APA FORMAT & REFERENCE PAGE
In 3 paragraphs, discuss:
1. Why do infants and toddlers need responsive, continuous caring relationships with parents, families, and teachers?
Support your response by using at least 3 examples (one per paragraph) from this week’s required reading. (See Below)
Be sure to tell us where your information comes from, including page numbers when you refer to the reading.
child development
Re
l
at
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on
s
hips:
The Heart of Developm
en
t and Learning
National Infant & Toddler Child Care Initiative
U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services
Administration for Children and Families
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
The purpose of this module is to strengthen the content base on infants and
toddlers for consultants working in
ch
ild care settings.
Upon completing this module, child care consultants will be able to:
• Discuss the centrality of relationships in infant/toddler development.
• Describe the impact of relationships on a child’s social/emotional
development and learning.
o Describe how interactions form the foundation of infant
development.
o Describe the importance of caregiver/child relationships to child
development and learning.
o Describe the impact of positive caregiver/parent relationships on
healthy child development.
• Describe key concepts of relationship-based practices in child care settings
that impact the social/emotional development of infants and toddlers.
o Describe caregiver/child interactions that promote healthy
development.
o Demonstrate ability to coach a director or caregiver on the concept
of responsive caregiving.
o Describe the concepts of continuity of care and primary caregiving
as they apply to social/emotional development and infant/toddler
child care.
o Describe what is meant by the parallel process, including the child
care consultant’s relationship with the director or caregiver.
• Identify resources for programs or caregivers working with infants and
toddlers.
Relationships at the Heart of Development and Learning
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Relationships As The Context
For Development
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this module is to provide consultants with an understanding of how relationships contribute and support development and learning in infants
and toddlers. The module includes information on:
• The role of positive
relationships
• Theories of psychosocial development
• An overview of attachment relationships
• Key relationships that support development
WHAT THE CHILD CARE CONSULTANT SHOULD KNOW
The Centrality of Relationships in Infant/Toddler Development
The first 3 years of life are a time of amazing developmental progress. During this period, infants evolve from dependent newborns to toddlers
capable of climbing on cabinets, using language to assert their wants and needs,
and controlling impulses when they use “soft touches” with a new puppy. The
learning that leads to this remarkable development occurs as babies gaze, roll,
crawl, and toddle through their environments, enveloped in supportive, nurturing
relationships. For example:
• A very young infant learns that crying communicates her hunger
when her mother responds by nestling her into her breast.
• A toddler learns to say “Book!” when he crawls into the comfortable
lap of a trusted caregiver and hears, “You have a book! You want me
to read to you. Let’s see what Pooh is up to today…”
• A timid 2-year-old learns that an unfamiliar adult can be trusted
when a look at her father’s smiling face tells her he knows and likes
this person.
As these scenarios suggest, interactions between infants and caregivers are the
basis of children’s learning and development across developmental domains.
From the earliest moments when infants experience the warmth and closeness
of being held while being fed, the interplay of relationships and development
begins. Over time, and with repetition, the relationship evolves through ongoing
“All learning
takes place in
the context of
relationships
and is critically
affected by the
quality of those
relationships.”
(Norman-Murch,
1999, p. 2)
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interactions between the child and his caregiver. The relationships formed
with significant primary caregivers become the core context for the child’s
development—the “nurture” part of the nature/nurture balance that ultimately
defines whom the child is to become. Siegel (1999) states that “human
connections shape the neural connections from which the mind emerges” (p. 2).
Early Development Occurs Through Relationships
Infant development has been described as transactional (Sameroff, 1993;
Sameroff & Fiese, 2000) or as a “serve and return” process. That is, the
interactions between infant and caregiver are recognized to have a significant
influence on the developmental course of the child. An infant who smiles and
gets snuggled in return has received positive reinforcement and will smile again,
inviting additional nurturing responses from her caregiver. In such interactions,
both the child and caregiver are seen as active partners in the exchange, with this
“dance of intimacy” viewed as mutually reinforcing to both the infant and the
caregiver. Over time, these interactions offer comfort and predictability for both
caregiver and child, forming the basis of a nurturing, reciprocal relationship.
An important factor in these interactions is that the infant and the caregiver
are active partners in and contribute to the transaction. Both the child’s and
the adult’s personal characteristics play a role in the quality of the interactions.
Research has found that infants have “preprogrammed” social and emotional
TABLE 1
A TemperAmenT primer
Thomas & Chessa Program for Infant/ Toddler
Caregivers (PITC)b
Description
Easy Flexible Child is regular in biological rhythms, adaptable,
approachable, generally positive in mood of mild
intensity
Difficult Feisty Child is irregular in feeding and sleep schedules, not
easily adaptable, withdrawing, negative, intense
Slow to warm-up Fearful Child is low in activity, withdrawing in new
situations, slow to adapt, mild in intensity, shy
a (Chess, 1990)
b (Lally, 1993)
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abilities that invite and engage adult interaction (Kalmanson & Seligman, 1992),
such as a preference for human faces and the ability to recognize and turn to the
familiar voices of their parents.
A child’s unique personal characteristics also affect interactions and the
development of relationships. For example, the child’s temperament
(see Table 1) may affect how she engages with her caregiver. A child
with an easy temperament may engage quickly and invite positive
interaction on the part of her caregiver, whereas a child with a difficult
or feisty temperament may invite less positive engagement. The
effect of temperament on development, however, is dependent on the
characteristics of both child and adult, and is largely defined by the
“goodness of fit” (Thomas & Chess, 1977) between the two. A good
match supports the relationship and optimal development.
In addition to temperament, the presence of a developmental disability
or special need can affect adult/child interactions. For example, an infant
with Down’s syndrome may have a flat affect, resulting in behavioral cues
that are quite subtle and therefore more difficult for the caregiver to read.
From a transactional perspective, this can lead to reduced engagement
from his parent1 or caregiver—a circumstance that can result in fewer
interactions for a child who actually needs more responsive attention to
make developmental gains. In a similar manner, the motor delays often found in
cerebral palsy may limit a child’s ability to initiate an exchange with or respond
to his caregiver. This also has the potential to lead to an overall reduction in
caregiver/child interactions.
Just as infants bring characteristics to the relationship that may enhance or hinder
the quality of the interactions, adults also bring their own unique traits to the
exchange. Adult factors that have the potential to negatively affect transactions
between parent and infant include such issues as mental health status (especially
depression in the primary caregiver), substance abuse, domestic violence, a lack
of resources and support, and the adult’s own attachment model.
The family’s culture also plays a significant role in parent/child interactions. The
intimate work of raising babies is largely influenced by culture. Many aspects of
infant/toddler care and interaction vary significantly between different cultures.
Examples of practices closely tied to a family’s culture include many that are
related to infant/toddler development and learning, such as:
• Feeding and nutrition,
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1 In this document, the term “parent” is inclusive of all who fill the primary role of parenting, in-
cluding biological parents, grandparents or other family members, foster, step, or legal guardians.
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• Sleep patterns and arrangements,
• Positioning of the infant or toddler,
• Use of language and the parent and child role in communication,
• Values, goals, and priorities related to child development, and
• The role of extended family networks.
The Development of Positive Relationships
Relationships are a critical component of a young child’s social/emotional
development. The following sections provide an overview of critical aspects of
development that emerge in infancy, and are dependent on relationships.
Psychosocial Development in the First 3 Years: A Look at Theories
An infant learns to trust others through the growing predictability of
caregiver/child interactions and the emerging relationship between them.
According to Erikson (1965), the development of trust is an essential
step in healthy development. Erikson viewed psychosocial development
as a series of crises or conflicts that a person resolves in response
to interpersonal experiences at each stage. Erikson believed that the
resolution of these conflicts have significant impact on the child’s sense of
self. Two of these stages occur in the years from birth to 3 (see Table 2),
laying the foundation for the resolution of the conflicts that occur later.
TABLE 2
Age erikson’s psychosociAl sTAges 1 And 2
Birth to 1 year Trust vs. Mistrust
When a child experiences warm, responsive care, he will learn that the world is
dependable and good. He learns to trust his significant caregiver(s).
If a child experiences harsh interactions, or receives care that is not responsive to his
needs he learns to mistrust his caregiver(s).
1 to 3 years Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
As motor, cognitive, and language skills develop, the child gains the capacity to make
choices and act with increasing independence. Autonomy is nurtured when caregivers
respect a child’s emerging independence and exploration (within reasonable limits) and
provide opportunities for this important aspect of growth during a period of incredible
change.
A child who is forced or shamed in her attempts to exercise new skills may emerge
from this conflict with a sense of shame or doubt, rather than autonomy.
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Erikson describes the first psychosocial conflict as the development of
trust or mistrust. A child who experiences warm, responsive interactions
attuned to his own actions or needs will begin to trust his caregiver and
will subsequently apply his expectation of predictability and trust to later
relationships.
The reverse scenario is also possible. A child
who smiles but is ignored does not experience
a response to his behavior and subsequently
does not learn that smiling (or cooing, or other
communicative bids) will bring a comforting
exchange. This child may eventually stop
smiling to invite interactions and may learn to
mistrust his caregiver as a source of comfort. A
child who experiences unpredictable responses
or caregiver actions unrelated to his needs or
his own communicative bids—a relationship in
which the “dance of intimacy” is harsh or out of
sync—learns to mistrust others in relationships.
Erikson’s second stage is one in which the resolution of the conflict is
the emergence of either a sense of autonomy or feelings of shame and
doubt. The resolution at this stage is dependent on the development of
the child’s capacities and skills across domains, in the context of his
relationship(s) with key caregivers. A child whose physical development
allows exploration of his environment or objects, and whose cognitive
development allows success, stimulation, or discovery in the process
will gain autonomy from these experiences. If a child is restricted in his
activities or learns that exploration of space or objects is not allowed or is
“wrong,” his resolution of this conflict can result in a sense of shame and
doubt. Culture is an important consideration in this stage of development,
as different cultures may place different values on the development of
autonomy.
For each of Erikson’s psychosocial stages, the resolution of the conflict
is dependent on the significant primary relationships in which the child
is engaged. A key aspect of Erikson’s theory is that the resolution that
occurs in one stage of development is carried forward to the conflict that is
met in the next stage. As children emerge from these stages with positive
resolution to the conflicts, they are better prepared to address the conflict
of the next stage or to interact with others and their environment in ways
that support and promote healthy development.
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Attachment Relationships
The emergence of attachments between infants and primary caregivers is
also considered fundamental to a child’s development (Bowlby, 1969). A
central premise of attachment is that “virtually all infants develop close
emotional bonds, or attachments, to those who regularly care for them in
the early years of life” (National Research Council, 2000, p.
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0), and that
these attachments have a significant impact on development. Attachment
relationships are described as “secure” or “insecure” depending on the
nature and consistency of interactions between the child and his primary
caregiver(s). A secure attachment occurs when the child perceives “the
attachment figure as available and responsive when needed” (Cassidy,
1999, p.7) and provides a base from which the child is able to explore his
environment and manage stress.
Awareness of the importance of attachment relationships is critical for
parents and caregivers of infants and toddlers. According to
attachment
theory, the attachment model established with primary caregivers during
the earliest years becomes the child’s “working model” for the formation
of future relationships (Thompson, 1999). Thus, the nature of a child’s
early relationships has long-lasting implications for relationships, learning,
and development over time.
There is evidence that infants develop multiple attachments, typically with
those who are most responsive and interactive with the infant (Cassidy,
1999), and that attachment relationships are specific to the caregiver
(National Research Council, 2000, p. 235). Criteria for the development
of attachment relationships include: “1.) the provision of physical and
emotional care; 2.) continuity or consistency in a child’s life; and 3.)
emotional investment in the child” (Howes, 1999, p. 673). These criteria
indicate that infants may form attachment relationships with caregivers in
child care settings.
The awareness that child care providers may be identified as attachment
figures heig
ht
ens the importance of the relationship between the child
and the caregiver. Kalmanson & Seligman (1992) state that “relationships
are the organizing focus of all early development” (p. 47). If the
relationship is nurturing and positive, the child will seek out and respond
to the caregiver in ways that further her experience and contribute
positively to her development. If the relationship is consistently harsh and
unpredictable, the child may seek to avoid interactions with her caregiver,
thus restricting opportunities to interact and learn from and through the
relationship.
A secure
attachment
occurs when the
child perceives
“the attachment
figure as
available and
responsive when
needed”
(Cassidy, 1999,
p.7)
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Additional Theories Highlighting the Influence of Relationships on
Development and Learning
Both Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development and Bowlby’s
attachment theory focus primarily on the importance of relationships in
social and emotional development, with implications for learning in other
domains. In contrast, other theorists discuss interactions and relationships
as the context for development and learning across domains.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory identifies “interpersonal relations”
(1979, p. 22) as a key element in the context for human development. He
also identifies the interrelations among the child’s primary environments
(such as home and child care) as having an important influence
on development. The idea that interrelations across settings affect
child development supports the importance of maintaining effective
relationships between the child care setting and the family.
In sociocultural theory, Vygotsky (1978) proposes that development is the
result of dynamic interaction with the child’s social and cultural context.
He believed that learning is embedded within social interactions. A child is
guided through everyday experiences by those who are more experienced,
such as parents, caregivers, siblings and peers. Vygotsky emphasized
that the learning that occurs through social interaction is transmitted and
constructed through the context of culture.
Greenspan views “emotional experience as the foundation of intelligence”
(1997, p. 38). He describes six developmental levels of the mind that
show the primacy of interactions and relationships in both emotional and
cognitive development. In Greenspan’s theory, interactions with significant
adults (parents or other primary caregivers) lay the foundation for the
development of relationships, intentionality, purpose and interactions. This
progression is foundational to the development of the child’s symbolic and
emotional self. In short, Greenspan views interactions and relationships as
the basis of emotional and cognitive development.
While these descriptions are not intended to lead to a full understanding of
the theories, they are included as points of reference for consultants, and to
highlight the scope of developmental theories including relationships and
interactions as the context of child development.
The Direct and Indirect Effects of Relationships
Relationships are central to the development and learning of infants and toddlers
both directly and indirectly. At the level of direct transmission, children learn
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from their interactions with parents and caregivers. For example, cognitive and
language development occur when a child hears the word “book” from a trusted
caregiver providing appropriate language modeling. Social learning occurs when
a child references her parent’s affect in an unknown situation. A preverbal child
watches, practices, and internalizes the conversational skill of turn-taking through
the responsive interaction of an engaged adult playing Peek-a-Boo.
However, not all learning occurs through the direct engagement of parents and
caregivers with children. Young children learn much about their world through
exploration of their environment. This critical aspect of a child’s experience is
grounded in relationships through the avenue of attachment security. The security
of a child’s attachment influences his approach to the world. He may feel safe and
secure and approach his world with curiosity and engagement, or he may remain
anxious, fearful, or withdrawn from the opportunities his environment presents.
At this fundamental level a young child’s attachment model—formed through his
relationships with primary caregivers—becomes a key element in his exploration
of his environment.
In children with secure attachments, exploration of their world stimulates
physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development, providing an experience
base that supports learning and development. Children with insecure attachments
are more likely to experience a reduced sense of security in their environments,
with less exploration and engagement with people and objects. According to the
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine,
Young children’s relationships with their primary caregivers
have a major impact on their cognitive, linguistic, emotional,
social, and moral development. These relationships are most
growth-promoting when they are warm, nurturing, individualized,
responsive in a contingent and reciprocal manner, and
characterized by a high level of ‘goodness of fit.’
(National Research Council, 2000, p.341)
Regardless of the theoretical lens used to view infant/toddler development and
learning, the relationships through which the infant or toddler interacts with the
world and the people in it play a central role in setting the course of the child’s
development across the lifespan.
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Because of the critical impact of relationships on development across domains,
the status of an infant’s relationships with primary caregivers becomes an
imperative interest for all concerned with the healthy development of children.
Whether learning occurs directly from an adult model or through curious
exploration, relationships are fundamental to the process. Indeed, “human
relationships, and the effects of relationships on relationships, are the building
blocks of healthy development” (National Research Council, 2000, p. 27).
Advancements in research technology now demonstrate “the remarkable extent
to which nurturing environments and positive interactions build healthy brain
architecture” (Friedman, 2006). In other words, relationships don’t just support
development; they actively shape the architecture of the brain.
Interpersonal experiences directly influence how we mentally
construct reality. This shaping process occurs throughout life,
but is most crucial during the early years of childhood.
Patterns of relationships and emotional communication
affect the development of the brain.
(Siegel, 1999)
For these reasons, relationships are the heart of development and learning. This
makes the role of caregivers especially critical to the development of infants and
toddlers in out-of-home care.
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Key Relationships for Infants and Toddlers
The primary relationship for infants and toddlers is the mother/child relationship. “The security of attachment between a mother and her child
is more influential on early psychosocial growth than are the relationships a
child has with other caregivers at home or outside the home” (National Research
Council, 2000, p. 235). However, when an infant or toddler spends time with one
or more caregivers other than a parent, these relationships also have an impact
on the child’s development. Outside the home, the most obvious of these is the
relationship that develops between the child care provider and the child. Less
obvious, but also critical, is the caregiver/parent relationship. The following
sections address each of these important relationships.
Parent/Child Relationships
The parent/child relationship is the core relationship supporting a child’s
development. “Even when young children spend most of their waking hours in
child care, parents remain the most influential adults in their lives” (National
Research Council, 2000, p. 226). Both mothers and fathers play a critical role,
with the emotional quality of each relationship having a distinct impact on
development. It is through the parent/child relationship that infants
begin to understand their world across all developmental domains
(Parlakian & Seibel, 2002). Effective caregivers are aware of and
observe the quality of each child’s primary relationships.
Although it is clear that nurturing, responsive relationships are the
pathway for healthy child development, it is worthwhile to take a
look at the many factors that can affect the parent/child relationship.
As mentioned previously, child characteristics (such as temperament
and level of engagement) contribute to the “dance” between parent
and child. In addition to child characteristics, a number of parental
factors have an impact on the nature of the parent/child relationship.
For example, the relative economic stress or security of the family, parental
mental health or depression, and marital conflict can all affect a parent’s ability to
be attuned and responsive to a baby.
In addition, research has shown that the parent’s own attachment classification has
a strong association with the security of the infant’s attachment (George, Kaplan,
& Main, 1996; Hesse, 1999). This suggests that the parent’s attachment model
(primarily established during his or her own early childhood) has a significant
influence on his or her interactions with the infant. Another deeply embedded
influence on the parent/child relationship can occur when unresolved conflicts in
the parent’s own early history play out in his or her current relationship with the
child. Described as “ghosts in the nursery” (Fraiberg, Adelson, & Shapiro, 1975),
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these influences can have a significant effect on the parent’s understanding of and
interactions with the child.
Caregiver/Child Relationships
According to the U.S. Department of Education (Iruka & Carver, 2006)
approximately 6 million children under the age of 3 spend part or all of their day
in care with someone other than their parents. The U.S. Census Bureau reports
that 65% of all mothers return to work within the first year of their child’s life
(2005). These statistics imply that many infants and toddlers are cared for by
someone other than their mothers at a critical period of development. Although
the parent/child relationship will remain the primary influence on the child’s
sense of self and security (National Research Council, 2000, p. 235), it is also
true that “infants and toddlers in child care form attachment relationships…with
their child care providers” (Howes, 1998).
This information presents a strong argument for the importance of the
relationships that caregivers form with the children in their care. Social/
emotional development occurring during this period lays the foundation for
much of the later development the child will experience, and care providers are
in a key position to affect these psychosocial milestones. It may be important
for caregivers to reflect on their own attachment history and interaction style
because it is possible for adults to inadvertently repeat patterns of caregiving
from their own childhoods—even those they did not enjoy at the time.
Reflection can lead to awareness of what caregivers bring from their own
history to their current relationships, supporting the ability to consciously choose
positive, responsive interactions as the basis of their relationships with infants and
toddlers in their care.
Because child care providers lack the familial connection with the infant that is
inherent in a parent/child relationship, it is particularly important for caregivers to
remain aware of the child’s contribution to the bidirectional, or “serve and return,”
nature of early relationships. This means that the relationship is built on a series
of interactions in which the infant “serves” an interactive bid to the caregiver, and
the responsive caregiver “returns” in kind.
In a child care setting with caregivers responsible for multiple children, infants
and toddlers whose temperament or initial model of attachment leads them to seek
engagement and interaction (or who offer more “serves”) may command more
attention from caregivers than those who are less inclined to seek interaction.
Children whose temperaments or previous relationship experiences have led them
to expect less from interactions with others may, by their quiet, undemanding
nature, “serve” less and therefore receive less attention. Caregivers should be
aware of this possibility and seek to balance their attention among all children,
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to assure that all infants and toddlers receive the responsive interactions that will
nurture healthy development.
Parent/Caregiver Relationships
In his seminal work on the ecology of human development, Bronfenbrenner
(1979) identified the “interrelations between two or more settings” (p. 209) in
which an infant participates as a critical influence on the child’s development.
This means that, in addition to the adult/child relationships, the relationship
between the child care provider and the parent is also important to the
developmental outcomes of the child.
A positive caregiver/parent relationship can enable several important processes:
Continuity across settings for the child. A natural outcome of a positive
caregiver/parent relationship is open and ongoing communication.
Caregivers can openly share information about the child’s day with the
parent, and the parent can share preferences, new milestones, “what
works at home” tips, and so on with caregivers. This level of functional
communication supports continuity across settings for the child, which
makes her world more predictable and consistent. Discontinuities may
also be revealed, for example, if the parent mentions spanking a toddler
as a discipline strategy. In an effective parent/caregiver relationship, such
comments may open the door for additional conversations with parents
on discipline strategies that are used in the care setting—thus promoting
continuity of effective practices.
Caregiver entrée to the parent/child relationship. A positive caregiver/
parent relationship allows access to the parent/child relationship in a way
that would not be available if relations between the caregiver and parent
were strained or distant. Caregivers with concerns about the development of
infants and toddlers in their care are open to and respond to parent questions
about their child’s development. Caregivers can also observe the parent/
child relationship when the parent is on-site and may take the opportunity of
the “teachable moments” that occur when observations reveal parent/child
interactions that need support. If the caregiver/parent relationship is positive
and effective, the parent will be more likely to be open to informal parent
education such as this.
The parallel process. Although not a simple concept, the idea of the parallel
process is captured in Pawl’s lightly tweaked version of the Golden Rule:
“Do unto others as you would have others do unto others” (Pawl & St. John,
1998, p. 7). This statement implies that feelings and interactions from one
relationship can be carried forward to another relationship. As it applies
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to work in early childhood, this concept of parallel process means that the
relationship between caregiver and parent has bearing on the parent/child
relationship. If the goal of early childhood professionals is for infants and
toddlers to be nurtured through effective, healthy parent/child relationships,
one contributor to that outcome would be for parents to also be “held”
in nurturing, effective relationships with the providers caring for their
children. Through effective support of parents in their role as nurturers and
caregivers, providers—through the parallel process—contribute to the well-
being of young children.
Strengthening families. As described by the Center for the Study of
Social Policy (CSSP) (2007), child care programs implementing strategies
that strengthen families have been shown to reduce child abuse and
neglect among the families participating in their programs. In the CSSP
Strengthening Families through Early Care and Education approach, many
of the strategies are grounded in effective relationships between parents and
child care providers. For example, research has shown that strengthening
parenting through parent education, or demonstrating value and support
for families results in a reduction in child abuse and neglect. These
strategies are effective only within the context of a positive parent/caregiver
relationship.
Child care consultants should be aware that it is possible for parent/caregiver
relationships to err in the direction of extending beyond professional interactions
and becoming inappropriately personal. The National Association for the
Education of Young Children’s (NAEYC) Code of Ethical Conduct, available
at http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/ethical_conduct.asp, provides a
professional framework for establishing close and supportive relationships while
maintaining appropriate boundaries. Front-line caregivers with little training or
experience may lack awareness of the distinction between being a “friend” to
parents and maintaining a relationship that is built around supporting the child’s
development.
Caregiver/Caregiver Relationships
Infants and toddlers are sensitive to the relationships of those around them. This
means that the relationships between caregivers and other adults in the child care
setting have an effect on the context of care and the children in that environment.
An easy, responsive relationship between caregivers in a center supports a
relaxed, emotionally safe environment. On the other hand, tension between
caregivers in a room has a negative effect on the context of care and can affect
a child’s sense of security and engagement. Child care consultants observing
tension in a care room should work with center directors to implement practices
that support healthy relationships among caregivers.
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Other Key Relationships
It is likely that additional important relationships will exist for a child, depending
on family arrangements, values, and priorities. This constellation of relationships
contributes to the context of the child’s development. Such relationships may
include:
• Sibling relationships;
• Extended family relationships, depending on proximity and frequency of
interaction;
• Grandparents, especially those playing a substantial role in raising
grandchildren;
• Other service providers (e.g., if the infant or toddler has special needs and
is enrolled in the Part C system, key relationships may exist among the
child, family, and Individualized Family Service Plan team); and
• Peer relationships within the child care setting.
A related consideration is the number of care arrangements in which the child
participates. Many infants and toddlers experience multiple caregivers to
accommodate the schedules of working parents. In this situation, each setting
involves a unique and significant relationship for the child. Caregivers working
with infants and toddlers should be aware
of all key relationships in the child/family
network, and of how those relationships
support the child’s development and
learning.
As a final note on the many configurations
of relationships surrounding an infant or
toddler, it is important to also recognize
the consultant/caregiver relationship.
The parallel process described above
also applies to this relationship. “As
the consultant respects, values, and
understands the consultee, the caregiver
in turn becomes better able to respect,
value and empathize with the experiences
of the children for whom she cares”
(Johnston & Brinamen, 2006). Reflective
self-assessment on the part of the consultant may contribute to self-understanding
of this process (Parlakian & Seibel, 2007). The effectiveness of the consultation
process is largely dependent on the consultant/consultee relationship.
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Relationship-Based Practices
WHAT THE CHILD CARE CONSULTANT SHOULD KNOW
Relationship-Based practices are those methods and approaches used by early childhood professionals that support healthy child development through
the context of nurturing relationships. A fundamental consideration in such
practices is for all parties in the relationship to be open to getting to know each
other as individuals, rather than beginning a relationship built on assumptions and
stereotypes. Labels such as “parent,” “teacher,” “caregiver,” and others in this
field come laden with stereotypes that can stand as barriers to the development
of effective relationships. Seven principles define relationship-based work
(Bertacchi, 1996):
Respect for the person. This includes acceptance of both the strengths
and vulnerabilities of others. Across the program (e.g., caregivers to
parents, supervisors to staff) getting to know those with whom one works
is critical, as respect can only be sincere through knowing and accepting
what is known of the other.
Sensitivity to context. Relationship-Based work is built on the principle
that the environments in which an infant, parent, or coworker lives
and acts have an influence on, and are influenced by, each person. This
concept encourages consideration of such influences in interactions with
others.
Commitment to evolving growth and change. This principle recognizes
that developing a relationship-based approach within an organization will
require change and adaptation on the part of all within the organization.
Mutuality of shared goals. At the level of the caregiver/parent
relationship, this principle highlights the positive outcomes that can
occur when both partners in the relationship are mutually invested in
shared goals. For example, if the parent is focused on potty training, but
the caregiver does not feel the child is ready, the relationship between
the parent and caregiver will be affected by this discrepancy. However,
if parent and caregiver discuss and come to a mutual compromise on
goals for the child, their shared purpose will positively support the child’s
development.
Open communication. The process for open communication works at
both the parent/caregiver level and throughout the organization. Paths
of communication are open and accessible among staff, supervisors, and
center administration.
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Commitment to reflecting on the work. This commitment involves
setting aside adequate supervisory or reflection time so that the front-line
staff have the opportunity to reflect on their relationships with parents and
peers either individually or with their supervisor.
Setting standards for staff. In a relationship-based organization, the
values and ethics of the organization are known, openly defined, and
modeled by all within the organization.
In addition to these principles, child care programs can further support
relationship-based practices by explicitly articulating important program values
and policies. Routines and practices that allow caregiver flexibility to attend to the
individual needs of children and those that welcome and strengthen partnerships
with families will support important relationships. Policies that affect the
relationship between the caregiver and the child or family are also critical to this
effort. Child care programs should have well-defined policies about these aspects
of care:
• Responsive caregiving,
• Continuity of care, and
• Assignment of a primary caregiver.
The following sections will discuss examples of good policies related to these
concepts:
Responsive Caregiving
Responsive caregiving occurs when the caregiver observes the infant carefully and bases his or her interactions or responses to the infant on that child’s
cues. The three steps to the responsive process identified in the Program for
Infant/Toddler Caregivers (Lally, 1993) are:
Watch – observe the child for verbal and nonverbal cues.
Ask – after observing the child, ask yourself what the child’s cues mean.
Does the child want something at this point?
Adapt – base your response to the child on your observation and
interpretation of the child’s message.
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In responsive caregiving, caregiver interactions are contingent on the child’s
actions or interactive bids and are therefore individualized. Responsive care for
infants and toddlers “involves knowing each child and taking cues from the child
and the group about when to expand on the child’s initiative, when to guide, when
to teach, when to intervene—and when to watch, wait, and applaud a child’s
efforts and eventual success” (Lally et al., 2003, p. 35). Responsive caregivers
follow the child’s lead, rather than impose their actions on the child without
consideration of the child’s focus. In the words of Pawl & St. John (1998), the
principle is “Don’t just do something—stand there and pay attention” (p. 7).
The National Research Council’s Eager to Learn (2001), a book examining
school readiness and research on early childhood learning and development,
identifies the quality of early childhood experiences as a key component of later
school readiness. The authors conclude:
If there is a single critical component to quality, it rests in the
relationship between the child and the teacher/caregiver, and in
the ability of the adult to be responsive to the child. (pp. 20-21.)
Although difficult to implement as a policy, the practice of responsive caregiving
can be embedded as a value of the organization and supported through staff
observation and reflection, defining responsive caregiving as a job responsibility
on job descriptions, and subsequent evaluation on performance reviews.
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Continuity of Care and Assignment of a Primary Caregiver: Policies That
Promote and Affect Infant/Caregiver Relationships
Although responsive caregiving is a relationship-based practice that lies within the skill set of the individual caregiver, there are additional practices
that can be supported administratively through program policies. Two such
practices include the implementation of policies that promote continuity of care
and primary caregiver assignments.
Establishing a system of continuity of care means operating a program so that
infants and toddlers experience as few transitions in caregivers as possible during
their time with the program. The purpose of a continuity of care policy is for the
infant or toddler to experience continuity over time in a child care setting, thus
allowing the development of a longer-term relationship with the care provider.
One practice that supports continuity of care is mixed-age grouping. In this
practice, children ages birth to 3 are served in the same care room (at the most
stringent staff-child ratio). In this situation, each child remains with the same
caregiver throughout her first 3 years. Alternatively, programs can maintain same-
age grouping but keep the caregivers with the same group of children as they age
from the infant room to the toddler setting, and after. Because infants and toddlers
form attachment relationships with care providers (Howes, 1998), their healthy
development is best served by minimizing the number of relationship disruptions
they must experience.
Primary caregiving is a relationship-based practice that falls within the concept
of continuity of care. Implementation of primary caregiving as a program policy
requires that when an infant or toddler enters care, one caregiver is designated as
primary for the child. This caregiver will, to the extent possible and practical in
a group care setting, be the one to care for and respond to the child’s needs. But
primary caregiving “does not mean that one person cares for an infant or toddler
exclusively…” (Lally et al., 2003, p. 33); rather it means that parents will know
who has primary responsibility for their child. Primary caregiving assignments
support the development of the parent/caregiver relationship, as well as providing
an optimal vehicle for communication between home and the child care setting.
Program Challenges Related to Relationship-Based Policies
Although there is little argument that program values and policies supporting a relationship-based approach are best practice for infants and toddlers, the
reality is that these policies may be difficult to implement in infant/toddler child
care. Barriers to successful implementation range from concrete to attitudinal.
The principal challenge in the implementation of relationship-based policies
is the very real issue of staff turnover in child care. Frequent staff turnover
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is a reality in the field and presents a challenge to programs implementing a
continuity of care policy. Some aspects of controllable turnover may be addressed
by an organization’s taking a relationship-based approach, because through this
approach staff members are likely to feel valued and welcomed, and may develop
relationships that contribute to a positive work environment and job satisfaction.
For some staff, these intangibles may serve as the reason to stay in the field. For
many, however, the realities of long hours, demanding work, and low wages often
tip the balance in favor of leaving. Given the reality of high turnover, policies that
support continuity of care become even more critical, as they can serve to reduce
unnecessary transitions for young infants and toddlers.
Although not as tangible as staff turnover, attitudinal barriers can also offer
a significant challenge to programs implementing continuity of care policies.
Responses such as “But, I only work with the 2’s!” or “We’ve never worked that
way before, why should we start now?” can ultimately offer a more significant a
challenge than staff turnover.
Finally, the fiscal implications of some relationship-based practices may lead to
very real challenges in implementation. A primary example of this is mixed-age
grouping in which 2-year-olds, who can typically be served in a higher ratio than
infants, are kept at the lower infant/caregiver ratio to maintain continuity for the
child. The availability of infant care offers a related challenge. In most areas, the
need for infant/toddler care exceeds availability. Programs may be forced to face a
decision between maintaining continuity for the children in care and moving older
toddlers into larger groups to free up the much needed infant slots.
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