Mini Case:Campus Bikes
In Chapter 6 (Please see hw 5 description), you learned that Campus Bikes is a popular bicycle shop located near a major university. The shop sells several brands of new bikes, including everything from high-end racing models to beach cruisers. In addition to sales of new bikes and accessories, Mark’s service department is always busy. The staff includes Mark himself, a bookkeeper, two part-time sales reps, a full-time mechanic, and several part-time service helpers who assemble bikes.
Background
Until now, the owner, Mark Turner, kept the business records on his personal computer. He cre- ated a simple database to keep track of inventory, but it is not always up-to-date. He also developed spreadsheets to track expenses and payroll. The business has grown and Mark wants to install a new computer system to handle all business functions.
You are a lab assistant in the computer information department at the college. You earneda computer science degree at a two-year school, and you recently decided to work toward your four-year degree. Mark recently asked you to help him plan a system for Campus Bikes. You used an object-oriented approach to create a model of the business functions and actors involved.
Now Mark wants you to do a “make or buy” analysis. Specifically, you will look into the pros and cons of in-house development versus purchase of a software package. Your research indicates that the most popular bike shop package is offered by a vendor called BikeData.
In your last meeting, Mark said that tangible savings for a new system would be hard to measure, but improved customer care, better service department records, and increased productivity are expected. Mark estimates that these benefits will add up to about $3,000 per year, whether the system is developed in-house, or purchased from BikeData.
You decide to compare relative costs to establish a total cost of ownership (TOC) over the use- ful life of the system. Based on your research, you put together the following summary:
Costs for Option A: Develop In-house
- The system will have a six-year useful life, be very flexible, and easiest to maintain.
- It will cost $15,000 to develop, install, and configure the system, and $1,000 to load existing data.
Mark and the bookkeeper can handle day-to-day support with no added expense.
Costs for Option B: Purchase BikeData Software Package
- This is a vertical package with a four-year useful life.
- The software is less flexible than an in-house system and some customizing will be needed.
- It will cost $8,000 to purchase, $1,500 to install and configure, $2,500 to load existing data, and $1,000 additional hardware will be needed
Support is free for the first year, then there is a $2,000 annual fee
Benefits for Both Options: $3,000 per year
Tasks
- (30 pts) Prepare a detailed list of pros and cons of in-house versus software purchase.
- (20 pts) Calculate ROI for both options.
- (20 pts) Calculate NPV for both options. Use an 8% discount factor.
- (30 pts) Create one sheet word document for Mark showing the results of your analysis, including recommendations and reasons.
Chapter 8
User Interface Design
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
1
Explain the concept of user interface design
and human-computer interaction, including
basic principles of user-centered design
Explain how experienced interface designers
perform their tasks
Describe rules for successful interface design
Discuss input and output technology issues
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2
Design effective source documents and forms
Explain printed output guidelines
Describe output and input controls and
security
Explain modular design and prototyping
techniques
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
3
Goal of systems design – To build a system
that is effective, reliable, and maintainable
◦ A system is:
Effective if it supports business requirements and
meets user needs
Reliable if it handles input errors, processing errors,
hardware failures, or human mistakes
Maintainable if it is flexible, scalable, and easily
modified
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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
4
Will It Succeed?
◦ Suggestions for successful design
Think like a user
Carefully examine any point where users provide input or
receive output
Anticipate future needs and provide flexibility
Anticipate possible expansion
Offer several alternatives
Manage data effectively
System should enter and verify data as soon as possible
Input data must be close to its source
A secure system must include audit trails
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5
Users can design their own output
◦ System designers are more aware of user needs
and desires
Centralized IT departments no longer
produce reams of printed reports
◦ Customer-designed output is the current trend
The user interface has evolved
◦ Most user information needs can be met with
screen-generated data
◦ Continues to evolve with the use of mobile and
wearable devices
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6
Describes how users interact with a computer
system
◦ Comprises features that affect two-way
communications between the user and the
computer
Central to usability
◦ In a user-centered
system, the distinction
blurs between input,
output, and the
interface itself
FIGURE 8-2 Apple has long been a leader in creating
elegant user interfaces for its products.
Source: Apple
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7
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
◦ Describes the relationship between computers and
people who use them to perform their jobs
◦ Early user interfaces – Complex commands and
graphical user interface (GUI)
◦ Transparent user interface: Does not distract the
user
◦ Objective – To create a
user-friendly design that is
easy to learn and use
Figure 8-3 HCI is essential to employee productivity,
whether the work is done in a traditional office setting or
on a construction site like the one shown in this figure.
Goodluz/Shutterstock.com
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8
Understand the Business
◦ The interface designer must understand:
The underlying business functions
How the system supports individual, departmental,
and enterprise goals
Maximize Graphical Effectiveness
◦ A well-designed interface enables rapid learning
Think Like a User
◦ The designer must see the system from a user’s
perspective
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9
Use Models and Prototypes
◦ Designers can present initial screen designs to
users in the form of a storyboard
Users should test the design and provide feedback
Focus on Usability
◦ Include main options in the
opening screen
◦ Offer a reasonable number
of choices that a user easily
can comprehend
FIGURE 8-5 The opening screen displays the main options
for a student registration system. A user can click an option to
see lower-level actions and menu choices.
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10
Invite Feedback
◦ Monitor system usage and solicit user suggestions
◦ Determine if system features are being used as
intended by observing and surveying users
Document Everything
◦ Document all screen designs for later use by
programmers
◦ User-approved sketches and storyboards can be
used to document the user interface
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11
Create an Interface That Is Easy to Learn and
Use
◦ Focus on system design objectives
◦ Create a design that is easy to understand and
remember
◦ Provide commands, actions, and system responses
that are consistent and predictable
◦ Allow users to correct errors easily
◦ Clearly label all controls, buttons, and icons
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12
Create an Interface That Is Easy to Learn and
Use (Cont.)
◦ Select familiar images that users can understand
Provide on-screen instructions that are logical,
concise, and clear
◦ Show all commands in a list of menu items
Dim any commands that are not available to the user
◦ Make it easy to navigate or return to any level in the
menu structure
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13
Enhance User Productivity
◦ Organize tasks, commands, and functions in
groups that resemble actual business operations
◦ Create alphabetical menu lists or place the
selections used frequently at the top of the menu
list
◦ Provide shortcuts for experienced users
◦ Use default values if the majority of values in a field
are the same
◦ Use a duplicate value function, but allow users to
turn this feature on or off as they prefer
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14
Enhance User Productivity
(Cont.)
◦ Provide a fast-find feature
◦ If available, consider a natural language feature that
allows users to type commands or requests in
normal text phrases
Provide Users with Help and Feedback
◦ Ensure that help is always available on demand
◦ Provide user-selected help and contextsensitive help
◦ Provide a direct route for users to return
to the point from where help was requested
◦ Include contact information
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15
Provide Users with Help and Feedback
(Cont.)
◦ Require user confirmation before data deletion
◦ Provide an “Undo” key
◦ When a user-entered command contains an error,
highlight the erroneous part
◦ Use hypertext links to assist users
◦ Display messages at a logical place on the screen
◦ Alert users to lengthy processing times or delays
◦ Allow messages to remain on the screen long
enough for users to read them
◦ Let the user know whether the task or operation
was successful or not
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16
Figure 8-7 This menu hierarchy shows
tasks, commands, and functions organized
into logical groups and sequences. The
structure resembles a functional
decomposition diagram (FDD), which is a
model of business functions and processes.
Figure 8-8 The main Help screen for a
student registration system.
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17
Provide Users with Help and Feedback (Cont.)
◦ Provide a text explanation for an icon or image on a
control button
◦ Use messages that are specific, understandable,
and professional
Create an Attractive Layout and Design
◦ Use appropriate colors to highlight different areas
of the screen
◦ Use special effects sparingly
◦ Use hyperlinks that allow users to navigate to
related topics
◦ Group related objects and information
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18
Create an Attractive Layout and Design (Cont.)
◦ Display titles, messages, and instructions in a
consistent manner
◦ Ensure that commands and similar mouse actions
will have the same effect
◦ Require the user to confirm the entry by pressing
Enter or Tab
◦ Remember that users are accustomed to a pattern
of red = stop, yellow = caution, and green = go
◦ Provide a keystroke alternative for each menu
command
◦ Avoid complex terms and technical jargon
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19
Enhance the Interface
◦ Opening screen is important as it introduces the
application
The starting point can be a switchboard with wellplaced command buttons for navigation
◦ Use a command button to initiate an action
◦ Try to create customized menu bars and toolbars
◦ Add a shortcut feature that lets a user select a
menu command
◦ If variable input data is needed, provide a dialog
box that explains what is required
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20
Enhance the Interface
(Cont.)
◦ A toggle button makes it easy to show on or off
status
◦ Use list boxes that display the available choices
◦ Use an option button, or a radio button, to control
user choices
◦ If check boxes are used to select one or more
choices from a group, show the choices with a
checkmark or an X
◦ When dates must be entered, use a calendar control
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21
FIGURE 8-10 A data entry screen
for the student registration
system. This screen uses several
design features that are described
in the text. When a user clicks the
Find Student command button, a
dialog box is displayed with
instructions.
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22
Focus on Data Entry Screens
◦ Use the form filling method whenever possible
◦ Restrict user access to screen locations where data is
entered
◦ Provide a way to leave the data entry screen at any
time without entering the current record
◦ Provide a descriptive caption for every field
◦ Provide a means for users to move among fields on
the form in a standard order or in any order they
choose
◦ Allow users to add, change, delete, and view records
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23
Focus on Data Entry Screens
(Cont.)
◦ Design the screen form layout to match the layout
of the source document
◦ Display a sample format like MMDDYY and use an
input mask
◦ Require an ending stroke for every field
◦ Do not require users to type leading zeros for
numeric fields or trailing zeros for decimals
◦ Display default values
◦ Provide users with an opportunity to confirm the
accuracy of input data before displaying it
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24
FIGURE 8-12 Microsoft Access provides various input masks for dates, phone numbers, and
postal codes, among others. In addition, it is easy to create a custom mask using the
characters shown here.
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25
Focus on Data Entry Screens
(Cont.)
◦ Use a default value when a field value will be
constant for successive records or throughout the
data entry session
Use Validation Rules
◦ Sequence check: Used when the data must be in
some predetermined sequence
◦ Existence check: Applies to mandatory data items
◦ Data type check: Tests to ensure that a data item
fits the required data type
◦ Range check: Used to verify that data items fall
between a specified minimum and maximum value
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26
Use Validation Rules
(Cont.)
◦ Reasonableness check: Identifies values that are
questionable, but not necessarily wrong
◦ Validity check: Used for data items that must have
certain values
◦ Combination check: Performed on two or more
fields to ensure that they are consistent or
reasonable when considered together
◦ Batch controls: Totals used to verify batch input
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27
FIGURE 8-13 Microsoft Access provides validation rules can improve data quality by requiring the input to
meet specific requirements or conditions.
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28
Reduce Input Volume
◦ Input necessary data only
◦ Do not input data that the user can retrieve from
system files or calculate from other data
◦ Do not input constant data
◦ Use codes as they are shorter than the data they
represent
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29
Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO): Quality of
the output depends on the quality of the
input
Source document: Collects input data,
triggers an input action, and provides a
record of the original transaction
A good form layout makes the form easy to
complete and provides enough space
◦ Information should flow on a form from left to right
and top to bottom
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30
Order and placement
of printed fields
should be logical
Totals should be
identified clearly
FIGURE 8-14 Source document
zones.
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31
Questions to be considered before designing
printed output
◦ Why is this being delivered as printed output?
◦ Who wants the information, why is it needed, and
how will it be used?
◦ What specific information will be included?
◦ Will the printed output be designed for a specific
device?
◦ Do security or confidentiality issues exist?
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32
Overview of Report Design
◦ Organizations strive to reduce the flow of paper
and printed reports
Users find it handy to view screen output, then print
the information they need
◦ Printed output is used in turnaround documents
◦ Reports must be easy to read and well organized
Database programs such as Microsoft Access include a
variety of report design tools to create reports quickly
and easily
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33
Types of Reports
◦ Detail reports: Produce one or more lines of output
for each record processed
Can be quite lengthy
◦ Exception reports: Display only those records that
meet specific conditions
Useful when the user wants specific information
◦ Summary reports: Reports that provide
comprehensive data
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34
User Involvement
◦ Users must approve all report designs in advance
A mock-up, or prototype, can be prepared for the
users to review
Report Design Principles
◦ Every report should have a report header and footer
Report header: Identifies the report, and contains the
report title, date, and other necessary information
Report footer: Contains end-of-report information
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35
Report Design Principles
(Cont.)
◦ Page headers and footers
Page header: Includes the column headings that
identify the data
Page footer: Displays the report title and the page
number
◦ Repeating fields
Users’ opinion helps provide clarity
◦ Consistent design
Look and feel are important to users, so reports should
be uniform and consistent
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36
FIGURE 8-15 The Employee Hours report is a detail report with control breaks,
subtotals, and grand totals. Notice that a report header identifies the report, a page
header contains column headings, a group footer contains subtotals for each store, a
report footer contains grand totals, and a page footer identifies the page number.
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37
Output Technology
◦ In addition to screen output and printed matter,
output can be delivered in many ways
◦ Actual forms, reports, and documents have to be
created to be accessible from workstations,
notebooks, tablets, smartphones, and other devices
◦ Internet-based information delivery
Allows users to download a universe of files and
documents to support their information needs
Companies use a live or prerecorded webcast to reach
prospective customers and investors
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38
Output Technology
(Cont.)
◦ Email – An essential means of internal and external
business communication
◦ Blogs: Web based logs
Useful for posting news, reviewing current events, and
promoting products
◦ Instant messaging – Useful for team members in a
collaborative situation
◦ Wireless devices – Data can be transmitted using
the Internet across a wide array of devices
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39
Output Technology
(Cont.)
◦ Digital audio, images and video
Can be captured and stored in digital format
Can be attached to an email message or inserted
as a clip in a Microsoft Word document
◦ Podcasts
Used as sales and marketing tools, and to
communicate with the employees
◦ Automated fax or faxback systems
Allow a customer to request a fax using e-mail,
via the company Web site, or by telephone
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40
Output Technology
(Cont.)
◦ Computer output to microfilm (COM)
Used by large firms to scan and store images of
original documents to provide high-quality
records management and archiving
◦ Computer output to digital media
Used when many paper documents must be scanned
and stored in digital format for quick retrieval
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41
Output Technology
(Cont.)
◦ Specialized forms of output
Portable, Web-connected devices that can run multiple
apps
Retail point-of-sale terminals that handle credit card
transactions
Automatic teller machines (ATMs) that can process
bank transactions
Special-purpose printers
Plotters that can produce high-quality images
Electronic detection of data embedded in credit cards,
bank cards, and employee identification cards
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42
FIGURE 8-17 Input devices can be very traditional, or based
on the latest technology.
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43
Input Technology
◦ Batch input: Data entry is performed on a specified
time schedule, such as daily, weekly, monthly, or
longer
◦ Online data entry
Enables immediate validation and availability of data
Source data automation combines online data entry
and automated data capture using input devices such
as RFID tags, magnetic data strips, or smartphones
Fast and accurate, and minimizes human involvement
in the translation process
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44
Input Technology
(Cont.)
Examples of source data automation
Point-of-sale (POS) terminals equipped with bar code
scanners and magnetic swipe scanners
Automatic teller machines (ATMs) read data strips on
bank cards
Factory employees use magnetic ID cards to clock
on and off specific jobs
Hospitals imprint bar codes on patient identification
bracelets and use portable scanners when gathering
data on patient treatment and medication
Retail stores use portable bar code scanners and
libraries use handheld scanners
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45
Input Technology
(Cont.)
◦ Trade offs
Manual data entry is slower and more expensive than
batch input
Performed at the time the transaction occurs
Often done when computer demand is at its highest
Decision to use batch or online input depends on
business requirements
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46
Output Security and Control
◦ Companies use output control methods to maintain
output integrity and security
◦ Output security protects privacy rights
Shields the organization’s proprietary data from theft
or unauthorized access
◦ Security solutions
Diskless workstation: Network terminal that
supports a full-featured user interface but limits the
printing or copying of data
Port protector: Controls access to and from
workstation interfaces
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47
Input Security and Control
◦ Input control ensures that the input data is correct,
complete, and secure
Information should be traceable back to the input data
that produced it
Procedures must be put in place for handling source
documents to ensure that data is not lost before it
enters the system
◦ Data security policies and procedures protect data
from loss or damage
Companies should have a records retention policy that
meets all legal requirements and business needs
Audit trail files and reports should be stored and saved
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48
Modular Design
◦ Individual components, called modules, connect to
a higher-level program or process
Designed to perform a single function
◦ In a structured design, each module represents a
specific process
Shown on a data flow diagram (DFD) and documented
in a process description
Prototyping
◦ Involves a repetitive sequence of analysis, design,
modeling, and testing
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49
Prototyping
(Cont.)
◦ System prototyping
Produces a full-featured, working model of the
information system
◦ Design or throwaway
prototyping
Used to verify user
requirements and is
discarded
FIGURE 8-21 The end product of system
prototyping is a working model of the information
system, ready for implementation.
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50
Prototyping
(Cont.)
◦ Benefits
Users and systems developers can avoid
misunderstandings
System developers can create accurate specifications
for the finished system based on the prototype
Managers can evaluate a working model more
effectively than a paper specification
Helps in developing testing and training procedures
Reduces the risk and potential financial exposure that
occur when a finished system fails to support business
needs
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51
Prototyping
(Cont.)
◦ Potential problems
Rapid pace of development can create quality problems
which may not be discovered until the finished system is
operational
System requirements, such as reliability and
maintainability, cannot be tested adequately using a
prototype
In complex systems, the prototype can become unwieldy
and difficult to manage
Clients may want to adopt the prototype with few to no
changes, leading to increased maintenance costs later in
the SDLC
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52
Purpose of systems design
◦ To create a physical model of the system that
satisfies the design requirements that were
defined during the systems analysis phase
User interface design must be based on the
perspective of the user
Types of printed reports
◦ Detail, exception, and summary reports
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53
Various zones in a document
◦ Heading zone, control zone, instruction zone, body
zone, totals zone, and authorization zone
Input methods include data capture and data
entry
Security and control plays an important role
in designing
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54
Chapter 7
Development Strategies
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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Describe the concept of Software as a
Service
Define Web 2.0 and cloud computing
Explain software acquisition alternatives,
including traditional and Web-based
software development strategies
Describe software outsourcing options,
including offshore outsourcing and the role
of service providers
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or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2
Explain advantages and disadvantages of inhouse software development
Discuss cost-benefit analysis and financial
analysis tools
Describe a request for proposal (RFP) and a
request for quotation (RFQ)
Describe the system requirements document
Explain the transition from systems analysis
to systems design
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Earlier, certain work functions in the company
required:
◦ Development of software by in-house efforts
◦ Employing the services of external entities
Today, organizations have following choices
for software acquisition
◦ Application service providers
◦ Web-hosted software options
◦ Firms that offer enterprise-wide software solutions
Selecting the best development path is an
important decision
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Software as a Service (SaaS)
◦ Software deployment model that hosts an
application as a service provided to customers over
the Internet
◦ Reduces the customer’s need for software
maintenance, operation, and support
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Traditional vs. Web-Based Systems
Development
◦ Service-oriented architecture (SOA)
A way of engineering systems in which reusable
business functionality is provided by services through
well-defined interfaces
Technically, not software architecture but an
architectural style
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Traditional vs. Web-Based Systems
Development
◦ Traditional Development
System design is influenced by compatibility issues
Systems are designed to run on local and wide-area
networks
Systems often utilize Internet links and resources
Development typically follows one of three main paths:
In-house development
Purchase of a software package with possible modification
Use of outside consultants
Scalability is affected by network limitations and
constraints
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Traditional vs. Web-Based Systems
Development (Cont.)
◦ Web-Based Development
Systems are developed and delivered on an Internetbased framework
Treats the Web as the platform rather than just a
communication channel
Web-based systems are easily scalable and can run on
multiple hardware environments
Used for customer relationship management, order
processing, and materials management
Treats software applications as services that are less
dependent on desktop computing power and resources
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Traditional vs. Web-Based Systems
Development (Cont.)
◦ Web-Based Development
Requires additional layers, called middleware, to
communicate with existing software and legacy
systems
Middleware: Connects dissimilar applications and enables
them to communicate and exchange data
Open more complex security issues that should be
addressed
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Evolving Trends – Web 2.0, Cloud Computing,
and Mobile Devices
◦ Web 2.0: second generation of the web that enables
people to collaborate, interact, and share
information much more effectively
Enhances interactive experiences
◦ Cloud computing: Online software in which
applications and services are accessed and used
through an Internet connection
◦ Mobile devices: Smartphones, tablets, and other
computing devices that are not permanently
tethered to a desk
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Transfer of information systems development,
operation, or maintenance to an outside firm
The Growth of Outsourcing
◦ Service provider: Offers outsourcing solutions
Application service provider (ASP)
Delivers a software application or access to an
application by charging a usage or subscription fee
◦ Internet business services (IBS)
Also called managed hosting
Provide web-based support for transactions
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Outsourcing Fees
◦ Fixed fee model: Uses a set fee based on a specified
level of service and user support
◦ Subscription model: Has a variable fee based on the
number of users or workstations that have access
to the application
◦ Usage model or transaction model: Charges a
variable fee based on the volume of transactions or
operations performed by the application
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Outsourcing Issues and Concerns
◦ Mission-critical IT systems are outsourced if the
result is a cost-attractive and reliable business
solution
◦ Overseas outsourcing can raise issues with control,
culture communication, and security
◦ Reviewing the outsourcing firm’s history and
financial condition is vital
◦ Outsourcing clients can be affected by mergers and
acquisitions
◦ Employee job security is a major concern
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Offshore Outsourcing
◦ Called global outsourcing
◦ Shifting IT development, support, and operations to
other countries
◦ Reason – Lower bottom-line costs
◦ Risks and concerns
Impact on the economy
Project control
Security issues
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Software development options
◦ Develop own systems
◦ Purchase, possibly customize, and implement a
software package
Most important consideration is the total
cost of ownership (TCO)
Companies can develop user applications
based on commercial software packages
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Make or Buy Decision
◦ Refers to the choice between developing and
purchasing
◦ A company’s IT department makes, builds, and
develops in-house software
◦ A software
package is
obtained from
a vendor or
application
service provider FIGURE 7-8 Instead of outsourcing, a company can choose to
develop a system in-house, or purchase and possibly customize a
commercial package.
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Make or Buy Decision
(cont.)
◦ Software package: Obtained from a vendor or
application service provider
◦ Software vendors: Develop software for sale
◦ Value-added reseller (VAR): Enhances a commercial
package by adding custom features and configuring
it for a particular industry
◦ Horizontal application: Can be used by many
different types of organizations
◦ Vertical application: Developed to handle
information requirements for a specific type of
business
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FIGURE 7-10 Companies consider various factors when comparing inhouse development with the purchase of a software package.
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Developing Software In-House
◦ Satisfies unique business requirements
Not possible with standard commercial software
packages
Minimizes changes in business procedures and
policies
Installing a new software package almost always
requires some degree of change in how a company
does business
◦ Meets constraints of existing systems
Any new software installed must work with existing
systems
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Developing Software In-House (Cont.)
◦ Meets constraints of existing technology
The new system must work with existing hardware and
legacy systems
◦ Develops internal resources and capabilities
Companies can develop and train IT staff who
understand the organization’s business functions and
information support needs
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Purchasing a Software Package
◦ Lower costs
A software package is less expensive than the one
developed in-house
◦ Requires less time to implement
Packages have already been designed, programmed,
tested, and documented
◦ Proven reliability and performance benchmarks
Major problems would have been detected and
corrected by the vendor
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Purchasing a Software Package
(Cont.)
◦ Requires less technical development staff
Companies can reduce the number of programmers
and systems analysts on the IT staff
◦ Future upgrades provided by the vendor
Improvements and enhancements are included in
regular updates
◦ Input from other companies
Users in other companies can be contacted to obtain
their input and opinions
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Customizing a Software Package
◦ Purchase a basic package that vendors will
customize to suit project requirements
◦ Negotiate directly with the software vendor to make
enhancements to meet project needs by paying for
the changes
◦ Purchase the package and make project-specific
modifications
Ensure modifications are permissible under the terms
of the software license
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Creating User Applications
◦ User application: Utilizes standard business software
◦ User interface: Enables effective interaction with the
application
◦ Service desk or information center (IC): Provides user
support
◦ Screen generators and report generators: Allow users
to design their own data entry forms and reports
◦ Appropriate controls must be provided to ensure data
security and integrity
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Figure 7-11 Microsoft Access
includes Form Wizard and a
Report Wizard tools that ask
a series of questions and
then create the form or
report.
Source: Screenshots used with permission from
Microsoft
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Based on decisions taken by the organization
in the systems development process
◦ Current and future needs are considered
Evaluation and selection of alternatives is a
complicated process
◦ Forecasting actual costs is difficult
Evaluation and selection team: Selects
hardware and software, includes systems
analysts and users
◦ Ensures that critical factors are not overlooked
and that a sound choice is made
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Financial Analysis Tools
◦ Payback analysis
Determines the time taken for an information system
to pay for itself through reduced costs and increased
benefits
◦ Return on investment (ROI)
Percentage rate that compares the total net benefits
(the return) received from a project to the total
costs (the investment) of the project
◦ Net present value (NPV)
Total value of the benefits minus the total value of the
costs
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Figure 7-12 In this example,
the HP interactive TCO
calculator is used to
determine the ROI of
migrating to an
Infrastructure-as-a-Service
(IaaS) environment in the
cloud from a traditional
server environment
Source: Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.
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Cost-Benefit Analysis Checklist
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
List each development strategy being considered
Identify all costs and benefits for each alternative
Consider future growth and the need for scalability
Include support costs for hardware and software
Analyze various software licensing options
Apply the financial analysis tools to each alternative
Study the results and prepare a report
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Step 1 – Evaluate the Information System
Requirements
Identify key features
Consider network and Web-related issues
Estimate volume and future growth
Specify hardware, software, or personnel
constraints
◦ Prepare a request for proposal or quotation
Request for proposal (RFP): Describes the company,
lists the IT services or products needed, and
specifies the features required
◦
◦
◦
◦
Request for quotation (RFQ): more specific than an RFP
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FIGURE 7-13 Volume estimates for an order processing system showing current activity
levels and two forecasts: one based on the existing order processing procedures and
another that assumes a new Web site is operational.
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FIGURE 7-15 The three
vendors have the same initial
ratings, but the two evaluation
models produce different
results. In the unweighted
model at the top of the figure,
vendor A has the highest total
points. However, after
applying weight factors,
vendor C is the winner, as
shown in the model at the
bottom of the figure.
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Step 2 – Identify Potential Vendors or
Outsourcing Options
◦ The Internet contains information on all major
products and acquisition services
◦ The organization can avail the services of a
consulting firm that help companies select software
packages
◦ Online forums or newsgroups provide opinions and
ideas
Google Groups
Yahoo Groups
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Step 3 – Evaluate the Alternatives
◦ Existing users
Provide feedback about their experiences
◦ Application testing
Users in the organization may be able to test the
product
◦ Benchmarking
Benchmark: Measures the time a package takes to
process a certain number of transactions
Each package is matched against RFP features and the
choices are ranked
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Step 4 – Perform Cost-Benefit Analysis
◦ Identify and calculate total cost of ownership (TCO)
for each option being considered
◦ Study the conditions of use that come along with
the software license
◦ If a software package is purchased, consider a
supplemental maintenance agreement
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Step 5 – Prepare a Recommendation
◦ Evaluate and describe alternatives along with:
Costs
Benefits
Advantages
Disadvantages
◦ Submit a formal system requirements document
and deliver a presentation
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Step 6 – Implement the Solution
◦ Implementation tasks will depend on the solution
selected
◦ Before the new software becomes operational,
complete all implementation steps
Loading
Configuring and testing the software
Training users
Converting data files to the new system’s format
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System Requirements Document
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Called software requirements specification
Contains the requirements for the new system
Describes the alternatives considered
Makes a specific recommendation to management
Similar to a contract
Identifies items that system developers must deliver
to users
◦ Format and organize the systems document
Easy to read and use
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Presentation to Management
◦ Helps take key decisions that affect the future
development of the system
◦ Suggestions for effective presentations
Start with a brief overview
Summarize the primary viable alternatives
Explain why the evaluation and selection team chose
the recommended alternative
Allow time for discussion
Obtain a final decision from management or agree on
a timetable for the next step in the process
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Presentation to Management (Cont.)
◦ Depending on management’s decision, a systems
analyst will do one of the following
Implement an outsourcing alternative
Develop an in-house system
Purchase or customize a software package
Perform additional systems analysis work
Stop all further work
◦ Post presentation and management decision, the
project begins a transition to the systems phase of
the SDLC
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Preparing for Systems Design
◦ Systems design requires accurate documentation
Provide detailed specifications for output, input, data,
processes, and other requirements
Logical and Physical Design
o
o
o
Logical design: Defines what must take place
Physical design: Describes the actual process of
entering, verifying, and storing data
Logical and physical designs are closely related
•
Accurate systems analysis is required
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A new trend views Software as a Service
(SaaS), rather than a product
Traditional systems must:
◦ Function in various hardware and software
environments
◦ Be compatible with legacy systems
◦ Operate within the constraints of company
networks and desktop computing capability
Companies that choose to handle their own
software development needs can:
◦ Create in-house systems
◦ Commercially purchase software packages
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42
The systems analyst’s role in the software
development process depends on the specific
development strategy
The most important factor in choosing a
development strategy is total cost of
ownership (TCO)
Financial analysis tools include:
◦ Payback analysis
◦ Return on investment (ROI)
◦ Net present value (NPV)
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Acquiring software involves a series of
specific steps
The system requirements document is the
deliverable, or end product, of the systems
analysis phase
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