Think of a leader that you currently work with or have worked with who made a strong (positive or negative) impression on you. Which leadership style did he or she use most frequently? Cite specific communication behaviors to back up your analysis (Chapter 8, textbook attachted).
Please post an initial response to the discussion post with a minimum of 200 words
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ii
Table of Contents
About the Authors………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Preface……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
Chapter 1: Introducing Group Communication …………………………………………………….. 4
Why Study Group Communication?………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
What Is Communication? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
Communication in Context …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups …………………………………………………………………. 27
Group Communication and Social Media …………………………………………………………………………………….. 34
Chapter 2: Group Communication Theory…………………………………………………………… 42
What Is a Group? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
Group Life Cycles and Member Roles…………………………………………………………………………………………… 50
Why Communicate in Groups? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60
What Is a Theory? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 66
Group Communication Theory ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 71
Chapter 3: Group Development……………………………………………………………………………. 77
Group Life Cycles………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
The Life Cycle of Member Roles…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
Why People Join Groups ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 93
Social Penetration Theory ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 96
Group Norms ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 104
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 109
Chapter 4: Group Membership …………………………………………………………………………… 111
Introducing Member Roles ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
Norms among Group Members………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 119
Status……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 126
Trust ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 131
Membership in Digital Groups…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 137
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 143
iii
Chapter 5: Intercultural and International Group Communication …………………. 146
Intercultural Communication……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 150
How to Understand Intercultural Communication …………………………………………………………………….. 154
Common Cultural Characteristics ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 159
Divergent Cultural Characteristics ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 165
International Communication and the Global Marketplace ……………………………………………………….. 173
Styles of Management ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 180
The International Assignment…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 183
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 190
Chapter 6: Improving Verbal and Nonverbal Group Interactions…………………….. 192
Principles of Verbal Communication…………………………………………………………………………………………. 197
Language Can Be an Obstacle to Communication……………………………………………………………………….. 204
Improving Verbal Communication ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 210
Principles of Nonverbal Communication …………………………………………………………………………………… 216
Types of Nonverbal Communication …………………………………………………………………………………………. 225
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 235
Chapter 7: Listening in Groups ………………………………………………………………………….. 238
Listening to Understand……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 243
Types of Listening …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 246
Group Members and Listening ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 253
Strategies to Improve Listening in Groups…………………………………………………………………………………. 258
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 264
Chapter 8: Group Leadership……………………………………………………………………………… 267
What is Leadership?………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 269
Leadership Theories …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 273
Becoming a Leader ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 282
Teamwork and Leadership………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 290
Diverse Forms of Leadership …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 295
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 302
Chapter 9: Group Motivation……………………………………………………………………………… 306
Group Motivation and Collaboration …………………………………………………………………………………………. 309
Role of Motivation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 313
Effective Motivation Strategies …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 319
Effective Collaboration Strategies……………………………………………………………………………………………… 324
Feedback and Assessment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 329
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 334
iv
Chapter 10: Managing Conflict…………………………………………………………………………… 338
What Is Conflict? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 340
Leadership and Conflict…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 347
Conflict Is Normal …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 354
Conflict Styles…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 359
Conflict in the Work Environment…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 368
Effective Conflict Management Strategies …………………………………………………………………………………. 376
Crisis Communication Plan ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 384
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 388
Chapter 11: Groups and Problem-Solving …………………………………………………………. 391
Group Problem-Solving …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 392
Group Decision-Making …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 400
Effective Strategies for Group Creativity …………………………………………………………………………………… 412
Facilitating the Task-Oriented Group ………………………………………………………………………………………… 421
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 428
Chapter 12: Groups and Meetings ……………………………………………………………………… 431
Planning a Meeting …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 435
Facilitating a Meeting……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 444
A Brief Introduction to Robert’s Rules of Order …………………………………………………………………………. 453
Post Meeting Communication and Minutes ……………………………………………………………………………….. 461
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 467
Appendix A: Assessment of a Student’s Campus/Community Participation………………………………… 470
Appendix B: Critique of Formal Campus or Community Gathering …………………………………………….. 472
v
About the Authors
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
Phil Venditti has taught communication since 2003 at Clover Park Technical College
in Lakewood, Washington. He serves as president of the Washington Faculty
Association of Community and Technical Colleges and is a two-time grantee and
course developer within the Open Course Library sponsored by the Washington
State Legislature and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. A lover of the arts, he
hosts a classical music program each week on Northwest Public Radio which is
broadcast to an audience in Greater Seattle and throughout a three-state area. Prior
to becoming a faculty member, he performed administrative roles in two- and fouryear colleges around the United States and founded an international education
institute. He earned a doctorate from the Community College Leadership Program
at the University of Texas at Austin and has other degrees from the School for
International Training, the University of Colorado, and the University of Tennessee.
He and his Korean-born wife, whom he met as a Peace Corps volunteer in her
country in 1977, live in University Place, Washington, and have two wonderful
grown daughters.
Scott McLean is an Associate Professor of Communication at Arizona Western
College on a combined campus with the University of Arizona and Northern Arizona
University–Yuma, since 1999. He was the 2007–2011 Shadle Edgecombe Endowed
Faculty Chair. Scott is the author of The Basics of Speech Communication, The Basics of
Interpersonal Communication, and The Basics of Communication Studies, currently
published by Pearson Education. He is also the author of Business Communication for
Success, Business English for Success, and Writing for Success by Unnamed Publisher.
Beyond his classroom experience, Scott regularly serves as a communication
advisor to business and industry. He has served as an evaluator for the United
States National Institutes of Health’s Small Business and Innovative Research (SBIR)
program since 1995. He served as an evaluator of educational programs for the
Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile in 1998. Scott studied at Pontificia Universidad
Católica de Chile and at Washington State University’s Edward R. Murrow School of
Communication. He and his family divide their time between the United States and
Puerto Montt, Chile.
1
Preface
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
Summary
Exploring Group Communication offers a practical introduction to the theory and
practice of group communication, with an emphasis on real world applications
to develop an awareness, understanding, and skills to effectively participate as
a productive group member. Through a clear and concise approach to group
decision-making and dynamics in teams and leadership, students are presented
with the tools needed to create plans, find solutions to problems, produce
goods or deliver services, and evaluate their performance through self and peer
assessments.
Thank you for reading Exploring Group Communication!
We’ve both taught the group communication course for several years and never
found a text that was just right until now: we can each use different versions of this
text in our courses! With a solid introduction to group communication combined
with Unnamed Publisher’s mix and match flexibility, this text can be what you want
it to be.
Groups and teams are an important part of our daily lives. They are important to
our personal and professional success. Learning ways to be a productive group
member, within our families, church, work, or community, make a significant
difference. From schools to hospitals, colleges and universities, businesses and
government, everyone has come to recognize the importance of effective,
collaborative groups and teams. This text is all about providing you with a solid
foundation for success!
Exploring Group Communication starts each chapter with introductory exercises that
involve experiential and self-reflection activities to spark curiosity. Chapter
2
Preface
previews introduce each section followed by discussions and additional activities
that provide opportunities for skill mastery, increased awareness, and a better
understanding of group communication. Key words are clearly indicated, and the
organizational structure of each section is designed to make them easy and fun to
read. Sections conclude with takeaway main points, exercises, and references.
Based on extensive feedback from previous texts in the discipline of
Communication, this text is written in a clear, concise and engaging way. Key terms
are defined in the same paragraph. Figures, diagrams, and images reinforce the
written word. Learning units are presented in ways that are easy to grasp the first
time you read them.
The book’s unique points include a chapter on group conflict and meetings and
several innovative, optional assignments which instructors may use to have their
students participate in real-world group activities. An On-/Off-Campus Student
Involvement Project, for instance, permits whole classes to participate in and assess
campus committee and advisory group meetings. This text and its resources are
designed to extend learning beyond the traditional walls of the classroom.
This text provides a solid foundation in group communication and incorporates the
many resources available online, including self-assessments, to expand the
discussion and explore each topic. With our “available from Day 1” online access,
this text is an immediate resource for both instructors and students, and is perfect
for hybrid and online classes.
We welcome you to this introduction to group communication text and would like
to extend an offer: partner with us! This text is a labor of love and is available free
online to everyone. If you perceive an extra section or chapter would make this text
useful to you and your students, please consider contributing it! The Make-It-YourOwn (MIYO) tool allows this text to be adapted quickly and efficiently, but requires
us to take the first step. With this text we have taken several steps toward
developing a comprehensive collection of learning units and sections organized
into a positive, productive textbook on group communication. Your additions, from
exercises to areas of emphasis, make this project more useful and rewarding for us
all. Thank you for reading Exploring Group Communication and we hope you will make
it your own.
Phil and Scott
3
Chapter 1
Introducing Group Communication
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES
1. Think of five words that express what you want to do and where you
want to be five years from now. Share your five words with your
classmates and listen to their responses. What patterns do you observe
in the responses? Write a paragraph that addresses at least one
observation.
2. With the results of our introductory exercises #1 in mind, please list
what you can do and where you could be in five years without support,
interaction, or collaboration with anyone other than yourself. Share and
compare your results with classmates.
3. Create a list of at least 10 groups to which you belong. Family, church,
friends or clubs, online groups, and even this class count! Share and
compare your results with classmates.
“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the
world; indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.”
– Margaret Mead
Getting Started
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
4
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Communication is an activity, skill, and art that incorporates lessons learned across
a wide spectrum of human knowledge. Perhaps the most time-honored form of
communication is storytelling. We’ve told each other stories for ages to help make
sense of our world, anticipate the future, and certainly to entertain ourselves. We
gather around in groups and hear or see stories that say something about our
world, our community, who we are. How did we learn the stories we tell each other?
From each other. Groups and teams come together to create amazing movies.
Artists gather together to produce songs that inspire us. People, effectively working
together, can do the impossible.
Telling a story to your friends or peers draws on your understanding of yourself,
your message, and how you communicate it to a group that is simultaneously
communicating back to you. They respond to your story, perhaps tell a few of their
own, and you feel like you are in a group. You are an individual, and a member of
the group, at the same time. You are a member of many groups. Knowing how to
communicate effectively as a member of a team or in a group is key to your success.
You were not born knowing how to write, or even how to talk—but in the process of
growing up you have probably learned something about how to tell, and how not
tell, a story. When people stand around and want to know what comes next you
know you have their attention. They are as much a part of the story as you are.
When everyone is involved and listening or participating, it is a fun experience.
You didn’t learn to text in a day, and didn’t learn all the codes, from LOL (Laugh Out
Loud) to BRB (Be Right Back), right away. In the same way, learning to communicate
well requires you to read and study how others have expressed themselves, then to
adapt what you have learned to your present task, whether it is texting a brief
message to a friend, presenting your qualifications in a job interview, or making a
sales presentation. You come to this text with skills and an understanding that will
provide a valuable foundation as we explore group communication.
Effective communication, in all its many forms, takes preparation, practice, and
persistence. There are many ways to learn communication skills; the school of
experience, or “hard knocks,” is one of them. But in the real world, a “knock” (or
lesson learned) may come at the expense of your credibility through a blown
presentation to a client. The classroom environment, with a compilation of
information and resources such as a text, can offer you a trial run where you get to
try out new ideas and skills before you have to use them to communicate effectively
to make a sale, motivate your team members, or form a new partnership. Listening
to yourself, or perhaps the comments of others, may help you reflect on new ways
to present, or perceive, thoughts, ideas and concepts. The net result is your growth;
ultimately your ability to communicate in teams and groups will improve, opening
more doors than you might anticipate.
5
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
As you learn the material in this text, each part will contribute to the whole. The
degree to which you attend to each part will ultimately help give you the skills,
confidence, and preparation to use communication in furthering your career.
6
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
1.1 Why Study Group Communication?
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Understand the importance of group communication
Communication is key to your success, in relationships, in the workplace, as a
citizen of your country, and across your lifetime. Your ability to communicate
comes from experience, which can be an effective teacher, but this text and the
related group communication course will offer you a wealth of experiences
gathered from professionals across their lifetimes. You can learn from the lessons
they’ve learned and be a more effective team and group communicator right out of
the gate. According to Ken Boughrum, Executive Vice President and Managing
Director, and Tyler Durham, Vice President and Managing Consultant, Stromberg
Consulting, “Great teams are distinguished from good teams by how effectively they
communicate. Great team communication is more than the words that are said or
written. Power is leveraged by the team’s ability to actively listen, clarify,
understand, and live by the principle that “everything communicates.” The actions,
the tone, the gestures, the infrastructure, the environment and the things that are
no done or said speak and inform just as loudly as words.O’Rourke, J., and
Yarbrough, B, (2008). Leading Groups and Teams. Mason, OH: South-Western
Cengage Learning, p. 2. Effective teams and groups start with effective
communication.
Communication Influences Your Thinking about Yourself and
Others
We all share a fundamental drive to communicate. Communication can be defined
as the process of understanding and sharing meaning.Pearson, J., & Nelson, P.
(2000). An Introduction to Human Communication: Understanding and Sharing.
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. p. 6. You share meaning in what you say and how you say
it, both in oral and written forms. If you could not communicate, what would life be
like? A series of never-ending frustrations? Not being able to ask for what you need,
or even to understand the needs of others?
7
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Being unable to communicate might even mean losing a part of yourself, for you
communicate your self-concept1—your sense of self and awareness of who you
are—in many ways. Do you like to write? Do you find it easy to make a phone call to
a stranger, or to speak to a room full of people? Do you like to work in teams and
groups? Perhaps someone told you that you don’t speak clearly, or your grammar
needs improvement. Does that make you more or less likely to want to
communicate? For some it may be a positive challenge, while for others it may be
discouraging, but in all cases your ability to communicate is central to your selfconcept.
Take a look at your clothes. What are the brands you are wearing? What do you
think they say about you? Do you feel that certain styles of shoes, jewelry, tattoos,
music, or even automobiles express who you are? Part of your self-concept may be
that you express yourself through texting, or through writing longer documents
like essays and research papers, or through the way you speak. Those labels and
brands in some ways communicate with your group or community. They are
recognized, and to some degree, are associated with you. Just as your words
represent you in writing, how you present yourself with symbols and images
influences how others perceive you.
On the other side of the coin, your communication skills help you to understand
others—not just their words, but also their tone of voice, their nonverbal gestures,
or the format of their written documents provide you with clues about who they are
and what their values and priorities may be. Active listening and reading are also
part of being a successful communicator.
Communication Influences How You Learn
When you were an infant, you learned to talk over a period of many months. There
was a group of caregivers around you that talked to each other, and sometimes you,
and you caught on that you could get something when you used a word correctly.
Before you knew it you were speaking in sentences, with words, in a language you
learned from your family or those around you. When you got older, you didn’t learn
to ride a bike, drive a car, or even text a message on your cell phone in one brief
moment. You need to begin the process of improving your communication skills
with the frame of mind that it will require effort, persistence, and self-correction.
1. Your sense of self and
awareness of who you are.
You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering
questions and expressing your opinions in class, and finally by preparing and
delivering a “stand-up” speech. Similarly, you learn to write by first learning to
read, then by writing and learning to think critically. Your speaking and writing are
reflections of your thoughts, experience, and education, and part of that
1.1 Why Study Group Communication?
8
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
combination is your level of experience listening to other speakers, reading
documents and styles of writing, and studying formats similar to what you aim to
produce. Speaking and writing are both key communication skills that you will use
in teams and groups.
As you study group communication, you may receive suggestions for improvement
and clarification from professionals more experienced than yourself. Take their
suggestions as challenges to improve, don’t give up when your first speech or first
draft does not communicate the message you intend. Stick with it until you get it
right. Your success in communicating is a skill that applies to almost every field of
work, and it makes a difference in your relationships with others.
Remember, luck is simply a combination of preparation and timing. You want to be
prepared to communicate well when given the opportunity. Each time you do a
good job, your success will bring more success.
Communication Represents You and Your Employer
You want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, on your
instructors, and on your employer. They all want you to convey a positive image, as
it reflects on them. In your career you will represent your business or company in
teams and groups, and your professionalism and attention to detail will reflect
positively on you and set you up for success.
As an effective member of the team, you will benefit from having the ability to
communicate clearly and with clarity. These are skills you will use for the rest of
your life. Positive improvements in these skills will have a positive impact on your
relationships, your prospects for employment, and your ability to make a difference
in the world.
Communication Skills Are Desired by Business and Industry
Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top
ten desirable skills by employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered
business executives sometimes hire consultants to coach them in sharpening their
communication skills. According to the National Association of
Collegeshttp://www.naceweb.org/press/quick.htm. and Employers, the top five
personal qualities/skills potential employers seek are (NACE, 2009):
1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
2. Strong work ethic
1.1 Why Study Group Communication?
9
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
3. Teamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)
4. Initiative
5. Analytical Skills
Knowing this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your
promotion potential is to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively.
Teams and groups are almost universal across all fields because no one personal has
all the skills, knowledge, or ability to do everything with an equal degree of
excellence. Employees work with each other in manufacturing and service
industries on a daily basis. An individual with excellent communication skills is an
asset to every organization. No matter what career you plan to pursue, learning to
interact, contribute, and excel in groups and teams will help you get there.
Effective communication skills
are assets that will get you there.
© Jupiter Images
KEY TAKEAWAY
Communication helps you understand yourself and others, learn new things,
and build your career.
1.1 Why Study Group Communication?
10
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
EXERCISES
1. Imagine that you have been hired to make “cold calls” to ask people
whether they are familiar with a new restaurant that has just opened in
your neighborhood. Write a script for the phone call, and focus on the
climate, the environment, and the service. Ask a classmate to co-present
as you deliver the script orally in class, as if you were making a phone
call to the classmate. Discuss your experience with the rest of the class.
2. Imagine you have been assigned the task of creating a job description
for a Social Media Manager. Search online and find at least two sample
job descriptions, and create one. Make sure you pay attention to words
like “effective in virtual teams” and other details that highlight the
importance of communication skills. Please present the job description
to the class and share what you learned on how communication skills
play a role in the tasks or duties you have included.
1.1 Why Study Group Communication?
11
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
1.2 What Is Communication?
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define communication and describe communication as a process.
2. Identify and describe the eight essential components of communication.
3. Identify and describe two models of communication.
Many theories have been proposed to describe, predict, and understand the
behaviors and phenomena of which communication consists. When it comes to
communicating in the workplace, we are often less interested in theory than in
making sure our interactions generate the desired results. As a member of a group
or team we are often collectively judged on what we produced, not what we
individually contributed to the final product. Working in a team can be a challenge,
but it can also produce results no individual member could have accomplished
alone. Knowing what makes for a productive group starts with effective
communication underscore how valuable it can be to understand what
communication is and how it works.
Defining Communication
The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to
share, or to make common.Weekley, E. (1967). An Etymological Dictionary of
Modern English (Vol. 1). New York: Dover Publications, p. 338. Communication2 is
defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning.Pearson, J., & Nelson,
P. (2000). An Introduction to Human Communication: Understanding and Sharing. Boston:
McGraw-Hill, p. 6.
At the center of our study of communication is the relationship that involves
interaction between participants. This definition serves us well with its emphasis on
the process, which we’ll examine in depth across this text, of coming to understand
and share another’s point of view effectively.
2. The process of understanding
and sharing meaning.
12
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
The first key word in this definition is the word process3. A process is a dynamic
activity that is hard to describe because it changes.Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000).
An Introduction to Human Communication: Understanding And Sharing. Boston: McGrawHill. Imagine you are alone in your kitchen, thinking to yourself. Someone you
know (say, your mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What has changed?
Now imagine that your mother is joined by someone else, someone you haven’t met
before—and that this stranger listens intently as you speak, almost as if you were
giving a speech. What has changed? Your perspective might change, and you might
watch your words more closely. The feedback or response from your mother and
the stranger may cause you to re-evaluate what you are saying. When we interact,
all of these factors and many more influence the process of communication.
The second key word is understanding4. “To understand is to perceive, to
interpret, and to relate our perception and interpretation to what we already
know.”McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon. If a friend tells you a story about falling off a bike, what image comes to
mind? Now your friend points out the window and you see a motorcycle lying on
the ground. Understanding the words and the concepts or objects they refer to is an
important part of the communication process.
Next comes the word sharing5. Sharing means doing something together with one
or more other people. You may share a joint activity, as when you share in
compiling a report; or you may benefit jointly from a resource, as when you and
several co-workers share a pizza. In communication, sharing occurs when you
convey thoughts, feelings, ideas or insights to others. You can also share with
yourself—a process called intrapersonal communication—when you bring ideas to
consciousness, ponder how you feel about something, or figure out the solution to a
problem and have a classic “Aha!” moment where something becomes clear.
Finally, meaning6 is what we share through communication. The word “bike”
represents both a bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the
context the word is used in, and by asking questions, we can discover the shared
meaning of the word and understand the message.
3. A dynamic activity that is hard
to describe because it changes.
4. To perceive, to interpret, and
to relate our perception and
interpretation to what we
already know.
5. Doing something together with
one or more other people.
Eight Essential Components of Communication
In order to better understand the communication process and how it provides a
foundation for group communication, let’s break it down into eight essential
components. Each component serves an integral function in the overall process.
6. What we share through
communication.
1.2 What Is Communication?
13
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Source
The source7 imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking
situation, the source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message
by sharing new information with the audience. The speaker also conveys a message
through his or her tone of voice, body language, and choice of clothing. Taking a
turn as a group member can sometimes feel like a speech as all eyes are on you. The
speaker begins by first determining the message—what they want to say and how
they want to say it. The next step involves encoding the message by choosing just
the right order or the perfect words to convey the intended meaning. The third step
is to present the information, sending the information to the receiver, audience, or
group members. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the source
perceives how well they received the message, and responds with clarification or
supporting information.
Message
“The message8 is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver
or audience.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon, p. 10. When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your
message may seem to be only the words you choose that will convey your meaning.
But that is just the beginning. The words are brought together with grammar and
organization. You may choose to save your most important point for last. The
message also consists of the way you say it—in a speech, with your tone of voice,
your body language, and your appearance—and in a report, with your writing style,
punctuation (!), and the headings and formatting you choose. In addition, part of
the message may be the environment or context you present in and any noise
which may make your message hard to hear or see.
Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are
aware there is a World Series game tonight. Your sales team members might have a
hard time settling down, but you may choose to open with, “I understand there is
an important game tonight.” In this way, by expressing verbally something that
most people in your audience are aware of and interested in, you might grasp and
focus their attention.
7. Person who imagines, creates,
and sends the message.
Channel
8. The stimulus or meaning
produced by the source for the
receiver or audience.
“The channel9 is the way in which a message or messages travel between source
and receiver.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon, p.10. For example, think of your television. How many channels do
you have on your television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital
world, in the cable or in the signal that brings the message of each channel to your
9. The way in which a message or
messages travel between
source and receiver.
1.2 What Is Communication?
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
home. Television combines an audio signal you hear with a visual signal you see.
Together they convey the message to the receiver or audience. Turn off the volume
on your television. Can you still understand what is happening? Many times you
can, because the body language conveys part of the message of the show. Now turn
up the volume but turn around so that you cannot see the television. You can still
hear the dialogue and follow the story line.
Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your
message. Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone
conversations and voice mail messages, radio, public address systems, and voiceover-internet protocol (VOIP). Written channels include letters, memorandums,
purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text
messages, tweets, and so forth.
Receiver
“The receiver10 receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting
the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source.”McLean, S.
(2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.10. To
better understand this component, think of a receiver on a football team. The
quarterback throws the message (football) to a receiver, who must see and interpret
where to catch the football. The quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch”
his message in one way, but the receiver may see things differently and miss the
football (the intended meaning) altogether. When the quarterback and receiver, as
well as the rest of the team, fail to communicate, an interception—like a
miscommunication—is bound to occur.
As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your
team members “size you up,” much as you might check them out long before you
open your mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues on
how to adjust your opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate
what you would look for if you were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the
receiver will be in order to place the ball correctly, you too can recognize the
interaction between source and receiver in a business communication context. All
of this happens at the same time, illustrating why and how communication is
always changing.
10. Receives the message from the
source, analyzing and
interpreting the message in
ways both intended and
unintended by the source.
11. Messages the receiver sends
back to the source.
1.2 What Is Communication?
Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving
feedback. Feedback11 is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the
source. Verbal or nonverbal, all of these feedback signals allow the source to see
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
how well, how accurately (or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was
received. Feedback also provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask
for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the
message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of
communication also increases.Leavitt, & Mueller, R. (1951). some effects of feedback
on communication. Human Relations , 4, 401–410.
For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call
with four sales reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of
the fact that it is World Series season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear.
You state your message, but you hear no replies from your listeners. You might
assume that this means they understood and agreed with you—but later in the
month you might be disappointed to find that very few sales were made. If you
followed up your message with a request for feedback (“Does this make sense? Do
any of you have any questions?”) you might have an opportunity to clarify your
message, and to find out whether any of the sales reps believed your suggestion
would not work with their customers.
Environment
“The environment12 is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send
and receive messages.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal Communication.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 11. The environment can include the tables, chairs,
lighting, and sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example
of the environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress,
that may indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and
formal. People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are
physically close to each other, and less likely when they can only see each other
from across the room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form
of communication. The choice to text is influenced by the environment. As a
speaker, your environment will impact and play a role in your speech. It’s always a
good idea to go check out where you’ll be speaking before the day of the actual
presentation.
Context
12. The atmosphere, physical and
psychological, where you send
and receive messages.
13. Involves the setting, scene, and
expectations of the individuals
involved.
1.2 What Is Communication?
“The context13 of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and
expectations of the individuals involved.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of
Interpersonal Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.11. A professional
communication context may involve business suits (environmental cues) that
directly or indirectly influence expectations of language and behavior among the
participants.
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
A meeting, presentation, or personal conversation does not take place as an isolated
event. When you came to class, you came from somewhere. So did the person seated
next to you, as did the instructor. The degree to which the environment is formal or
informal depends on the contextual expectations for communication held by the
participants. The person sitting next to you may be used to informal
communication with instructors, but this particular instructor may be used to
verbal and nonverbal displays of respect in the academic environment. You may be
used to formal interactions with instructors as well, and find your classmate’s
question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework today?” as rude and inconsiderate
when they see it as normal. The nonverbal response from the instructor will
certainly give you a clue about how they perceive the interaction, both the word
choices and how they were said.
Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those
expectations out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or
quinceaneras are often formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a
time for silence as the bride walks down the aisle, or the father may have the first
dance with his daughter as she transforms from a girl to womanhood in the eyes of
her community. In either celebration there may come a time for rambunctious
celebration and dancing. You may be called upon to give a toast, and the wedding or
quinceanera context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.
In a business meeting, who speaks first? That probably has some relation to the
position and role each person has outside of the meeting. Context plays a very
important role in communication, particularly across cultures.
Interference
Interference, also called noise, can come from any
source. “Interference14 is anything that blocks or
changes the source’s intended meaning of the
message.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal
Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 11. For
example, if you drove a car to work or school, chances
are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns, billboards, Context is all about what people
expect from each other.
or perhaps the radio in your own car interrupted your
thoughts, or your conversation with a passenger.
© Jupiter Images
14. Anything that blocks or
changes the source’s intended
meaning of the message.
1.2 What Is Communication?
Psychological noise is what happens when your own
thoughts occupy your attention while you are hearing,
or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and
your boss, who is at a meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
sales figures, an analysis of current sales projections, and the sales figures from the
same month for the past five years. You may open the email, start to read, and
think “Great—no problem—I have those figures and that analysis right here in my
computer.” You fire off a reply with last month’s sales figures and the current
projections attached. Then, at 5 o’clock, you turn off your computer and go home.
The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to tell you he was inconvenienced
because you neglected to include the sales figures from the previous years. What
was the problem? Interference: by thinking about how you wanted to respond to
your boss’s message, you prevented yourself from reading attentively enough to
understand the whole message.
Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your
attention to your own situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the
office is hot and stuffy. If you were a member of an audience listening to an
executive speech, how could this impact your ability to listen and participate?
Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the
channel between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with
the communication process. For example, your cellphone ringtone may be a
welcome noise to you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and
bother your classmates.
Two Models of Communication
Researchers have observed that when communication takes place, the source and
the receiver may send messages at the same time, often overlapping. You, as the
speaker, will often play both roles, as source and receiver. You’ll focus on the
communication and the reception of your messages to the audience. The audience
will respond in the form of feedback that will give you important clues. While there
are many models of communication, here we will focus on two that offer
perspectives and lessons for effective communicators.
Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone receiving it as
two distinct acts, researchers often view communication as a transactional15
process (Figure 1.1 “The Transactional Model of Communication”), with actions
often happening at the same time. The distinction between source and receiver is
blurred in conversational turn-taking, for example, where both participants play
both roles simultaneously.
15. Model of communication in
which actions happen at the
same time.
1.2 What Is Communication?
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Figure 1.1 The Transactional Model of Communication
Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own
interpretations of the message. What I said (or wrote) and what you heard may be
different. In the constructivist16 model (Figure 1.2 “The Constructivist Model of
Communication”), we focus on the negotiated meaning, or common ground, when
trying to describe communication.Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication,
Action, and Meaning: The Creating of Social Realities. New York: Praeger.,Cronen, V., &
Pearce, W. B. (1982). The coordinated management of meaning: a theory of
communication. In F. E. Dance (Ed.), Human Communication Theory (pp. 61–89). New
York: Harper & Row.
Imagine that you are visiting Atlanta, Georgia, and go to a restaurant for dinner.
When asked if you want a “Coke,” you may reply, “sure.” The waiter may then ask
you again, “what kind?” and you may reply, “Coke is fine.” The waiter then may ask
a third time, “what kind of soft drink would you like?” The misunderstanding in
this example is that in Atlanta, the home of The Coca-Cola Company, most soft
drinks are generically referred to as “Coke.” When you order a soft drink, you need
to specify what type, even if you wish to order a beverage that is not a cola or not
even made by The Coca-Cola Company. To someone from other regions of the
United States, the words “pop,” “soda pop,” or “soda” may be the familiar way to
refer to a soft drink; not necessarily the brand “Coke.” In this example, both you
and the waiter understand the word “Coke,” but you each understand it to mean
something different. In order to communicate, you must each realize what the term
means to the other person, and establish common ground, in order to fully
understand the request and provide an answer.
16. Model of communication
focusing on the negotiated
meaning, or common ground,
when trying to describe
communication.
1.2 What Is Communication?
Because we carry the multiple meanings of words, gestures, and ideas within us, we
can use a dictionary to guide us, but we will still need to negotiate meaning.
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Figure 1.2 The Constructivist Model of Communication
KEY TAKEAWAY
The communication process involves understanding, sharing, and meaning,
and it consists of 8 essential elements: source, message, channel, receiver,
feedback, environment, context, and interference.
1.2 What Is Communication?
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
EXERCISES
1. Draw what you think communication looks like. Share your drawing
with your classmates.
2. List three environmental cues and indicate how they influence your
expectations for communication. Please share your results with your
classmates.
3. How does context influence your communication? If you could design
the perfect date, what activities, places, and/or environmental cues
would you include to set the mood? Please share your results with your
classmates.
1.2 What Is Communication?
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
1.3 Communication in Context
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Identify and describe five types of communication contexts.
Now that we have examined the eight components of communication, let’s examine
this in context. Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the
same experience as a discussion in class or giving a speech? Is sending a text
message to a friend the same experience as writing a professional project proposal
or a purchase order? Is working in a team or group the same as working together as
a family? Each context has an influence on the communication process. Contexts
can overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been
communicating in many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to
apply what you’ve learned through experience in each context to group
communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your own
thoughts so that, while the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During
a phone conversation, have you ever been thinking about what you are going to say,
or what question you might ask, instead of listening to the other person? Finally,
have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a
presentation? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal
communication.
17. Communication that involves
one person; it is often called
“self-talk.”
Intrapersonal communication17 involves one person; it is often called “selftalk.”Wood, J. (1997). Communication in Our Lives. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, p.22.
Donna Vocate’sVocate, D. (Ed.). (1994). Intrapersonal Communication: Different Voices,
Different Minds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. book on intrapersonal
communication explains how, as we use language to reflect on our own experiences,
we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the voice within you that tells
you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your all into completing a
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.” Your
intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences
how you perceive and react to situations and communication with others.
What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture,
native language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas
said, “Every process of reaching understanding takes place against the background
of a culturally ingrained preunderstanding. ”Habermas, J. (1984). The Theory of
Communicative Action (Vol. 1). Boston: Beacon Press, p. 100.
For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You
weren’t born with them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as
you grew up. You learned from your family, or the group of people who raised you.
What was normal for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of
normal, is the same.
When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does
that mean 7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is
supposed to start at 9 a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations
depend on regional and national culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In
some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive 10-15 minutes before the
announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence business at 9:00
sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10
is the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it
is always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your own
internal assumptions about time and punctuality may be.
Interpersonal Communication
18. Normally involves two people,
and can range from intimate
and very personal to formal
and impersonal.
1.3 Communication in Context
The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal
communication. Interpersonal communication18 normally involves two people,
and can range from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may
carry on a conversation with a loved one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work,
you may have a brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the security
guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve
interpersonal communication, but are different in levels of intimacy. The first
example implies a trusting relationship established over time between two caring
individuals. The second example level implies some previous familiarity, and is
really more about acknowledging each other than any actual exchange of
information, much like saying hello or goodbye.
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Group Communication
Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other?
Perhaps they are members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt
they often engage in group communication.
“Group communication19 is a dynamic process where a small number of people
engage in a conversation.”McLean, S. (2005). The Basics of Interpersonal
Communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p. 14. Group communication is generally
defined as involving three to eight people. The larger the group, the more likely it is
to break down into smaller groups.
To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of
convergence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and
location to learn more about groups and their general preferences as well as
dislikes. You may find several groups within the larger audience, such as specific
areas of education, and use this knowledge to increase your effectiveness as a
communicator.
Public Communication
In public communication20, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is
true of public written communication, where one person writes a message to be
read by a small or large group. The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage
the audience in a discussion (in writing, examples are an email discussion or a
point-counter-point series of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of the
conversation are distinct from group communication, where different rules apply.
In a public speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker. For
example, the boss speaks to everyone, and the sales team quietly listens without
interruption.
19. A dynamic process where a
small number of people engage
in a conversation.
20. Communication in which one
person speaks or writes a
message to a group of people.
1.3 Communication in Context
This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many
cultures have a tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be
interpreted as interruptions or competition for the floor, but instead as
affirmations. The boss may say, as part of a charged-up motivational speech, “Do
you hear me?” and the sales team is expected to call back “Yes Sir!” The boss, as a
public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the
individual members) or interpersonal communication (communication between
team members) may interfere with this classic public speaking dynamic of all to
one, or the audience devoting all its attention to the speaker, and incorporate
attention getting and engagement strategies to keep the sales team focused on the
message.
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Mass Communication
How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held?
Would a speech from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your
school is a very small one. A written schedule that lists all classes would be a better
alternative. How do you let everyone know there is a sale on in your store, or that
your new product will meet their needs, or that your position on a political issue is
the same as your constituents? You send a message to as many people as you can
through mass communication. Does everyone receive mass communication the
same way they might receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who
receive mass mailings assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet
the recipients’ needs) and throw them away unopened. People may tune out a
television advertisement with a click of the mute button, delete tweets or ignore
friend requests on Facebook by the hundreds, or send all unsolicited email straight
to the spam folder unread.
Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is
adapting rapidly to new technologies. Mass communication21 involves sending a
single message to a group. It allows us to communicate our message to a large
number of people, but we are limited in our ability to tailor our message to specific
audiences, groups, or individuals. As a business communicator, you can use
multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs, films or other images
that your audience finds familiar yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is
worth far more than 140 characters, and are just as likely to elicit a significant
response. By choosing messages or references that many audience members will
recognize or can identify with, you can develop common ground and increase the
appeal of your message.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Communication contexts include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group,
public, and mass communication.
21. Involves sending a single
message to a group.
1.3 Communication in Context
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
EXERCISES
1. Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did
you feel? What was your experience? What did you learn from your
experience? If given a second opportunity, how would you approach the
group differently?
2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word
would you choose and why?
3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what
image or word would you choose and why?
4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one hour
period of time. Share your list with classmates.
1.3 Communication in Context
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify ways in which group communication differs from interpersonal
communication.
2. Identify relationship and task advantages and disadvantages of working
in groups versus individually.
“It used to be argued that slavery was abolished simply because it had ceased to be
profitable, but all the evidence points the other way: in fact, it was abolished
despite the fact that it was still profitable. What we need to understand, then, is a
collective change of heart. Like all such great changes, it had small
beginnings.”Ferguson, N. Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British Empire and the
Lessons for Global Power, quoted in Steffen, A. (2006). Worldchanging: A User’s Guide for
the 21st Century. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
– Niall Ferguson
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
All human beings exist, spend time, and behave both individually and in groups.
When you’re a student, you spend a great deal of your time in groups. In the
working world, whether you’re already in it or not, you spend even more.O’Hair, D.
& Wiemann, M.O. (2004). The Essential Guide to Group Communication. Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s, p. 7.
Of course, many times you have no choice whether you’ll work alone or in a group.
You’re just told what to do. Still, you’re best apt to be prepared if you know what to
expect of each status.
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Differences between Group and Interpersonal Communication
The mere fact that groups include multiple people leads to at least four
consequences. Whether these consequences prove to be advantageous or not
depends on the skill level and knowledge of a group’s members.
First, since not everyone in a group can talk at the same time (at least, not if they
intend to understand and be understood by each other), members have to seek
permission to speak. They need to decide how to take turns. In this respect, a group
is inherently more formal than a single individual or a dyad.
Second, members of a group have to share time together. The larger the group, the
less average time per person is available and the fewer opportunities each member
will likely have to contribute to discussions.
Third, communication in groups is generally less intimate than in interpersonal
settings. Because there are so many personalities and levels of relationship to
consider, people in groups are less inclined to share personal details or express
controversial views.
Finally, group work is more time-consuming than individual or interpersonal effort.
Why? For one thing, group members usually try to let everyone share information
and views. Also, the more people are involved in a discussion, the more diverse
opinions may need to be considered and allowed to compete.
As we’ve noted earlier, groups apply themselves toward reaching aims and
accomplishing things. In addition to this task-oriented characteristic, however,
they include and depend upon relationships among their members. Although these
two elements are usually intertwined rather than discrete and separate, an
overview of the pluses and minuses of each can help you make the most of your
experience in a group.
Relationship Advantages
The columnist David Brooks interpreted research as indicating that human beings
are “wired to cooperate and collaborate, just as much as we are to
compete.”Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective Group Discussion: Theory and
Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 5. What’s in it for you in terms of relationships,
then, if you work in a group instead of alone? Well, you may have a number of your
most important human needs satisfied. Here are some specifics:
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
• You may enjoy fellowship and companionship.
• You may receive moral and emotional support for your views and
objectives.
• You may meet three important needs identified by William Schutz,
which we’ll discuss more in Chapter 2 “Group Communication
Theory”:Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2013). Effective Group Discussion:
Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 5. inclusion, affection,
and control.
• You may have your impulsiveness curbed or your reticence challenged.
• You may cultivate ties that yield future personal or career advantages.
In the next chapter we’ll further explore the ideas William Schutz, who theorized
about levels of basic human needs and how they may vary from person to person
and according to people’s circumstances. We’ll also review Abraham Maslow’s
model of human needs.
Relationship Disadvantages
Despite the advantages it offers, working in groups almost invariably presents
challenges and disadvantages in the realm of relationships. These are some of the
chief dangers you may encounter as part of a group:
• It will probably take a lot of time to create, maintain, and repair the
human relationships involved in a group.
• Your group may generate conflict which hurts people’s feelings and
otherwise undermines their relationships.
• You may misunderstand other group members’ intentions or messages.
• Some group members may attempt to deceive, manipulate, or betray
the trust of other members.
Task Advantages
Anthropologists have asserted that a major feature of mainstream culture in the
United States is a relentless pressure to do things—to accomplish things. Tom
Peters is credited with first calling this cultural feature “a bias for action.” One
best-selling business self-help book reinforced this national passion for dynamic
behavior. Its title is A Bias for Action: How Effective Managers Harness Their Willpower,
Achieve Results, and Stop Wasting Time.Bruch, H., & Ghoshal, S. (2004). A Bias for Action:
How Effective Managers Harness Their Willpower, Achieve Results, and Stop Wasting Time.
Boston: Harvard Business Review Press. Without doubt, accomplishing tasks
constitutes a central purpose of most human behavior in the modern world.
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
When you’re trying to get something done, working in a group promises many
positive possibilities, among them being the following:
• The group will most likely have access to much more information than
any member possesses.
• The group can focus multiple attentions and diverse energy on a topic.
• The group may be more thorough in dealing with a topic than any
individual might be. This thoroughness may arise simply because of
the number of perspectives represented in the group, but it also owes
to the fact that members often “propel each other’s thinking.”Wood,
J.T. (1997). Communication in Our Lives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 270.
• The group may harness and exploit conflict to generate new and better
ideas than an individual could. When tension and disagreement are
resolved constructively, chances of achieving group goals increase.
• The group may attain deeper understanding of topics. One analysis of
studies, for instance, indicated that students in group-based learning
environments learned more, and remembered more of what they
learned, than did counterparts exposed to more traditional
methods.Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Smith, K.A. (1998, July/
August). Cooperative learning returns to college. Change, 30(4), 31.
• Synergy22—a combined effect greater than the simple sum total of
individual contributions—can arise. Sometimes synergy results
through enhanced creativity as group members share and build upon
each other’s strengths and perspectives. You can probably think of
examples of an athletic squad or business group comprising members
with modest individual strengths that performed superlatively
together.
• The group may spur needed social change. Margaret Mead wrote,
“Never doubt that a small group of committed people can change the
world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” It may be reasonable
to question whether the world always works the way Mead described,
but many examples do exist of small groups which initiated changes
which spread to larger and large parts of society. All other things being
equal, a group of committed individuals will project more credibility
and engender more support than will a solitary person.
Task Disadvantages
22. A combined effect great than
the simple sum total of
individual components in a
process or entity.
Groups aren’t always successful at reaching their goals. You’ve probably
experienced many situations in which you became frustrated or angry because a
group you were part of seemed to be taking two steps backward for every step
forward—or perhaps you felt it was going only backward. Here are some features of
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
group work which distinguish it in a potentially negative way from what you might
be able to accomplish by yourself or with a single partner:
• In order to be successful, groups need broad, ongoing, time-consuming
exchanges of messages. They need to invest in coordinating and
monitoring what they’re doing. With people as busy as they are in the
twenty-first century, “out of sight” is indeed often “out of mind.” If
they don’t keep in touch frequently, group members may forget what
they’ve most recently discussed or decided as a group. They also run
the risk of losing track of the structures and processes they’ve put in
place to help them move toward their goals.
• Some group members may engage in “social loafing23.” When one or
two people are assigned a task, they know they’re being watched and
are apt to shoulder the burden. In a larger group, however, any given
member will feel less personally responsible for what takes place in it.
If too many members follow the natural tendency to observe rather
than act, a group may lose its efficiency and thereby find it much more
difficult to reach its aims.
• Groupthink24 may sap the creative potential of the members. Too
much diversity in outlooks and work styles may act as a barrier to a
group, but too little diversity also represents a threat to success. If they
too easily adopt and hold onto one viewpoint or course of action,
people may fall prey to two dangers. First, they may overlook flaws in
their thinking. Second, they may fail to anticipate dangers that they
might have been detected with closer scrutiny and longer reflection.
KEY TAKEAWAY
To accomplish tasks and relate effectively in a group, it’s important to know
the advantages and disadvantages inherent in groups.
23. The tendency of members of a
large group to feel diminished
personal responsibility and to
rely on the rest of the group to
perform necessary tasks.
24. A unified view or approach
adopted by a group which may
arise out of members’ desire to
conform and be approved of,
and which members resist
giving up even when presented
with reasonable opposing
evidence.
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
EXERCISES
1. Identify two groups of which you’re a member. Describe
a. how each group determined how to take turns in
communicating—or, if you weren’t part of determining this
process, how people take turns now;
b. the most controversial view you can recall being expressed
in each group; and
c. a task which feel each group performed better than any of its
individuals might have done alone.
2. Describe an experience in which you observed people cooperating or
collaborating when they might instead have competed. What do you
believe motivated them to cooperate?
3. Identify two examples of your personal or vocational growth which you
feel you owe to participation in a group.
4. Identify a group you’ve been part of which contributed to positive social
change. How did it establish its credibility and influence with other
people and groups?
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the nature and types of social media.
2. Identify ways in which social media can foster and endanger group
communication.
3. Identify safeguards which groups can adopt when communicating via
social media.
Progress might have been all right once, but it’s gone too far.
– Ogden Nash
I would trade all of my technology for an afternoon with Socrates.
– Steve Jobs
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
35
Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
You may disagree with the whimsical words of Ogden Nash and the more
philosophical statement by Steve Jobs. Perhaps you feel that today’s electronic
technologies are nothing but wonderful. Whatever your opinion, though, you’ll
have a hard time arguing that the Internet is a small part of people’s lives in today’s
world. Consider these facts about social media:
• Facebook was expected to register its one-billionth user sometime in
2012.
• Ten hours of video recordings are uploaded to YouTube every minute.
• Flickr provides access to more than three billion photographs.
• More than three-quarters of everyone worldwide who uses the
Internet takes part in social media.Hunter, C. (2012, January 23).
Number of Facebook users could reach 1 billion by 2012. The Exponent
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Online Retrieved from http://www.purdueexponent.org/features/
article_8815d757-8b7c-566f-8fbe-49528d4d8037.html; Kaplan, A.M., &
Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and
opportunities of social media. Business Horizons, 53, 59–69.
Do you remember the first time you saw the ocean? Did it awe and overwhelm you,
as it did the authors of this book? Did you feel small and insignificant?
The ocean can affect us emotionally, but it can also make an intellectual impression.
Knowing its scientific side, we realize that people can interact with the ocean in
sundry ways. We also know it’s not possible for us as individuals or groups to go
everywhere on the ocean at once or to tap all its potential. So it is with social media
in the Digital Age.
The vastness, breadth, and ease of access of social media are unprecedented in
human history. But they resemble the ocean in other ways besides their size. When
we go to sea, bad things can happen. We can fall prey to storms, find ourselves
becalmed and bored, or discover that we don’t have the right gear to snag a
particular kind of fish. We may also fall overboard and drown. Similar perils are
associated with social media.
What Are Social Media?
25. Web-based and mobile
technologies which enable
interaction among people.
26. A group of people who create,
store, and make available text,
images, or other digital data on
line—e.g., video recordings on
YouTube.
27. Exchange of messages in real
time—i.e., such that each
person’s message is
immediately perceived by its
receiver(s).
28. Exchange of messages by
senders and recipients who do
not reach each other or
generate responses
immediately.
A simple definition of social media25 is that they are Web-based and mobile
technologies which enable interaction among people. Social media may be divided
into six types: collaborative projects, such as Wikipedia; blogs and microblogs, such
as Twitter; content communities26, such as YouTube; social networking sites, such
as Facebook; virtual game worlds; and virtual social worlds. Of these types, the first
four are most likely to be valuable for serious and purposeful group
communication.
How Social Media Help Groups
Until just a few generations ago, members of a group who wanted to communicate
with each other at the same time needed to move themselves to a shared physical
location to do so. Today, social media make it unnecessary for people to “transport
their atoms” like this. These media also facilitate communication within groups in
the several ways. First, they allow physically separated people to communicate in
real time. Such communication is called “synchronous27,” whereas interchanges
that don’t follow each other are referred to as “asynchronous28.” Just the “wow”
factor of seeing and hearing people simultaneously when they’re dispersed over
hundreds or thousands of miles can propel a group forward.
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
Social media also allow people in different places to collaborate on projects. As
information related to tasks emerges over time, people can sustain their focus and
attention on individual and shared responsibilities.
Social media permit people to keep contact with each other when they’re not
meeting formally. Electronic availability makes it possible for people to enjoy a
sense of proximity and familiarity with each other.
Social media enable group members to identify and collect information pertinent to
their aims. Visiting forums, blogs, podcasts, and other Internet sites can make it
possible for members to enlarge their understanding of the topics they deal with.
Finally, social media can benefit members by focusing attention primarily on
messages instead of “status markers” such as titles, age, and attire.
Communicating through social media frees groups from the constraints of place
and time that until recently used to apply to all human interactions. It can also save
considerable money and time that people used to have to spend.
How Social Media Endanger Groups
If you’re using a butter knife and drop it on your foot, your foot will hurt. If you’re
using a chain saw and drop it on your foot, you may become permanently disabled.
When it comes to group communication, social media resemble chain saws much
more than they do butter knives. People may fracture friendships, lose jobs,
squander opportunities, and wreck reputations through their use and misuse of
social media.
Groups may encounter many kinds of dangers when they use social media. For one
thing, social media can constitute a huge time sink. Nearly half of all Facebook and
Twitter users sign in to their accounts during the night or first thing in the
morning.Is social media the new addiction? Marketing Profs. Retrieved from
http://static.vizworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Social-Network-Map3.png, 2010.
Because these resources are so multifaceted and visually enticing, they may distract
groups from both their task-related and group maintenance functions. Trying to
select and learn to use social media can lead groups down blind alleys.
Social media also make it easy to distribute hurtful or dubious material.
Misunderstandings can spread quickly and widely via electronic media, and they
can be difficult to correct once people’s feelings have been hurt or enflamed. Even
just few intemperate words composed in haste, or comments intended to be taken
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
in jest but open to multiple interpretations, can create lasting problems within a
group.
Third, social media may drain the sense of “social presence29” from interactions
because they transmit people’s nonverbal messaging incompletely, if at all.
Last of all, groups using social media may leave dirty “digital tracks.” Nothing that
members of a group post to the Internet should be considered private, and
inappropriate messages or images can easily prompt criticism or even legal action.
Social media make it possible to transmit messages faster and more widely than
face-to-face communication can. At the same time, reactions to messages
exchanged via social media may vary dramatically because the media lack
“personalness” and are processed by each individual according to that person’s
circumstances and frame of mind.
Safeguards for Groups Using Social Media
To make the most of the convenience that social media offer while avoiding the
pitfalls they may present, groups should be careful how they operate. As a general
rule, it’s best not to say or do anything using social media that you wouldn’t do in a
face-to-face setting. Here are some specific steps your group can take to best
communicate via social media:
29. The sensation of being in
immediate, direct contact with
other human beings rather
than being distant in time or
space from them.
1. Set guidelines for how you intend to use social media. A full-blown
“policy” may not be necessary for small and informal groups, but it
never hurts to put something in writing that your group members can
refer to as they work or that you can offer to new members as part of
their orientation to the group. These guidelines should probably
identify ways in which social media are to be used to support group
members. In addition, a statement should probably be included which
indicates that all group members are expected to behave professionally
when using social media.
2. Check the privacy settings on the social media sites you use. Make sure
you know how much of your communication is shared with which
potential audiences. If you’re not sure whether a message or post will
be accessible to the whole world, assume that it will be and act
accordingly.
3. Monitor your group’s online “persona” regularly. Find out what other
people see when they enter the group’s name or other details in a
search engine.
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
4. Never divulge passwords from your group’s social media resources.
Though the likelihood is slight, someone with access to such
information could post objectionable content while posing as a group
member.
5. Take care to share messages and information with only the individuals
you mean them for. Pause, think, and look carefully before pressing
any “send” or “share” button.
6. Be sure you know the copyright status of any materials you draw upon
as you conduct your group’s business. If you’re not sure it’s legal or
ethical to borrow or copy a particular item without asking, assume that
it isn’t.
Real-time communication through social media makes it possible for group
members to gauge each other’s attitudes and feelings with some accuracy.
Responses to asynchronous messages transmitted via social media may not arrive in
a timely fashion, however. As a result, using social media to explore topics and solve
problems requires tact, patience, and flexibility.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Social media are pervasive and can facilitate the operation of groups, but
they must be used carefully to avoid causing serious harm.
EXERCISES
1. Identify two social media you or your friends have used regularly.
Describe a problem you solved while using the media.
2. Describe a misunderstanding you’ve experienced while using social
media. How might it have been avoided in a face-to-face setting?
3. Imagine that you and five classmates or work colleagues have
established communication via a social medium. What rule or guideline
would you adopt above all others to govern your activities?
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
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Chapter 1 Introducing Group Communication
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Interpretive Questions
a. What assumptions are present in transactional model of
communication?
b. How does our native language or culture influence our
communication or style of presentation?
2. Application Questions
a. Observe two people talking. Describe their communication.
See if you can find all eight components and provide an
example for each one.
b. Find an example of a model of communication where you
work and provide an example for all eight components.
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
1.5 Group Communication and Social Media
41
Chapter 2
Group Communication Theory
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES
1. List the family and social groups you belong to and interact with on a
regular basis—for example, within a 24-hour period or within a typical
week. Please also consider forums, online communities, and websites
where you follow threads of discussion or post regularly. Discuss your
results with your classmates.
2. List the professional (i.e., work-related) groups you interact with in
order of frequency. Please also consider informal as well as formal
groups (e.g., the 10:30 coffee club and the colleagues you often share
your commute with). Compare your results with those of your
classmates.
3. Identify one group to which you no longer belong. List at least one
reason why you no longer belong to this group. Compare your results
with those of your classmates.
“Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision. The ability to
direct individual accomplishments toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel
that allows common people to attain uncommon results.”
– Andrew Carnegie
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Chapter 2 Group Communication Theory
Getting Started
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
As humans, we are social beings. We naturally form relationships with others. In
fact, relationships are often noted as one of the most important aspects of a
person’s life, and they exist in many forms. Interpersonal communication occurs
between two people, but group communication may involve two or more
individuals. Groups are a primary context for interaction within the business
community. Groups may have heroes and enemies, sages alongside new members.
Groups overlap, and may share common goals, but may also engage in conflict.
Groups can be supportive or coercive, and can exert powerful influences over
individuals.
Within a group, individuals may behave in distinct ways, use unique or specialized
terms, or display symbols that have meaning to that group. Those same terms or
symbols may be confusing, meaningless, or even unacceptable to another group. An
individual may belong to both groups, adapting his or her communication patterns
to meet group normative expectations. Groups are increasingly important across
social media venues, and there are many examples of successful business ventures
on the web that value and promote group interaction.
Groups use words to exchange meaning, establish territory, and identify who is a
stranger versus who is a trusted member. Are you familiar with the term “troll”? It
is often used to identify someone who is not a member of an online group or
community, who does not share the values and beliefs of the group, and who posts a
message in an online discussion board to initiate flame wars, cause disruption, or
otherwise challenge the group members. Members often use words to respond to
the challenge that are not otherwise common in the discussions, and the less than
flattering descriptions of the troll are a rallying point.
Groups have existed throughout human history, and continue to follow familiar
patterns across emerging venues as we adapt to technology, computer-mediated
interaction, suburban sprawl, and modern life. We need groups, and groups need
us. Our relationship with groups warrants attention on this interdependence as we
come to know ourselves, our communities, and our world.
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Chapter 2 Group Communication Theory
2.1 What Is a Group?
PLEASE NOTE: This book is currently in draft form; material is not final.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define groups and teams.
2. Discuss how primary and secondary groups meet our interpersonal
needs.
3. Discuss how groups tend to limit their own size and create group norms.
Let’s get into a time machine and travel way, way back to join early humans in
prehistoric times. Their needs are like ours today: they cannot exist or thrive
without air, food, and water—and a sense of belonging. How did they meet these
needs? Through cooperation and competition. If food scarcity was an issue, who got
more and who got less? This serves as our first introduction to roles, status and
power, and hierarchy within a group. When food scarcity becomes an issue, who
gets to keep their spoon? In some Latin American cultures, having a job or earning a
living is referred to by the slang term “cuchara,” which literally means “spoon” and
figuratively implies food, safety, and security.
Now let’s return to the present and enter a modern office. Cubicles define
territories, and corner offices denote status. In times of economic recession or
slumping sales for the company, there is a greater need for cooperation, and there
is competition for scarce resources. The loss of a “spoon”—or of one’s cubicle—may
now come in the form of a pink slip of paper instead of no food around the fire, but
it is no less devastating.
1. The exchange of information
with those who are alike
culturally, linguistically, and/
or geographically.
We form self-identities through our communication with others, and much of that
interaction occurs in a group context. A group may be defined as three or more
individuals who affiliate, interact or cooperate in a familial, social, or work context.
Group communication1 may be defined as the exchange of information with those
who are alike culturally, linguistically, and/or geographically. Group members may
be known by their symbols, such as patches and insignia on a military uniform.
They may be known by their use of specialized language or jargon; for example,
someone in information technology may use the term “server” in reference to the
44
Chapter 2 Group Communication Theory
internet, whereas someone in the food service industry may use “server” to refer to
the worker who takes customer orders in a restaurant. Group members may also be
known by their proximity, as in gated communities. Regardless of how the group
defines itself, and regardless of the extent to which its borders are porous or
permeable, a group recognizes itself as a group. Humans naturally make groups a
part of their context or environment.
Types of Groups in the Workplace
As a skilled communicator, learning more about groups, group dynamics,
management, and leadership will serve you well. Mergers, forced sales, downsizing,
and entering new markets all call upon individuals within a business or
organization to become members of groups. In our second introductory exercise
you were asked to list the professional (i.e., work-related) groups you interact with
in order of frequency. What did your list include? Perhaps you noted your
immediate co-workers, your supervisor and other leaders in your work situation,
members of other departments with whom you communicate, and the colleagues
who are also your personal friends during off-work times. Groups may be defined by
function. They can also be defined, from a developmental viewpoint, by the
relationships within them. Groups can also be discussed in terms of their
relationship to the individual, and the degree to which they meet interpersonal
needs.
Some groups may be assembled at work to solve problems, and once the challenge
has been resolved, they dissolve into previous or yet to be determined groups.
Functional groups like this may be immediately familiar to you. You take a class in
sociology from a professor of sociology, who is a member of the discipline of
sociology. To be a member of a discipline is to be a disciple, and adhere to a
common framework to for viewing the world. Disciplines involve a common set of
theories that explain the world around us, terms to explain those theories, and have
grown to reflect the advance of human knowledge. Compared to your sociology
instructor, your physics instructor may see the world from a completely different
perspective. Still, both may be members of divisions or schools, dedicated to
teaching or research, and come together under the large group heading we know as
the university.
In business, we may have marketing experts who are members of the marketing
department, who perceive their tasks differently from a member of the sales staff or
someone in accounting. You may work in the mailroom, and the mailroom staff is a
group in itself, both distinct from and interconnected with the larger organization.
2.1 What Is a Group?
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Chapter 2 Group Communication Theory
Relationships are part of any group, and can be
described in terms of status, power, control, as well as
role, function, or viewpoint. Within a family, for
example, the ties that bind you together may be
common experiences, collaborative efforts, and even
pain and suffering. The birth process may forge a
relationship between mother and daughter, but it also
may not. An adoption may transform a family.
Relationships are formed through communication
interaction across time, and often share a common
history, values, and beliefs about the world around us.
Groups and teams are an
important part of business
communication.
�…