; it also incorpo-
rates knowing from within, a tacit practical consciousness of everyday sense
making in which we implicitly know things about our surroundings (people,
places, actions) and act from this (Giddens, as discussed in Pleasants, 1996;
Shotter, 1993). Thus, a self-conscious person is at the center of understand-
ing and learning; as Gouldner (1970) said, “There is no knowledge of the
world that is not a knowledge of our own experience of it and in relationship
to it” (p. 28).
From a social constructionist perspective, learning also becomes an
embodied (whole body), responsive understanding in which we become
more aware of, and skilled in, constituting and maintaining our realities and
identities. In practical terms, we can equate learning with moments in which
we are “struck” (Wittgenstein, 1980, p. 85) and moved to change our ways of
talking and acting. Essentially, being struck involves our spontaneous
response (emotional, physiological, and cognitive) to the events or relation-
ships occurring around us. It may result from a comment, an event, a sense of
unease or anxiety (Vince, 1998), or an aha! moment. This terminology can
be very powerful in helping students recognize and work through learning
opportunities. Both they, and we, use the language intuitively: “I was struck
by the idea that . . . ” and “What struck you about this reading?” Once students
recognize that people are struck by different issues, they may become more
tolerant of different perspectives, of the idea that we are each responsible for
410 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
our own learning, and of the importance of developing their own skills as
critically reflexive practitioners.
To contrast these assumptions with the banking ones outlined previously:
• We construct our social realities and sense of self between us in our everyday
interactions.
• We utilize taken-for-granted ways of sense making that draw on the flow of our
everyday activity—a “knowing-from-within” (Shotter, 1993, p. 18) or tacit
form of knowing (Polanyi, 1966). Learning is an embodied, responsive process
that may arise from being struck.
• Thus, instead of applying theory to practice, critical reflexivity emphasizes
praxis—questioning our own assumptions and taken-for-granted actions,
thinking about where/who we are and where/who we would like to be, challeng-
ing our conceptions of reality, and exploring new possibilities.
From this perspective, teaching focuses on enabling students to think more
critically about themselves, their assumptions, actions, and situations they
encounter; to see multiple interpretations and constructions of reality; and to
see praxis as a relational activity in which we question our actions and work
with others to achieve collaborative and ethical goals (French & Grey, 1996;
Giroux, 1988; Jun, 1994).
In the remainder of the article, I offer ways of teaching critical reflexivity:
first by outlining a map that helps situate and define critically reflexive prac-
tice, second by helping learners grasp the underlying suppositions of
intersubjective realities through a simple class activity, and third by offering
excerpts from student journals to illustrate how writing can help students
think in critically reflexive ways. These three practices offer ways of helping
students recognize the role they play in constituting their everyday organiza-
tional realities for developing critically reflexive practice.
Developing Critically Reflexive Practice
How can we help students understand the socially constructed nature of
experience and the need to think and act in critically reflexive ways? We can
develop critically reflexive practice by encouraging students to think about
how they, with others, construct realities and identities. The suppositions and
approaches to learning outlined above are complex and very different from
the educational experiences of the majority of students. It is therefore impor-
tant to build up to critical reflexivity and to situate it in practical circum-
stances. When doing so, I find it useful to introduce two ideas early in my
courses (undergraduate and graduate Organizational Behavior and Organi-
zational Change courses). I refer to Schön’s (1983) idea of “reflective practi-
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 411
tioners” before moving on to critically reflexive practice. Students also find
Argyris’s (1982, 1991) distinction between single- and double-loop learning
useful and often refer back to his 1991 article throughout the course. They
readily identify single-loop learning as reflective (problem solving, identify-
ing, and correcting errors) and begin to think about double-loop learning
(thinking more critically about behavior; questioning assumptions, values,
and espoused theories; disconfirming, inventing, producing, and evaluating
new theories in action) as the beginning of critical reflexivity.
Throughout the course, I try to be deliberately opportunistic and introduce
critical reflexivity by asking the following questions (or different versions) at
opportune moments:
• What is reality? Do we each see reality in the same way?
• What is knowledge?
• What is theory?
and by highlighting multiple perspectives. Three teaching practices I find
particularly useful in helping students develop their skills as critically
reflexive practitioners are (a) the idea of reflex interaction/reflective analysis/
critically reflexive questioning, (b) a class activity to highlight a different
way of thinking about how we constitute reality, and (c) the use of critically
reflexive journals.
A MAP: REFLEX INTERACTION, REFLECTIVE
ANALYSIS, CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE QUESTIONING
Figure 1 helps students grasp the different ways we make sense of
experience.
Reflex interaction refers to the instantaneous, unselfconscious, reacting-
in-the-moment dialogue and action that characterizes much of our experi-
ence. We respond to other people on the basis of instinct, habit, and/or mem-
ory (reflex), and in doing so, we draw intuitively on our tacit knowing
(Polanyi, 1966) and on who we are. Much of our interaction is reflex—rou-
tine, habitual actions, and immediate responses to those around us. As we
talk we respond to the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of others, often in an
intuitive, subconscious way. Reflex interaction is therefore a primitive
preordering or state of unawareness connected with an image, emotion, and
moment of being struck. Our learning depends on our ability to take this
reflex interaction further and reflect on or in the process.
Typically, when talking about reflective analysis, we are assuming that
there is an object to reflect upon—something we can think about, categorize,
and explain. Reflective analysis (single-loop learning) means creating order
412 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
and making connections, often using theory to help us see our practice in dif-
ferent ways (Bailey, Saparito, Kressel, Christensen, & Hooijberg, 1997).
Schön (1983) best summarized this form of analysis when he talked about
reflection in action as an objective, analytical process in which we make con-
nections and construct an understanding of a situation by testing “intuitive
understandings of experienced phenomena” (p. 241). Reflective analysis can
be both retrospective—making sense of something that happened in the past
and examining reasons why we made a decision or acted in a particular
way—and anticipatory—planning our future actions. It draws on traditional
assumptions of objective reality as a basis for a reasoned, impartial assess-
ment of action or ideologies using universal principles or values (Mezirow,
1998). Much of what we do in the classroom incorporates reflective analysis:
We ask students to use theory and principles to discuss and analyze case stud-
ies, reflect on questions or problems, and observe and analyze role plays.
These reflective conversations can be important in processing learning,
because they help us make sense and develop new understandings of situa-
tions. I offer an example of reflective analysis in a student journal (I discuss
the format and use of journals later):
I feel our group is in the process of socialization among the members. Pascale
(1985) describes socialization as the “process in which individuals become
members of the group, learning the ropes, and being taught how one must com-
municate and interact to get things done.” All individuals within our group are
experimenting with ways to create an effective and efficient team. . . . Follow-
ing Pascale’s steps of socialization, it becomes apparent that the first exam
served as a “humility inducing” experience for the group. . . . Creating a
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 413
REFLEX
INTERACTION
REFLECTIVE
ANALYSIS
CRITICALLY
REFLEXIVE
QUESTIONING
Figure 1: Reflex Interaction, Reflective Analysis, and Critically Reflexive Questioning
multicultural group (Cox, 1991) will provide significant benefits to group
interaction and eventually lead to a shared vision (Senge, 1990). (Journal
Excerpt 1)
The writer is reflecting upon the group as an objective entity. He speaks
seemingly as an outside observer and applies theory to make sense of his
experience.
I use a simple activity to illustrate the difference between reflex interac-
tion and reflective analysis. I ask students to fold their arms, and then I ask
them to fold their arms the opposite way. The former is reflex interaction,
something we do without having to think about how we do it; it is comfort-
able, habitual, and unselfconscious. Most of us have to think about folding
our arms the opposite way—we must reflect on how we position and inter-
weave our arms—and the outcome is not always comfortable.
The difference between reflective analysis and critically reflexive ques-
tioning is more complex. Whereas reflective analysis draws on traditional
assumptions that there is an objective reality that we can analyze using logic
and theory, critically reflexive questioning draws on social constructionist
assumptions to highlight subjective, multiple, constructed realities. This
means exploring how we might contribute to the construction of social and
organizational realities, how we relate with others, and how we construct our
ways of being in the world. Critically reflexive questioning also means
exposing contradictions, doubts, dilemmas, and possibilities (see Hardy &
Palmer, 1999, for further discussion). In doing so, we can expose unspoken
assumptions that influence (unconsciously or otherwise) our actions and
interactions: We can surface silences in conversations—what is not said or
interpretations that may remain hidden or unspoken (Martin, 1990). Criti-
cally reflexive practitioners therefore question the ways in which they act and
develop knowledge about their actions. This means highlighting ideologies
and tacit assumptions—exploring how our own actions, conversational prac-
tices, and ways of making sense create our sense of reality. A critically
reflexive stance can be seen in the student journal excerpt below:
My expectations (espoused theories) and my knowledge proved to be incor-
rect. Today I feel as though I have shared too openly and trusted too much. In
turn, I feel that there is nothing left in disguise and I feel vulnerable—the recip-
rocal relationship [between the student and other course members] is lacking
(Cohen & Bradford, 1989). The more I offer, the more taken for granted my
source of information seems to become (at least in my mind), and therefore the
lesser the value of my perceived influence. When I desire clarification or need
assistance, I am often puzzled by the reaction [of course members] to my
attempts at open discussion. . . . Through all of this, I have still not altered my
414 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
behavior. My desire to share and communicate openly overpowers my feeling
of exclusion (Hall, 1973). Why? (Journal Excerpt 2)
In this example of critically reflexive questioning, the student discusses con-
tradictions, doubts, dilemmas, and (later in the journal) possibilities (Chia,
1996a). Whereas reflective analysis is concerned with a systematic searching
for patterns, logic, and order, critically reflexive questioning opens up our
own practices and assumptions as a basis for working toward more critical,
responsive, and ethical action.
GRASPING THE NATURE OF INTERSUBJECTIVE
REALITIES: A CLASS ACTIVITY1
A short activity I find particularly useful in helping students think about
how we construct our realities is one I first saw demonstrated in a session on
the relationship between improvisation and organization theory at the Acad-
emy of Management in 1999. I ask for four volunteers to stand at the front of
class. The rules are (a) no one can speak; (b) at any given time, one person has
to stand, one sit, one lean (on a chair, desk, or other person), and one fold their
arms; and (c) participants may stay in one position for no longer than 20 sec-
onds. The activity lasts for 2 to 3 minutes. I initially ask the audience for their
observations and then ask participants to comment, summarizing both on a
flip chart. These comments form the basis for drawing out ideas about the
constructed and responsive nature of reality, the tacit aspects of knowledge,
and reflex interaction. This provides a basis for further discussion of the ideas
in Figure 1 and leads in to the journals and how critically reflexive question-
ing means writing from within experience. Table 1 provides a list of
questions and some typical responses.
The instructor can help students make connections between the activity,
their comments, and the socially constructed nature of reality by discussing
the following issues:
• We constitute our realities in spontaneous and taken-for-granted ways. Each
movement is unique and creative, as are our daily conversations and interac-
tions. We experience socially shared moments that we are not able to anticipate
or plan. This means our actions and conversations are never wholly the same.
There may be some repetition, but the unique peculiarities of each interaction
call out different responses from people. This constitutes much of our social
interaction.
• Interactions are responsive relationships (Bakhtin, 1986). We act in response to
others and our surroundings. We react to eye contact, movement, and facial
expressions. Some of this is reflex—spontaneous reactions—and some reflec-
tive. As we begin to pick up patterns in others’ behavior, we can coordinate our
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 415
416
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own responses. We are sensitive to, yet not necessarily fully conscious of,
movement; that is, we gain an implicit understanding of what others are doing,
although we may not be able to articulate it. These ideas can be applied to our
day-to-day interactions.
• There is intertwined complexity in what may seem like a simple activity. We are
not wholly responsible for our own actions, because we act in response to others
and they act in response to us. Shotter (1993) called this a “third realm of activ-
ity”—jointly and intricately structured yet under no one person’s control. How
does this relate to what good managers do? They must be responsive listeners
and responsive speakers and help organizational members make connections
and relations given a chaotic welter of impressions (see Cunliffe, 2001, for
further explanation).
• The activity draws on a practical, tacit understanding—one initially difficult to
articulate but that has a powerful impact on our actions, for example, picking up
and responding to nonverbal clues.
• In relation to Figure 1, the activity incorporates reflex interactions on the part of
participants, and we (particularly the audience) can reflectively analyze those
actions as observers. However, from our discussion, we can see the activity is
subject to multiple and sometimes differing interpretations (participants, audi-
ence, instructor). Critically reflexive questioning can help surface differing
interpretations, underlying assumptions, and taken-for-granted actions.
The activity therefore offers an example of the practical implications of
social constructionism and how we can draw out practical understandings
from within experience. It also highlights a crucial aspect of critically reflex-
ive practice: the differences between developing theory about something/
someone else—that is, observing and reflecting (an outside-in approach,
Journal Excerpt 1)—and creating theory in practice—surfacing and ques-
tioning tacit knowledge (an inside-out approach, Journal Excerpt 2). Baker
and Kolb (1993) contrasted these two approaches to learning, the traditional
one being the “outside-in approach which leaves human affairs to the
experts” and focuses on the analysis and application of theory to practice, and
the “inside-out perspective, which is rooted in our personal experience” (p.
26). They argued that the latter is more effective in valuing diversity and plu-
rality in organizations, a view I extend to recognizing our ability to shape sit-
uations through our shared, responsive interactions. The second approach is
crucial in developing skills as critically reflexive practitioners, because it
draws attention to how we relate with each other ethically, which Deetz
(1995) saw as resting “not in agreement to principles, but in avoidance of the
suppression of alternative conceptions and possibilities [italics added]” (p.
223).
In other words, by emphasizing the nature of our being in relation to oth-
ers and the creative and responsive manner in which our identities, experi-
ences, and opportunities for action are shaped, then we recognize a moral
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 417
requirement to make available opportunities for others to communicate
(Shotter, 1993, p. 163). This means recognizing our place in creating ethical
discourse, respecting the rights of those around us to speak, and understand-
ing how our use of words orients responses and ways of relating—a “know-
ing how, knowing how to live, knowing how to listen” (Lyotard, 1984, p. 18).
A critically reflexive practitioner not only questions her basic assumptions
but also whether she may be silencing the voices of others, and she is more
aware of how she constitutes and maintains realities and identities through
responsive interaction.
BECOMING A CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE
PRACTITIONER: USING JOURNALS
Journals can be powerful in helping students develop their skills as criti-
cally reflexive practitioners, because they are a means by which students
engage in their own learning (Bickford & Van Vleck, 1997) and surface tacit
knowing. In explaining the purpose and nature of the journals, I often use the
previous activity to highlight the difference between writing in reflective and
critically reflexive ways. I use one of two approaches: Students complete
three journals over the semester, moving from a reflective analysis of a situa-
tion they encountered to a critically reflexive questioning of their own learn-
ing (about 6 to 8 pages each), or they complete one journal (8 to 12 pages) to
be handed in at the end of the semester (see appendix). The idea of using jour-
nals in the learning process is not new. Journals can be used to improve writ-
ing skills, improve analytic and creative thinking, and build self-awareness.
Locke and Brazelton (1997) suggested that writing is itself a learning pro-
cess, because it offers a way of surfacing, articulating, and rethinking our
conceptualizations of the world. I include excerpts from graduate student
journals to show the form critically reflexive journals take. From a critically
reflexive perspective, journal writing is not just thinking about thinking but
thinking about self from a subjective perspective. It requires us to be attentive
to our assumptions, our ways of being and acting, and our ways of relating.
As one student wrote:
So who am I, who am I becoming? I have been puzzled, frustrated, curious, and
anxious throughout this semester. . . . I have experienced on a personal level
both the “unfreeze” and “movement” stages (Lewin, 1951) yet seem to teeter-
totter between the two. I have been very open to self-analysis and find learning
about others and myself in a critical manner very intriguing. (Journal Excerpt 3)
This and the following excerpts illustrate a crucial aspect of the inside-out
form of writing—“finding one’s voice” (Boys, 1999, p. 131) and beginning
418 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
with lived experience and writing about me, my feelings and frustrations, my
assumptions and actions, that is, talking from within. We can begin the pro-
cess by engaging in double-loop learning—being open and identifying
assumptions and then moving to a critically reflexive questioning of those
assumptions and actions and recognizing uncertainty and contradictions. In
doing so, we may not only find our own voice but the voice of others and
voices we may silence by our words and actions.
From a teaching perspective, this form of journaling means listening to
those voices, needs, hopes, and concerns, often at an intellectual and visceral
level, as students explore their experiences. It also means being critically
reflexive about our own teaching practices and the voices we might silence,
as Reynolds (1999) suggested when he called for coherence between teach-
ing others how to take a critical stance and taking a critical stance ourselves.
The journal excerpt below caused me to do some critically reflexive
questioning of my own:
The process of questioning ones assumptions and values is disconcerting and
tortuous. It is uncomfortable to truly look inwards and then reflect on all the
assumptions and values that one has built over almost a lifetime. I have always
assumed that my values and goals were just right for me and proceeded almost
with single-minded purpose to achieve them. There was no reason for me to
question them. Yet, I have been forced to be conscious [italics added] of this
process over the past weeks especially as I become increasingly aware of the
applicability of the course material to myself. (Journal Excerpt 4)
Although this student talked about the relative and nonabsolute nature of
knowledge and voice, the language he used struck me: Have I “forced” oth-
ers? Have I acted inconsistently by claiming students must consider multiple
perspectives? I need to look at my own teaching practices to ensure I am
enacting the values I espouse.
I discuss at least one draft of the journal with each student. This is impor-
tant in helping each person grasp how to write from an inside-out, critically
reflexive stance. Typically, many students begin from an outside-in stance
because this is the term-paper approach they are familiar with, and most have
not experienced this way of writing and questioning before. In our conversa-
tions, I highlight reflexive comments they may have written, ask them to
think about their assumptions, surface any contradictions in language use
that might affect their actions (e.g., “we need to work as a team, so what I
want to do is . . . ”), and suggest what to avoid. I also emphasize the impor-
tance of asking questions and raising issues and state that I am not looking for
answers but possibilities.
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 419
Journal Excerpts 5 and 6 illustrate the process of critical reflexivity—
writing as an involved insider, from a prospective stance, questioning assump-
tions and taken-for-granted ways of acting and thinking. Theory and readings
are used in reference to experience, not as tools to analyze external events.
Students find these excerpts helpful to their understanding of reflexive
writing:
I willingly subscribed to the notion that management (and sometimes, life
itself) is a “scientific, technically-rational, value-free” system of theories and
practices and believed that “goal achievement carries with it no implicit moral
commitments and consequences” (MacIntyre, 1981). I considered with inter-
est those who swore that “conscience is but a word that cowards use, devised at
first to keep the strong in awe” (Shakespeare’s Richard III). I believed in totally
being motivated to achieve ones goals. . . . This is perhaps the kind of mindset
Peter Drucker (1999) had in mind when he advised all of us to discover whether
our intellectual arrogance was causing disabling ignorance so that we may at
least overcome it.
Having started with such a frame of mind, the tendency to reinforce long-
held objectives and values to reinvent and perpetuate the old system was
always present. Therefore, fuelled by what I can now see was an inherent fear
of change and an instinctive desire to protect the system of values I’ve sub-
scribed to over a lengthy period, I initially looked for loopholes and weak-
nesses in the theories and practices to disapprove them to myself. The fact that
there existed a relationship that could best be described as murky between
some of the theories we discussed and real-world management practices lent
credibility to this process. My first impulse therefore, for quite some time, was
to play the devil’s advocate as a part of me instinctively resisted the changes
that I was undergoing. Though I based my initial reluctance to change my old
assumptions and ways by trying to convince myself that a mere exchange of
schemas (a new set of values for the ones I was contemplating to modify)
would not be successful, I became aware that these were defensive mecha-
nisms (Argyris, 1991) aimed at clouding the issue. Looking back, the extent to
which these single-loop schemas formed a part of me is startling. I was starting
with the premise that my goals were the preferred ones for all “right-thinking”
individuals. (Journal Excerpt 5)
Basic human interaction is built on how we interact, or relate to each other. I am
more likely to respond to those individuals who respond to me and will, in most
cases, emulate their attitude towards me. The old adage (again from my grand-
mother), “Treat others the way you would like to be treated,” sounded good, but
I rarely practiced it. For me, the psychological contract (Rousseau, 1995;
Sherwood & Glidewell, 1972) of reciprocity has always been somewhat etched
in stone, only now after a particularly difficult year in terms of relationships at
work do I stop and consider why. . . . As this year has progressed I have learned
that it is the efforts of many individuals (with different views) within the
department that are needed for organizational effectiveness, not just myself
directing individual efforts. I have also come to accept that we all have different
420 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
ways of achieving results and that each way has merit. It took a critical-
reflexive analysis of myself to make me realize that I needed to step back and
let other people contribute to the solution(s). Now, putting this realization into
practice has been a different story! My need to direct the situation may be
appropriate at times—what has been difficult for me is taking a different, more
collaborative course of action when appropriate. (Journal Excerpt 6)
Both journals illustrate critical reflexivity and the concept of praxis—ques-
tioning our reflex actions, creating our own theories from experience, and
using these as a basis for changing our own realities. Reflexive journals,
therefore, offer a means of exploring new possibilities for being and acting.
ISSUES RELATING TO THE JOURNALS
1. Comfort Zone
Some students feel uncomfortable writing in this way. They see it as too
personal or too ambiguous and unstructured. I try to accommodate these feel-
ings by offering a second approach based on Drucker’s (1999) article, “Man-
aging Oneself” (see appendix). These students usually find the ideas in this
article helpful in providing a framework for structuring their writing and see
it as a less touchy-feely approach. In offering this option, I hope I am being
responsive to individual differences while still encouraging students to ques-
tion and reflect. I use these two approaches in both graduate and undergradu-
ate courses. Many undergraduates prefer the Drucker approach, which helps
them develop their skills of reflective analysis. Some do move on to a criti-
cally reflexive approach as they examine their assumptions and begin to think
about ideologies and what constitutes ethical practice or moral responsibility.
Graduate students usually have more work experience and a feeling that
organizational practices could be improved. They often find it easier to
recognize implicit power relations, contradictions, and dilemmas.
2. Is This a Diary?
Students often ask this question. No, it is not a description of daily activi-
ties but, rather, a critical questioning of experiences. Students often want to
begin by describing their life history. I emphasize that this is important and
excerpts can be woven into their journal as supporting information; however,
summarizing life history can result in a book-length journal and be descrip-
tive rather than analytical. A useful start point is for each student to list his or
her struck bys, why they are important, assumptions made, and their impact
on action and reactions (see appendix, Approach 1). Students taking
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 421
Approach 2 find it helpful to work through the ideas in the Drucker article
(“Am I a reader/listener, what are my values?”)
3. Are Critically Reflexive Journals Just Naval Gazing?
The answer is no. I expect students to take their reflexive questioning and
assess possibilities for change. I ask them to end their journals by answering
the question, “So what am I/we going to do now?” As one student wrote:
We must first know and understand ourselves before we are at peace internally.
We must be at peace internally to participate in our world in an effective man-
ner. When we are at peace we naturally exhibit characteristics of integrity, hon-
esty, openness, and trustworthiness. True success comes with truly knowing
oneself and having an internal comfort zone so that we can openly express our-
selves and openly accept the expression of others. . . . True success is powerful;
mere power is not success. It takes me some time to reach my own “true suc-
cess,” my ideal of “what might be.” The process of creating this paper, how-
ever, made me realize it is most definitely attainable. (Journal Excerpt 7)
The writer is drawing out her own practical theories (Shotter, 1993) from her
experience—theories that are likely to be all the more powerful because they
are her own and not imposed externally.
4. And You Grade These . . . ?
One issue that still remains problematic is how to grade this form of writ-
ing. It is difficult to create a grading structure, and I find it impossible to allo-
cate percentages for individual elements. Rather, I ask myself whether I think
this is an A, B, C, and so forth paper. When discussing the brief for the journal
in class, I state that the nature of this form of writing requires a different way
of grading; there are no right or wrong answers. I outline my grading criteria
in the brief (see appendix). Students seem to see these criteria as acceptable
and often say that they found the journal a difficult but enlightening experience.
My written comments in journals consist of questions and possibilities
rather than judgments: “Have you thought about . . . ? Are there other possible
interpretations? Might this be interpreted as a defensive statement? How
might you do this? Is there an implicit power issue here? How might the lan-
guage you use(d) in this instance influence/have influenced the response
of . . . ? Might this behavior be self-sealing? How might this relate to the read-
ing by ___?” In other words, my comments are aimed at helping students ask
further questions, explore possibilities, or make connections (practical or
theoretical).
422 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
FINAL THOUGHTS
This type of journal is not necessarily appropriate for every student or
every faculty member; it depends upon the comfort zone of each. It is a time-
intensive process for a student and a faculty member, but it can be a rewarding
experience for both. One benefit I have discovered is that many students
come to class saying that they cannot change anything because they are not
the boss. By understanding reality as relational and socially constructed and
by developing their ability to question in a critically reflexive way, they real-
ize they can influence situations.
Two journal writers have the last word:
I am confused. I am becoming more confused. And “they” say this is a good
thing? . . . I recognize that change can be good, and I realize that from confusion
there is so much more for me to learn. (Journal Excerpt 8)
Being reflexive is something new for me, a concrete experiencer, and a person
of action, although I do like it. More than the chance to learn, it’s a chance to
catch my breath and absorb. It’s kind of like the difference between yoga and
high-impact aerobics. Mentally, I have come to a place in my life and career
where both have merit, even with the doubts I have. It is this realization that
makes me think I’m headed in the right direction after all. (Journal Excerpt 9)
Appendix
The Critically Reflexive Journal
The reflexive journal is based on assumptions that learning is meaningful when
embodied, when we interweave theory and experience, and when we focus on devel-
oping skills of lifelong learning. It challenges students to think about learning in rela-
tion to the topics covered in the course, explore their learning, and create a personal
development plan. This means:
— Reviewing information learned about yourself during the course and finding
integrative themes and interrelationships.
— Identifying and questioning your assumptions and behavior in a situation (dou-
ble-loop learning) and how they might have influenced the other person’s
response.
— Thinking about the unspoken assumptions that influence (unconsciously or
otherwise) our actions and interactions, silent voices in a conversation, what is
said and not said, and whether there are multiple interpretations. How might/
do these relate to current/potential contributions (Drucker, 1999)?
— Identifying possibilities for self development—new roles, stretching abilities,
risk-taking, and more complex and integrative thinking.
Cunliffe / CRITICALLY REFLEXIVE PRACTITIONER 423
My grading criteria include the following:
Linking personal experience to ideas, theories, and material from class and explor-
ing how these may offer possibilities for practices.
Ability to make connections between actions and responses.
Drawing out insights.
Evidence of critical reflexivity and double-loop learning.
Challenging his or her thinking and ways of acting.
Exploring possibilities.
Asking questions.
Following the basic standards of writing, grammar, and presentation.
Expressing key points clearly and persuasively.
Citing material correctly.
Students choose one of the two approaches below.
Approach #1: A Critically Reflexive Approach—
What Have You Been Struck By?
1. Identify personal insights, issues, moments of critical questioning, and
revelation/connection with ideas, moments, and comments (by you, other course
members, me) that struck you and offered the potential for reflective insight or
significant learning.
2. Describe why these are important to you. What impact did they have and/or
what dilemmas, questions, or possibilities did they raise? Have these resulted
in order or chaos for you?
3. So what are you going to do now? What issues, questions, and dilemmas are
you going to explore further? Why and how? How will this influence who you
are and how you relate to others? What relational nets can you construct/
connect with to continue this process of reflective and critical learning?
Approach #2: Feedback Analysis (Drucker, 1999)
Reread the Drucker article. Think about the following:
1. How do I perform/what are my strengths?
2. What are my values?
3. What can I/do I want to contribute?
4. What areas do I need to work on?
Formulate your learning plan. What can I do in the short-, medium-, and long-term
to manage myself?
• How you will construct learning opportunities, overcome your limitations, and
practice your learning skills?
• What is the social support system you plan to set up to maintain your continuing
learning activities?
424 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
Note
1. I am indebted to John Shotter for the idea behind this activity.
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426 JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION / August 2004
On Setting Leadership Goals
Think about a time when you may have interviewed for a job or perhaps you met someone on a date or joined a new social group or club. These people you met all have one thing in common—they want to get to know you as a person and, as polite and respectful as they may be in doing so, they have a vested interest in assessing your values, principles, and goals. They may ask you directly or indirectly about your experiences and your accomplishments but they are really interested in what makes you a unique individual.
Thinking about these concepts, which can seem confusing and overlapping, provides you with a significant benefit as a leader in an organization. To be genuine, effective, and authentic, you need to be aware of your strengths and weaknesses as a leader and follower—and you need to know how your personality relates to your values and principles.
You will be even more effective as a leader if you are able to articulate your values and principles and discern the relationship among them. Some experts on leadership have proposed that creating a logical map of these personal characteristics will make you a better leader. In Part 2 of your Assessment, you will begin to create that map where you will:
· Examine your values.
· Examine your principles, which originate from your values.
· Identify some of your core leadership-oriented goals, which stem from your principles, in light of your leadership strengths and weaknesses.
Each element is discussed in greater detail below.
Values
What are values? Values are core beliefs that are of fundamental importance to you. For example, you might value complete honesty in business dealings. Values are what you hold
dear; they drive your decisions and define your persona. How do you identify your values?
To help you identify values, consider some probing questions to help you in the process:
· What do you stand for? Why is this important to you?
· What do you truly believe in? What brought about those beliefs?
· What are you unhappy about, and why?
· What brings you happiness, and why?
· What do you want to accomplish with your life, and why? (Kouzes &Posner, 2007)[footnoteRef:1] [1: Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007).The leadership challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
]
These questions will help you to clarify your values and the principles that support them.
The values that you identify will guide whatever decisions you make and actions that you take
(Kouzes &Posner, 2007).
Often, there is a temptation to set goals without reflection on values and principles. You are most likely to be successful at achieving your goals when you base them on your principles. If you are being authentic, those principles are your values put into action.
Principles
Your principles represent your values put into action. Suppose you identified one of your values as a strong work ethic. A principle that manifests the value of a strong work ethic might be meeting deadlines so that you provided the maximum benefit to your organization in a timely manner. If you were asked to complete a marketing report by a given day, you would be sure to make your deadline because your motivation would be derived from your principles, not just the due date of the report.
Another example of a principle that flows from the value of a strong work ethic might be to support your colleagues in their work. When someone at work asks for advice on a project you are not assigned to, you have a choice between assisting that person or not. If you are principle centered, and a genuine and effective leader, you do not have a choice at all. Your principle of supporting your colleagues in their work would motivate you to render whatever assistance you can—even if it means staying late to complete your own work.
Having identified your strengths and weaknesses as a leader or follower, and your values and the principles that flow from them, the next step is to create actionable goals.
Goals
Establishing goals is a method to help you put your values and principles to work, now and in the future, so that you can leverage strengths and overcome weaknesses that may prevent you from achieving outcomes that are important to you. Professional and personal goals you set should be consistent with and further your values and principles. Ideally, they should also be SMART too! The SMART[footnoteRef:2] model for goal setting suggests that your goals should be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Timely. [2: Top Achievement. (n.d.). Creating S.M.A.R.T. goals. Retrieved from http://www.topachievement.com/smart.html
]
A goal that is specific identifies what you want to accomplish, how you will accomplish it, and by when. For example, a specific goal might be to lose 20 pounds by going on a 2600 Kcal/day diet and jogging 3 miles, 4 days each week. A measurable goal is one that establishes concrete criteria for accomplishment. Note that losing 20 pounds is highly measurable. Goals that are attainable are goals that are reachable. You probably will not win the Athens Classic Marathon but you might attain the ability to run a marathon. If the goal is realistic, it is one that is important to you—and one that you truly believe can be accomplished. Finally, the goal needs to be timely. If your goal is to lose 20 pounds, but you set no time limit, then there is no sense of urgency. Setting a time limit will create that sense of urgency. Then, you can fill in the specific actions and time frames necessary to achieve that goal.
Of course, you might want to establish some big “stretch” goals that might follow a BHAG[footnoteRef:3] model (Big, Hairy, Audacious Goals), which purposely push the performance envelope—relative to what might be considered “realistic and attainable.” Leadership often demands that one move beyond what is currently considered “possible,” so at least one of your leadership-oriented goals should be big! [3: Gregory, A. (2009). What is your BHAG? How to create a big hairy audacious goal. Retrieved from http://www.sitepoint.com/how-to-create-a-big-hairy-audacious-goal/]
Dynamic
Leadership
Personal Values Survey
Each of the value categories listed below represents both a value and a personality strength. For example, “wisdom and knowledge” are values that you may embrace and strive for in your life through formal education and through learning what you can from your colleagues and family. At the same time, these are also strengths that you might leverage in your relationships as well as in the workplace.
The items under each value category are similar in that they could be considered both strengths and values, but think of them predominantly as strengths when you complete this survey. Ask yourself: To what extent is each of these a part of my personality?
Address each of the questions below by circling the number that best applies. Use the following scale when choosing the number:
1 = Not part of my personality at all
2 = Slightly a part of my personality
3 = Somewhat a part of my personality
4 = Very much a part of my personality
5 = Completely a part of my personality
Personal Values Survey | |
Value 1—Wisdom and Knowledge: Cognitive strengths in this value category entail the acquisition and use of knowledge. |
|
Creativity
1 2 3 4 5 |
Thinking of new ways to do things is a crucial part of who you are. You are never content with doing something the conventional way if a better way is possible. |
Curiosity 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are curious about everything. You are always asking questions and you find all subjects and topics fascinating. You like exploration and discovery. |
Love of Learning 1 2 3 4 5 |
You love learning new things, whether in a class or on your own. You have always loved school, reading, and museums—anywhere and everywhere there is an opportunity to learn. |
Open-Mindedness 1 2 3 4 5 |
You value judgment, critical thinking, and open-mindedness. Thinking things through and examining them from all sides are important aspects of who you are. You do not jump to conclusions, and you rely only on solid evidence to make your decisions. You are able to change your mind. |
Perspective 1 2 3 4 5 |
Although you may not think of yourself as wise, your friends hold this view of you. They value your perspective on matters and turn to you for advice. You have a way of looking at the world that makes sense to others and to yourself. |
Value 2—Humanity: Interpersonal strengths in this value category involve tending to and befriending others. |
|
Kindness 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are kind and generous to others, and you are never too busy to do a favor. You enjoy doing good deeds for others, even if you do not know them well. |
Capacity to Love and Be Loved 1 2 3 4 5 |
You value close relations with others, in particular those in which sharing and caring are reciprocated. The people to whom you feel most close are the same people who feel most close to you. |
Social Intelligence 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are aware of the motives and feelings of other people. You know what to do to fit in within different social situations, and you know what to do to put others at ease. |
Value 3—Courage: Emotional strengths in this value category involve the exercise of will to accomplish goals in the face of opposition, whether external or internal. |
|
Authenticity 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are an honest person, not only by speaking the truth but by living your life in a genuine and authentic way. You are down to earth and without pretense—you are a “real” person. |
Bravery 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are a courageous person who does not shrink from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain. You speak up for what is right, even if there is opposition. You act on your convictions. |
Persistence 1 2 3 4 5 |
You work hard to finish what you start. No matter the project, you “get it out the door” in a timely fashion. You do not get distracted when you work, and you take satisfaction in completing tasks. |
Zest 1 2 3 4 5 |
Regardless of what you do, you approach it with excitement and energy. You never do anything halfway or halfheartedly. For you, life is an adventure. |
Value 4—Justice: Civic strengths in this value category underlie healthy community life. |
|
Fairness 1 2 3 4 5 |
Treating all people fairly is one of your abiding principles. You do not let your personal feelings bias your decisions about other people. You give everyone a chance. |
Leadership 1 2 3 4 5 |
You excel at the tasks of leadership—encouraging a group to get things done and preserving harmony within the group by making everyone feel included. You do a good job organizing activities and ensuring that they happen. |
Teamwork (Citizenship, Social Responsibility, Loyalty) 1 2 3 4 5 |
You excel as a member of a group. You are a loyal and dedicated teammate; you always do your share; and you work hard for the success of your group. |
Value 5—Temperence: Strengths in this value category protect against excess. |
|
Forgiveness and Mercy 1 2 3 4 5 |
You forgive those who have done you wrong. You always give people a second chance. Your guiding principle is mercy and not revenge. |
Modesty and Humility 1 2 3 4 5 |
You do not seek the spotlight, preferring to let your accomplishments speak for themselves. You do not regard yourself as special, and others recognize and value your modesty. |
Prudence 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are a careful person, and your choices are consistently prudent ones. You do not say or do things that you might later regret. |
Self-Regulation (Self-Control) 1 2 3 4 5 |
You self-consciously regulate what you feel and what you do. You are a disciplined person. You are in control of your appetites and your emotions, not vice versa. |
Value 6—Transcendence: Strengths in this value category forge connections to the larger universe and provide meaning. |
|
Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence 1 2 3 4 5 |
You notice and appreciate beauty, excellence, and/or skilled performance in all domains of life, from nature to art to mathematics to science to everyday experience. |
Gratitude 1 2 3 4 5 |
You are aware of the good things that happen to you, and you never take them for granted. Your friends and family members know that you are a grateful person because you always take the time to express your thanks. |
Hope 1 2 3 4 5 |
You expect the best in the future, and you work to achieve it. You believe that the future is something that you can control. |
Humor (Playfulness) 1 2 3 4 5 |
You like to laugh and tease. Bringing smiles to other people is important to you. You try to see the light side of all situations. |
Religiousness and Spirituality (Faith, Purpose) 1 2 3 4 5 |
You have strong and coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of the universe. You know where you fit into the larger scheme. Your beliefs shape your actions and are a source of comfort to you. |
Average Scores Tabulation
Calculate your average for each value category. Total your scores, and then divide the total by the number of questions in each section. The result is your average score for that value category.
My average scores are:
My Value 1 Average is __________.
My Value 2 Average is __________.
My Value 3 Average is __________.
My Value 4 Average is __________.
My Value 5 Average is __________.
My Value 6 Average is __________.
My three highest averages are:
My highest value is __________.
My second highest value is __________.
My third highest value is __________.
Leadership Goals Template
Leader/Follower Goal #1
To create Leader or Follower Goal #1 (the most important one to you):
1) State the first (most important) core value from your “Dynamic Leadership Personal Values Survey” document.
Type a value here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking. |
· Create a principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking. |
· Create a second principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a third principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
2) Choose one principle to use as the basis of a goal.
Retype your chosen principle here. |
3) Create a leadership-oriented goal based on this principle.
Type your goal here. Explain why you chose this goal and how it relates to your values and competencies. |
Leader/Follower Goal #2
To create Leader or Follower Goal #2 (the second most important one to you):
1) State the second core value from your “Dynamic Leadership Personal Values Survey” document.
Type a value here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a second principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a third principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
2) Choose one principle to use as the basis of a goal.
Retype your chosen principle here.
3) Create a leadership-oriented goal based on this principle.
Type your goal here. Explain why you chose this goal and how it relates to your values and competencies.
Leader/Follower Goal #3
To create Leader or Follower Goal #3 (the third most important one to you):
1) State the third core value from your “Dynamic Leadership Personal Values Survey” document.
Type a value here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a second principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
· Create a third principle based on this value.
Type a principle here. Be sure to write a few explanatory sentences so that your Instructor will understand your orientation and thinking.
2) Choose one principle to use as the basis of a goal.
Retype your chosen principle here.
3) Create a leadership-oriented goal based on this principle.
Type your goal here. Explain why you chose this goal and how it relates to your values and competencies.
Leadership Goals and Action Plan Worksheet
Part A: Values, Principles, and Goals
For this section of the Leadership Action Plan, restate (or revise, after one last reflection) your core values, principles, and goals you created in Part II of this Assessment.
Leadership Goal #1
Statement of your personal value:
What principle emanates from this personal value?
What goal did you derive from this personal value?
Leadership Goal #2
Statement of your personal value:
What principle emanates from this personal value?
What goal did you derive from this personal value?
Leadership Goal #3
Statement of your personal value:
What principle emanates from this personal value?
What goal did you derive from this personal value?
Part B: Leadership Action Plan
For this section of the worksheet, you should create action plans that you will use to achieve each of the three goals listed above.
You can type your goals, objectives, milestones, and steps directly into the white boxes below. If you are confused about the different components of your action plan, please refer to the video for Sub-Competency 3 entitled Action Plan.
This table is intended as a guide but is flexible in order to best meet your needs. If, for example, you need to meet three milestones to accomplish an objective rather than two, feel free to add an extra row to the table. Similarly, you may only need two objectives for a particular goal, rather than three. Add and delete rows, as necessary, until this action plan is customized to your particular goals.
Note: Delete the text in the boxes below and replace it with the information described.
Goal #1: [Type goal here.]
What is the first objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your first objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
What is the second objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your second objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
What is the third objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your third objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Goal #2: [Type goal here.]
What is the first objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your first objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
What is the second objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your second objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
What is the third objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your third objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Goal #3: [Type goal here.]
What is the first objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your first objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your first objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
What is the second objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your second objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your second objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
What is the third objective needed to achieve your goal?
[Type your third objective here.]
Start date
End date
Milestone #1: [Type your first milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #2: [Type your second milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Milestone #3: [Type your third milestone toward accomplishing your third objective here.]
MM/DD/YY
MM/DD/YY
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
· Step toward accomplishing milestone
Part C: Reflection on Leadership Action Plan
In approximately 300–500 words:
Describe how you came to select these values, principles, and goals. Explain how you think they will further your professional development as a leader (or follower).
· Highlight and discuss how your goals can help you leverage your leadership strengths and how your plan can help you overcome or minimize your leadership weaknesses.
· Describe any obstacles you anticipate in achieving your goals and how you will mitigate them.
Note: Please write your responses for Part C in the text box on the next page.
Write your responses below:
End: Approximately 300–500 words