INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 1*
The set textbook presents a New Manager Self-test ( Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p.
4; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 3)
1. Complete the questionnaire and score yourself.
2. Write a short piece (100–200 words) about what you have learned from the
Questionnaire about your own management skills.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 2
One key factor in this week’s study is an analysis of an individual’s specific personality
and behaviour traits and how this may influence their communication skills in the
workplace. Within the Study Guide, you will discover that these traits are divided into
three levels. The third level is called post-conventional and these individuals are
described as following their own set of principles of justice and rights. They are aware
that people hold different values and they seek creative solutions to ethical dilemmas.
They demonstrate a balanced concern for individuals and for the common good.
Think back through your work or life experiences and name an individual who fits this set
of traits and write a short piece (100 – 200 words) on why you have chosen them.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 3
Consider the comparison between Theory X and Theory Y styles of management in the
set textbook (2018, p.65-6) or the New Management Seft-Test in the 2015 edition (p.49).
What is your personal experience of either or both styles of management in the
workplace, or in a club or organisation you know? Compare the outcome with reference
to Theory X and Theory Y.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 4
On page 159 of Cheney (this week’s required reading) you will find Figure 6.1 which plots
the intensity and intentionality of workplace incivility. Focus of the levels of intentionality
and describe some experiences you are aware of in the workplace where these negative
actions have been clearly targeted. It may be a personal or associate’s experience. Did
the supervisor take action or were they blind to the activities? Was there any positive
outcome? Write a response of between 100 – 200 words.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 5
In our key themes, we have identified workplace heroes and knowledge workers as
people who show exceptional qualities within the workplace. Identify some heroes and
knowledge workers you have experienced and write a short piece (100 – 200 words)
stating reasons why these individuals might be key members of work team networks.
Describe the qualities they display that may enhance the power and reach of this network
within an organisation.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 6
Take the New Manager Self-Test from the Samson, Donnet & Daft textbook, ‘Do
you have a gender and authority bias?’ (2018, p. 532) or alternatively, ‘Do you
know your Biases’ (Samson & Daft 2015, p. 469). Look at your score and write
100 – 200 words about what you learned about your own biases or, perhaps, lack
of bias
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 7
Comment on the table ‘Gender differences in leadership behaviours’ (Samson,
Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 624; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 610). Write 100 – 200
words about what you know about gender differences in behaviour.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 8
Read the section ‘Why do people resist change?’ in Samson, Donnet & Daft
(2018, p. 452-3) or the section ‘Resistance to Change’ in Samson & Daft (2015,
p. 460-62.) From your own experience consider one positive and one negative
personal response to change. Reflect on the reasons behind your responses
and reassess your choices
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 9
Read the ‘Management Challenge’ in the Samson, Donnet & Daft textbook
(2018, p. 449; 2015, p. 434) and answer the questions posed, then read the
Response to Management Challenge (2018, p. 481; 2015, p.468).
Does the response substantiate your answers to the questions posed earlier and
how?
INDEPENDENT LEARNING 10
Complete the New Manager Self-Test ‘Does Goal Setting Fit Your Management
Style?’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 280; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 271) and
check your score. What did you learn from doing the test?
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 11
This week we explore Scenario Building as a way of exploring what might happen to an
organisation struck by crisis in difficult times and through unexpected events. From your
work experiences develop a quick ‘sketch’ of two scenarios – the most optimistic and the
most pessimistic – in the event of a major crisis. What would that crisis be and how might
you communicate with stakeholders about this situation to minimise confusion or
disorder?
What contingency plans might be appropriate?
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 12
Focusing on the difference between publics and audiences, think about your own life and
work experiences and identity some publics you might be a member of – as a customer
or as a member of a social or professional organisation. You can also be a member of a
public simply because of your race, religion, sex or ethnic or national origin.
GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES
OPEN UNIVERSITIES AUSTRALIA
COM21
Management Communication
STUDY GUIDE
© Griffith University 2019
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photo-copying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written
permission.
These materials may only be distributed to students enrolled in this course.
CRICOS Provider: 00233E
iii
CONTENTS
Unit Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Unit Aim ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
How to use this Study Guide…………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
MODULE 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Week One: Management and Communication ……………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.1 Introduction: Managers in Organisations …………………………………………………………………. 4
1.2 Who is an Effective Manager? ……………………………………………………………………………….. 7
1.3 Strategic Management Communication ………………………………………………………………….. 8
1.4 Strategic Conversations ………………………………………………………………………………………… 8
1.5 Leadership, Management and Communication: A Symbiotic Relationship …………………. 10
1.6 Applying Key Communication Themes ………………………………………………………………….. 10
1.6.1 Cultural Ethos ………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
1.6.2 Adaptive Management Behaviours ……………………………………………………………. 12
1.6.3 Cultural Leadership …………………………………………………………………………………. 12
Week Two: Management Ethics and Social Responsibility …………………………………………………… 15
2.1 Your Own Ethics ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
2.2 Making Your Ethics Clear ……………………………………………………………………………………. 18
2.3 Ethical Decisions ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
2.4 Behavioural Traits ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
2.5 Social Responsibility …………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
2.6 Applying Key Themes to Communication ………………………………………………………………. 23
MODULE 2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25
Week Three: Evolution of Management Thinking …………………………………………………………………. 25
3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
3.2 The Evolution of Management Thinking ………………………………………………………………… 27
3.3 The Classical Perspective …………………………………………………………………………………… 29
3.4 Humanist Perspective …………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
3.5 Learning Organisations ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 32
3.6 Sustainable Development ……………………………………………………………………………………. 35
3.7 Applying Key Themes to Communication ………………………………………………………………. 36
Week Four: Communication Networks ………………………………………………………………………………… 38
4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
4.2 Workplace Relationships …………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
iv
4.3 Defining Relational Situations ………………………………………………………………………………. 41
4.4 Communication Competencies …………………………………………………………………………….. 44
4.5 Different Types of Workplace Relationship ……………………………………………………………. 45
4.5.1 Superior/Subordinate Relationships ………………………………………………………….. 45
4.5.2 Peer Relationships ………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
4.5.3 Problematic Relationships ……………………………………………………………………….. 47
4.6 Applying Key Themes To Communication …………………………………………………………….. 49
MODULE 3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 51
Week Five: More Communication Networks ………………………………………………………………………… 51
5.1 Communication Networks ……………………………………………………………………………………. 52
5.2 Network Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
5.3 Key Concepts In Network Analysis ……………………………………………………………………….. 54
5.4 Communities of Practice ……………………………………………………………………………………… 55
5.5 Inter-Organisational Relationships and Networks …………………………………………………… 57
5.6 Network Organisations ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
5.7 Applying Some Key Communication Themes ………………………………………………………… 59
MODULE 4 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 63
Week Six: Managing Communication and Diversity …………………………………………………………….. 63
6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 64
6.2 Valuing Diversity ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 66
6.3 Ethnocentrism and Monoculture …………………………………………………………………………… 68
6.4 Ethnorelativism and Pluralism ……………………………………………………………………………… 69
6.5 The Changing Workplace ……………………………………………………………………………………. 69
6.6 Minority Groups in the Workplace ………………………………………………………………………… 71
6.7 Communication Challenges …………………………………………………………………………………. 72
6.8 Applying Some Key Communication Themes ………………………………………………………… 72
Week Seven: More Managing Communication and Diversity ………………………………………………… 74
7.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75
7.2 The Glass Ceiling ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75
7.3 Cultural Ethos ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 78
7.3.1 Recruitment Initiatives ……………………………………………………………………………… 78
7.3.2 Career Advancement ………………………………………………………………………………. 79
Contents continued …
7.3.3 Diversity Training ……………………………………………………………………………………. 80
7.4 Indentifying Strategies for Awareness …………………………………………………………………… 81
7.5 Multicultural Teams …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 82
7.6 Applying Some Key Communication Themes ………………………………………………………… 82
MODULE 5 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 85
v
Week Eight: Managing Change Related Communication ……………………………………………………… 85
8.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
8.2 What Is Organisational Change? ………………………………………………………………………….. 86
8.3 Products and Technology ……………………………………………………………………………………. 87
8.3.1 Exploration …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 88
8.3.2 Cooperation …………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
8.3.3 Ideas and Communication Champions ………………………………………………………. 90
8.4 Changing People and Culture ……………………………………………………………………………… 90
8.4.1 Approaches to Implementing Change ……………………………………………………….. 91
8.5 Applying Key Themes to Communication ………………………………………………………………. 92
Week Nine: More on Managing Change Related Communication …………………………………………. 95
9.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 96
9.2 The Need For Change ………………………………………………………………………………………… 96
9.2.1 SWOT Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………. 97
9.3 Resistance to Change ………………………………………………………………………………………… 97
9.3.1 Force-Field Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………….. 98
9.4 Change Implementation Tactics …………………………………………………………………………… 98
9.5 Creating Environments for Change Communication ……………………………………………… 100
9.6 Glossary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 101
9.7 Applying Key Themes to Communication …………………………………………………………….. 102
MODULE 6 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 105
Week Ten: The Integration of Strategic Planning and Communication ……………………………….. 105
10.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 106
10.2 Goals, Plans and Performance of Communication ………………………………………………… 106
10.3 The Right Messages …………………………………………………………………………………………. 108
10.4 Criteria for Effective Goals …………………………………………………………………………………. 110
10.5 Applying Key Themes to Communication …………………………………………………………….. 111
Week Eleven: Communicating in Difficult Times and Crisis Situations ……………………………….. 113
11.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 114
11.2 Planning in Turbulent Times ………………………………………………………………………………. 115
11.2.1 Contingency Plans ………………………………………………………………………………… 115
11.2.2 Scenario Building ………………………………………………………………………………….. 116
11.3 Shaping a Crisis Plan ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 117
11.3.1 Prevention ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 117
11.3.2 Preparation ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 117
11.3.3 Containment …………………………………………………………………………………………. 118
11.4 Applying Key Themes to Crisis Communication ……………………………………………………. 119
MODULE 7 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 121
vi
Week Twelve: Understanding Public Relations ………………………………………………………………….. 121
12.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 122
12.2 Identifying and Defining Publics …………………………………………………………………………. 122
12.2.1 Internal Publics …………………………………………………………………………………….. 123
12.2.2 External Publics ……………………………………………………………………………………. 123
12.3 Prioritising Publics ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 124
12.4 Perceptions and Public Opinion …………………………………………………………………………. 125
12.5 Perceptions of the Organisation …………………………………………………………………………. 126
12.5.1 Internal Publics …………………………………………………………………………………….. 126
12.5.2 External Publics ……………………………………………………………………………………. 126
12.6 Women and Minorities ………………………………………………………………………………………. 127
12.7 Points to Remember …………………………………………………………………………………………. 127
12.8 Applying Key Themes to Communication …………………………………………………………….. 128
Week Thirteen: Where Have We Been? ……………………………………………………………………………… 129
vii
UNIT INTRODUCTION
UNIT AIM
Whether you work as a junior or middle manager or as the Chief Executive Officer, to operate efficiently
you need well developed management communication skills. COM21 Management Communication is
a second level unit in the Business Communication major that is part of the Griffith University Bachelor
of Communication degree introduced in 2012.
This unit will provide a detailed understanding of the principles of management communication and
develop the capacity to communicate effectively as a professional. There is a strong emphasis on
practical communication skills which will be framed within an unfolding theoretical discourse.
The unit emphasises key elements of communication processes that are vital to working effectively and
ethically in a global society. It will familiarise students with emerging communication issues and
strategies, and the challenges and opportunities these bring to any management task.
This Study Guide is broken into seven modules:
• Managers in organisations
• Evolution of management thinking
• Communication networks
• Communication and diversity
• Managing change related communication
• The convergence of planning and management in the face of crisis
• Understanding external communication.
On completion of this unit, students should have developed an understanding of the following core skills,
policies and theories:
• The role of communication in a manager’s job
• The Learning Organisation
• Communication networks and analysis
• Communities of practice and network organisations
• Valuing diversity
• Managing change related communication
• Implementing change communication and strategies for innovation
• Managing and communicating in crisis
• Managing team conflict
• Understanding external communications
• Managing perceptions and public opinion – internally and externally.
After successfully completing this course students will have developed a solid knowledge of the
principles of effective management communication and their application in the following key areas:
COM21 Management Communication
2
• Communicating as an effective manager
• Understanding the relationships between leadership, management and communication
• Understanding personal and organisational realities of management ethics
• Understanding evolutionary trends in management thinking
• Recognising glass ceilings as a metaphor for minority issues and discrimination
• Recognising ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism and their impact on workplaces
• Converging planning and communication in response to difficult times.
• Developing strategies for effective management communication
• Understanding meanings for Publics and public opinion.
HOW TO USE THIS STUDY GUIDE
The study guide is broken into weekly sections and the information regarding the set reading(s) for each
week is detailed at the beginning of each week. The textbook, readings and study guide are designed
to work together to provide a broader view of the topics being discussed. You will notice we have
included some ‘recommended’ rather than ‘required’ readings. These are for students who are
particularly interested in the topic being discussed and provide additional relevant material useful for
assessment tasks.
In COM21 Management Communication the textbook is:
Management, 2018, 6th Asia-Pacific edition, Australia, Cengage Learning written by Danny Samson,
Timothy Donnet and Richard L Daft
OR the older edition of the same textbook:
Management, 2015, 5th Asia-Pacific edition, Australia, Cengage Learning written by Danny Samson
and Richard L Daft.
Throughout the Study Guide, the relevant page numbers from both these editions of the same textbook
will be provided for all information that is quoted or referenced.
Please be aware that the Griffith University Library has the ebook of the 2015 edition of this textbook
only. There is no ebook for the 2018 edition at this stage.
It is available through Unibooks.
We have also provided a range of Independent Learning Tasks (ILTs) for each week. These tas ks are
designed to encourage you to take a deeper approach to your study and help you to explore the key
concepts and tangent issues. These tasks are also designed to work as an online tutorial that will build
your skills and understanding in preparation for completion of your major assessment items. The ILTs
are a compulsory part of your study and form part of your overall assessment.
We believe these ILTs are important in enhancing your learning experience and in providing an
opportunity for you to work with your peers. We have allocated marks for their completion. As you work
through each task, share your ideas with your peers on the Discussion Board. Don’t just post your
thoughts, read through the comments made by other students and respond to their ide as. This will help
you to see other perspectives on the topic being discussed and may alert you to ideas you had not
considered. The aim is for you to debate and unpack concepts with your peers. Your tutor will oversee
these discussions but will not be actively involved. They will provide general weekly feedback on this
3
work. They will provide marks and specific, private feedback on the 2 of the 1 0 week interactions
nominated by you.
In addition to your learning tasks you are required to produce a 2000 word essay (Assessment 2, due
Monday Week 7) and a 2000 word report (Assessment 3, due Monday Week 14). More information on
Assessments 2 and 3 are also included in the Unit Outline.
COM21 Management Communication
4
MODULE 1
WEEK ONE: MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION
By the end of this week, students will be familiar with some of the basic elements of management
communication. These include:
• Overview of the responsibilities of managers
• Definition of management communication
• Understanding the elements that create effective management communication
• Understanding the role of communication as the manager’s constant daily activity
• Understanding how leadership, management and communication share a sym biotic
relationship.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific
edition, Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 1, Chapter 17.
or
Samson, Danny & Daft, Richard L, 2015, Management, 5th Asian-Pacific edition, Australia, Cengage Learning.
Chapter1, Chapter 17.
RECOMMENDED READING
O’Hair, D, Dixon, L, & Friedrich, G, 2005, ‘Leadership and Management Skills, Strategic
Communication in Business and the Professions, 5th Edition, Houghton Mifflin, Boston. pp. 148 – 176.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 1*
The set textbook presents a New Manager Self-test ( Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p.
4; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 3)
1. Complete the questionnaire and score yourself.
2. Write a short piece (100–200 words) about what you have learned from the
Questionnaire about your own management skills.
Post your response on the Discussion Board and comment on the work of your
peers in the ILT1 thread under the link ‘Post your response to ILT1 here.’
COM21 Management Communication
4
* A NOTE ABOUT INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASKS
The Independent Learning Tasks (ILTs) are peer-learning activities and while your tutor will give weekly
feedback, it will be general in its nature and not specific to individual students.
The idea of these tasks is to give you an opportunity to practice some elements of analysis or delve
more deeply into some aspect of theory that will help you develop a deeper understanding of the Unit
content. It may also help you respond to your assignment tasks. The more you get involved with your
peers the better your collective and ind
ividual understanding is likely to be.
Part of your mark will be based on your own responses and your responses to other students. These
Independent Learning Tasks represent an important part of Assessment 1. To access all the information
on Assessment 1, go to your Unit Outline.
1.1 INTRODUCTION: MANAGERS IN ORGANISATIONS
In business, Managers are responsible for effectively managing, informing, mentoring, motivating,
coaching, instructing, supporting and reporting on all activities conducted by the organisation. All of
these tasks are driven by communication.
Making a difference as a manager today and tomorrow requires a different approach from yesterday.
Successful departments and organisations do not just happen– they are managed to be that way.
Manages in every organization pacemaker challenges and have an opportunity to make a difference.
Flexibility and agility are important new approaches and capabilities of managers and their
organisations. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 8; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 9)
Much has changed in the workplace over fifty years. Earlier concepts of traditional, hierarchical
mechanistic management structures, predominately using a top down communication style, are now
balanced by more organic structures. Organic structures tend to have a flatter management structure
and communications are often vertical, horizontal and lateral, allowing for a more creative response to
innovation across the organisation.
In reality, many contemporary organisations are a hybrid of mechanistic and organic management
structures and styles, modelled to fit the needs of the organisation and as a reflection of their work
culture. Nonetheless, the enduring notion that management is the process of planning and coordinating
work activities and tasks to be completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people
remains the constant principle.
Module 1
5
DISCUSSION POINT. Mechanistic organisational structures are pyramid shaped, with decision making
and power concentrated at the top. They have rigid communication lines with authority based on
position. Organic organisational structures have a flattened horizontal shape. Decision making is at all
levels. Communication flows are based on current needs. Authority is based on expertise. They are
fluid, dynamic and ever-changing.
Think about your own workplace experiences and reflect on which of those organisations were more
mechanistic or more organic in their structure. What did that feel like? How are they different?
*A NOTE ABOUT DISCUSSION POINTS.
Throughout this study guide you will find these discussion points. They are there for you to follow through
as a personal and reflective moment about the issue at hand. Sometimes they will direct you to specific
short reading or to a YouTube clip.
They are presented as an extra thinking exercise that will help you gain further insights into the principles
and concepts being discussed throughout the semester.
A manager’s responsibilities are many and varied, but include:
• Being the corporate face, representative or point of contact for an organisation or a work
team within an organisation
• Monitoring information and its flow
• Networking both internally and externally
• Entering into transactions and negotiations with workers, leaders and other managers
within the organisation to effectively coordinate activities
• Planning and scheduling work activities
• Allocating physical and human resources to different work teams and activities
• Directing and monitoring the work of team members
• Monitoring and informing human resources management activities
• Adapting to changing situations and unexpected events that may directly affect work flow
or the workplace
• Engaging with innovation within the workplace on product and management levels
• Remaining current within your professional or functional expertise.
Management can be defined as having four main roles. These are:
• Assessing and monitoring. The first task of a manager is to ensure that the current
activities of the organisation are functional and under control. Systems need to be
developed and monitored to ensure the organisation is meeting its current targets and
vision. Failure to do so can stifle any other future vision, goals and aspirations of the
organisation. Business runs on cash flow and day to day production and management
detail must be strictly adhered to. Monitoring operations is an ongoing process.
COM21 Management Communication
6
• Planning. An organisation needs managers who can set out its future goals and develop
detailed strategies about how the organisation may achieve growth. In these days of
globalisation and turbulent finance, this planning has become both regular and crucial to
securing the organisation’s future.
We are surrounded by stories of organisations that failed to make the right moves resulting
in their markets and clients moving away, either locally or offshore. In the age of
information, we see tastes and trends moving rapidly. Many times these changing trends
and tastes are predictable. Today, managers need to be more than content experts. Not
only do they need to be able to motivate, innovate, communicate and build solid workplace
relationships with their colleagues in order to succeed, they need to be across their internal
and external communication in order to be able to adapt quickly to changing business
environments.
• Organising. The current management ‘buzz’ is transactional management. This term
describes how the vision of the organisation transforms into processes, systems and work
activities that are going to be effective within the organisation’s available resources. This
responsibility rests with the Board, often developed in tandem with a small leadership team
from within the organisation. Their role is to fulfil the ‘big picture’, deliver vision and mission
statements, aims and objectives. ‘Organising involves the assignment of tasks, the
grouping of tasks into departments, and the allocation of resources to departments’
(Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, pp. 12-13; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 13). Managers work
with the leadership team and the wider organisation to transform that vision in reality
through negotiation and transactional processes, systems and work activities to implement
this vision.
These transactions, by necessity, may lead to the development of a new structural design
for the organisation or even the engagement of innovative management models resulting
in the integration of new work teams, either structured or self-managed.
The term transactional management implies and requires the constant engagement of
communication skills and models: messages sent and received, identification of noise and
interference, feedback techniques, emotional intelligence, active listening, an
understanding of non-verbal communication, together with an understanding of the
organisational culture. The many wider cultural backgrounds of employees also need to be
consistently and sensitively engaged. People from other cultures often work to a non –
mainstream set of social and workplace values.
• Leading. In any event, these innovations, new systems and processes are then fed back
up into the leadership team and discussed, changed, tested and ultimately verified. The
role of the manager then becomes the implementation of change, potentially establishing
or rebuilding teams towards the development of functional new systems and processes.
In modern organisations, change is the only certainty. Organisations run the risk of being
left behind in today’s global market and business environment which is ‘morphing’ itself
faster than at any time in human history.
Managing for change and communicating these changes is the challenge for modern
managers.
Module 1
7
1.2 WHO IS AN EFFECTIVE MANAGER?
The Karpin Taskforce, commissioned in 1994 by the Australian Government, details its findings in the
2015 edition of Samson & Daft (pp. 38-40). The vision statement of the report (Australia 2010) detailed
some key focal points issues for Australian managers. These provide a benchmark for Australian
managers to strive for and need reiterating in this Study Guide. They are:
By 2010, Australian Enterprises and their managers should be focused on:
• Knowledge
• The ability to learn, change and innovate in the new marketplace, as the accepted
manager selection criteria, rather than gender, ethnicity or even prior experience
• The learning organisation as a standard philosophy for many Australian
enterprises, and as a major way to cope with change and turbulence
• Managers creating conditions conducive to learning for both individuals and the
enterprise as a whole, both across individual units and between the enterprise as a
whole, both across individual business units and between enterprises and their
external environments
• Employees being more motivated and skilled
• Quality acting as a guiding light within all organisations, with a customer-first
mentality being all pervasive.
(Commonwealth of Australia Enterprising Nation, 1995)
Each of these aspirations for the management of Australian organisations has, at its core, the p ractical
application of communication skills and models. Indeed, the greatest asset a manager may have in
today’s business environment is not how well they can build a car, but how well they can drive
communication, build relationships, actively listen and apply their emotional intelligence to interpret the
best way to transport their organisation safely towards its vision and goals.
An enormous part of a modern manager’s role is the management of communication.
These aspirations guide the journey of this Unit. The aim is to guide you through a number of learning
Modules that should assist you as an individual to be a more effective manager and communicator.
Mintzberg states that ‘quiet managers don’t empower their people – ‘empowerment’ is taken for
granted’. He identifies the ‘quiet words’ of managing as:
• Inspiring by creating the conditions that foster openness and release energy
• Caring by not slicing away problems, but by preventing and fixing problems and knowing
how and when to intervene and mediate
• Infusing by challenging things slowly, steadily and profoundly, rather than thrusting
change upon followers dramatically and in superficial episodes
• Initiating by finding out what is going on in the organisation, connecting with those at the
base and all levels, rather than parachuting directions from the top levels.’ (Mintzberg
1999, pp. 224-230)
COM21 Management Communication
8
REALITY CHECK. Students should read the ‘Sharpstyle Salons’ Case for Critical Analysis in Samson ,
Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 43; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 44). This case gives a good insight into the
complexity of management and communication issues you will encounter in the workplace.
A NOTE ON REALITY CHECKS. These Reality Checks are designed to lead students back to real world
connections to ‘value add’ to this week’s topic. Sometimes this will be a case study or it may be YouTube
links or other media.
These Reality Checks are not part of any assessment, however we hope you gain some further insights
through participating in them.
1.3 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT COMMUNICATION
Communication is everywhere. It is everything we say, see, hear, feel, touch and feedback to others.
Strong messages can also be delivered through silence, posture, facial expression, language,
interference, misinterpretation and sometimes, mischief. We spend most of our lives engaged in all sorts
of communication in an effort to understand our lives, both personally and in our work relationships.
What makes management communication paramount is that managers must have a clear purpose and
strategy around how and what they intend to communicate. They must be active and adaptive in order
to make the message clear and concise. No matter whether the message is as simple as a health and
safety briefing or as complex as a discussion around vision for a multi-national organisation, the basic
premise is the same – your message must influence colleagues to act in ways that achieve the vision,
values and goals of the organisation. Your job as a manager/communicator is to keep everyo ne on
message. The aim of this course is to impart theory, skills and tools that will help keep you on message.
1.4 STRATEGIC CONVERSATIONS
It can be argued that once you are effectively engaged in management communication, every
conversation is a strategic conversation. If you are on message as a manager, it often follows that your
team workers are also on message.
It’s not that you have to be robotic in your responses. Indeed it is the opposite. You need to be actively
listening, using open and inclusive communication lines, engaging with others and integrating feedback
and innovative ideas into the organisational structure and culture.
Strategic conversations constitute the managed implementation or modification of vertical, horizontal
and lateral communication mechanisms with integrity and acknowledgement of the value of everyone’s
voice. It is critical for managers to ensure that these communication lines are open and supportive within
the corporate culture of an organisation.
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Many organisations have charts that lay out formalised communication lines. These lines must be
managed in the same way as the production line is managed – with efficiency and economy. Many
times work culture or (sometimes work overload) means that the formalised communication lines have
become dysfunctional. This may be because they are no longer appropriate to the daily life of the
business or they have become overpowered by personality, or perhaps they were never a true reflection
of how communication worked within the organisation. Unfortunately, this failure is not uncommon within
organisations, especially older ones.
Dysfunctional communication lines need to be addressed quickly. All processes need to be in balance
or manafers will risk leadership, management and communication issues that can cripple innovation or
perhaps even cripple day to day operation of an organisation. Each strategic conversation, at its core,
should aim to break down any barriers to effective communication.
Your strategic conversations should be inclusive of the more informal, shadow networks that happen in
every workplace without any formal structure or charter. They are the chat and rumour circles and they
are powerful. Many of the most creative and innovative ideas in an organisation are discussed in lunch
rooms, coffee shops, smoking enclaves or at the pub. Part of your communication brief would be to set
up appropriate systems within your organisation to harvest this information. Some managers see these
shadow networks as suspicious and, indeed, they can become a complaints’ club, but experience has
shown that inclusion and respect work just as well in the shadow networks as they do in formal ones.
People do change if they know that their voices are being heard.
Simmons contends that about 80 per cent of grapevine communications are on business related topics
rather than personal, vicious gossip. Moreover, from 70 to 90 per cent of the details passed through a
grapevine are accurate (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 724; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 708). This would
suggest that the ‘grapevine’ is a powerful and accurate force and must always be considered within your
strategies.
Another important element to consider is the use of strategic conversations to identify your knowledge
workers within the organisation. Knowledge workers are the natural allies of a communicator and
manager. Often, they are the embodiment of the workplace culture. They are most likely to be the ten
per cent who pass on accurate information and they are usually respected and listened to by their work
colleagues.
Knowledge is not impersonal like money. Knowledge does not reside in a book, a database, or a
software program; these contain only information. Knowledge is embodied in a person; applied
by a person, taught and passed on by a person. (Drucker 2003, p. 287)
Once you start engaging in strategic conversations with a clearly defined purpose, you will soon know
the state of communication within the organisation. An application of the communications models and
tools covered in COM 12 Business Communications will help you identify what is going on (or not).
People will communicate their position to you because communication takes up most of your work time.
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1.5 LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION: A
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Although Leadership, Communication and Management Communication have different definitions, they
must work symbiotically to achieve the outcomes of the vision and goals of the business.
Leadership Communication is fed by the leadership’s character and the organisation’s values. It sets
the emotional climate of an organisation and is an expression of its work culture. Leadership
communication involves itself with setting the vision and mission by letting people know where the
organisation is headed and what it stands for. It drives innovation by making people comfortable with
doing things differently. It defines a pathway to success for people to follow. It places people within the
mission, culture and values of the organisation.
Management Communication has been defined as ‘purpose-directed, in that it directs everyone’s
attention towards the vision, values and desired goals of the team or organisation and influences to act
in a way to achieve those goals. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 703; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 687)
Management Communication involves the implementation of the vision of an organisation as expressed
through its mission statement and strategy plan by the practical application of negotiating and
transacting communication skills. It involves relationship and network building as instruments to benefit
the organisation, workers and other stakeholders.
Leadership Communication and Management Communication by definition must inform each other to
be effective. If the vision is unachievable or the transactions to achieve it are unworkable, the
organisation is headed for turbulent times. Clear, consistent communication is the best way to ensure
the success of an organisation.
It sounds simple enough but many managers find it daunting. Dealing with embedded work cultures,
difficult leadership and management styles, the politics of power, a lack of established networks, poor
morale, poor or out-dated policies and work practice and the inevitable fear of change – all go to make
management communication the biggest challenge facing managers today in our global marketplace in
our turbulent times.
1.6 APPLYING KEY COMMUNICATION THEMES
At the end of each week, we will regularly return to the key management and communication themes in
order to discuss them in the context of the week’s topic. This week we are setting up the base -line
information about these key communication themes.
1.6.1 CULTURAL ETHOS
Every organisation, whether a business enterprise or a Not for Profit (NFP), establishes a corporate
identity or more simply, a public face, in order to position itself within the relevant sector of its chosen
field of operation. This public face is built from the first basic decisions which become the foundational
building blocks of the organisation. These include, but are not limited to, the selection of a business
name, the product or services the organisation will provide, the extent of its operation (local, national or
transnational), the number and type of staff required, its suppliers and target market.
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The style of management and the nature of relationships across internal and external stakeholders will
often emerge from the constant processes of negotiation and exchange that characterised or governed
the organisation’s early struggles to become a viable business or reputable service.
According to the economist John Kay, there are several main sources of distinctive capabilities that help
us understand the positioning and operations of a company: its architecture, reputation, innovation and
the ability to exploit strategic assets (Kay 1993, p. 65). This architecture is based on its operational
structure, its internal culture and the special knowledge that have been built through past and present
activities, its personnel, products and business practice.
This structural identity is also expressed in a series of networks of internal and external relationships,
between companies, government and social institutions, and also between individual players (staff,
clients, collaborators) that create long-term value (Galligan 2007, pp. 34-5).
Across every level of an organisation’s structure, complex communication initiatives and negotiations
are required and an organisation cannot succeed, will not build a recognised niche for itself or its
products and/or services, if effective communication strategies are not employed. This is such a basic
truism that it is too often neglected in Management and Business theory.
Since it is essential for an organisation to manage its operations and this requires relaying and
responding to information of various orders of complexity, it is expected that staff know the best way of
doing this. This can be a dangerous assumption.
However, the first step in understanding management communication processes is in understanding
how the organization speaks or communicates about itself. This dialectic of the organization, which
might at first glance seem straight forward, can combine quite complex elements of business,
professional, aesthetic and economic objectives.
The language an organisation adopts to speak its position becomes embedded in its history and its own
organisational culture. A legal firm such as Clewitt, Whithall and Associates aims to present a
professional, prestigious service to its public, whereas a litigation law firm such as Trilby Misso or Shine
Lawyers positions itself to assist a more financially challenged clientele. Bob Jane TMart, with the
smiling, capable but approachable face of the proprietor sends a message of reliability and reassurance.
The choice of a name, symbol, logo or colour can immediately communicate a powerful message which
is reinforced or adapted as the history of that organization unfolds.
These languages can become a powerful mechanism to build a reputation, legitimacy and professional
credibility for the organization and for its products. It will also impact the internal dialogue and daily
routines affecting the behaviour and conversations between management and staff, between peers
and colleagues. It helps to build the cultural ethos of an organization which, over time, can become a
major strategic asset of the company (Kay 1993, p. 65; Galligan 2007, p. 35).
An expressive organisation takes advantage of its corporate language to engage its stakeholders, and
here we will focus on the internal network, in an ongoing conversation. Mobilising the specific histories
and stories of people and events, challenges and triumphs is an incredibly creative way of engaging
staff as players in the unfolding organisational operations. It can inspire and motivate, establish or
redefine boundaries, instil pride and workplace security.
The Mission Statement, Annual Report or company newsletter provides an opportunity for an
organisation to express its story, its vision, goals and aspirations. The choice of language in these
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statements or narratives needs to be carefully selected because key words and phrases can form a
long term dialogue among staff and across its multiple publics. It is a major building block of an
organisational culture which infuses its behaviour, relationships and dialogue (stories, symbols,
languages), policies and procedures.
1.6.2 ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT BEHAVIOURS
Managers who display real care about their customers and employees and have a strong commitment
to the value of people and fair and equitable processes within their internal and external work
environments are considered to be adaptive managers. It seems obvious that they will find it easier to
transact, negotiate and communicate more effectively because they respect others’ viewpoints and trust
their expertise. This is particularly true in turbulent times and in response to unexpected events when
managers often have to ask employees to take on the extra load.
Managers who are insular and who misuse power, politics and ‘the system’ to distance themselves from
their clients and employees are termed maladaptive managers. They are often risk-averse and care
mainly about themselves and their immediate clique. Innovative ideas and change are ‘not their friends’.
We may refer in the Unit to adaptive or maladaptive behaviours if referring to an individual manager, or
as an adaptive or maladaptive culture if referring to an entire organisation.
1.6.3 CULTURAL LEADERSHIP
Managers transact all their outcomes entirely within the internal culture of their organisation. Often
successful navigation of work culture by managers is their unique advantage over their competitors and
is often measurable in cheaper prices, better service, quicker turnaround times and returning customers.
These days managers not only have to be content experts, they need to negotiate with their internal
networks to make multiple transactions within the organisation. These transactions should not only fit
into its very distinctive and certainly ingrained work culture, but also meet the needs of the external
client base.
In its widest definition, culture is a set of key values, beliefs, understandings and norms common to a
group of people within an environment. Work Culture is all of that applied to an organisation.
Culture can be seen on a visible level – dress, symbols, slogans, ceremonies. It can be as apparent as
the office layout. It is a mistake though, for a manager to be complacent with a ‘she’ll be right, that’s
how it’s always worked here’ attitude, because culture is usually embedded within any workplace
through shared values, underlying assumptions and often, deeply felt beliefs.
The workplace culture sets the emotional temperature of an organisation. We have all had experiences
of workplaces that are angry and maladaptive, as well as places where respect and inclusion make it a
pleasure to go to work. This is culture at work.
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Culture generally works through a set of mechanisms. These are:
• Symbols. Objects, acts or events that convey a specific meaning to others. This can be
as simple as ‘Employee of the Month’ or a ‘Bloopers’ Trophy. It must be real and it must
be genuine and meaningful.
• Stories. ‘Celebrating every victory no matter how small’ is a good way of incorporating a
narrative into the workplace. Storytelling is a great way of enshrining values and beliefs
and testing underlying assumptions. Team or staff meetings and newsletters are good
places to honour these stories.
• Heroes. People who are well known and respected within an organisation and who are
considered to display the set of attributes and attitudes that reflect the corporate culture of
an organisation are its heroes. Often the hero is the founder, inventor or salesman,
someone who has made a breakthrough in tough times – sometimes even the tea lady can
be a hero.
• Slogans. This applies to a set of words and phrases that express shared workplace values.
This can be as glib as ‘Woolworths the Fresh Food People’, or it can be as focused as
‘Marketing – the Overachievers’ to signify shared values with the rest of the organisation.
In every case, they are most effective when they are true.
• Ceremonies. A significant event that reinforces shared values and acknowledges the key
participation of employees. It might be an awards presentation at the Christmas Party or
it may be a ten year service pin. A celebration should be made so that respect and
acknowledgement are the messages sent.
Good managers use all of these opportunities as ways of communicating value, respect, inclusion and
acknowledgement.
Managers may be described as effective cultural leaders when they are using a full set of words,
symbols, stories, slogans, heroes and ceremonies within their communication with others. In reality,
anyone who defines and communicates the core values of an organisation is a cultural leader. The role
of the manager is to keep the focus on this shared vision as part of everyone’s everyday activity.
MORE THOUGHTS
Communication, in all its forms, is the human face of an organisation. It is its thoughts, words, symbols,
signs, body language, tone and message. As managers, innovation and change starts internally with
our own thoughts and feelings, then those of our work colleagues and on to the outside world.
It is all about what people see, hear and feel in, and about, their workplace. It is how they interpret and
understand your messages that will inform their opinions and actions. Your success as a manager will
be in direct relation to your ability to use communication tools to make your message understood and
accepted – first time, every time.
Good management is the art of making problems so interesting and their solutions so
constructive that everyone wants to get to work and deal with them. (Hawken et al, 1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Drucker, P F, 2003, The Essential Drucker, Harper Business, New York.
Commonwealth of Australia, 1995, Enterprising Nation: Report of the Industry Task Force on
Leadership and Management Skills, http://www.aim.com.au/research/EN_ReportonSkills
Galligan, Anne, 2007, ‘Structure and Strategies: The Publishing Industry in Australia’, Making Books:
Contemporary Australian Publishing, St Lucia Brisbane, UQP.
Kay, John, 1993, Foundations of Corporate Success, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Hawken, Paul, Lovins, Amory B & Lovins, L Hunter, 1999, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next
Industrial Revolution. Little, Brown & Company, United States.
Mintzberg, H, 1999, ‘Managing quietly’, Leader to Leader, Vol 12, pp. 224-230.
Robbins, S P, Judge, T A, Millett, B & Walters-Marsh, T, 2008, Organisational Behaviour, 5th Edition,
Pearson Education, Australia.
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition, Australia,
Cengage Learning..
Samson, Danny & Daft, Richard L, 2015, Management, 5th Asian-Pacific edition, Australia, Cengage Learning.
http://www.aim.com.au/research/EN_ReportonSkills
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WEEK TWO: MANAGEMENT ETHICS AND SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
By the end of this week, students will be familiar with issues concerning ethics and social
responsibility. This will include:
• Issues concerning your personal ethics
• Setting ethical standards
• Frameworks for the consideration of ethical decision making
• Issues concerning social responsibilities
• Review of ethics and social responsibility within an organisation’s cultural context.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific
edition, Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 5.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R. L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia Pacific Edition, Australia Cengage
Learning. Chapter 5.
RECOMMENDED READING
Trevino, L K & Nelson, K A, 2011, Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How
To Do It Right, 5th Edition, Chapter 5, John Wiley & Sons, USA. pp. 292–319.
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INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 2
One key factor in this week’s study is an analysis of an individual’s specific personality
and behaviour traits and how this may influence their communication skills in the
workplace. Within the Study Guide, you will discover that these traits are divided into
three levels. The third level is called post-conventional and these individuals are
described as following their own set of principles of justice and rights. They are aware
that people hold different values and they seek creative solutions to ethical dilemmas.
They demonstrate a balanced concern for individuals and for the common good.
Think back through your work or life experiences and name an individual who fits this set
of traits and write a short piece (100 – 200 words) on why you have chosen them.
Post your response to the Discussion Board and comment on the work of your
peers under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT2 here’.
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2.1 YOUR OWN ETHICS
What does it take to grow good flowers, fruit and vegetables? It takes good soil, and that’s what
a manager tries to create by being sensitive, nurturing, and trying to bring out the best in people.
(Grosman qtd in Samson & Daft 2012, p.19)
Today, you will hear CEOs taking about the triple bottom line. It is one of those much -heard
catchphrases that may have lost meaning through overuse. Yet it is an important facet of any
progressive business environment.
It involves the development of reporting mechanisms that measure performance from three
perspectives: economic, social and environmental. Progressive managers are required to not only look
to the organisation’s specific product and its production costs, growth and profit, but to their
organisation’s ethical and social and environmental responsibilities. To use another, perhaps
hackneyed, term – organisations are expected to be good corporate citizens.
The notion that organisations may be held accountable for their ethical, social and environmental
responsibilities represents a major point of change from traditional, more mechanistic models. Certainly,
it would have been laughable fifty years ago to hold a company liable for things like pulling out
mangroves and destroying fish habitats at a local level or, indeed, global warming on a planetary level.
Oil spills, coal dust and asbestos issues were never considered as the responsibility of businesses –
except by a very small percentage of the population who were mostly considered eccentric. They were
just things that happened. Such destructive and wasteful environmental fallout was a n accepted
consequence of the expansion of business production.
The world has changed. Web 2.0, social media and 24 hour global news cycles have given the public
an opportunity to hear and see social and environmental events live to air and, more importan tly, see
and hear them over and over again. Additionally, we are all better educated and more articulate
thanmany of our forebears. This brings with it an ability to seek out real information and deconstruct the
spin that surrounds events and misadventure that only adds to the cynicism about the motives of
corporations.
Worldwide movements like Occupy Wall Street and its many offshoots highlight this unrest and
disappointment with the corporate world’s failure to meet their ethical and social responsibilit ies and it
is not particularly difficult to proffer compelling evidence to these failures. It surrounds us all in the media
every day.
Yet that is not the full story.
Many managers today seek to embrace change and, though they may not be aware of it, sit comfortably
within Ghandi’s philosophy of ‘be the change you want to see’.
This week’s study is about putting aside negatives such as conspicuous corporate greed, exploitation
of third world counties on a global level and the rise of fixed contracts and casualization on a local level.
We will be looking at how managers can integrate sound ethical and social responsibilities into their
systems and processes, and how they may use communication techniques to deliver fairer outcomes
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– internally and externally, locally and globally. Some fairer outcomes might include resolving equity
issues within a workplace internally; being a good corporate citizen and meeting community needs
externally; being environmentally responsible locally and making an effort to cut greenhouse gas
emissions globally.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to YouTube. This excellent, short discussion successfully defines
business ethics and social responsibility.
The Samson and Daft text details the 60 Minute Test (2015, p. 192). It assumes that a TV interviewer
and crew have landed on your front porch and are asking you questions about an ethical dilemma you
are facing. The range of questions is well worth reiterating here:
• Is the problem or dilemma really what it appears to be? If you are not sure, find out.
• Is the action you are considering legal? Is it ethical? If you are not sure, find out.
• Do you understand the position of those who oppose the action you are considering? Is it
reasonable?
• Who does the action benefit? Who does it harm? How much? How long?
• Would you be willing to allow everyone to do what you are considering doing?
• Have you sought the opinion of others who are knowledgeable on the subject and who
would be objective?
• Would your action be embarrassing to you if it were made known to your family, friends,
co-workers or superiors?
(2015, p.192)
Applying these questions and analysing the situation in the context of communication models and
techniques will greatly facilitate the decision making process. Let’s quickly look at some of the
communication theory you might use:
• Applying the elements of modelling: messages sent/messages received, an analysis of
noise, interference and feedback and other elements.
• Applying emotional intelligence to understand not only your position but that of others.
• Applying active listening skills by making sure you are taking the best opportunity to hear
everything that is being said.
• Being inclusive by engaging with all those who may be affected.
• Observing non-verbal responses and being sensitive to what is being felt, not only what
is being said.
• Being adaptive to changing issues and being responsive to the needs of everyone.
Management scholar Mary Parker Follett, described management as ‘the art of getting things done
through people’ (qtd in Samson & Daft 2012, p. 10) and her work is discussed in detail in the set textbook
(2018, p. 63; 2015, p. 61).
Progressive managers understand that they are a two way mirror within an organisation through which
employees view the organisation and through which senior management view their employees.
As a manager, you are the conduit for communicating the work culture of an organisation. It is you who
is up close and personal on a day to day basis with the vertical, horizontal and lateral
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communication conduits within your organisation. How you conduct yourself will directly affect both the
productivity and the emotional climate in the workplace.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to a YouTube clip, ‘Paper Cuts to the Soul’ in which Steve Slap talks
about the real effect and nature of organisational morals and ethics on individuals.
2.2 MAKING YOUR ETHICS CLEAR
Earlier, we discussed strategic conversations. Make no mistake about this, you need to understand that
when employees talk with you or report issues to you, they are looking to you for guidance, approval
and possibly an active intervention (if required0. You need to be constantly reflect ing on your own
standards because employees are looking to you for certainty and consistency. You will be the one who
is setting the example. Personal advice received over 35 years ago from a colleague has stood the test
of time. He said, ‘whoever you are will be reflected by your crew. If you are lazy, they will be lazy. If you
swear, they will swear. If you are fair and honest, they will be fair and honest’. This remains great advice.
The best way for a manager to gain credibility for themselves and certainty and consistency for their
employees is to set clearly articulated standards. By communicating these standards and adhering to
them, you will gain their support.
Be aware that setting standards is a two-way process. Your employees will be watching and
commenting amongst themselves on whether you stand by (and for) the standards you have set for
them. You will be familiar with the terms ‘walking the walk’ and ‘talking the talk’. Each has its own merits,
but it is ‘walking the talk’ that really matters most in developing your workplace relationships and
communication networks.
Be completely honest and ethical in all aspects of your work up and down the organisation. Be honest
about your own abilities, the information you provide, and about whether deadlines are achievable. If
you do these things, so will your employees. In that environment, adaptive solutions can be found and
plans made that will produce the best outcomes economically and ethically.
Remembering that communication theory suggests that not communicating is also communication,
failure to set your standards sends a message to employees that they are working within a ‘laissez –
faire’ system where they will be left to set their own standards. Usually, ‘laissez-faire’ can be associated
with anarchy. If you do not engage in considered, strategic conversations with your employees, you will
be out of the information loop.
REALITY CHECK
Follow this YouTube link to meet Gordon Gecko the main character in the 1987 movie Wall Street.
Gordon is the opposite of everything we are talking about this week.
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2.3 ETHICAL DECISIONS
Managers face a range of decisions that involve ethical and social responsibilities. Some of these might
be:
• Health and safety issues in the workplace including duty of care to employees and the
invasion of individual rights
• Issues with products or services in the light of current medical or environmental
commentary
• Environmental issues to do with the product itself or with waste products as a result of
production
• Divisive issues within the workplace involving situations or issues where decisions may
meet the needs of some part of the organisation but not others. An example may be a
conflict between production who need employees to work long hours to complete an
important order and the Health and Safety Officers who perceive danger to employees in
that action.
Ethical decisions must involve economic issues (costs, profits, growth) and ethical and social
responsibilities. Decisions need to be made using accepted norms and values, internally and externally.
Normative ethics is a philosophical standard that can be universally applied.
In business, four different approaches are commonly used in tandem: Utilitarian, Individualism, Moral
Rights and Justice. These approaches, like communication models, often represented the accepted
solution from and for their era and in any discussion you should be considering them as a continuum,
rather than as being better or worse than each another. In most situations, it would be wise to consider
each approach as part of your process and let each part inform the whole.
Utilitarian. This old model dating back to the 19th century is still relevant today. In its first manifestation
it was based on concepts about supporting moral behaviour that produces the greatest good for the
greatest number.
Over time, it has gained critics who believe that it is often used to oversimplify issues and, as such, is a
dangerous approach. Its critics maintain that it is only the organisation that gets to decide who will or
won’t be directly affected, even within an organisation or any external stakeholders. Consequently, th ey
are seen to be controlling ‘who is in the room.’
In reality, this may be harsh criticism as these sorts of decisions are entirely at the discretion of those
dealing with the ethical issue. However, it has certainly picked up a less than favourable reputation by
association.
Critics of the utilitarian ethic fear a developing tendency towards a ‘Big Brother’ and question
whether the common good is squeezing the life out of the Individual (Beckham & Wong qtd in
Samson & Daft 2012, p. 177).
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REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a trailer of a movie version of George Orwell’s 1984 where the term
‘Big Brother is watching you’ emanates.
Being the first approach, the Utilitarian has weathered the evolution of businesses over hundreds of
years. A good debate could be made that, in hindsight, many business practices over centuries were
insensitive to environmental and social issues. The question might be whether the ‘framework’ around
how ethical decisions were traditionally made was more about the ethics of the individuals making them,
than the framework itself. Though this may just be a ‘chicken and egg’ debate.
Individualism. This approach maintains that acts are moral when they promote the individual’s best
long-term interests, ultimately leading to the greater good for the individual, the corporation and the
nation. At its basic level, Individualists believe any action that produces a greater proportion of good
becomes the right action to perform.
Individualism reflects a value for a loosely knit social framework in which individuals are expected
to take care of themselves. Collectivism means a preference for a tightly knit social framework in
which individuals look after one another and organisations protect their members’ interests .
(Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p.166; Samson & Daft 2015, p.159)
This debate is one that currently faces Australian society as we become more ‘Americanised’, attuned
to a society where individualism is enshrined within the American constitution.
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. (Thomas Jefferson, American Constitution)
This is much more of an element in American society than Australian society. Generally speaking,
Americans believe that individuals have a paramount right to self-determination and that the common
good will manifest itself by everyone’s individual rights becoming a norm through some sort of ‘osmosis’
of collective self-interest.
An Australian critic might argue that this approach ultimately supports self-interest and has no place in
more societally orientated cultures like Australia. Nonetheless, it is an effective test.
So where do our rights as an individual begin and end and our social responsibilities take over? This is
a much bigger question than just an economic one. It has significant political and social impacts.
Moral rights. This approach maintains that moral decisions are those that best maintain the rights of
those affected. Within this approach, you are asked to consider the dilemma from the aspect of a number
of basic human rights: freedom of consent, rights to privacy, freedom of conscience, free speech, due
process, and health and safety.
These are the most cherished human rights setting the fabric of our society. There is no reason to
assume that these rights do not apply to corporate entities.
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Social Justice. This approach maintains that all moral decisions must be based on standards of equity,
fairness and impartiality. In Australia, these sorts of rights are enshrined within Human Rights and Equal
Opportunity State and Commonwealth legislation.
It is the Commonwealth Government that decides whether or not to take on obligations to observe
international human rights standards. But the fact that the Commonwealth Government agrees to
observe international standards does not make those standards legally enforceable within Australia.
This requires specific Australian legislation. Without such legislation there is no legal way within th e
Australian court system to ensure that the rights in any international Human Rights treaty will take
precedence over any state or territory legislation that is inconsistent with the treaty.
State governments have the responsibility to make and administer many of the laws that are relevant to
human rights observance. These include laws relating to the administration of justice, land matters,
health and education issues, among others. In international law, a federal system does not justify a
failure to observe internationally-accepted human rights. But in practical terms, a federal system can
make the task of guaranteeing that people are able to access their rights more complicated.
Historically, Australia has been an active participant in the development of international human rights
standards. Prime Minister Billy Hughes helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human
Rights following the first World War. As new international standards have been developed, Australia
has either endorsed non-binding instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or the
Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, or has ratified binding legal instruments such as the
Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Conventions on
Racial Discrimination, Discrimination against Women, and the Rights of the Child; and the Convention
Against Torture. Australia has also ratified three of the mechanisms that give individuals the right to
complain to United Nations bodies about violations of their rights.
Social Justice is what faces you in the morning. It is awakening in a house with an adequate water
supply, cooking facilities and sanitation. It is the ability to nourish your children and send them to
school where their education not only equips them for employment but reinforces their knowledge
and appreciation of their cultural inheritance. It is the prospect of genuine employment and good
health: a life of choices and opportunity. A life free from discrimination. (Mick Dodson, Social Justice
Commissioner 1993 – 1998, Indigenous Elder, http://australianmuseum.net.au/indigenous-australia-
social-justice).
DISCUSSION POINT. Read ‘Challenging the Boss on Ethical Issues’ in the Samson, Donnet & Daft text
(2018, p.194; Samson & Daft 2015, p.190) to gain a perspective of the complexities of taking up ethical
issues in the workplace.
How would you feel about talking to your boss about an ethical issue within the organisation?
http://australianmuseum.net.au/indigenous-australia-social-justice)
http://australianmuseum.net.au/indigenous-australia-social-justice)
Module 1
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2.4 BEHAVIOURAL TRAITS
Another way to observe individuals is to be mindful of specific behavioural traits. We all bring our own
personality to the workplace. Our behaviours are shaped by our families, needs, and a range of cultural
and perhaps subcultural norms. We bring our personal strengths and weaknesses with us.
A very important personal trait is the level of moral development as described below:
• Preconventional. This refers to quite an immature set of traits based around childlike
responses to the avoidance of punishment, obedience for its own sake and self –
absorption. As leaders these personalities tend toward being autocrats; as employees they
do the job, but not much more.
• Conventional. These are the average workers. They try to live up to other’s expectations,
work hard and meet their social obligations. They can be great team workers and
collaborators in the workplace.
• Post conventional. These may be your heroes or knowledge workers. They often have a
well-developed sense of fairness and equity. They value people, cultural diversity and
differing skill sets. They can come up with ethical solutions as they arise and adaptive
processes for change.
(Adapted from Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p.193-4; Samson & Daft 2015, p.191)
However, it should be acknowledged that, as Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p.194; Samson &
Daft 2015, p.189) observe:
The great majority of managers operate at level two. A few have not advanced beyond
level one. Only about 20 per cent of adults reach the level three stage of moral
development. People at level three are able to act in an independent, ethical manner
regardless of expectations from others inside or outside the Organisation.
2.5 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
How does an organisation become a good corporate citizen? The answer is to take all the ethics
techniques and strategies we have discussed this week and apply them to your organisation’s
interaction with the wider community and society.
It is as simple as that. Yet it can become complex because different people have different beliefs about
right and wrong, different value systems. This is compounded by the fact that many issues will have
ambiguous or even contradictory versions of what is right.
As an example, let’s look at the issues that surround the tourism and commercial fishing industries on
the Great Barrier Reef. It is a great source of income for many regional Queenslanders and has seen
our coastal cities grow and become prosperous where once they were just dusty ports for primary
industries (coal, sugarcane, grain, and beef and sheep). The Barrier Reef is the envy of the world. It
provides both great work opportunities and a wonderful, tropical place to raise a family.
Environmentalists maintain, however, that the tourism and fishing industries are having a negative effect
on the Reef. In essence, meeting the needs of the tourism and fishing industries is destroying the reef
and there is strong independent data to support this case. Various management plans have
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been instituted by government to protect the Reef, but these invariably stunt the growth and viability of
the tourism and fishing industries.
Fewer tourists and smaller fish hauls equals higher prices for consumers of both fish and tourism, and
threatens both industries by limiting their abilities to operate under increasingly strict regulation. Of
course, in the wider community, many would support regulation to protect the Barrier Reef until it comes
to planning a holiday or having fresh local prawns for Christmas Day!
There are many shades of right and wrong in this debate. The important thing though is to come to any
negotiation table with an open mind and a will to take actions that will contribute to the welfare and
interests of society as well as the organisation.
Negotiation can only succeed if all parties are prepared to negotiate mutually agreed outc omes and
stand by those transactions.
Ultimately, managers need to position their organisations and negotiate outcomes that will ensure a
sustainable future based on the needs of the organisational financial bottom line, society and the
environment.
DISCUSSION POINT. Consider the different economic, social and political aspects of the Barrier Reef
example above. Consider the many shades of right and wrong.
Do you know about a similar situation? What are the issues? How might you approach the
complexities of your issue?
2.6 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
In Week One we framed some key themes that we might reflect on at the end of each week’s work. This
week we have been exploring ethics and social responsibility. It is important at the start of th is Unit to
focus on your own values as a manager and as a human being. Knowing yourself is an important part
of leading and managing. Each message you send is a reflection of who you are and what you stand
for. Colleagues will be watching for consistency in what is said and done. Later in the course we will be
exploring working relationships, but at their core relationships are based on honesty and certainty in day
to day transactions. Let’s look at some of the key themes in the context of ethics and social
responsibility.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. Explore these key devices to
communicate your ethical and social responsibilities as an organisation. They have an
important role to play in assisting managers in the consistent setting of standards. When
ethical behaviours and social responsibilities are engaged, celebrate them as importantly
as a productivity achievement. Look for opportunities to acknowledge your employees for
doing the right thing – no matter how small it might be.
Celebrating victories no matter how small is an important credo reinforcing desirable
behaviour and asserting positive work culture values. Acknowledging the honesty and
integrity of your workers is just as important as meeting production deadlines. In
Module 1
25
summary, show them how you want them to behave by being the change you want to see
in the workplace.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours. No matter how difficult it may be or how much work
it might be in the short term, be open and honest in your dealings. This is particularly
important in the setting of ethical standards and the meeting of social responsibilities.
Management is a two way mirror and your employees are watching to make sure that you
live up to the expectations you have set for them. Your senior management is looking at
how you manage your team. Sometimes you will need to make hard decisions as a
manager and sometimes it might be more politic to reach a compromise position as the
best solution to a problem. It is very much a matter of degree
– everyone faces these situations in the workplace – but that is an entirely different situation
from being dishonest or duplicitous with your colleagues. If you have worked to build trust,
people will respect you for your honesty and candour, even if it is uncomfortable for you
and for them.
• Cultural Leadership. The transmission of your standards and your positioning around
your ethical and social responsibilities is at the core of cultural leadership. This should
naturally flow through to making negotiating, transacting and communicating easier
because they know where you stand and they know what your expectations are. This style
of leadership creates a two way communication dynamic that is particularly valuable when
employees need to address management about their workplace concerns or personal
issues.
MORE THOUGHTS
This discussion may have made you feel like you have the weight of the world on your shoulders. Yet it
can be easily built into your own workplace ethics and becomes a natural outworking of this if you use
some ancient wisdom. ‘Know thyself’ sits at the core of Sophist philosophy in ancient Greece and is still
a philosophical cornerstone of our culture today. Interestingly, Confucian and other eastern philosophies
all contain this basic philosophical building block.
‘The first step in the evolution of ethics is a sense of solidarity with other human beings.’
(Albert Schweitzer, Nobel Peace Prize Winner 1952)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dodson, Mick, Commission Website: Information for Students – Human Rights in Australia. Accessed
17 July 2015. http://australianmuseum.net.au/indigenous-australia-social-justice
Samson, D, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, R L, 2012, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition, Cengage
Learning, Australia
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific edition, Cengage Learning, Australia.
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2012, Management, 4th Asia-Pacific edition, Cengage Learning, Australia..
http://australianmuseum.net.au/indigenous-australia-social-justice
25
MODULE 2
WEEK THREE: EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
THINKING
This week we will be looking at the evolution of management thinking from historical, social and
political perspectives. This will include:
• Understanding classical and humanistic perspectives of management
• Understanding the connection between politics, society and management
• Definition of learning organisations
• Understanding the challenge of sustainability.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific
edition, Australia, Cengage Learning..Chapter 2.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia,
Cengage Learning. Chapter 2.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 3
Consider the comparison between Theory X and Theory Y styles of management in the
set textbook (2018, p.65-6) or the New Management Seft-Test in the 2015 edition (p.49).
What is your personal experience of either or both styles of management in the
workplace, or in a club or organisation you know? Compare the outcome with reference
to Theory X and Theory Y.
Post your piece to the Discussion Board and comments on work of two peers
under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT3 here’.
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
Futurist, Alvin Toffler predicted in the 1970s that, ‘the acceleration of change in our time is an elemental
force’ (1970, pp. 1 – 2).
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to YouTube and view a 1972 video series on Future Shock. Hosted
by Orson Wells, it gives a great insight into the start of rapid technological change. While it is somewhat
dated, the questions posed are perhaps as current today as they were then. This is quite a long video,
but if you are interested, it poses some interesting issues for debate.
In the past 50 years we have seen an unprecedented explosion of birth rates, global business activity,
information and technology. The net effect of globalisation has seen business activity growing at a rate
that has even exceeded Toffler’s predictions, but does it bring stability to our lives? Change is constant
and relentless, but is it also chaotic?
When we look around us, we see examples of how this rapid change is having a negative effect on
Australian society. For example, the Australian economy is often termed ‘two speed’ in reference to the
strange nexus of the biggest mining boom in our history running parallel to the worst downturn in
manufacturing ever. This has resulted in the closure of key industries like vehicle manufacture and the
death of once prosperous factory towns in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.
Manufacturers are turning to cheaper labour options overseas at the expense of families and
communities. This seems particularly ironic when you understand that much of the raw materials used
in manufacturing for big industry is mined in Australia and exported and built in China.
Retail in Australia is another conspicuous victim of technology with a global reach, experiencing a hu ge
downturn in revenue and many closures because it cannot compete against on -line shopping.
REALITY CHECK. This link will take you to the Commonwealth Treasury paper, The mining boom and
the two speed economy. It gives a statistical breakdown of these effects on industry, community and
employment.
http://archive.treasury.gov.au/documents/1421/PDF/02_Resources_boom_two_speed_economy
It is important when looking at this current business evolutionary starburst not to be dazzled by its
brilliance. There needs to be a much longer, deeper look at its historical background, and social and
political contexts.
Progressive managers today face paradoxically difficult issues when trying to set up processes and
systems to best supply their products or services cost effectively and ethically, while still meeting their
local and global social responsibilities. Is this achievable? Or have we swung from one extreme to
another?
http://archive.treasury.gov.au/documents/1421/PDF/02_Resources_boom_two_speed_economy
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Module 2
3.2 THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THINKING
This week we will consider the history of ideas, theories and philosophies that have blended together to
become modern management. We will not be ‘doing’ history as a record of dates and times, rather we
will look at the interwoven social, political and economic forces that continue to drive and shape it.
The development of the basic social contract between workers and employers right through to the
advent of the knowledge worker has taken less than two hundred years. This is a relatively short time
span from the time of the Industrial Revolution when Charles Dickens wrote his much loved social
commentaries (Oliver Twist, Bleak House, A Christmas Carol) up until the present day. Society has
changed radically and work culture has changed with it.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to a BBC Documentary, The Children of the Revolution, which
chronicles the lives of children forced to work in appalling conditions during the Industrial Revoluti on.
Post-war workers expected to stay in the same job all of their lives. For example, when my father left
his long-term employer in the 1970s to set up his own business, the CEO of the major company he
worked for came down and spoke to him personally. He wanted to know how the company had let him
down. This story often makes younger workers scratch their heads and smile today. They have grown
up in a world of high occupational mobility where many attitudes surrounding the social contract between
employers and employees have been broken down by casualization and fixed term contracts all fed by
a burgeoning cult of individuality. This focus on individuality is a global reflection of the attitudes and
mores of the major market leader in this era, America.
Politically, we have seen the end of the Cold War and, possibly, of western Communism as a powerful
ideology. Globally, people are demanding to be more empowered as individuals in their work lives. For
managers today, this means that respect and power are something to be earned, rather than just being
rights that are bestowed as part of a managerial position.
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REALITY CHECK. The Berlin Wall became the symbol of the Cold War. When it came down in 1989, it
marked the end of Communism as an alternate social, economic and political force in the West. This
video looks at this historic event.
The Samson, Donnet and Daft text book (2018, 693-4; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 677) Includes an article
‘Response to the Management Challenge’. This is a good example of how respect can be a two-way
street within an organisation leading to mutual respect, engagement and innovation.
Alongside this shift in work practice, we have witnessed an acceleration of market driven capitalism.
Policies like protectionism and industry subsidies have been frowned upon as pointless in the belief that
the market is the only mechanism required to decide the fate of organisations or industries. Apparently,
we live in a somewhat paradoxical market-driven, free trade utopia. Or do we?
Perhaps not. Right now, we find ourselves in a state of evolutionary flux following the Global Financial
Crisis which has decided that market forces apply, unless you are too big to fail. This may be the biggest
evolutionary challenge facing business today.
On 4 November 2011, the Financial Stability Board released a list of 29 banks worldwide that it
considered ‘systemically important financial institutions’, that is, financial organisations whose size and
role meant that any failure could cause serious systemic economic problems. Of the list, 17 are based
in Europe, 8 in the U.S., and the other four in Asia.
▪▪
▪▪
▪▪
▪▪
Bank of America
Bank of China
Bank of New York Mellon
Banque Populaire CdE
▪▪
▪▪
▪▪
▪▪
Dexia
Goldman Sachs
Group Crédit Agricole
HSBC
▪▪
▪▪
▪▪
▪▪
Nordea
Royal Bank of Scotland
Santander
Société Générale
▪▪ Barclays ▪▪ ING Bank ▪▪ State Street
▪▪ BNP Paribas ▪▪ JPMorgan Chase ▪▪ Sumitomo Mitsui FG
▪▪ Citigroup ▪▪ Lloyds Banking Group ▪▪ UBS
▪▪ Commerzbank ▪▪ Mitsubishi UFJ FG ▪▪ Unicredit Group
▪▪ Credit Suisse ▪▪ Mizuho FG ▪▪ Wells Fargo
▪▪ Deutsche Bank ▪▪ Morgan Stanley
(Policy Measures to Address Systemically Important Financial Institutions, Financial Stability Board, 4 /11/2011)
The term ‘too big to fail’ dates back to the 1980s. It is based around a belief that, as a result of their
economic importance, some organisations should effectively be shielded from collapse through
beneficial financial and economic policies from governments or central banks. Effectively these
organisations need to be protected because their collapse, it is theorised, would set off a destructive
economic domino effect.
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Module 2
DISCUSSION POINT. Is there a moral hazard if a company that benefits from these protective policies
seeks to profit by it? This protection might allow (and some argue that it does allow) them to take
positions that are high-risk high-return, as they are able to leverage these risks based on the policy
preference and protection they receive (eg taxpayer bail-outs by government).
Is this legislated protection of big business counterproductive in a market driven economy and should
large banks or other organisations be left to fail if the management of their own risk has not been
effective? If any organisation is too big to fail, are they just too big?
What is your reaction?
Ultimately though all this, economic forces are driven by the supply of resources whether human or
material, built or natural, physical or cognitive, and by market demand.
Ideas, information and knowledge form an important part of today’s economy. Globally, places like
Silicon Valley in California have been so fabulously successful as incubators of ideas that they are no w
considered to be economic indicators. A decrease in the number of start-up innovation companies in
Silicon Valley is read by commentators as indicating an economic downturn – even if they are starting
up in coffee shops and garages.
Have a look at the exhibit and graphs in the Samson, Donnet and Daft text (2018, pp. 74-5; Samson &
Daft 2015, pp. 53, 73) and note the proliferation of management, perspectives and tools. Today we live
in technology-driven workplaces that are learning organisations vigorously striving to keep in touch with
change.
3.3 THE CLASSICAL PERSPECTIVE
Of course, people have been managing workplaces since we began to craft tools with iron in fires. Not
long after that, we began selling our wares and produce in market places and commerce was born.
In the 19th century, the invention of the steam engine and the growth of large machine-driven factories
lead to a rapid revolution in industry. Factories grew and so did the problems with running them. It was
a time of great social and political upheaval with the rise in power of both ‘capital’ and ‘labour’ as
diametrically opposed forces.
The classical perspective focuses on a scientific approach to management and, at its core, strove to
make whole enterprises into huge, efficient machines. Hence the notion of the mechanistic organisation
that still permeates today as a legitimate paradigm. In COM31, you will study the notion of machine
theory in more detail. In this unit will discuss how these different theories translated into manageme nt
styles and communication.
It worked by being based around three slightly different perspectives: a scientific (rather than
humanistic) approach to management, the rise and rise of bureaucracy, and the application of
administrative principles.
Perhaps it reached its apex in America at the turn of the 20th century with industrialists like Henry Ford
embracing time and management processes. The Ford Factory produced the Model T Ford on long
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production lines where each worker might have just one simple, repetitive, mechanical task to do. The
car being built would then move forward in the production line for another worker to do another menial
task.
REALITY CHECK. Click on the link to see a silent film of work being done at the Ford factory in 1919.
From a wider societal and cultural perspective, it led to films like Fritz Lang’s Metropolis which envisaged
a world where common man is slave to the machine. From a political perspective, it lead to the rise of
organised labour in the form of union movements and associated political parties.
DISCUSSION POINT. Click on the YouTube link to view footage from Fritz Lang’s 1928 film,
Metropolis.
As Fritz Lang was attempting to foretell our times, did he get it right? Even partially?
Capitalism emerged as a result of the massive amounts of finance needed to power the expansion of
business. The process of creating huge corporate financing operations to cover the costs of building
factories, importing new machinery and merging related industries helped to create the banking systems
and stock markets we are familiar with today.
At the time of the Great Depression in 1929 Henry Ford is credited with saying that this was the first
generation that rode to the poor house in an automobile. This particular quote resonates down through
time to the Global Financial Crisis we have just weathered.
Perhaps the triple bottom line of economy, ethics and social responsibility, and environmental costs
exists in response to the mechanistic rather than any benevolent attributes of the Classical perspective.
Owing to the extensive use of machinery and to the division of labour, the work of the proletarians
has lost all individual character, and, consequently, all charm for the workman. He becomes an
appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous and most easily
acquired knack, that is required of him. Hence, the cost of production of a workman is restricted,
almost entirely, to the means of subsistence that he requires for maintenance, and for the
propagation of his race. But the price of a commodity, and therefore also of labour, is equal to its
cost of production. In proportion, therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work increases, the w age
decreases. What is more, in proportion as the use of machinery and division of labour increases,
in the same proportion the burden of toil also increases, whether by prolongation of the working
hours, by the increase of the work exacted in a given time, or by increased speed of machinery.
(Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1888)
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Module 2
3.4 HUMANIST PERSPECTIVE
Basically, this perspective started with a study of people and is linked inexorably with the growth of the
study of psychology at the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th. It seeks to understand and
use our behaviours, needs, attitudes and attributes to drive productivity. In its earliest manifestations, it
argued that truly effective control of individuals cannot be imposed by strict, authoritarian measures, but
through directly responding to social pressures on workers and through benevolent treatment.
At first it ran a very poor second to the harder mechanistic, scientific management regimes and was
pilloried as simplistic. Perhaps contented cows give more milk, but do contented workers give more
work? In an age where ethical and socially responsible positions would have been anathema to
productivity and profit, we can see why it found many enemies amongst the big industrialists and
industrial nations. Hard, unrelenting work was for the common good. In its harshest manifestations the
classical perspective perceived people as merely machines.
Quite slowly, research was undertaken and data produced that established more humanistic notions of
job design. You can follow this research in Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, pp. 64-6; Samson & Daft
2015, pp. 62-64) starting with the Hawthorne Studies in 1924, through to the Relay Assembly Test
Room research conducted by Harvard professors, Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger over six years
between 1927 and 1933. However, it did eventually embed the idea that humans were a resource to
organisations and that jobs could be designed in a way that some tasks were no longe r considered
demeaning and dehumanising. This more scientific approach was more ‘digestible’ for the big end of
town and this approach became known as the human resources perspective. Other leading researchers
were Abraham Maslow (1908–70) and Douglas McGregor (1906–64).
Academic Douglas McGregor showed his frustration with both the classical perspective and the early
humanist perspectives and developed the Theory X and Theory Y model. They remain useful models
to apply to organisations today.
Theory X is based around the classical perspective and is based on these assumptions:
• Humans have a dislike of work and will avoid it if possible.
• People need to be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened into making an adequate
effort in the workplace.
• People prefer to be directed and want to avoid taking responsibility, lack ambition and
seek security.
Theory Y is based around humanist perspectives and is based on these assumptions:
• People do not dislike work and that applying physical and mental effort at work is natural.
• People will exercise self-control and direction if they have a commitment to what they are
doing in the workplace.
• People will learn to accept and seek responsibility under suitable work conditions.
• The capacity to be imaginative, creative and to solve problems is widely available within
the populace.
• Under the current systems the intellectual potential of the average human is not being
fully used.
(McGregor 1961, pp. 71)
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McGregor believed that Theory X was a representation of the Classical perspective and Theory Y
represented a more realistic approach for managers today. Some organisations still use a Theory X
model, but since the 1960s most organisations have been experimenting with the elements of Theory
Y and encouraging workers to use their intellect and creativity to drive innovation.
Clearly, the notions of Theory X and Y link to definitions of mechanistic and organic organisational
structures. As discussed earlier, many organisations today are a hybrid of these two structures.
Today, the rationale for organic structures is supported by the behavioural sciences approach where
sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics and other disciplines are studied to understand
employee behaviours in a management and organisational context.
Job interviews now often include tests, structured interview procedures and profiling based on
behavioural science techniques. In the workplace, economics and sociology significantly influence
structure and strategy, and psychology is influencing management and leadership communication.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to do an on-line Myers Briggs Personality Test. It is a powerful
psychological tool as well as an efficient management tool. It is one of the most important tests that
have been applied over the years by businesses.
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp
This is where we find ourselves today in a melting-pot of societal, human resources and management
innovation.
3.5 LEARNING ORGANISATIONS
Learning organisations are organisations in which everyone is engaged in identifying and solving
problems, enabling the organisation to continuously experience, improve and increase its
capacity. (Samson & Daft 2012, p.74)
These ideas are discussed under ‘Innovative Management Thinking’ in the set textbook (2018, pp. 74-
83; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 72-79) One of the key concepts is that learning or innovative organisations
actively strive to enshrine an adaptive culture. In their maturity, they are constantly changing and
experimenting. Progressive managers understand that the only way forward is to develop the learning
capacity of everyone in the organisation.
Potential problems need to be identified and solved. In learning organisations, everyone needs to be
engaged in seeking unique ways to deal with issues as they arise.
DISCUSSION POINT. Read the ‘Management Challenge’ in Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 49;
Samson & Daft 2015, p.50) and the ‘Response to the Management Challenge’ (2018, p.84-5; 2015,
p.79). This organisation has made the journey towards being a learning organisation.
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp
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Module 2
Can you think of an example of a learning organisation with the capability to solve problems from your
own work or life experiences?
Managers live in constant change. Few problems today have ready-made answers because in many
cases they didn’t exist as a problem last week or month or year. Organisations need to be set up to
accept this rapid change and to think in new ways and learn new systems and processes, and even
sometimes, different values and attitudes.
It is easy to imagine how important management communication is in learning organisations. As the
manager, you are the communication conduit up, down and across the organisation. You are also the
source of much of the work culture of your organisation.
In this rapidly changing environment, you must adhere strictly to communication models, skills and
techniques.
You must also set up a failure friendly culture. With so much constant change, mistakes will be made.
They should be seen as milestones on the way to success. ‘Oh well, at least we know that isn’t going
to work’ is an appropriate response to failure. Nothing should be put in the way of creative problem
solving. Failures and successes need to be equally respected and an open, innovative culture with
adaptive capacity needs to be encouraged.
Remember the words of Thomas Edison who said, ‘I have not failed. I have just found 10,000 ways that
won’t work’.
Information, knowledge and learning should be widely circulated and accessible since it can only
actually grow through sharing. Employees need to be given time to process, interpret and manipulate
information. Feedback should be treated as a valued part of innovation and each observation should be
accepted as part of a process of removing uncertainty.
Externally, organisations should be learning from their competitors and the market place, and monitoring
any new trends for opportunity. In the market place, attention should be paid to technological
developments, the economy, legislation changes, emerging political issues and significant international
trends and events, and sociological changes that are affecting your industry or service locally and
globally. If a competitor changes key products or services – find out why and learn from their
experiences.
Later in this unit, we will discuss communities of practice and network organisations and look more
closely at how these structures can assist with experimenting, problem solving and sharing knowledge.
Research and development needs to be conducted across a range of many disciplines through all the
workplace sectors and needs to balance advancing technology and marketing trends and needs.
Within the Maturity Model of Learning Organisations, there are extremely high levels of engagement
and abilities covering the following elements:
• Sensemaking which is a ‘macroscopic’ lens to scan and interpret, rapidly reframe, and
generate insight into a changing environment. It incorporates the ability to mine the
periphery, to make deep intuitive meaning out of the maelstrom of trends and forces that
shape markets.
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• Strategic Thinking refers to pattern recognition, the ability to ‘connect the dots’ at a
strategic level, to see underlying patterns, discontinuities and future scenarios and how
they might interact to create opportunities for new growth.
• Critical Thinking is the ability to examine and transform strategic assumptions,
orthodoxies, mental models and other blind spots that impede divergent thinking and
strategic innovation.
• Divergent Thinking is the capacity to expand the boundaries of mental models and see
things from many, often paradoxical perspectives. The ability to break existing frames and
make new combinations among seemingly disparate elements.
• Conceptual Capacity is the ability to conceive and conceptualise, to think holistically and
abstractly in terms of concepts, models and architectures.
• Malleable Learning Orientation refers to a malleable, non-linear, learning orientation that
is ‘at home’ in a dynamic environment rife with ambiguous information, loosely structured
problems, deep uncertainty, paradox, and complex trade-offs. It incorporates the ability to
learn through continuous experimentation as well as from and through experience.
(Kuhn & Marsick 2005, p.30)
Apple founder Steve Jobs sums it up: ‘Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people
why they did something, they feel a little guilty because they didn’t really do it, they just saw something.
It seemed obvious to them after a while, that’s because they were able to connect experiences they’ve
had and synthesize new things’ (qtd in Kuhn & Marsick 2005, p. 31).
Learning organisations are not perfect. They cannot guarantee success, nor do they automatically
provide a solution to every problem or the right response to every important issue. The learning
organisation works when failure is sometimes accepted as a learning opportunity. It is new and it is still,
within itself, a vertical learning curve for organisations.
Major motor industry corporations Ford and General Motors in the USA and their subsidiaries in
Australia are examples of failure to be learning organisations. They have failed to meet the challenge
from overseas manufacturers for smaller or economical vehicles that are cheaper to buy and cheaper
to run. Both in the USA and Australia, government continued to subsidise these mammoth corporations
to try to keep them operating despite flagging sales. The Australian industry finally closed its last factory
in South Australia in October 2017.
DISCUSSION POINT. Follow the link to an article about the Australian auto industry which reflects on
poor marketing choices by continuing to manufacture big six cylinder vehicles. Also reflect on the story
considering whether they have been funded because they are too big to fail?
http://www.brw.com.au/p/sections/features/wheels_in_motion_TwbhLtLQv1A6uNRbqDp8HJ
Do you think that governments propping up organisations ‘too big to fail’ is fair?
http://www.brw.com.au/p/sections/features/wheels_in_motion_TwbhLtLQv1A6uNRbqDp8HJ
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3.6 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Today, managers cannot just manage for profit. There are a wide range of stakeholders who are
regularly engaged in a complex system of negotiation. These stakeholder relationships can also be
governed or monitored by local, national and international levels of legislation.
These stakeholders include:
• Shareholders
• Employees
• External suppliers and service providers
• Environmental groups and legislation, locally and globally
• Health and safety legislation
• Unions and labour legislation.
Progressive learning organisations and managers need to leave historical record behind and adopt a
proactive stance with all of their stakeholders. Organisations are beginning t o meet the challenge of
sustainability as community expectations are growing. Organisations are expected not to pollute the
environment. They are bound by their duty of care to protect the health and safety of their employees
and the wider public.
Today organisations are accountable for their actions and when standards are breached, severe
penalties can be imposed. When they do the wrong thing there can be immediate exposure in the media,
with ongoing damage to reputation and profitability. They can be prosecuted through legal channels and
by government reprimand, restrictions and sanctions. All of these outcomes have ongoing
repercussions in the market place and consequently to ongoing profitability.
Progressive managers and organisations are rising to the challenges posed by this complex work
environment. If Jules Verne or H G Wells, futuristic authors of the 19 th and early 20th centuries, walked
through the Google building today they might imagine that they are in one of their own fantasies. In their
time, work was hard, punishment swift and workers were, at best, treated as a necessary evil.
[Jules Verne wrote such novels as Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870), A Journey to the
Centre of the Earth (1864), and Around the World in Eighty Days (1873). H G Wells wrote The Invisible
Man (1897) and The War of the Worlds (1898).]
DISCUSSION POINT. Follow the YouTube link below which shows how people work and self – manage
at Google.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aOZhbOhEunY.
Compare this with the footage from the Ford factory in 1919 and consider how the workplace has
changed in less than 100 years.
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3.7 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
This week we have been discussing the evolution of management from the classic perspective towards
the behavioural science perspective. Arguably, the biggest change today is a revolution in how
management and workers communicate.
In this hundred year journey we have seen communication in the workplace move from barking orders
and unquestioned obedience where workers were more dispensable than the machines they worked,
into a world where organisations have a legal responsibility and duty of care to protect the health and
safety of their employees.
Growing organic structures are bringing us into a work environment where everyone contributes to
problem solving, innovating and learning. We have experienced the Industrial Revolution, the
Technology Revolution and the Information Revolution and, hopefully we are on the cusp of the
Communication Revolution.
Everything we have learned this week about the evolution of business, and in previous weeks about
ethics and social responsibility, puts communication models, skills, techniques and devices at the centre
of change.
Let’s reflect on some of our key themes in the context of evolution.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. Once again the use of these creative
devices can add variety and candour to your management communication – encouraging
and engaging every worker as a knowledge worker. Particularly for the management of
innovation, the potential for failure and the creation of an accepting creative environment,
they provide different ways of telling stories and acknowledging heroes on a journey of
transformation into a learning organisation.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours. A learning organisation cannot grow without
embedding an adaptive culture within its workplace routines. It is as simple as that. Any
resistance to change, negativity in leadership, dysfunctional management communication
processes or any associated maladaptive behaviours are dangerously counterproductive.
Adaptive environments are high risk, yet the consequences of staying the same and
watching the market leave you behind is not a viable alternative in today’s market place.
• Cultural Leadership. Learning organisations, knowledge workers and sustainable
development either succeed or fail due to the quality of the organisations leadership and
its management communication. In a practical sense, this requires consistent use of
communication modelling, techniques, skills and devices by managers in their designated
role as communication node.
MORE THOUGHTS
The journey of industry and business to becoming sustainable learning organisations mirrors the social
and political changes we have also witnessed over the last two centuries at least in Western cultures,
and China and India in the ‘East’ seem destined to soon overtake the USA.
One thing is certain – change is here to stay – no matter who the market leader is.
‘Change alone is eternal, perpetual, immortal.’ (Arthur Schopenhauer)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kuhn, J S & Marsick, V J, 2005, ‘Action learning for strategic innovation in mature organisations: Key
cognitive, design and contextual considerations’, Action Learning: Research and Practice, Vol 2, No 1,
April 2005, Routledge, New York.
McGregor, D, 1960, The Human Side of Enterprise, New York, McGraw-Hill.
Tofler, Alvin, 1970, Future Shock, New York, Random House.
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WEEK FOUR: COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
By the end of this week, students will understand the strategic value of networks of relationships in
the workplace environment and their strategic elements. This will include:
• Understanding the purpose of workplace relationships
• Defining relational situations
• Understanding the importance of dialectics
• Basic communications skills in the context of situations and their dialectic
• Defining types of workplace relationships.
REQUIRED READING
Cheney, C, Christensen, L T, Zorn, T E Jnr, Ganesh, Shiv, 2011, Organizational
Communication in an Age of Globalization, Issues, Reflections, Practices, Waveland
Press, Illinois. Chapter 6, pp. 141-160.
RECOMMENDED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition,
Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 14.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage
Learning. Chapter 14.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 4
On page 159 of Cheney (this week’s required reading) you will find Figure 6.1 which plots
the intensity and intentionality of workplace incivility. Focus of the levels of intentionality
and describe some experiences you are aware of in the workplace where these negative
actions have been clearly targeted. It may be a personal or associate’s experience. Did
the supervisor take action or were they blind to the activities? Was there any positive
outcome? Write a response of between 100 – 200 words.
Post your response and your comments on the work of two peers under the ILT4
thread on the Discussion Board.
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
‘The currency of real networking is not greed but generosity.’
http://enlightenednetworker.com/homebased-business/networkmarketing/31-killer-quotes-
networking-network-marketing/ ixzz1qYQV27Bv
Work relationships and networks need to be generously ‘cross fertilised’ to grow. Consistency and care
need to be taken by managers because relationships can be complicated both in our personal and work
lives.
Internal and external relationships are a manager’s communication building blocks. By transforming
groups of individual relationships into networks, managers build their own information highways.
Information and knowledge can flow freely around these designated routes and provide access for every
part of an organisation.
This discussion of relationships and networks will flow over two weeks. This week we will focus on
relationships. In Week 5 the discussion will focus on relationship networks.
Firstly, let’s talk about relationships. They are the foundation of all successf ul communication practice.
Managers build relationships with their superiors, team members, suppliers, distributors and many
others. Often these are based on a model of personal relationships. It happens this way because we
are all human, interacting in ways that we already know and transferring our learned experiences and
responses into a workplace environment. Most of the ‘rules of engagement’ are the same for work and
personal relationships: generosity, respect, support and acknowledgement.
DISCUSSION POINT. We have all found ourselves in work or learning places that value and respect
everyone’s opinion. Reflect on how and when that actually happened.
Who said or did something to acknowledge your good work? How was respect shown?
In today’s work environments, relationships are so much more than just talking about how work can be
done. As part of the journey from mechanistic structures towards organic structures, organisations are
seeking to make every employee a knowledge worker within a learning organisation. This adds layers
of complexity to relationships never considered within the classical perspective and mechanistic
structures. Progressive and organically structured organisations need a very high level of
communication functionally to meet these lofty aspirations.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip about working at Google. Even though Google is
at the far end of the organic structural model, it is interesting to hear these women’s stories about how
innovation works within an extremely flat management style.
http://enlightenednetworker.com/homebased-business/networkmarketing/31-killer-quotes-
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4.2 WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS
Many sorts of relationships exist in the workplace, but the most important set for managers to learn and
use are instrumental relationships, that is, they are instrumental in directly benefiting the organisation.
Certainly, these instrumental relationships may be seen by many as the ‘ladder to success’ where career
advancement is the primary goal. But that is not what it is all about. It can just as easily be about doing
a job well and running an efficient and effective team. It can be about developing a community of practice
or about personal friendship or just for the pleasure and satisfaction of feeling part of something
important. It is often all of these things. Whatever the motivations, instrumental relations work for the
mutual benefit of individuals and organisations.
Researchers Gersick, Bartunek and Dutton found that the most common reasons for workplace relations
(apart from the immediate practical job requirements) were for ‘collegiality, admiration for the other
person, personal friendship, and pleasure in the relationship’ (qtd in Cheney 2011, p. 143).
Through the reasons they gave and the stories they told, the participants in our study made it
clear that researchers miss much of the importance of relationships if they construe relationships
as resource exchanges. Relationships are important in their own right. They are also complex,
potentially including various degrees of joint work, emotional support and of helpfulness and
harmfulness. The extent to which each of these qualities is present depends partly on the gender
of the relationship partners. (Gersick et al 2000, p.1042)
Work relationships are entirely a ‘construct’, that is, they cannot occur without a workplace and job
situation. We will discuss this in further detail later. As a consequence, in a modern workplace
environment these relationships often have to be actively negotiated and communicated along societal
norms, instrumental to developing everyone as a knowledge worker within a learning organisation.
Relational communication in the workplace is expected to take on an egalitarian, interactive
(versus one-way) nature. People don’t always fulfil those expectations, of course, but these
expectations shape our views about what sort of communication we consider competent. (Cheney
2011, p. 143)
Gone are the days when respect and obedience came with the job title. Today’s relationships are fluid
and multi-directional with expectations to and from all parties.
Traditionally, work and family life were conducted quite separately. At work, you had professional and
hierarchical relationships, but your family and social life was mostly conducted outside working hours.
With the convergence of technology in the home (or wherever you may be) and through the proliferation
of computers, smart phones, emails and text messages, work and family divisions have become blurred.
Added to this, a significant increase in hours worked has meant that sometimes our work colleagues
are the only ones we may significantly interact with socially and personally in any given day. We hear
and read a lot about work/life balance, but do we see it working effectively in our own lives?
Another complication to be navigated in the construction of instrumental relationships is to do with self –
managed or directed teams. Within organic models with flat management styles, managers must
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ensure that teams have a clearly designated leader and set unambiguous aims, objectives and
outcomes while keeping all the creative energies alive. This juggling of order and chaos is risky and
time consuming. That is the price of innovation within a learning organisation.
DISCUSSION POINT. Have you had an experience of a work network that was dysfunctional? Using
communication models and theories deconstruct what the issues were and how it could have been fixed.
What was the issue with messages sent and received within the network? Who was causing
interference? Was there any quality feedback? And if so, was it listened to and acted upon?
Progressive management and communication must be based on innovation and respect as well as
productivity and profit.
In a business world where traditional roles are being transformed and emotional intelligence is being
embraced, and where social discourse has become more informal, the ‘trap’ for managers is to be
perceived as insincere. Acceptance can turn to cynicism if your colleagues see your friendship as
manufactured.
4.3 DEFINING RELATIONAL SITUATIONS
As stated earlier, the key to understanding relationships and relational situations at work is to know and
accept that they are all entirely constructed.
All our perceptions of any situation are drawn from a distillation of our own learned experiences and
internal dialogue – our ‘Self’.
The possession of a Self converts the human being into a special kind of actor, transforms his
relationship with the world, and gives his actions a unique character… The human being may
perceive himself, have conceptions of himself, communicate with himself and act towards
himself… This gives him the means of interacting with himself – addressing himself, responding
to the address, and addressing himself anew… The human being can designate things to himself
– his wants, his pains, his goals, objects around him, the presence of others, their actions, their
expected actions, or whatnot. In short the possession of a Self provides the human being with a
mechanism of self-interaction with which to meet the world – a mechanism that is used in forming
and guiding his conduct. (Blumer 1966, p. 535)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to this YouTube clip which tells the story of the internal dialogue of a
worker in a stressful meeting scenario. It is ten minutes long, but you should understand in just a few
minutes how complicated we are as human beings. This internal dialogue is the ‘Self’ finding its voice
about having a difficult day.
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It is little wonder that relationships at work can be so complicated. People always bring their Self into
any work (or social) interaction.
Complicating this, work situations such as strategic conversations, work team meetings, reporting,
directing etc., almost always have a set of identifiable goals that are being communicated.
The required reading defines situational and communicational goals (Cheney 2011, p. 146). We have
adapted these to a more communication orientated perspective.
Communication goals
• Instrumental goals are the simplest to understand being the initiator of action. We need
to get something done and we communicate with others to achieve that outcome (e.g.
gathering information, teaching, persuading, selling). Nonetheless, these goals ar e often
shared since everyone benefits from co-operation and success.
• Identity goals. As individuals we communicate our ‘Self’ to establish our identity within the
environment with a view to building relationships. This can become complicated and many
of us would have found ourselves in meetings where individuals seem more concerned
about putting their own stamp on events than working together.
• Relationship Goals. These are more reflective than identity goals in so far as they contain
messages about the state of relationships and potentially the reshaping or modifying of
relationships.
Identity and relationship goals are often less visible in our strategic conversations and situations, but we
are constantly (and quite naturally) seeking legitimisation.
In fact all communication can be considered as an exercise in seeking and exchanging legitimisation.
Managers need to be aware of the depth of what is actually being communicated and dig down through
the visible layers to see how colleagues are negotiating their relationships and well as being constantly
aware of the identity they are building for themselves – empathetic or distant, supportive or authoritarian,
level playing field or playing favourites? We will discuss this further when we look at Dialectics, later in
this week’s discussion.
‘We see things not as they are but as we are.’ (Taoist saying circa 550 BCE)
A good benchmark for managers is the co-operative principal – always assume that people are trying
to be co-operative, even if it seems to be the opposite. People often have to assimilate information –
and sometimes that doesn’t work at the pace you want to set. It is a mistake to think that your colleagues
are not trying to make sense of it or that they won’t ‘get there’. Patience is truly a virt ue and there are
always these sorts of tensions around communication particularly when it entails significant change.
Sociolinguist H. P. Grice suggests that the cooperative principle underlies most attempts to
communicate. By this he meant that we typically assume that people are trying to be cooperative
– by making themselves understood – even if it is quite difficult to figure out what they mean.
(Cheney 2011, p. 147)
A good way of keeping ahead of relationship tensions is to embrace the study of dialectics as a method
to test what is really happening for you as the manager as well as your team.
A number of history’s most illustrious thinkers have wrestled with the meaning of ‘dialectic,’ and
as a result, the concept has permutated considerably since the inception of Western
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philosophy. Generally speaking, dialectic is a mode of thought, or a philosophic medium, through
which contradiction becomes a starting point (rather than a dead end) for contemplation. As such,
dialectic is the medium that helps us comprehend a world that is racked by paradox… It is with
Hegel, however, that the modern notion of dialectic crystallized. Roughly speaking, Hegel’s
dialectic involves the reconciliation of ostensible paradoxes to arrive at absolute truth. (University
of Chicago 2003)
In our context, dialectics is the study of opposing forces within relationships. Let’s look at some common
workplace dialectics:
• Connection / Autonomy refers to wanting to be part of a team as opposed to wanting to
be free of responsibility to and for others.
• Openness / Privacy refers to the willingness to readily share information as opposed to
maintaining privacy and being in control of situations.
• Novelty / Predictability refers to freely participating in creative relationships as opposed
to wanting to ensure a definite, more predictable outcome.
• Equality / Inequality refers to the desire of be equal as opposed to desiring levels of
superiority.
• Instrumentality / Affection refers to being likable and good fun to work with to get the
job done as opposed to overly seeking emotional benefits
• Impartiality / Favouritism refers to the desire for everyone to be ‘on a level playing field’
as opposed to the natural inclination to have favourites.
Researchers Smircich and Morgan (1982) contend that leadership itself contains a dialectic relating two
opposing positions – that of the leader and the led.
…the phenomenon of leadership in being interactive is by nature dialectical. It is shaped through
the interaction of at least two points of reference, i.e. of leaders and the led. This dialectic is often
the source of powerful internal tensions within leadership situations… While individuals may look
to a leader to frame and concretize their reality, they may also react against, reject or change the
reality thus defined. Much of the tension in leadership situations stems from this source. Although
leaders draw their power from their ability to define the reality of others, their inability to control
completely provides the seeds of disorganization in the organization of meaning they provide.
(Smircich & Morgan 1982, pp. 258-9)
We all walk a dialectic tightrope every day of the week, whether at work or in society. Managers need
to find balanced dialectical positions in relationships in response to issues and situations. They must be
able to communicate these positions effectively because team members are certainly watching, listening
and constantly interpreting verbal and non-verbal messages, emotional intelligence, active listening and
feedback skills.
In reality, dialectics are tidal – they ebb and flow between opposing sides. It is good to discuss the
dialectics of a situation, but you must discuss both ends.
Dialectics manifest themselves throughout our verbal and non-verbal communication. They exist at our
most basic communication levels. The important thing is that managers need to manage dialectics, no
matter how big or small, towards the best possible outcomes.
To purloin a phrase from Thomas Jefferson, ‘the price of good communication is constant vigilance’.
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4.4 COMMUNICATION COMPETENCIES
We are all different and each person brings differing skills into the management and maintenance of
relationships. In this modern management era, the preference for work teams and organic styles has
placed much more pressure on all workers to be competent communicators.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip about Effective Teamwork and Collaboration from
a ‘nuts and bolts’ aspect.
It is difficult to qualify what skills go to make a good communicator. Some people are excellent on a one
to one basis, but may be poor speech makers, or ramble in meetings, or get easily sidetracked by
tangents. In any event, it is up to the manager to juggle these human inconsistencies and develop both
a structural and organic framework for effective workplace communication.
Cheney (2011, pp.151–2) presents a discussion of three core communication competencies that relate
directly to building relationships. Read these first and consider them and then read the adaptation below
that attempts to place these within communication models and theory.
• Social Perception Skills. These are skills that come through exploring your own emotional
intelligence and exercising active listening techniques. Through being empathetic and
rapidly adapting your behaviours to the changing situations and in response to the
‘emotional temperature’ of any interaction.
Remember that your primary drive as a manager is to make each engagement instrumental
to the best outcome possible – for the organisation as well as for the participants.
High levels of social perception are central to communication success for managers.
• Message Design Skills. These are closely tied to social perception and relate to the
reading of people and situations and adapting the message to best meet the needs of that
audience and therefore are most successful. That is not to say that a manager can be
‘sociopathic’ in their communications and just say whatever people want to hear and then
change it all the next day when confronted with a different set of issues.
These are finely honed analytical and intuitive skills in which you size up the audience, the
context of the message being delivered and what you need to do or say to successfully
communicate your message. It also involves having enough intuition to immediately know
what not to say and what not to do. Above all, it requires you to be consistent in all your
communication, listening as well as being adaptive.
• Interaction Management. This involves taking the right decision ‘midstream’ and
switching the topic at the right moment. You will instantly know when you made a wrong
decision. It is almost always in the collective and empathic non-verbal response. It is
perfectly acceptable to say ‘oh it feels like we haven’t finished on that, so let’s go back’.
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Your colleagues will appreciate that you can ‘read the room.’ You are actively listening
and applying your emotional intelligence.
4.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIP
The types of relationships that can thrive within any organisation relate directly to the nature of its
structure. In COM12 Business Communications, we looked at mechanistic and organic structures and
how they relate to the communication that happens within them. In this unit, we have tracked the
evolution of workplaces from the classical approach to a more humanistic one. We have also discussed
top down, bottom up vertical communication lines, as well as horizontal and lateral communication lines.
These differing threads all build to a discussion of the types of relationship you may find enshrined in
organisations that predominately favour one or other of these structures and, consequently, develop
different communication styles.
We add one caveat though. Many organisations are in a state of flux and are using hybrid forms of
mechanistic and organic structures and communication styles. For the purposes of study, we will identify
each of the different types of relationship as separate entities with a view to discussing their key
elements.
4.5.1 SUPERIOR / SUBORDINATE RELATIONSHIPS
These types of relationships might be considered ‘old school’. Certainly they are born out of mechanistic
styles of organisations dating back to the era that we have discussed within th e classical historical
perspective of the evolution of business management. They might be considered as the Industrial
Revolution’s adaptation of the servant-master relationships dating back to feudalism. This is not to say
that all mechanistic organisations are archaic – there was (and is) benevolence shown towards workers.
Although born from the era that saw the rise of unions, communism and the workers’ revolution as we
have discussed earlier, many organisations today are based on this superior/subordinate relationship
style.
Typically, communication styles in the more mechanistic organisational model remain vertical –
downwards and upwards. Communication is always predicated on a flow from the Superior above to or
from the Subordinates below.
Downward messages mostly consist of job instructions and rationales including process, procedure and
practice information, performance feedback and ‘indoctrination messages, which are intended to convey
the organization’s cultural values and assumptions and build employee identification’ (Cheney 2011, p.
152).
Communication researchers Stephanie Zimmerman, Beverley Sypher and John Hass argue that
there exists a culturally shared meta myth that more communication is better – yet in numerous
organizations people were unsatisfied because of a lack of downward communication. (Cheney
2011, pp. 152–3)
Any upward communication was characterised by Cheney as mostly conveying status, performance
problems, interpretation of policies and practice, and suggestions.
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This is not to say that there was no social discourse. However, in most instances this was informal and
unmanaged but, of course, friendships grew and many superiors and subordinates enjoyed good
friendships, but mainly in the old fashioned paradigm of keeping work and social life separate.
Researchers Graen and Uhl-Bien suggest three phases of superior/subordinate work relationships that
seem to approximate how relationships might form within social life: the stranger phase, the
acquaintance phase and the mature stage (Cheney 2011, p. 154).
These phases will resonate with you as experiences you had when starting school or moving to a new
place. Graen takes his idea a little further in his leader-member exchange theory that sees superiors
developing inside cliques and outside cliques based on high levels of trust or low levels of trust. Of
course, that sounds just like a classic dialectic that should be challenged.
DISCUSSION POINT. Consider your own work and life experiences from the perspective of the dialectic
– high trust versus low trust. Workplaces often have workers who are considered to be ‘insiders’ and
‘outsiders’.
Have you had one or both of these experiences? Have you observed this happening to others around
you?
While this all sounds very old fashioned, it is a style of communication and relationship that can still be
seen today. Major fast food outlets still employ a version of this relationship style with a high percentage
of teenage employees, rigid processes, procedures and systems, top down management structure and
high staff turnover. If the young worker does not comply, they are soon moved on. This system works
and the companies are extremely profitable. There is no desire for innovation from the ‘factory floor’ and
they insist on every pizza or burger being the same. It’s also what the customer wants.
REALITY CHECK. This YouTube clip shows a 1967 recruitment ad for McDonalds. It states the
importance of discipline and team work. Note the manager watching over his young workers.
4.5.2 PEER RELATIONSHIPS
These relationships differ from those discussed above by virtue of not being imposed by a dominant
hierarchy. Peer relationships are those relationships that are constructed socially within a workplace.
They form organically out of shared experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions.
Researchers Sias and Cahill describe the process of peer relationships building themselves organically
(Cheney 2011, p. 155).
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Friendships tended to develop early due to the co-workers simply being around one another,
working together on shared projects and tasks, and perceiving common ground. At this point the
variety of communication topics increased; however, the co-workers were somewhat cautious
about sharing information and opinions with each other. Relationships developed into close
friendships usually because of important personal or work related problems, alt hough perceived
similarity and extra-organizational socializing continued to impact relationship development. At
this point, the co-worker became a trusted source of support with communication becoming
increasingly more intimate and less cautious. Over time, this trend continued into a third transition
where the co-workers became an important part of each other’s personal and work life. (Sias &
Cahill 1998, pp. 288-9)
Workers in peer relationships interact with each other and as a result a work culture capa ble of change
is created. Co-workers offer advice, support and information within these parallel relationships and
shared work cultures.
Managers need to be aware that peer related relationships add to the complexity within an organisation,
but there is a downside. While there is great benefit in the enhanced depth of mutual understanding and
support with peer relationships, things can go very wrong and productivity can be derailed by
inflammatory personal issues among staff such as jealousy, anger, feelings of betrayal.
Good managing entails navigating through these issues with co-workers. This may include organising
some mediation through your Human Resources department or consultant when difficulties arise.
4.5.3 PROBLEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS
Problematic relationships can really harm organisations. They can cause loss of productivity, loss of
key personnel, and impact negatively in terms of physical and mental health, absenteeism and ultimately
cash flow.
Cheney outlines various research which demonstrates how a spiral of incivility can grow in workplaces
(2011, pp. 158–60). Sypher in Cheney (2011, p.158) even draws similarities between the emergence of
road rage as a parallel phenomenon.
Pay particular attention to Figure 6.1, ‘Intensity and Intentionality of Workplace Incivility’ (p. 159), which
charts a journey from indirect, passive and verbal incivility to direct, active and aggressive behaviours.
This seeming breakdown in workplace civility coincides with an increase in workplace bullying and
harassment. Legislation has been introduced in Australia over a 20 year period to try to stem this poor
work practice.
Workplace bullying and harassment can be described as repetitive negative behaviours such as
humiliation, ridicule, threatening behaviour and overt acts of hostility. In Australia, The Human Rights
and Equal Opportunity Commission formulated the following definition and description of harassment
and discrimination in the workplace:
Under federal and state legislation, unlawful harassment occurs when someone is made to feel
intimidated, insulted or humiliated because of their race, colour, national or ethnic origin; sex;
disability; sexual preference; or some other characteristic specified under antidiscrimination or
human rights legislation. It can also happen if someone is working in a ‘hostile’ – or intimidating
–environment. (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2014)
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Harassment can include behaviour such as:
• telling insulting jokes about particular racial groups
• sending explicit or sexually suggestive emails
• displaying offensive or pornographic posters or screen savers
• making derogatory comments or taunts about someone’s race or religion
• asking intrusive questions about someone’s personal life, including their sex life.
Harassing behaviour can range from serious to less serious levels, however one-off incidents can
still constitute harassment. Also, where continued, such behaviour can undermine the standard
of conduct within a work area, which may erode the wellbeing of the individual or group being
targeted and lead to lower overall staff performance.
Employers also need to be aware of their responsibilities to ensure that the working environment
or workplace culture is not sexually or racially ‘hostile’. Examples of a potentially hostile working
environment are where pornographic materials are displayed and where crude conversations,
innuendo or offensive jokes are part of the accepted culture. A person has the right to complain
about the effects of a sexually or racially hostile working environment, even if the conduct in
question was not specifically targeted at them.
(Australian Human Rights Commission, 2014)
Another emerging class of bullying has been identified as mobbing.
Workplace mobbing can be described as a covert process whereby the perpetrators act collectively to
direct psychological attacks towards those targeted until they are forced to leave their employment
(Shallcross et al 2008). Similarly, workplace mobbing is also described as ‘a malicious attempt to force
a person out of the workplace through unjustified accusations, humiliation, general harassment,
emotional abuse, and/or terror’ (Zapf & Leymann 1996).
The outcome of mobbing most often identified by researchers is the target’s expulsion from the
workplace, causing psychological and physical injuries, and financial distress (Groeblinghoff & Becker
1996; Zapf & Leymann 1996).
Managers need to be aware of their own behaviours and be vigilant for power disparities within t heir
teams. These disparities are the breeding ground of bullying and harassment within the workplace.
People who engage in these activities seek to hurt and control (Shallcross 2010, pp. 27–8).
DISCUSSION POINT. Many of us have either been bullied in the workplace or have witnessed
workplace bullying. Consider the HREOC definitions above, together with the Shallcross definition of
workplace mobbing.
Have you been bullied or have you been a witness to bullying? What effect did it have on you personally
and within the wider workplace?
Module 2
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4.6 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
This week we have been looking at relationships and relational situations. Just about everything to do
with an organisation is a construct that would not exist without a job and a workplace. Managers and
communicators have an opportunity to construct all the elements, words, symbols, slogans that
surround this constructed environment.
• Cultural Ethos. Let’s revisit some of the basics from Week One. The first step in
understanding management communication processes is in understanding how the
organization speaks or communicates about itself. This language of the organization,
which might at first glance seem straight forward, can combine quite complex elements of
business, professional, aesthetic and economic objectives. This week we have attempted
to strip down communication to its basic building blocks from which we construct the
organisation’s public face. It starts with an understanding that every conversat ion is
strategic and every situation is an opportunity.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. From a Cultural Ethos perspective,
these devices form the basic elements that can be used to build the face of the
organisation. Using these devices is particularly effective when acknowledging functional
relationships and team work within the organisation. Symbols, words and rituals that
celebrate success form part of portraying and identifying the heroes and stories within your
organisation that are in a constant process of formation and re-formation.
• Adaptive Management behaviours and Cultural Leadership. The importance of basic,
simple relationship building in a successful and adaptive organisation should never be
underestimated by a manager. As the manager you are the example of how relationships
will grow and be conducted within the organisation. As such, you become the cultural
leader, setting the behavioural standards, and being the conduit of information flow
vertically, horizontally and laterally across the organisation.
MORE THOUGHTS
More and more, work relationships and personal relationships are coming together. However, it is
important to remember that you are the leader of communication and as such, your role is pivotal. It is
up to you to set the relational rules of engagement because it could be your responsibility to sometimes
discipline or even dismiss workers.
‘Mastering others is strength. Mastering yourself is true power.’ (Lao Tzu)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Australian Human Rights Commission, 2014. Workplace discrimination, harassment and bullying. Accessed 3 May
2019. https://www.humanrights.gov.au/employers/good-practice-good-business-factsheets/workplace-discrimination-
harassment-and-bullying .
Blumer, H. 1966, ‘Sociological Implications of the Thoughts of George Herbert Mead’, American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 71, Issue 5.
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/what-workplace-discrimination-and-harassment
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/what-workplace-discrimination-and-harassment
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Cheney, C. Christensen, L T. Zorn, T E Jnr, Shiv, Ganesh. 2011, Organizational Communication in an
Age of Globalization, Issues, Reflections, Practices, Waveland Press, Illinois.
Enlightened Networker. Accessed April 2012. http://enlightenednetworker.com/homebased-
business/networkmarketing/31-killer-quotes-networking-network-marketing/ ixzz1qYQV27Bv
Gersick, C. J., Bartunek, J. M., Dutton, J. E., 2000, ‘The importance of relationships in professional life’,
Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 43, Issue 6.
Shallcross, L. Ramsay, S & Barker, M, 2010, ‘A Procative Response to the Mobbing Problem: A Guide
for HR Managers’, New Zealand Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol 10, Issue 1, pp. 27 –
8.
Sias, P M & Cahill, D L, 1998, ‘From co-worker to friends: The development of peer friendships in the
workplace, Western Journal of Communication, Vol. 62, Issue 3.
Smircich, L & Morgan, G, 1982, ‘Leadership: The Management of Meaning’, The Journal of Applied
Behavioural Science, Vol. 18, No 3, pp. 258 -9.
The University of Chicago, 2003, Theories of Media. Accessed 3 May 2019.
http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/dialectic.htm
http://enlightenednetworker.com/homebased-
http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/dialectic.htm
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WEEK FIVE: MORE COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
By the end of this week, students will be familiar with the dynamics of relationship networks from a
local and a global perspective. This will include:
• Understanding the purpose of Network Analysis and its key concepts
• Understanding the emergence of communities of practice
• Understanding the emergence of Network Organisations
• Understanding the convergence of communication techniques, locally and globally.
REQUIRED READING
Cheney, C, Christensen, L T, Zorn, T E Jnr, Ganesh, Shiv, 2011, Organizational
Communication in an Age of Globalization, Issues, Reflections, Practices, 2nd ed.,
Waveland Press, Illinois. Chapter 6, pp. 160 – 178.
RECOMMENDED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition,
Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 4.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage
Learning. Chapter 4.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 5
In our key themes, we have identified workplace heroes and knowledge workers as
people who show exceptional qualities within the workplace. Identify some heroes and
knowledge workers you have experienced and write a short piece (100 – 200 words)
stating reasons why these individuals might be key members of work team networks.
Describe the qualities they display that may enhance the power and reach of this network
within an organisation.
Post your comments and your responses to two peers’ comments within the
Discussion Board under the ILT thread called ‘Post your responses to ILT5 here’.
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REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip that introduces the idea of networks as value
networks.
5.1 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Managers build communication networks simply by establishing relationships with individuals and
converting these relationships into active networks. By linking people together in networks it is possible
to achieve more, work more efficiently and often, more creatively. Based on their integral group dynamic,
networks will succeed or fail. If more is achieved through functioning as a network, it soon becomes an
obvious strategy. Networks have, by nature, a way of discovering their social and political levels.
Often these levels play out at a very basic human level:
• Does the network offer opportunities?
• Is valuable information and knowledge available within the network?
• Does the network offer a base of influence?
In most cases, these three basic questions will determine the fate of the network. Most managers are
too busy to waste time on building and exploiting networks if they are not delivering outcomes and
offering opportunities to benefit the organisation.
Networks can be a mix of internal and external relationships and connections. They may form around
particular technologies or communities of practice, professional associations or community
organisations. The common link is the desire to communicate, exchange information, grow collective
knowledge, share influence and be empowered through membership, at least to s ome degree.
DISCUSSION POINT. Many of you will have been members of a network within your workplace or
personal life. Reflect on the paragraph above and focus on networks you have participated in.
Did they succeed or fail? Based on the common links above, evaluate their effectiveness.
This week we continue Module 3 by exploring network analysis, key networking concepts, communities
of practice, inter-organisational networks, and define ‘network organisations’ and their core skill sets.
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5.2 NETWORK ANALYSIS
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to this YouTube clip for a quick graphic representation of this week’s
topic.
Network analysis was first introduced in the 1930s starting with pioneers in the field Simmel and, later.
Moreno. It soon found itself applied to a range of social and technological interactions. One interesting
application was when political strategists used Network Analysis as a campaign tool to identify who
were the information gatekeepers and key opinion makers within communities. Kennedy was the fi rst
American president to really effectively link network research techniques and specifically targeted
television advertising. The strategists would then direct their efforts directly at these network links. Since
then it has become extremely sophisticated and has been applied across all social behaviourist
platforms including, of course, the workplace.
Generally, network analysis can be defined as the study of the effectiveness of messages when directly
applied to existing communication links between people within any system, but principally it is applied
to communities and workplaces. It can also be applied to any smaller subsystem, for example, school
children, teenagers, the elderly or mentally ill. It is universally applicable as long as its settings a re
correct.
In an organisational context it has become an integral part of situational decision making and strategy
building. It allows managers to get inside a situation through the deconstruction of messages sent and
received, and feedback to and from opinion makers and gatekeepers within networks across the
organisation.
Certainly, network analysis is just one of the tools available to managers to investigate the cause of
issues and relational situations. It is an important part of tracing a pattern of interconnectedness in
issues such as changes in consumer sentiment, tighter government regulation, handling of
manufacturing and marketing, and weakening of internal and external communication. Employees often
reflect trends and have valuable answers. Network analysis is a way of harnessing this knowledge.
Sociologist, Mark Granovetter developed an insightful analysis based on the ‘strength of weak
ties’. Granovetter argues that while we typically value strong ties in terms of network density and
strength, for some purposes we should value the weaker ties. For organisations to be innovative,
for example, weak ties are essential because they foster new links that allow us to challenge
taken-for-granted routines and assumptions. (Granovetter qtd Cheney 2011, p. 161)
We have already discussed the need for the evolution of businesses into learning organisations as well
as innovation as a ‘must do’ for survival in an era of constant change. Network analysis provides
managers with mechanisms to find out what is really happening and to manage those communications
and networks to the benefit of the organisation.
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5.3 KEY CONCEPTS IN NETWORK ANALYSIS
Relations are central to network analysis because they define the nature of the communication
connections between people, groups and organisations. This focus stands in sharp contrast to
other areas of social sciences, which have tended to study attributes, the characteristics of
people, groups and organisations rather than the relationship between them. Relations possess
a number of important properties including the number of entities involved, strength, symmetry,
transitivity, reciprocity, and multiplexity. (Jablin & Putnam 2001, p. 441)
Cheney et al (2011, p. 162) adapt research from two sources to create ‘Box 6.4 – Key Concepts in Network
Analysis’. Firstly, have a look at this adaptation of the research and then read through the Study Guide’s
adaptation which attempts to place their research within a more communication related context.
Network Roles for Individuals can be quite simply divided into the following categories:
• The Clique is where group members are connected through regular interaction. These
might be members of work teams who form fairly naturally into a network.
• The Isolate refers to an individual who is not much of a team player, but is included in the
network because of the specialised skills or knowledge they bring with them. Often they
maybe a content expert and/or specific knowledge worker.
• The Bridge refers to someone who is a member of many networks and can act as a bridge
or conduit between them. Often this member is very useful at breaking down
communication barriers.
• The Liaison refers to someone who is not a member of any network, but interacts between
many different networks. This person is highly effective as a conduit of horizontal and
lateral communication.
• The Communication Star is often identified as a champion of the network who will take
communication forward positively.
• The Gatekeeper is someone who is naturally inclined to want to control the flow of
information of networks, both internally and externally.
Cheney goes on to identify the ‘dimensions’ between individuals and the networks. In communication
usage we would refer to this as the group dynamic.
Dimensions of Analysis between Individuals can be evaluated according to levels of:
• Centrality is the degree to which an individual is central to the network’s function.
• Connectedness means the number of contacts each individual has secured and whether
they can govern their effectiveness.
• Diversity means the number of cross or subcultural links an individual has which is also
important as a modern concept of interaction.
• Accessibility refers to each network member’s ability and resources to enable them to
quickly and easily access other members of the network and other networks within the
organisation. (Cheney 2011, p. 162)
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Module 3
DISCUSSION POINT. Reflect on your own workplace experiences and see if you can identity some of
these types of individuals as well as giving thought to the sorts of ‘dimensions’ or group dynamics that
surround these networks. Consider how networks benefit from centrality, connectedness, diversity and
accessibility to influence team and network discussion.
Dimensions for Analysis of Whole Networks can be evaluated according to:
• Size. The number of members can be directly related to a network’s influence.
• Heterogeneity. The degree to which members are similar or different can have both
positive and negative effects on the network.
• Modes of Communicating refers to the many different outlets used by the network to
distribute information.
• Density refers to the ratio of actual links to possible links within a network. This relates
directly to certainty and effectiveness.
• Clustering is the degree to which networks are either ‘mainstream’ or comprised of
subcultures or cliques. (Cheney 2011, p. 162)
These key concepts form the basis of the tools a manager can use to understand why a network is
functioning effectively or experiencing difficulties. Identifying the role players, analysing their individual
centrality to information flow, their connectedness as individuals across networks and the organisation,
their links across culturally diverse sectors within the organisation, and the degree to which they have
quick, easy access to others, all help to clarify what is happening within that network.
5.4 COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE
Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something
they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. (Etienne Wenger 2006,
http://www.ewenger.com/theory/)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the YouTube link to a quick interview with Etienne Wenger on the strategic
nature of communities of practice.
Communities of practice are now prevalent in the business world in response to the growth of fixed
contract and consultancies, often working within large organisations. Being a tutor at a university is a
good example. The common learning goals and peer interaction creates a purposeful shared journey.
Members of a community of practice share a common discipline and share their experiences, stories,
tools and ways of addressing recurring problems by interacting with each other in a committed and
sustainable way. Wegner, McDermott and Snyder argue that the driving force making these
communities of practice successful over time is ‘their ability to generate enough excitement, relevance,
and value to attract and engage members. Although many factors, such as management
http://www.ewenger.com/theory/)
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support or an urgent problem, can inspire a community, nothing can substitute for this sense of
aliveness’ (2001, p. 50).
These communities have found practical applications in business, organisational design, government,
education, professional associations, development projects, as well as social, medical and community
services, but are applicable just about everywhere today.
The concept is succeeding because business recognises that knowledge is inherent to change and
innovation and needs to be managed and communicated strategically. Often, an organisation might
support and resource these communities as part of their innovation strategies. Communities of practice
provide a new way for organisations to promote innovation within their often outsourced expertise
through providing social structures that enable people to learn with and from each other outside
traditional organisational structures.
A number of characteristics define this interest in communities of practice as a vehicle for developing
strategic innovation in organisations:
• Communities of practice enable practitioners to take collective responsibility for managing
the knowledge they need, recognizing that, given the proper structure, they are in the best
position to do this.
• Communities among practitioners create a direct link between learning and performance,
because the same people participate in communities of practice and in teams and business
units.
• Practitioners can address the tacit and dynamic aspects of knowledge creation and
sharing, as well as the more explicit aspects.
• Communities are not limited by formal structures: they create connections am ong people
across organizational and geographic boundaries.
(Wenger 2006, http://www.ewenger.com/theory/)
Ultimately, the knowledge pool within an organisation could potentially be driven by separate
communities of practice each informing a specific competency that then feeds into the wider
organisation.
However, managers and organisations need to be able to meet the challenge of autonomy, practitioner –
orientation, informality and cross fertilization of ideas and knowledge to be able to reap a substantial
benefit. All of this can really only succeed with a mature learning organisation that has enshrined vertical,
horizontal and lateral communication lines within an adaptive work culture.
Quite recently we have seen the arrival of the Virtual or On-line Communities of Practice (OCoP).
OCoPs provide a virtual space in which people who might normally never meet can come
together, share stories and experiences, and solve problems pertaining to the domain interest.
The evolving technologies of the Internet allow for an extension of traditional communities in
geographic and cultural ways, crossing borders and languages to include experts from around
the world. (Wenger 2006, http://www.ewenger.com/theory/)
Perhaps Wikipedia may actually prove to be a first step towards a Virtual Community of Practice
model rather than being an on-line open encyclopaedia. We certainly have the technology.
http://www.ewenger.com/theory/)
http://www.ewenger.com/theory/)
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Module 3
5.5 INTER-ORGANISATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND NETWORKS
Many organisations are now entering into joint ventures either as public/private ventures with
government (e.g. the tunnel projects in Brisbane) or between corporations (e.g. many explora tion and
mining projects). These can be both short and long term arrangements.
These networks are formed for a number of reasons – personal, strategic, symbolic or institutional.
Whatever the reasons, a common factor is to spread the risk. They are design ed to maximise human
and material resources, skills sets and knowledge to the benefit of all the partners.
With increased environmental complexity and turbulence, organizations expand their boundary
spanning activities to include collaboration with other organizations. Inter-organizational
collaboration involves pooling tangible and intangible resources, such as expertise, information,
money, technology, and labor by two or more organizations to solve problems that neither of them
can solve alone. (Gray 1985, p. 912)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip about the joint venture in Brisbane to build tunnels
as a solution to their traffic issues.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JovNSkXvngA
Often, inter-organisational relationships either exist as symbiotic entities or pooling devices.
Symbiotic entities use all their resources, products or services and capacities to combine to form one
entity. A good example of this is when a university enters into a relationship with government or private
enterprise in the role of innovation incubator. The other partners may fund the research and then take
over the manufacture processes.
Pooling involves organisations with similar resources, building their collective market reach. Co-flight
arrangements between different airlines are a good example. Qantas has arrangements with a number
of other airlines to provide a wider scope of services to its customers – and, of course, these favourable
residual arrangements flow back across to their other network members.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JovNSkXvngA
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5.6 NETWORK ORGANISATIONS
For many global corporations, a rigid hierarchical structure no longer meets the needs of these new
environments. The old hierarchical pyramid that suited industrial age companies is no longer sufficient
to manage and communicate within knowledge-based organisations.
The structure of knowledge based organisations needs to be different and more complex. This has given
rise to the concept of the Network Organisation.
In this week’s reading Cheney et al define Network Organisations as ‘composed of two or more
organizational units from different organizations involved in a long term, and more or less formal ized
relationship’ (2011, p. 167). The key word is ‘formalised’. Its power base, vision, strategies and structure
are contained within a network group leadership and management entity. However, the network ‘group’
retains the ability to operate laterally and flexibly within many markets.
Network Organisations form in response to environmental and strategic changes that challenge their
more traditional strategies.
• Environmental Changes include changes in technology; decrease in transaction costs;
turbulent changes in supply and/or demand; increase in competition; increase of risk and
uncertainty; globalisation.
• Strategic Changes include savings on costs; improving the flow of information; effective
redistribution of resources; improving competitiveness; improving entrepreneurial
potential; launching new business; increasing co-operation; improving buyer/supplier
relationships; sharing risk with others; accessing additional resources, markets and
entrepreneurialism. (Adapted from Figure 6.1, Szerb 2003, p. 87)
The characteristics of a Network Organisation are:
• Independent teams within specific areas of activity
• Project-driven activities sharing common values and resources
• Separate business units that support each other locally and globally as part of a
conglomerate
• Open and regular links between projects
• Use of information and communication technologies to connect the projects
• One key co-ordinating body (often headed by the CEO) to construct and implement
systems and processes to specifically manage the interrelationship of projects.
(Sourced from Cheney et al 2011, pp. 163–7; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 413-17)
The technology revolution has removed the tyranny of distance and distance. The benefits derived from
economies of scale and the sharing of knowledge and resources is meeting the challenge for
organisations to be adaptive globally.
A good example of a network organisation is Asea Brown Boveri (ABB) which was born out of a merger
between Asea AB of Sweden and BBC Brown Boveri Ltd of Baden, Switzerland in 1988. The merged
entity is now the world’s leading supplier in the $50 billion electric power industry developing robotic
technology as its unique market advantage.
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Module 3
ABB now controls as much as a third of Europe’s business and more than 20 per cent of the world
market. It has successfully integrated 1,300 subsidiary companies operating as separate and distinct
business units with 180,000 employees operating in 140 countries.
All the energy and resources of the corporate centre of ABB are geared to facilitating cross-company co-operation, with
computer networks and knowledge sharing being at the centre of this process. In 2017, ABB invested US$150 million to
build the world’s most advanced robotics factory in Shanghai, China . This new manufacturing center in Shanghai, China, and
will combine collaborative robotics with cutting-edge artificial intelligence. It is expected to begin operating by the end of
2020.
In 2017, one of every three robots sold in the world went to China, but China wants to significantly increase Chinese
production of robots for domestic use. Signs of this shift are already present. Foxconn, a leading supplier of Apple iPhones,
replaced 60,000 workers with robots in just one of its Chinese factories in 2016. ABB has invested US$2.4 billion in China
since 1992 and has worked in the country for more than 100 years.
(Adapted from Zaleski, 2017)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip of robotic tools at the high end of innovation
developed across the globe within ABB subsidiaries. Check out “The Robot Revolution: The New Age of
Manufacturing in this ‘Moving Upstream’” report. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HX6M4QunVmA
Obviously, the communication strategies are as complex as the corporate structure, however within the
1,300 business units, local managers are delivering localised communication strategies and techniques
as their part to play within a massive structure.
At the centre of all communication is trust, no matter the size of the structure you are managing, or how
global or localised. The setting of consistent standards in a way that is transparently based on goodwill,
commitment and equity stands as the paramount conditions under which communication lines can be
kept open and adaptable. Only through this can a corporation develop an identity that communicates a
clear sense of corporate self.
In your required reading, Cheney et al state that communication within networ k organisations is based
on the three elements of trust, identity and co-ordination. Peter Ring and Andrew Van de Ven agree,
pointing out that:
Trust is the goodwill of other parties in a cumulative product of repeated past interactions
amongst parties through which they have come to know themselves and evolve a common
understanding of mutual commitments. (Ring & Van de Ven 1994, p. 110)
Identity and co-operation are driven from a communication perspective through overarching strategies
that by nature must be vertical, horizontal as well as lateral. A communication chain is only as strong as
its weakest link.
5.7 APPLYING SOME KEY COMMUNICATION THEMES
• Cultural Ethos. Strategic conversations, communicating messages consistently, building
strong relationships and developing stable and effective networks are all milestones on the
journey to good communication by a manager.
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These are simple day to day skills and techniques that build trust, identity and cooperation.
More importantly, they are often more powerful in your internal and external communication
than a fortune in advertising and slick copy. What you actually say and do counts most.
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The level of trust, cooperation and ease of communication within an organisation forms
part of its cultural ethos and as such is a valuable strategic asset. This trust bank can act
as an empowering agent in all communication and negotiation processes. It can embed a
freedom and flexibility within networks of relationships, teams, communities of prac tice,
and internal and external networks of exchange.
Alternatively, a lack of trust and open communication often leads to a culture of suspicion,
secrecy and ultimately open conflict with increased levels of stress, indecision, low
motivation among staff. This in turn, can lead to loss of productivity, high staff turnover,
increased sick leave etc.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. As Network Organisations grow,
managers need to be open to applying communication devices across not only their own
team, but across hugely disparate sister companies. The key to much of this global
communication lies in consistency. Using similar symbols and slogans globally, widening
the audience for the stories and ceremonies, and celebrating heroes can have a gr eat
impact within an organisation if these stories and ceremonies can be celebrated on a global
basis.
Many global organisations have newsletters that collect stories from every department,
branch or national office. Having your organisation recognised on this global level, has
enormous benefits for everyone involved. Similarly, the sharing of stories from other
organisations in different parts of the world will build a heightened sense of connectedness,
and an appreciation of place within the big picture.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership.
Networks and global relationships add to the ability of a manager to adapt. Seeing what is
happening in like-minded organisations is an excellent way to track change and learn about
innovations. In the same way, managers can specifically learn from cultural leadership and
knowledge management programs being trialled in other parts of the bigger organisation.
If the communication lines are open, information and knowledge will flow.
MORE THOUGHTS
Networks are an integral part of most organisations today. The pitfall, however, is spending so much
time managing the networks that it has a negative effect on productivity. One good rule is don’t network
unless there is a specific reason to do so that will be instrumental in benefiting better business
outcomes. In other words, don’t go into strategic conversations, relationships or networks unless you
have a strategy.
‘All men can see these tactics whereby I conquer, but what none can see is the strategy out of
which victory is evolved.’ (Sun Tzu, 544 – 496BC)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cheney, C, Christensen, L T, Zorn, T E Jnr, Ganesh, Shiv, 2011, Organizational Communication in an
Age of Globalization, Issues, Reflections, Practices, 2nd ed., Waveland Press, Illinois.
Gray, B, 1985, ‘Conditions Facilitating Interorganizational Collaboration’, Human Relations, Vol. 38,
Issue 10, p. 912.
Jablin, Fredric M & Putnam, Linda L, 2001, The New Handbook of Organizational Communication: Advances in
Theory, Research and Method, Sage, Thousand Oaks, California.
Monge, P E & Contractor, N S, 2001, ‘Emergence of Communication Networks’, The New Handbook of
Organizational Communication: Advances in Theory, Research, and Methods. Eds. F M Jablin, F M &
L Putnam, Sage Publication Inc., California.
Ring, P. & Van de Ven, A. H. 1994, ‘Developmental Processes of Cooperative Interorganizational
Relationships’ Academy of Management Review, Vol. 19, Issue1, p. 110.
Szerb, L, 2003, ‘The Changing Role of Entrepreneur and Entrepreneurship in Network Organisations’,
Knowledge Transfer, Small and Medium Sized Enterprises, and Regional Development in Hungary. Ed.
I. Lengvel, JATE Press, Szeged. pp. 81-95.
Wenger, E, 2006, Communities of practice: A brief introduction. Accessed 3 May 2019.
Zaleski, Andrew, 2017. ‘China’s blueprint to crush the US robotics industry’. Accessed 3 May 2019.
https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/06/chinas-blueprint-to-crush-the-us-robotics-industry.html.
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MODULE 4
WEEK SIX: MANAGING COMMUNICATION AND
DIVERSITY
By the end of this week, students will understand some of the complex issues involved in managing
diversity in the workplace. This will include:
• Defining diversity
• Understanding the valuing of diversity
• Defining ethnocentrism and monocultures
• Defining ethnorelativism and pluralism
• Exploring issues for minorities
• Understanding some key challenges for managers and organisations.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific
edition, Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 13.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage
Learning. Chapter 13.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 6
Take the New Manager Self-Test from the Samson, Donnet & Daft textbook, ‘Do
you have a gender and authority bias?’ (2018, p. 532) or alternatively, ‘Do you
know your Biases’ (Samson & Daft 2015, p. 469). Look at your score and write
100 – 200 words about what you learned about your own biases or, perhaps, lack
of bias.
Post your piece to the Discussion Board and responses to two peers under
the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT6 here’.
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
‘I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged
by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.’
(Martin Luther King Jr.)
Over the next two weeks we will be exploring diversity issues in the workplace. Valuing diversity is what
organisations and workers can do operationally to acknowledge the benefits of our differences and
similarities. Valuing workplace diversity must be continuous, effective and strategically communicated
so that it becomes embedded within the work culture of an organisation. We will also look at recent
criticism of many diversity programs within organisations such as tokenistic and sporadic strategies.
Diversity in the workforce takes many forms including:
• Gender
• Age and generational influences
• Developmental and acquired disabilities
• Religious and spiritual orientation
• Ethnicity/national origin
• Socio-economic status
• Sexual orientation.
Samson and Daft state that, ‘Managing diversity today entails recruiting, training, valuing, and
maximising the potential of people who reflect the broad spectrum of society in all areas’ (2015, p. 518).
Today, companies are embracing a more inclusive definition of diversity that recognises a
spectrum of differences that influence how employees approach work, interact with each other,
derive satisfaction from their work, and define who they are as people in the workplace. In
practice, workforce diversity means a workforce made up of people with different human qualities
or who belong to various cultural groups. From the perspective of individuals, diversity means
including people different from themselves such as race, age, ethnicity, gender, or social
background. It is important to remember that diversity includes everyone, not just racial and ethnic
minorities. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 536; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 522)
Exhibit 13.2 in the Samson, Donnet & Daft text (2018, p. 536), which is Exhibit 13.3 in the 2015 edition
(p. 523), explores primary and secondary dimensions of diversity. Primary dimensions such as age,
race, ethnicity, gender, mental or physical abilities and sexual orientation have a continuing impact
throughout one’s life. They are personal attributes that shape your ‘self’ and your world view. Secondary
dimensions such as marital status, education or religious belief can be acquired or can change during
one’s life, although some primary dimensions such as disability can change.
Again Exhibit 13.4 in the Samson, Donnet & Daft text (2018, p. 539), which is Exhibit 13.3 in the 2015
edition (p.523), sets some milestones in the history of corporate diversity. It demonstrates a slow shift
towards the recognition of diversity in the workplace.
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For much of the 20th century Australia was a monoculture, even enshrining this single dominant
culture within legislation called the White Australia Policy. We will discuss this in detail later.
In Australia, the journey towards diversity has been predictably slow as shown in the landmark 2002
Nugent Report on Women’s Employment and Professionalism in Australia. Its findings stated that:
The definition of work is a central theme in histories of women’s employment and professionalism.
In fact, the way in which work has been historically defined in Australia has fundamentally shaped
women’s access to paid employment, and their position within the formal cash economy. At the
most basic level, definitions of work are gendered. A key issue in the historiography of women’s
employment and professionalism has been to demonstrate ways in which ‘women’s skills have
been historically undervalued, ignored altogether, or judged to be of less importance than those
of men’. Historians of women’s labour have revealed the gendered nature of the economy and
the labour market, the sexual division of labour within the family, and sex segregation and gender
segmentation in the work place. (Nugent 2002)
DISCUSSION POINT. Focus on Nugent’s quote above that ‘women’s skills have been historically
undervalued, ignored altogether or judged to be less important than those of men’.
Does this statement have meaning to you or your family? Can you discern any real change in these
attitudes?
In an academic research study, Papillon (2000) referred to the work of Stoner & Russell-Chapin
arguing that:
Progressive managers are increasingly aware of the prevailing demographic and social shifts. In
short, these managers possess an “intellectual awareness” of diversity. They know the facts
about workforce demographic shifts and have begun to consider the impact on their respective
organizations (Stoner & Russell-Chapin 1997, p. 1).
Unfortunately, many contemporary organizations have not progressed beyond this preliminary
‘intellectual awareness’ stage. Consequently, these organizations are languishing in the initial
phases of the diversity movement. Many are experiencing diversity, but failing to really manage
it (Stoner et al 1997, p. 2). Although managers possess an ‘intellectual awareness’ and
understanding of recent and emerging themes, organizational response – the ‘enactment’ of a
meaningful diversity process – has been limited and fragmented. (Stoner et al., 1997, p. 3; Papillon
2000)
This week we will look at defining the complexities of diversity, examining attitudes towards diversity,
the changing workplace, challenges for minorities, and communication challenges for managers.
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6.2 VALUING DIVERSITY
By valuing diversity we empower our workers. Powerlessness occurs when people do not regularly
participate in making decisions that affect the conditions of their lives and actions.
Top managers say their companies value diversity for a number of reasons, such as to give the
organisation access to a broader range of opinions and viewpoints, to spur greater creativity and
innovation, to reflect an increasingly diverse customer base, to obtain the best talent in a
competitive environment, and to more effectively compete in a global marketplace.
(Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p.538; Samson & Daft 2015, p.519)
Nonetheless, it can be like quicksand – the problems unforeseen and the remedies difficult. Read the
examples of mistakes given by Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p.540) or Samson & Daft (2015, p.520-
21) that are on the record in Australia and New Zealand. Although all these examples appear to be ‘blue
collar’ factory examples, they reflect how managers have failed to consider any cross -cultural issues in
responding to what are really quite complex issues. They have stayed with a response within their
understanding of the dominant monoculture. This leads necessarily into the next question that must be
addressed.
What is multiculturalism? The Commonwealth Department of Immigration and Citizenship offers the
following definition:
In a descriptive sense multicultural is simply a term which describes the cultural and ethnic
diversity of contemporary Australia. We are, and will remain, a multicultural society.
As a public policy multiculturalism encompasses government measures designed to respond to
that diversity. It plays no part in migrant selection. It is a policy for managing the consequences
of cultural diversity in the interests of the individual and society as a whole.
The Commonwealth Government has identified three dimensions of multicultural policy:
• cultural identity: the right of all Australians, within carefully defined limits, to express
and share their individual cultural heritage, including their language and religion;
• social justice: the right of all Australians to equality of treatment and opportunity,
and the removal of barriers of race, ethnicity, culture, religion, language, gender or
place of birth; and
• economic efficiency: the need to maintain, develop and utilize effectively the skills
and talents of all Australians, regardless of background.
There are also limits to Australian multiculturalism. These may be summarized as follows:
• multicultural policies are based upon the premises that all Australians should have
an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia, to its interests and future first
and foremost;
• multicultural policies require all Australians to accept the basic structures and
principles of Australian society – the Constitution and the rule of law, tolerance and
equality, Parliamentary democracy, freedom of speech and religion, English as the
national language and equality of the sexes; and
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• multicultural policies impose obligations as well as conferring rights: the right to
express one’s own culture and beliefs involves a reciprocal responsibility to accept
the right of others to express their views and values. Delete right – Red lines
(Commonwealth Govt. 2012, National Agenda for Multiculturalism, Australian
Government)
As a necessary response to the reality of Australia’s cultural diversity, multicultural policies aim
to realize a better Australia characterized by an enhanced degree of social justice and economic
efficiency.
One of the recognised cultural attributes of Australia is its tradition of ‘mateship’ and giving everyone a
‘fair go’, ‘where people help and receive help from others voluntarily, especially in times of adversity’.
This dialogue was heard throughout the various Queensland and New South Wales flood broadc asts in
early 2011 for example. A mate can be a spouse, partner, brother, sister, daughter, son or friend, but
can also be that stranger who ‘needs a hand’.
However, while the tradition of mateship forms part of Australia’s values and the Howard government
has prescribed these traditional values to Australians and potential citizens in various Citizenship
booklets, there is still considerable debate about what exactly these values are.
Researcher Kirsty Knight (2008) recorded verbatim responses from a cross-section of Australian
workers:
One participant retorted with a rhetoric question, ‘Who really determines or who is in the position
to determine what constitutes these famous ‘Australian values’. In the context of the interview this
response reveals that there is animosity towards the Federal Government’s attempts to prescribe
definitions of ‘Australian values’. (Knight 2008, pp.115)
Knight argues that, ‘Generally speaking, “Australian values” is an indefinable term and very much
lacking in a concrete definition for the Australian people’ (Knight 2008, p.115). Evidence of this is further
revealed in the following excerpt:
K: I guess the big question here is what do people actually integrate to? Recently a new
citizenship test was created for new citizens of Australia and in this test they (the government)
really want these newcomers to adapt and adjust to Australian ways and this mateship concept.
What do you think about that?
E: I think it’s crap. I think as you said what is this idea of mateship, what is that? What does it
mean? There’s no substantiated way of life you know.
(Knight 2008, p. 115)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip that takes a different perspective to the views
expressed in Knight’s research.
What do you think about this debate?
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6.3 ETHNOCENTRISM AND MONOCULTURE
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own group and subculture are inherently superior to other
groups and cultures… Ethnocentric viewpoints and a standard set of cultural practices produce
a monoculture, a culture that accepts only one way of doing things and one set of values and
beliefs, which can cause problems for employees who may not share those values and beliefs.
(Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 546; Samson & Daft 2015, p.529)
Harking back to our discussion of the Classical Perspective to organisational management, it is obvious
to see that business culture, at least in the West, predominately consisted of a white male workforce
reflecting their values, behaviours, beliefs, motivations and attitudes in life and in work. The male was
the ‘bread winner’. In a personal reflection, my mother suffered these prejudices. Upon getting her first
job in Australia in 1963, she was asked to provide a letter of approval from her husband when attempting
to open a bank account. In the same era, women had to resign their positions in the Queensland Public
Service and as teachers once they fell pregnant.
Australian culture has a historical, societal and political history of ethnocentrism and a dominant
monoculture called the White Australia policy. Earlier we discussed the Nugent Report (2002) which
perhaps categorises this policy as the White Australian Male Policy.
The restriction of ‘non-white’ immigration was one of the first acts passed in the newly-formed
Federation of Australia in 1901. Spurred on by 19th century notions of European racial superiority,
resistance to immigration had developed in response to a perceived competition for resources.
Resentment of the Chinese population had brewed in the goldfields of the 1850s and 1860s and
the indentured labour trade of the sugar and pearling industries were seen as a threat to the
foundation of a nation built on a ‘free labour’ economy. As well as imposing a dictation test,
designed to exclude all undesirable migrants, the policy also restricted the rights and fre edoms
of non-whites within Australia including Aboriginal people.
The dismantling of the ‘White Australia’ policy started in 1949. Its gradual removal over the next
quarter-century was largely a foreign policy imperative, as European colonialism collapsed in the
region and Australia found itself surrounded by newly independent Asian nations. It was also an
adjustment in line with changing social attitudes towards racial discrimination in the 1950s and
1960s. In 1973 the new Whitlam government took the final steps to remove race as a factor in
Australia’s immigration provisions. In spite of the changes to the statutes, Australia effectively
remained ‘white’ on the immigration front until 1975 when the implications of the new policy were
tested by the refugee crisis in the wake of the Vietnam War. (ABC-TV 2002)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a clip from the ABC series, 100 Years – The Australian Story.
http://www.abc.net.au/archives/80days/stories/2012/01/19/3415230.htm?WT.srch=1&WT.mc_id=Corp
_Innovation-80Days|Day46_AdWords_:history%20of%20white%20australia%20policy_
What is your reaction? Is the White Australia policy dead? Or can we still feel, see and hear ‘echoes’
from that policy in personal conversations and wider political debates?
http://www.abc.net.au/archives/80days/stories/2012/01/19/3415230.htm?WT.srch=1&WT.mc_id=Corp
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6.4 ETHNORELATIVISM AND PLURALISM
Ethnorelativism is the belief that groups and subcultures are inherently equal. Pluralism means
that an organisation accommodates several subcultures. Movement towards pluralism seeks to
fully integrate into the organisation the employees who otherwise may feel isolated and ignored.
(Daft & Marcic 2009, pp. 348)
We have now arrived at defining the two major dialectics that drive the workplace diversity debate:
• Ethnocentrism as opposed to ethnorelativism
• Monoculture as opposed to pluralism.
In line with the earlier statement that many organisations are in transition from mechanistic towards
organic structures and from a classical perspective towards a behaviourist perspective, so it is that many
organisations are also in transition from a monoculture towards pluralistic culture.
DISCUSSION POINT. Once again, draw from your own work (or personal) experiences and identify
some workplaces or organisations you have experienced in the context of the two dialectics outlined
above.
What organisational attributes enabled you to decide which side of the dialectic your personal
experiences fall: Monoculture or Pluralist?
Within this evolving context of public opinion, government policies and academic research,
organisations are coming to terms with diversity in their workplaces as a reflection of the ‘changing face’
of markets and communities.
Forward thinking organisations agree and are taking steps to attract and retain a workforce that
reflects the cultural diversity of the population. They take seriously the fact that there is a link
between the diversity of the workplace and financial success in the marketplace. To be
successful, these organisations are hiring workers who share the same cultural background as
the customers they are trying to reach. Today’s organisations recognise that diversity is no longer
just the right thing to do, it is a business imperative and perhaps the single most important factor
of the twenty-first century for organisational performance.
(Samson & Daft 2015, p. 518)
6.5 THE CHANGING WORKPLACE
Organisations that are sensitive to the needs of different cultures in response to changing workplaces,
communities and markets seem favoured to succeed. After all, where better to learn about different
cultural needs and responses to your product and marketing than ‘in house’?
The demographics of the population are shifting dramatically. The people who used to be called
minorities now make up a large part of the population. During the 1990s, the foreign born
population of Australia nearly doubled, and it continues to increase (Samson & Daft 2015, p.534).
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Some findings of the Australian Bureau of Statistics report Measures of Australia’s Progress –
Overseas Born Population are detailed below:
Australia, along with New Zealand, Canada and the United States, is often described as a
‘settlement country’. All four countries have experienced positive net overseas migration in recent
years (OECD 2010). These countries have relatively high proportions of the population who were
born overseas, when compared with other OECD countries. Australia has the highest proportion
aside from Luxembourg, where over one third of the population are foreign-born.
Foreign-born in selected OECD countries – 1997 and 2007
Percentage of population
Country 1997 2007
Australia 23.3 25.0
Canada 17.7 20.1
Finland 2.2 3.8
Italy(a) 2.1 5.8
Japan(a) 1.2 1.7
Luxembourg 31.9 36.2
Mexico(b) 0.4 0.4
United Kingdom 7.2 10.2
United States 10.7 13.6
(a) Foreign population rather than foreign-born population.
(b) Data for Mexico are for 1995 and 2005.
Source: OECD, OECD in Figures 2009
Australia has experienced successive waves of immigration over the past century, and each wave
has been characterised by a different predominant region of origin, usually related to world events
of the period. In the post Second World War period, immigration from Europe increased markedly.
In recent times, the proportion of Australians who were born in European countries has declined.
As those earlier immigrants have grown older and returned to their country of origin or died,
current levels of immigration from these regions have not been high enough to replace them.
However in 2007-08, North-West Europe and Southern and Eastern Europe were still the most
common regions of birth for Australians born overseas (7.2% and 3.8% of all Australians were
born in these regions). The proportion of Australians who were born in the various regions of Asia
has continued to increase over the last decade, part of a trend that began in the late 1970s.
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010)
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6.6 MINORITY GROUPS IN THE WORKPLACE
The biggest problem facing minorities within a monoculture is the one-eyed perspective that views
anything different as dysfunctional or, even worse, dangerous. Samson and Daft argue that experience
would suggest that, ‘no matter how many university degrees they earn, how many hours they work, how
they dress, or how much effort and enthusiasm they invest, they are never perceived as “having the
right stuff”’ (2012, p .478).
Let’s look at the key findings of research done by Colic-Peisker and Tilbury for the Centre for Social and
Community Research at Murdoch University around attitudes towards visibly different migrants and
minorities. The research revealed:
• High levels of unemployment among skilled refugees
• Massive loss of occupational status among skilled refugees
• Persistence of a segmented labour market. This means that racially and culturally visible
migrants and refugees in particular, despite their skills levels, are allocated unattractive
jobs.
• Loss of human capital benefits to Australia and a waste of skills currently in short supply
(e.g. among respondents doctors and engineers reported driving taxis, and teachers
cleaning offices)
• Refugees face structural disadvantage in the labour market (e.g. non recognition or part
recognition of qualifications, lack of accessible referees)
• Discrimination on the basis of race, religion and ethnic origin plays a role in creating
unsatisfactory employment outcomes. Employers discriminate on the basis of ‘soft skills’
such as Australian cultural knowledge.
• ‘Everyday’ street racism does not affect levels of life satisfaction as much as perceived
discrimination in the labour market.
(Colic-Peisker & Tilbury 2007, p. 1)
Minority members often respond by becoming bicultural. They shape their attitudes and social
responses to conform to the dominant monoculture and their own culture or ethnicity – they simply keep
a foot in both camps. Essentially, they adjust their behaviour to ‘fit in’.
This is a problem for the traditional assimilation perspective. Assimilation was the key platform of the
White Australia Policy that insisted that all migrants should conform to the dominant White Australia
monoculture.
To what degree is this form of assimilation volunteered or imposed today? The answer is probably both,
depending on the particular workplace culture. However, biculturalism begs the question whether it is
appropriate in the context of multicultural communities and markets.
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6.7 COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES
Managers and organisations face substantial challenges in adapting their workplace and
communication cultures to make diversity instrumental to the organisation’s success. By implementing
comprehensive and effective communication strategies, diversity issues can be creatively and positively
addressed. Later in this unit, we will be discussing change management communication strategies.
Some management strategies include:
• Ensuring that the organisation’s human resources systems are designed to be bias free,
dropping the traditionally-held Western perception of a middle-aged, white male as the
ideal employee.
• Increasing the career involvement of women by dealing with issues of work-family conflicts,
dual-career couples and sexual harassment.
• Providing reasonable accommodation for employees with disabilities – and that means
more than putting up an access ramp. Demand for equal opportunities for people with
physical and mental disabilities is growing and most companies have done little to respond
as yet.
• Dealing with literacy issues within the workplace as we see a dramatic increase in migrant
workers from non-English speaking backgrounds.
(Adapted from Samson, Donnet & Daft 2017, pp. 536-540; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 534-7)
Organisations need to be particularly adaptive when dealing with diversity. By positively facing the extra
challenges raised by diversity within the workplace, the aim of turning every worker into a knowledge
worker within a learning organisation is advanced. Strategies to be considered include cross-cultural
training, basic literacy and numeracy education, diversity awareness programs and a range of
educational and interventional programs to accommodate our changing workplace.
6.8 APPLYING SOME KEY COMMUNICATION THEMES
Cultural Ethos. The challenge for managers is to find adaptive communication strategies that
successfully represent the changing face of their organisation in response to diversity. The faces of
organisations are, quite literally, changing. The inclusion of different cultures and subcultures is driving
this change. The diversity in the available employment pool, changing markets, places and communities
is also forcing these changes.
Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. Continuing the changing face metaphor, the sorts
of symbols, stories, slogans and ceremonies used will need to change to meet the challenge of
communicating with a diverse workforce and external stakeholders. Cross-cultural sensitivities will need
to be considered.
One of the simplest ways of incorporating a culture of inclusion within an organisation’s policies,
behaviours and languages is through the use of positive symbols, stories, events that recognise and
celebrate the richness of a diverse workplace culture. Initiatives from rewriting a Mission Statement to
incorporate a language of inclusion, to translating a newsletter or profiling some achievement can create
a new dialogue across the organisation. By recognising the diverse stories and experiences of
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co-workers rather than isolating points of ‘difference’ in a culture of silence, a richer, more satisfying and
less conflictual work environment can be achieved.
Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. Cultural leadership takes on a new
level of complexity when operating within a diverse workforce and marketplace. The progressive
manager will be required to be sensitive to the cultural norms within a diverse workplace. Consideration
needs to be given to what sorts of leadership messages are appropriate and decisions need to be made
that are sensitive to the changing face of the organisation.
MORE THOUGHTS
The workplace is changing from a monoculture into a pluralist environment in response to Australia’s
change from the White Australia Policy towards a more mature and confident multicultural society. There
is no turning back the clock. The ABS statistics show that the number of Australians who are b orn
overseas is one of the highest rates in the World. There is no other option than to adapt.
‘Change does not roll in on the wheels of inevitability, but comes through continuous struggle.’
(Martin Luther King Jnr)
REFERENCES
ABC-TV, 2001, ‘The rise and fall of White Australia’, Episode 2, The Australian Story, 23 Jan 2002.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2010, Measures of Australia’s Progress – overseas born
population, 1370.0. AGPS, Canberra. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20
Subject/1370.0~2010~Chapter~Overseas%20born%20population%20(3.6)
Colic – Peisker, V & Tilbury, F, 2007, Refugees and Employment: The effect of visible difference on
discrimination, Final Report, Centre for Social and Community Research, Murdoch University, Perth.
Commonwealth Government. National Agenda for Multiculturalism, Department of Immigration and
Citizenship. Accessed April 2012. http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/agenda/
agenda89/whatismu.htm
Daft, Richard & Marcic, Dorothy, 2009, Understanding Management, 6th ed, Cengage Learning.
Australia.
Knight, K. 2008, ‘What is multiculturalism?’, Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intercultural
Communication. Vol. 1, Issue 2, p.115.
Nugent, M. 2002, Women’s Employment and Professionalism in Australia – Histories, themes and
Places. The Australian Heritage Commission, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
Papillon, D L, 2000, A Comparative Study of Awareness and Sensitivity Diversity Training Strategies
and Human Resource Policy Driven Strategies, MA Thesis. Accessed 3 May 2019.
https://diversityofficermagazine.com/cultural-diversity-factoids/historical-issues/a-comparative-study-
of-awareness-and-sensitivity-diversity-training-strategies-and-human-resource-policy-driven-
strategies/
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/Lookup/by
http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/agenda/
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WEEK SEVEN: MORE MANAGING
COMMUNICATION AND DIVERSITY
By the end of this week, students will be familiar with organisational responses to the complexity of
diversity. This will include:
• Defining the glass ceiling that faces women and minorities
• Understanding current organisational responses
• Understanding how the cultural ethos of organisations are changing, both structurally
and in policy
• Understanding the importance of diversity training
• Exploring/understanding diversity in a turbulent global context.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition,
Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 13. Chapter 15, pp. 623-4; Chapter 17, pp. 707-8 also relevant.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage
Learning. Chapter 13. Chapter 15, pp. 609-10 also relevant.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 7
Comment on the table ‘Gender differences in leadership behaviours’ (Samson,
Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 624; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 610). Write 100 – 200
words about what you know about gender differences in behaviour.
Post your piece along with your responses to two peers to the Discussion Board
under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT7 here’.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
‘All, too, will bear in mind this sacred principle, that though the will of the majority is in all cases
to prevail, that will to be rightful must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal rights,
which equal law must protect, and to violate would be oppression.’ (Thomas Jefferson)
This week we will continue to explore the complexities of workplace diversity. Last week we defined
diversity and its key elements and we scoped out some important sensitivities that must be taken into
account in Management Communication. This week we will look more closely at how organisations are
responding (or not) to diversity. We will look at the glass ceiling that faces women and minorities, current
organisational responses, how the cultural ethos being cultivated within organisations is changing
through both structural and policy shifts. We will look at diversity training and diversity in a turbulent
global context.
The next section introduces the barriers experienced by minority groups in establishing equitable
professional recognition or financial recompense for their work. It introduces the concepts of the ‘Glass
ceiling’, the ‘Rainbow ceiling’ and the ‘Brown ceiling’ which, while they are increasingly re cognised, are
not being positively addressed in a way that is leading to any substantial change.
It is important to realise in this discussion that these barriers do not just apply in a corporate or
professional setting, but apply across all levels of the Australian workforce.
7.2 THE GLASS CEILING
The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that separates women and minorities from top
management positions. They can look up and see top management, but prevailing attitudes and
stereotypes are invisible obstacles to their own advancement. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 547-
8; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 531).
Researchers have commented that there is not only a glass ceiling, but also glass walls that prevent
inclusion in networks and engagement in the sort of work that is essential to equitable social and
professional achievement.
A significant problem contributing to the difficulties facing women to reach the top seems to be
the fact that few senior women are in the so-called “production line” positions that involve profit-
and-loss or revenue generating responsibilities and which are critical for advancement to the
highest levels. For example, in 1999, men still held 93.8 per cent of line jobs in the United States.
Similarly, in Canada, men held 93.6 of line jobs in 1999. (Wirth 2002, p. 4)
In 2002 Linda Wirth detailed the following 2002 International Labour Office (ILO) statistics:
‘ILO research and analysis suggest that discrimination is greatest where the most power is
exercised. The higher one goes, the larger the gender gap:
• Women hold 1 to 3 per cent of top executive jobs in the largest corporations
worldwide. For women who also experience race discrimination, the percentage is
even less.
• Only 8 countries have a woman head of state; 21 countries have a deputy head;
• Only 13.4% of the world’s Parliamentarians are women;
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• Only one per cent of trade union leaders are women, though women are almost
40% of their membership globally.’
The situation has not changed significantly since 2002. Below is an article from Dynamic Business
Magazine in October 2010 which highlights the lack of progress in this area in Australia:
‘Women have made no significant gains in their representation among ASX 200 companies or in
key executive positions over the last eight years according to new research by the Equal
Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency (EOWA).
The EOWA 2010 Australian Census of Women in Leadership, conducted by Macquarie
University, shows that women hold only 8.4 per cent of board positions and 8 per cent of
Executive Key Management Personnel positions. Among ASX 200 companies there are only six
female CEOs and five female chairs.
The number of women in executive positions is likely to decrease rather than increase in the
future, with only 4.1 per cent of line roles are occupied by women, with line roles largely
considered the pipeline to the Executive Key Management Personnel and CEO roles.
Australian women in senior positions lag behind New Zealand, UK, Canada, US and South Africa,
suggesting an alarming need for action in Australia to rectify the gender imbalance.’ (Olsen
2010)
DISCUSSION POINT. Reflect on the glass ceiling for women and identify whether you have any
experience of this in your life.
Have you ever hit the glass ceiling? Have you seen it happen?
This is despite the fact that increasingly research is showing that women ‘might actually be better
managers, partly because of a collaborative, less hierarchical, relationship–oriented approach that is in
tune with today’s global and multicultural environment’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 549). Professor
Gabbarino argues that women are ‘better able to deliver in terms of what modern society requires
people– Paying attention, abiding by rules, being verbally competent, and dealing with interpersonal
relationships in offices’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 549).
Nevertheless, many women are choosing to opt out of the workforce. A debate is raging over the
reasons. The set textbook (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 548-9; Samson and Daft 2015, pp. 532-
34) outlines the two sides of the debate. One side argues that women find the price too high in terms of
reduced family time, stress and negative health impacts. The other side counters that this rationale is
just another way to blame women themselves for the lower number of women managers.
Dr Helen Szoke, Commissioner for the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission
gave out some ‘hard data’ on the debate on International Women’s Day in 2011. She argued that:
Demographics show us there is a growing economic need for women of all ages to more fully
participate in the workforce and yet many of our most experienced and talented women are opting
out of the work force.
Clearly, issues such as pay inequity, lack of promotional opportunities and the need for greater
flexibility need to be addressed.
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Success in any business depends on its workforce – more than ever smart employers are
recognising the value of the workers and the value in retaining them through flexibility.
Put simply, businesses cannot afford to loose valuable experienced staff.
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According to the Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Agency survey:
• 39 per cent more women than men value an organisation’s track record of
promoting and supporting women
• 20 per cent more women than men value flexible work conditions
• 16 per cent more women than men valued an organisation with a large number of
women in senior positions
• 15 per cent more women valued a role that did not involve long hours or overtime.
So on the one hand there is a greater need for employers to retain staff like never before and on
the other hand women in many workplaces are getting a rough deal. (Szoke 2011)
Women are not the only workers trapped within glass ceilings and walls. The Rainbow Ceiling has
definitely been double-glazed. Gay and Lesbian workers report meeting the same invisible obstacles.
Below are some verbatim reports from research:
‘You’re looking at a number of women, over the age of forty, in senior positions within the firm,
many of whom are gay females who are not out and never will be because they don’t feel
comfortable. The old guard where you didn’t express sexuality in a corporate setting and certainly
didn’t mention you were lesbian.’
‘I am assuming that some people might be keeping me at arm’s length because they feel
uncomfortable or something like that. But you can never really know.’ (Miles 2008)
Another manifestation of this discrimination against a visible minority group is called the ‘Brown ceiling’,
a term which is applied to barriers and discriminatory practices faced by Indigenous Australians.
Visible minority workers arguably hit the glass ceiling and walls at a level that is disgraceful in the context
of a pluralist and multicultural Australia. A remnant of the White Australia Policy sees them as
outsourced workers on extremely low hourly rates.
Variations on this type of practice are experienced by minority groups across Australia. The level of
discrimination can be subtle and covert, or blatant, arrogant and unapologetic. These practices can
infect an organisation to the detriment of its staff, its reputation and its profitability. There can also be
serious legal ramifications that no organisation can afford to ignore.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to an ABC 7.30 Report story ‘The Campaign for Outworkers’. Minority
workers in Australia continue to be paid a pittance for outsourced work. This redefines where the glass
ceiling might actually start. The glass ceiling may start at a very low level of workforce engagement and
should not be considered to be a middle class phenomenon.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to this YouTube clip where the Indigenous version of the glass ceiling
is being discussed – the brown glass ceiling. This video is longer, but is an invaluable (and timely)
resource in understanding the detrimental impact this has on our first Australians.
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7.3 CULTURAL ETHOS
Many organisations are working hard to meet the challenge of change and removing obstacles
preventing women and minorities from succeeding. There are many inspiring stories of organisations,
large and small that operate at local, national and multinational levels.
When the US firm Mintz Levin, Cohn, Ferris Glovsky and Poppeo decided to set -up an
employment law practice in a new office, the partners determined to create a diverse, inclusive
environment by hiring many minority lawyers for senior positions from the sta rt. The goal was to
create a ‘critical mass’ of people who can serve as role models and mentors for younger minority
lawyers who typically find it difficult to move up the ranks and become partners in a large Law
firm. (Samson & Daft 2012, p. 484)
While this particular example is not included in the 2018 or 2015 editions of the set text, the discussion
and examples are more extensive in this newer edition. Interestingly, the ability to effectively manage
diversity is being recognised as a key skill in the increasingly complex global workplace. There are
benefits for both organisation and manager.
At least half of Fortune 1000 companies have staff dedicated to encouraging diversity.
Increasingly, organisations such as Proctor & Gamble, Ernst & Young, and Allstate Insurance are
tying manager’s bonuses and promotions to how well they diversify the Workforce. (Samson &
Daft 2012, p.485)
We will discuss Change Management communication at length later in this course. Suffice it to comment
here that changing the public face and philosophy of an organisation in response to the complexities of
diversity cannot be achieved by just ‘saying that it will be so’. In Week 6 we discussed one problem
organisations face. While managers might possess an ‘intellectual’ awareness, a good understanding
of emerging trends and recognise the importance of a strong organizational response, the ‘enactment’
of a meaningful diversity process has been regrettably ‘limited and fragmented’ (Papillon 2000).
Managers need to be educated to be able to understand their organisation’s cultural position which will
have its own inherent myths and assumptions about its diverse ‘others’. Real change must happen. This
process would start with a thorough review of existing policies that were possibly written originally with
a white male, ethnocentric framework.
Diversity initiatives fall into three major categories: recruitment, career advancement and diversity
training.
7.3.1 RECRUITMENT INITIATIVES
Changing recruitment policies to reflect the available labour pool and diversity of the customer base is
proving successful. It frees the process from affirmative action programs, the legislated and mandated
quotas system set by governments, and allows organisations to design their workforce to mee t their
own specific needs.
Affirmative action was developed in response to conditions 40 years ago. Adult white males
dominated the workforce, and economic conditions were stable and improving. Because of
widespread prejudice and discrimination, legal and social coercion were necessary to allow
women, immigrants and other minorities to become part of the economic system.’ (Samson
& Daft 2012, p. 481)
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Today, affirmative action programs remain as controversial as they were 40 years ago. One of the
current debates rages around ‘reverse’ racism. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the perception
by white Australians that they are being discriminated against in response to affirmative action programs
and ‘hand up’ programs towards minority groups, particularly towards Indigenous groups. It has led to
the emergence of extreme political views such as those articulated by Pauline Hanson.
I talk about… the privileges Aboriginals enjoy over other Australians. I have done research on
benefits available only to Aboriginals and challenge anyone to tell me how Aboriginals are
disadvantaged when they can obtain 3 and 5% housing loans denied to non- Aboriginals.
(Pauline Hanson)
Whether you accept Hanson’s figures or not, there can be no denying the impact of her campaigning.
Some of these ideas have been supported by a disturbingly high percentage of Australians. As we read
in Week 6, ‘During the 1990s, the foreign born population of Australia nearly doubled, and it continues
to increase’ (Samson & Daft 2012, p. 478). While the costs of remaining ignorant of this broad sector of
the work force might be hard to estimate, the learning organisation is incorporating diversity
management strategies into its operational policies and procedures.
Organisations are revamping their recruitment strategies, offering internships, and tapping into l abour
pools. These initiatives offer real world alternatives to growing the diversity of their workplaces. As stated
earlier, there is no real alternative as the numbers of foreign born Australians grows bigger each census.
7.3.2 CAREER ADVANCEMENT
Mentoring employees from different backgrounds is proving successful in Australia. An example can be
found in the set textbook (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 555; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 486) about the
IT sector with an industry-wide initiative known as Women in IT Executive Mentoring (WITEM). Follow
the link below to find out more about this initiative.
http://www.orijen.com.au/services/industry-based-mentoring/women-it-executive-mentoring-witem/
There is ample evidence that mentoring programmes provide benefits for both parties involved.
‘The most significant benefit I gained from taking part in the WITEM mentoring program was a
new found self-belief and confidence that I could be an effective manager and leader.’ Mentee
‘I did not realise that this could be such a win/win situation. My time as a WITEM mentor has
been very worthwhile.’ Mentor
You can follow the references at the end of this Week’s work and click through to the WITEM web site.
Samson and Daft state that career progress amongst high potential minorities found that those who
advance ‘all share one characteristic – a strong mentor or network of mentors who nurtured the
professional development.’ (2012, p. 486). This quote is not included in the newer editions of the set
text, but the 2015 discussion is more extensive.
http://www.orijen.com.au/services/industry-based-mentoring/women-it-executive-mentoring-witem/
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The entry point for many members of minorities is often into the lowest echelons of an organisation. In
1995-6, the writer of this unit conducted a funded project at the Golden Circle Cannery for migrant
workers. The goal was to set up systems to assist them to negotiate enterprise bargaining and to set
up strategies where basic citizenship information could be transmitted.
In an organisation where there were 54 languages represented on the factory floor, the major issues
reflected the societal issues facing lower paid migrant workers: lack of English skills, child care, single
parent families, discrimination and a lack of understanding of their basic rights within Australian society.
An example was that the ‘idea’ of a ‘police force’ had so many different meanings across cultures which
were mostly built on their learned experiences in the home country.
In partnership with WELL, a literacy program, an English as a second language course was set up
where the participants learned their rights in Australia as they learnt English. The findings of this project
were workshopped across Australia to organisations and other stakeholders.
Managers need to be aware that sometimes language is the key to understanding and progress and
that extra attention needs to be paid in mentoring minority workers particularly to get them started up
the ladder. Mentoring can start at a very basic level. Sometimes, it is all it takes to overcome the poverty
of opportunity. Certainly, many potential leaders were identified when given opportunity within the
project described above.
7.3.3 DIVERSITY TRAINING
Exhibit 13.6 in the Samson and Daft text (2012, p. 488) defines the stages of diversity awareness from
the lowest to the highest as:
• Denial
• Defence
• Minimising difference
• Acceptance
• Adaptation
• Integration.
Again this table is not included in the later editions of the set text, but the above list provides the key
information. Put simply, the aim of diversity training is to take employees on the journey from denial to
integration. Of course, most employees will be higher up the scale than denial (or they should be), but
this list represents a benchmark for trainers to design with.
A comprehensive diversity training program needs to address the major cultural aspects of the
organisation’s functioning. Management and staff need to be able to understand the issues, recognise
the barriers that interrupt communication and cooperative work practice, respect difference and
embrace a more equitable future. While this may be a challenging process, it promises substantial
benefits for a more satisfying, creative, equitable and productive work culture.
Diversity training can be difficult and the right choice of training for the particular organisation is critical
to success.
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REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to this YouTube clip which is an advertisement for a diversity training
organisation. It quickly covers what they might do to set up a training program that is sensitive to the
needs of the organisation.
7.4 INDENTIFYING STRATEGIES FOR AWARENESS
Ultimately, organisations are developing their own diversity management strategies to meet the needs
of their workforce, markets and communities. There is a plethora of consultants doing workshops,
training and policy writing in this area. There is also a wide range of DVDs and other materials that are
available.
Samson and Daft (2015, pp. 538-39; 2012 p. 489) offer six positive steps to developing a successful
strategy:
• Uncover diversity problems in the organisation
• Strengthen top management commitment
• Choose solutions to fit a balanced strategy
• Demand results and revisit goals
• Maintain momentum to change the culture
• Renew the cycle with further advancements.
Researcher and consultant R Roosevelt Thomas Jnr has specialised in strategic diversity management
which he defines as ‘the craft of making quality decisions in the midst of tension and complexity’.
Thomas seems to encapsulate the aspirations of modern management towards diversity st rategies.
What we must do is create an environment where no one is advantaged or disadvantaged, an
environment where ’we’ is everyone. What the traditional approach to diversity did was to create
a cycle of crisis, action, relaxation, and disappointment that companies repeated over and over
again. Without ever achieving the barest particle of what they were after. (Thomas 1990, p.
309)
Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 556) argue that ‘a mature sustainability strategy has much in common with a mature
approach to diversity’. By developing an inclusive culture and enabling the integration of people from different cultures,
religions, genders and other backgrounds, the firm enhances its ability to ‘do well by doing good’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft
2018, p. 556).
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7.5 MULTICULTURAL TEAMS
Companies have long known that putting together teams made up of members from different
functional areas results in better problem solving and decision making. Now, they are recognising
that multicultural teams – teams made up of members from diverse national, racial, ethnic and
cultural backgrounds – provide even greater potential for enhanced creativity, innovation, and
value in today’s global marketplace. (Samson & Daft 2015, p. 542; 2012, p. 500)
Managers need to be aware that multicultural teams can also present difficulties with the possibility of
communication breakdowns. Obviously, it is important to give more consideration to communication
models and techniques. The messages sent and received may vary markedly from those sent and
received within a monoculture.
Once again, we come back to the central point that acceptance of diversity is inevitable given
Australia’s demographics and its place within a globalised community and marketplace.
If we accept the idea that the globalization and international integration of companies is inevitable,
then business and its study is at a crossroads of understanding. It is no longer acceptable to
proceed with the study of teams as if its members are isolated from their cultural and national
heritage. (Early & Gibson 2009, p. xv)
7.6 APPLYING SOME KEY COMMUNICATION THEMES
• Cultural Ethos. Organisations will be looking to Management Communication to identify
potential leaders from within their workforce based on a different set of criteria where
difference rather than sameness are celebrated. The first thing a progressive manager may
do is undertake some diversity training so that they can shape communication to better suit
those who are receiving it.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. In a similar vein, all these elements
need to be broadened out to meet the communication needs of a multicultural workforce,
market and community. This does not mean that political correctness will prevail. It just
means that there will be a larger set of communication elements and devices at hand.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. The very meaning of
leadership and adaptation will also be redefined within an organisational culture that
accepts and integrates diversity into its policies, networks, strategic conversations and
language.
MORE THOUGHTS
Diversity is the biggest challenge that managers will face in this time. The breaking down of
prejudices and assumptions requires self-analysis and honesty.
‘No legacy is so rich as Honesty.’ (William Shakespeare)
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REFERENCES
Early, C P & Gibson, C B, 2009, Multinational Work Teams A New Perspective, Taylor & Francis, e-
library UK.
Miles, Nathanael, 2008, ‘The double-glazed ceiling: Lesbians in the workplace’, Stonewall. Accessed
3 May 2019. https://www.stonewall.org.uk/sites/default/files/Double-Glazed_Glass_Ceiling
Olsen, D, 2010, ‘Glass Ceiling Fails to Break for Australian Women: EOWA’, Dynamic Business
Magazine, October 2010. Accessed April 2012. http://www.dynamicbusiness.com.au/hr-and-
staff/women-on-boards-australia-eowa-census-2062.html
Szoke, H, 2011, Embracing gender diversity as a business imperative, Women and Leadership
Australia, Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission. Accessed April 2012.
http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=1292:embra
cing-gender-diversity-as-a-business-imperative-women-and-leadership-australia&Itemid=514
Thomas, R Roosevelt, 2009, ‘From Affirmative Action to Affirming Diversity’, Harvard Business Review,
March-April, pp 309. Accessed April 2012. https://umdrive.memphis.edu/tdryan/public/
SLC7321/Managing%20diversity/Thomas%20Affirming%20Diversity
Wirth, L, 2002, ‘Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management’, International Labour
Office (ILO) First International Conference, Pay Equity between Women and Men: Myth or Reality,
Luxemburg, 4 February 2002. Accessed April 2012. http://www.gouvernement.lu/salle_presse/
actualite/2002/02/04jacobsbiltgen/wirth
http://www.dynamicbusiness.com.au/hr-and-
http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=1292%3Aembra
http://www.gouvernement.lu/salle_presse/
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WEEK EIGHT: MANAGING CHANGE RELATED
COMMUNICATION
By the end of this week, students will be familiar with definitions of organisational change, an
overview of different types of change and some basic strategies to deal with organisational change.
This will include:
• Defining organisational change
• Discussing changes to products and technology
• Understanding changes to culture and people
• Defining key strategies in training, organisational development and activities.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific
edition, Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 11.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage
Learning Chapter 11.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 8
Read the section ‘Why do people resist change?’ in Samson, Donnet & Daft
(2018, p. 452-3) or the section ‘Resistance to Change’ in Samson & Daft (2015,
p. 460-62.) From your own experience consider one positive and one negative
personal response to change. Reflect on the reasons behind your responses
and reassess your choices.
Post your piece into the Discussion Board and respond to two of your peers
under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT8 here’.
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the next two weeks we will be examining the communication of change. This week we define what
change is and take an overview of types of change and strategies and activities that form the foundation
of a change management plan.
8.2 WHAT IS ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE?
‘People don’t resist change. They resist being changed.’ (Peter Senge, Director, Centre for
Organizational Learning, MIT Sloan School of Management)
Organisational change can be defined quite simply as ‘the adoption of a new idea or behaviour by an
organisation’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 451; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 435). Organisational
change as defined by Hartel and Fujimoto (2010, p. 50) is any planned or unplanned alteration ‘that
causes a shift in the status quo’ affecting both the structure and the resources of an organisation.
According to Beer and Nohria, ‘the brutal fact is that about 70% of change programs fail’ (qtd in Alvesson
& Sveningsson 2007, p. 27). It is argued that this is largely due to an imbalance on the focus for
outcomes of change. Traditionally the desired outcomes have been economically driven, but there is a
more recent realignment of this focus to seek outcomes that will improve overall organisat ional
capability.
Beer and Nohria (2000, p. 137) also suggest that change strategies should focus on building up the
corporate culture by employing strategies that involve setting a clear direction from the top and actively
engaging the participation and cooperation of people below with a ‘focus simultaneously on the hard
(structures and systems) and the soft (corporate culture)’.
Researcher, Adrianna Kezar states that there are a number of theories that underpin an organisation’s
drive for change:
Six main categories of theories of change assist in understanding, describing, and developing
insights about the change process: (1) evolutionary, (2) teleological, (3) life cycle, (4) dialectical,
(5) social cognition, and (6) cultural. Each model has a distinct set of assumptions about why
change occurs, how the process unfolds, when change occurs and how long it takes, and the
outcomes of change. (Kezar 2001, p. iv)
Kevar goes on to define the main assumptions implicit to each theory:
• ‘The main assumption underlying evolutionary theories are that change is a response to
external circumstances, situational variables, and the environment faced by each
organization Social systems as diversified, interdependent, complex systems evolve
naturally over time because of external demands.’ (Morgan 1986)
• Teleological theories or planned change models assume that organisations are
purposeful and adaptive. Change occurs because leaders, change agents, and others see
the necessity of change. The process for change is rational and linear, as in evolutionary
models, but individual managers are much more instrumental to the process (Carnall 1995;
Carr, Hard & Trahant, 1996).
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• Life-cycle models evolved from studies of child development and focus on stages of
growth, organisational maturity, and organisational decline (Levy & Merry 1986). Change
is conceptualised as a natural part of human or organisational development.
• Dialectical models, also referred to as political models, characterise change as the result
of clashing ideology or belief systems (Morgan 1986). Conflict is seen as an inherent
attribute of human interaction. Change processes are considered to be driven
predominantly by bargaining, consciousness-raising, persuasion, influence and power, and
social movements (Bolman and Deal 1991).
• Social-cognition models describe change as being tied to learning and mental processes
such as sense making and mental models. Change occurs because individuals see a need
to grow, learn, and change their behaviour.
• In cultural models, change occurs naturally as a response to alterations in the human
environment; cultures are always changing (Morgan 1986). The change process tends to
be long-term and slow. Change within an organisation entails alteration of values, beliefs,
myths, and rituals (Schein 1985; Kezar 2001, pp. iv–v).
Many of these theoretical assumptions tie into ideas we have discussed previously in this Unit: classica l
and behaviourist perspectives, relationship styles and dialectics. They need to be considered within
these contexts. Kezar goes on to say that the best approach is to consider all these theories as
metaphors that when combined will help managers understand change (Kezar 2001, pp. iv–v).
In today’s turbulent marketplace and in response to the Global Financial Crisis, many organisations find
themselves in an environment of continuous change and adaptation. It is argued that ‘Successful
change requires that organisations be capable of both creating and implementing ideas, which means
the organisation must learn to be ambidextrous’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 454; Samson & Daft
2015, p. 436).
Samson, Donnet and Daft (2018, p. 454; Samson & Daft p. 436) define an ambidextrous approach as
‘incorporating structures and processes that are appropriate for both the creative impulse and for the
systematic implementation of innovations’. For example, a loose, flexible structure and greater
employee freedom are excellent for the creation and initiation of ideas, however, the same conditions
often make it difficult to implement change because employees are less likely to comply’ (Samson ,
Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 454; Samson & Daft p. 436).
This ability to be ambidextrous is the unique quality that market leaders like Google and Apple have
been able to achieve and it is why they are looked upon as models of organic structure and adaptive
work culture.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip that quickly portrays the history of Apple since the
1970s. It is a good example of an organisation that has succeeded in an environment of continuous
change and innovation.
8.3 PRODUCTS AND TECHNOLOGY
In the global marketplace where continuous change is the norm, technological change is perhaps the
most dominant management challenge.
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REALITY CHECK. Follow the link below to an NPR story about the number of patent applications and
licences held by Apple founder Steve Jobs, who is seen by many as a master of the ambidextrous
approach.
http://www.npr.org/player/v2/mediaPlayer.html?action=1&t=1&islist=false&id=152590769&m=152609
611
So what exactly is ‘technology’? The European Space Agency (ESA) defines ‘technology’ in this way:
For something name-checked so widely throughout our society, the precise meaning of the word
technology is not that well-known. Technology is so frequently placed in conjunction with the word
science that many think of the two as the same. Some equate technology purely with gadgetry
while others think somewhat hazily of all the things that make the present different from the past.
In a research and development organisation such as ESA, technology is a concept of primary
importance, so by necessity the definition of the word is precise: ‘technology is the practical
application of knowledge so that something entirely new can be done, or so that something can
be done in a completely new way. (European Space Agency)
And what is ‘technological change’? Researcher, Arnulf Grubler observes that:
All the numerous technology studies of the 20th century share one conclusion: it is simply wrong
to conceptualise technological evolution according to a simple, linear model, no matter how
appealing the simplification. Technological evolution is neither simple nor linear. Its four major
characteristics are instead that it is uncertain, dynamic, systemic and cumulative. (Grubler
2003, p. 21)
Risk is the only certainty when dealing with technological change. James McGroddy, former Chief
Technical Officer of IBM, is quoted as saying ‘killing the project minimizes risk but also eliminates
reward’ (Branscomb, Morse & Roberts 2000, p. 1).
The Samson and Daft text (2015, p. 438) defines three innovative strategies for new products and
technologies: Exploration, Cooperation and Championship (Entrepreneurship).
8.3.1 EXPLORATION
Managers need to allow for the growth of a creative culture within an organisation – the time to let new
technologies and products be born. The Samson and Daft text (2015, p. 440; 2012, p. 407) contains
Exhibit 11.2, Characteristics of Creative People and Organisations. Some characteristics of creative
individuals include:
• Conceptual fluency, open-mindedness
• Originality
• Less authority, independence and self-confidence
• Playfulness, undisciplined exploration, curiosity
• Persistence, commitment, focused approach.
(Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 456; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 407)
http://www.npr.org/player/v2/mediaPlayer.html?action=1&t=1&islist=false&id=152590769&m=152609
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It is the manager’s role to harness these attributes and communicate both acceptability and
methodology to the creative processes. Let’s explore the Google creative process.
To keep creativity alive at Google, managers let people spend 20% of their time working on any
project they choose, even if the project doesn’t tie in with the company’s central mission. Many
Google managers hold open office hours two or three times a week, when anyone can come by
to bat around ideas. People who interview for a job at the company are asked, ‘If you could
change the world using Google’s resources what would you build?’ Google’s managers instil a
sense of creative fearlessness, which is part of the reason Google shows up at the top of
numerous lists of most innovative companies. (Samson & Daft 2015, p. 440)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to an ‘in-house’ Google Tech Talk on Getting Creative Ideas where
art, technology and sciences are joined at the ‘Eureka Moment’.
Sooner or later, today’s organisations face the challenge of becoming ideas incubators. The degree to
which they accept this challenge might be the difference between success and failure. This is a risky
business where the traditional ‘blame game’ is replaced to one of learning from mistakes and perceiving
them as an integral part of innovation and change.
8.3.2 COOPERATION
Successful innovation requires expertise from several departments simultaneously, and failed
innovation is often the result of failed cooperation. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 461; Samson
& Daft 2015, p. 408)
Introducing new ideas often requires cultural and behavioural change across the organisation. Vertical,
horizontal and lateral communication strategies and techniques must be constructed to effectively
communicate with and engage the workforce. Messages must be constructed to facilit ate transformation
of both work culture and behaviours to accommodate change.
Samson and Daft present Exhibit 11.4 (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 456; Samson & Daft 2015, p.
447) which illustrates the horizontal linkage model at the centre of an organisation and, externally, the
outer boxes which look at global forces. This diagram represents a methodology around linking different
departments internally within the organisation and externally with technologies, innovation, and markets
– all flowing into a change process.
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8.3.3 IDEAS AND COMMUNICATION CHAMPIONS
The next key element creating technological change within an organisation is to successfully
communicate your championing of ideas. Samson, Donnet and Daft (2018, p. 465) define an ideas
champion as ‘someone who believes in the idea, confronts the organizational realities of costs and
benefits, and gains the political and financial support needed to bring to reality’. The 2015 edition of the
same text defines the ideas champion more simply as ‘a person who sees the need for and champions
productive change within the organisation’ (2015, p. 449).
Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 265; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 449-50) tell the stories of a few ideas
champions such as Robert Vincent and his idea for an airbag sensor for automobiles. Similarly, Gary
Koepper was the champion of the smartphone. Change doesn’t always happen by itself and new ideas
are rarely accepted immediately.
Exhibit 11.5 of the Samson and Daft text (2018, p. 466; 2015, p. 451) defines the roles of inventor,
champion, sponsor and critic in organisational change. Managers need to identify and communicate
with these role players within the change innovation process.
When Texas Instruments studied 50 of its new product introductions, a surprising fact emerged:
without exception, every new product that failed lacked a zealous champion … Research confirms
that successful new ideas are generally those that are backed by someone who believes in the
idea wholeheartedly and is determined to convince others of its value. (Sutton qtd in Samson & Daft
2015, p.449)
Donald Schon, a Professor at MIT and authority on the dynamics of ideas and processes of change,
particularly technological change, wrote:
The new idea either finds a champion or dies … No ordinary involvement with a new idea provides
the energy required to cope with the indifference and resistance that major technological change
provokes … Champions of new inventions display persistence and courage of heroic quality. (qtd
in Hindle 2008, p. 29)
8.4 CHANGING PEOPLE AND CULTURE
Samson, Donnet & Daft define people change as ‘a change in attitude of a few employees in the
organisation’ and cultural change as ‘a major shift in the norms, values, attitudes and mindset of the
entire organisation’ (2018, p. 467; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 451).
This may sound as though people change is a small task and culture change is a huge task. The bottom
line is that there is no such thing as a small change task – whether changing the perceptions of a few
or many. In most cases the first targets for change are key to the success of your greater ambitions.
They are the decision makers and the opinion makers within your organisation.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip by Paul Brown called ‘A Brief Introduction to Change
Management’. Not only does it give a brief history of recent change management theory, but it also
draws the link between technological change and cultural change within an organisation
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Importantly the clip above introduces us to Kotter’s eight Stages of Change. These might be worth
noting as helpful for developing a response framework within your assignments:
• Establish a sense of urgency
• Create a coalition of change champions
• Develop a clear vision to empower and encourage
• Share the vision as clear communication is essential to rallying the troops
• Empower people to clear obstacles and create a can-do culture
• Secure short term wins as this will ensure confidence in the strategy
• Consolidate and keep moving using the power of momentum
• Anchor the change to stop old habits creeping in.
(Kotter 1996, p. 9)
Major change is usually impossible unless most employees are willing to help, often to the point
of making short-term sacrifices. But people will not make sacrifices, even if they are unhappy with
the status quo, unless they think the benefits of change are attractive and unless they believe
that a transformation is possible. Without credible communication, and a lot of it, employees’
hearts and minds are never captured.
(Kotter 1996, p. 9)
DISCUSSION POINT. Reflect on Kotter’s quote above. Have you felt resistant to change in the
workplace in your experiences? Does this week’s topic change the context of that resistance? What
have been your experiences?
8.4.1 APPROACHES TO IMPLEMENTING CHANGE
Understanding organisational change requires the recognition of the complex and sometimes chaotic
reality of organisational reality. Alvesson & Sveningsson argue that ‘Unforseen consequences of
planned organisational change such as resistance, political processes, negotiations, ambiguities,
diverse interpretations and misunderstandings are part of this. Consequently, organisational change is
not mainly a matter of carrying out a sequential list of steps’ (Alvesson & Sveningsson 2008, p. 28).
Nevertheless it is important to understand that there are some essential steps that lay a good
foundational strategy to implementing effective change processes.
The Samson, Donnet and Daft text (2018, pp. 469-473; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 453-458) identifies
some different approaches to implementing change:
• Training and Development. Topics for change management workshops might be
teamwork, diversity, emotional intelligence, quality circles, communication skills and
participative management. This list covers quite a lot of the discussion and learning to be
found in both COM 12 – Business Communication and this Unit.
Silicon Valley Companies like Intel and Sun Microsystems send their managers to the
Growth and Leadership Centre. You can visit their website at http://glcweb.com/
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One of the most important things to do when leading a change management strategy is to
make sure that the communications are inclusive of all levels of staff. Remember, change
does not occur by itself and the communicator strategy should be targeted to get everyone
positively participating in and embracing change.
• Organisational Development is ‘the planned, systematic process of change that uses
behavioural science, knowledge and techniques to improve the organisation’s health and
effectiveness through its ability to adapt to the environment, improve internal relationships
and increase learning and problem solving.’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 469; Samson
& Daft 2015, p. 454)
Often these processes are applied to current, major issues and problems like mergers and
acquisitions, organisational decline and revitalisation and conflict management.
• Organisational Activities. These activities often take the form of team building exercises
to break down cross organisational conflict, build communication skills and share common
values and targets. Surveys are often used to get a snapshot of common issues and values
across the organisation.
Other activities include an array of large group intervention methods (LGIMs) where rapid
transformation is attempted across and organisation’s management, employees and
stakeholders. LGIM’s can be very successful. However, there are some cautionary notes
from researchers like Bryson and Anderson who point out that some assumptions can
prove faulty.
The belief is that good things will come from getting people together to address issues of mutual
concern and that relatively little advance planning and logistical support are necessary. There is
a kind of ‘whatever will be, will be’ philosophy behind the method, and a belief that whatever
happens is okay. The assumptions and philosophy are both the major strength and weakness of
the method (Bryson & Anderson 2000, p. 151).
8.5 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
Heracleous (cited in Alvesson & Sveningsson 2008, p. 24) argues that if existing cultural assumptions
are not taken into account as part of the planned change agenda, change is often superficial or only
temporary. In order to produce lasting change it is necessary to recognise the existing organisational
ethos. It is important to:
bring the assumptions to the surface and recognize their expressions and legitimacy in
organizational artefacts (or sub-systems) such as symbols, power structures, organisational
structures, incentives, control systems, communications, rites/routines and stories/myths
(Alvesson & Sveningsson 2008, p. 24).
• Cultural Ethos. Obviously these notions and ideas around managing and communicating
change – whether technological or cultural – cut to the core of an organisation’s cultural
ethos. Communication of a ‘new face’ and new meaning for an organisation is
transformational. This week’s work gives an indication of the complexity of change.
Whether it is small steps to change the perceptions of a small group or the
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entire organisation, communication models, skills and techniques will continually inform
your process.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. Inherently, change will bring with it
the need for new symbols, stories, heroes, slogans and ceremonies. These el ements will
form the verbal and non-verbal language of change. They need to be combined and
blended to present a different, attractive and coherent message about who and what the
organisation is now or is becoming.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. In the same way,
management and leadership need to be continually adaptive in the context of change. By
this stage you should have a good understanding that the leaders’ actions are highly
symbolic and carefully scrutinised by staff, particularly in an uncertain work environment.
Alvesson & Sveningsson suggest that ‘Leaders should take visible steps towards the new culture
by frequent and clear communication, meetings, and personal and group interviews with
employees about their attitudes towards the proposed changes’ (2008, p. 25).
MORE THOUGHTS
Later in this course, we will discuss planning strategies and integration of communication, management
and leadership into an integrated plan to deal with change and crisis scenarios.
Over the past eight weeks, we have been pulling together all the building blocks of management
communication and we keep coming back to some key words – adaptation, innovation, culture, risk and
change. Each week’s content draws attention to the fact that the only certainty is uncertainty and the
only failure is to fail to meet the challenge of change.
‘It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the most intelligent, but the one most
responsive to change.’ (Charles Darwin)
REFERENCES
Alvesson, Mats & Sveningsson, S, 2007, Changing Organizational Culture: Cultural Change Work in
Progess, Routledge, Oxon UK.
Beer, M. & Nohria, N, 2000, ‘Cracking the Code of Change’, Harvard Business Review, Vol 78, No 3,
pp. 133-141.
Branscomb, L M, Morse, K P, Roberts, M J, 2000, Managing Technical Risk, US Department of
Commerce.
Bryson, J M & Anderson, S R, 2000, ‘Applying Large Group Interaction Methods in the Planning and
Implementation of major Change Efforts’, Public Administration Review, March/April Vol 60, No 2.
http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/shulockn/executive%20fellows%2004-05/Bryson
European Space Agency, What is Technology, Accessed 3 May 2019.
http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Technology/SEMYSRWPXPF_0.html
Grubler, A, 2003, Technology and the Global Change, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.
http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/shulockn/executive%20fellows%2004-05/Bryson
http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Technology/SEMYSRWPXPF_0.html
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Hartel, C E J & Fujimoto, Y, 2010, Human Resource Management, 2nd ed. Pearson Australia,
Frenchs Forest, Sydney.
Hindle, T, 2008, Guide to Management Ideas and Gurus, Profile Books and The Economist, London.
Kevar, A J, 2001, ‘Understanding and facilitating Organisational Change in the 21st Century’, ASHE-
ERIC Higher Education Report, Vol 28, No 4. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Kotter, J P, 1996, Leading Change, Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge, Mass.
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WEEK NINE: MORE ON MANAGING CHANGE
RELATED COMMUNICATION
By the end of this week, students will be familiar with tactics and strategies for the successful handling
of the complexities of change.
This will include:
• Examining the need for change
• Examining Resistance to change
• Applying SWOT and Force Field methodologies
• Applying implementation tactics
• Creating a conducive change environment
• Gaining a glossary of change.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition,
Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 11, pp. 473-85; Chapter 8, pp. 332-9.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage
Learning .Chapter 11, pp. 458-471; Chapter 8, pp.323 – 330.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 9
Read the ‘Management Challenge’ in the Samson, Donnet & Daft textbook
(2018, p. 449; 2015, p. 434) and answer the questions posed, then read the
Response to Management Challenge (2018, p. 481; 2015, p.468).
Does the response substantiate your answers to the questions posed earlier and
how?
Post your piece to the Discussion Board and respond to the comments of
two peers under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT9 here’.
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9.1 INTRODUCTION
How do employees and other stakeholders react when organisations implement major changes?
Sometimes they are energised and excited by the prospects of new, innovative ways of doing
things. At other times they’re sceptical or cynical; they are being stressed at the prospect of still
more change… While it may be human nature to resist change, it is also human nature to
embrace change. Positive human aspirations such as learning, growth, and development all
involve change. Seeing change and stability as a dialectic … means seeing both change and
stability as valued. (Cheney 2011, p. 348)
Communication is our most effective tool for change. This week we are exploring how managers can
communicate so that both change and stability can be valued equally in an org anisation, as Cheney
suggests in the quote above.
In earlier weeks we have identified change as a constant, we have looked at elements such as
mechanistic and organic structures, classical and humanist perspectives, diversity, learning
organisations and sustainable development. All of these elements involve change in one way or another.
How change is managed and communicated within an organisation has now been revealed as vital to
achieving the aspirations of a progressive organisation with a balanced triple bottom line – productivity
and profitability; local and global environmental awareness; and local and global social responsibility.
DISCUSSION POINT. In considering Cheney’s quote above and the change as opposed to stability
dialectic detailed therein, have you experienced major change in your own work environment or
experiences. What were your first reactions? What do you think now about the change process?
9.2 THE NEED FOR CHANGE
Many people are not willing to change unless they perceive a problem or crisis. However, many
problems are subtle, so managers have to recognise and then make others aware of the need to
change. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 474; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 459)
It is a manager’s role to create adaptive strategies to solve perceived problems and issues, to identify
performance gaps, and to plan and implement change in order to avoid having to deal with long –
smouldering issues or ‘fires to put out’ or ‘ashes to sift through’ on a day-to-day basis.
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9.2.1 SWOT Analysis
The Samson, Donnet & Daft text (2018, pp. 332-5; 2015, pp. 323-35) provides information on the SWOT
Analysis. It outlines a well-tested methodology for teasing out an organisation’s strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats.
A SWOT analysis should provide an objective appraisal of an organisation’s ability to achieve or een
exceed its stated strategic goals. An organisation’s strengths and weaknesses are based on key internal
characteristics that impact on its operations, whereas opportunities and threats are based on crucial
external factors that influence the organisation’s operations.
Pay particular attention to Exhibit 8.2. ‘The Strategic Management Process’. A SWOT analysis can be
adapted to evaluating communication situations in any organisation. It is a highly useful analysis tool.
DISCUSSION POINT. Apply a SWOT analysis from a communication perspective to an organisation
where you have personal experience of their operations. What are your observations? How might a
SWOT analysis be applied before the need for change spills into crisis?
9.3 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
To respond to the pace of change, organisations are adopting flatter, more agile structures a nd
more empowering team-orientated cultures. As status differences erode, some employees are
coming to expect involvement in decisions about organisational change. Successful
organisational adaption is increasingly reliant on generating employee support an d enthusiasm
for proposed changes, rather than merely overcoming resistance. (Piderit 2000, pp.783)
Samson and Daft proffer several reasons for resistance to change in the work force. Typically, each one
of these reasons represents a communication challenge:
• Self-interest. Typically employees resist change that may increase workload, or involve a
perceived loss of power, pay, benefits and potentially, their jobs.
• Lack of Understanding or Trust. Employees will resist change if they distrust the
intentions behind the change or do not understand its purpose
• Fear of the Unknown. Uncertainty is born of a lack of information and is particularly
threatening to workers with low tolerance to change. By nature, workers from minorities or
different cultures may feel these pressures more intensely in the knowledge that they are
often the first to go when change occurs.
• Different Assessments and Goals. Employee’s perceptions can differ, sometimes
markedly, and some may voice legitimate concerns about the benefits of change based on
their position and perceptions. They may feel, for example, that innovation will detract from
production, or marketing may perceive that the new product or service is unviable. (Adapted
from Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, pp. 452-3; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 460-61).
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All of these different voices need to be heard, included in the communication chain and assimilated into
the change process. There are two recognised approaches available to analyse resistan ce to change:
force-field analysis and selective implementation tactics.
9.3.1 Force-Field Analysis
‘If you want to truly understand something, try to change it.’ (Lewin 1951, p. 346)
Force field analysis, developed by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s and 1950s, remains an influential
development in the field of social science and has been commonly adapted into the behaviourist
perspective of organisational development, process management and change management.
It provides a framework exploring and defining the forces that influence a situation.
Driving forces can be thought of as problems or opportunities that provide motivation for change
within an organisation. Restraining forces are the various barriers to change, such as lack of
resources, resistance form middle managers, or inadequate employee skills. (Samson & Daft 2015,
p. 461)
Exhibit 11.7 in the textbook (2018, p. 476; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 423) demonstrates an example of
force-field analysis applied to a change within an organisation from a traditional inventory (delivery)
system to a ‘Just in Time’ system.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the YouTube link below to view a discussion on force field analysis and
methodology from the ‘Mindtools’ site.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=yWfvPxah1xs#!
9.4 CHANGE IMPLEMENTATION TACTICS
Samson, Donnet & Daft table five methods for dealing with this issue of change implementation tactics
(2018, pp. 473-6; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 464-67), ‘Exhibit 11.8 Tactics for overcoming resistance to
change’ is tabled as a guide to implementing change and these methods have been adapted in the
following discussion to emphasise their communication aspects.
• Communication and education are used when solid information about change is needed
by employees and others to overcome resistance. A major part of communicating change
is to organise activities that provides education about new technical knowledge so th at
users are familiar with the ideas driving change. Samson , D o n n e t and Daft (2018, p.
477; 2015 p. 424) state that ‘managers should also remember that implementing change
requires speaking to people’s hearts (touching their feelings) as well as their mind s
(communicating facts).’ This is the ‘bedrock’ layer of communicating change. Those ‘being
changed’ need to understand how the new technology works and have a mental picture of
success built for them.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=yWfvPxah1xs&!
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• Participation involves having users (and potential resistance leaders) actively engaged in
designing the change management and communication plan. This takes us back to
Piderit’s quote above (9.3) that ‘some employees are coming to expect involvement in
decisions about organisational change. Successful organisational adaption is increasingly
reliant on generating employee support and enthusiasm for proposed changes ’ (Piderit
2000, p. 783). Change should be approached slowly and as time-
consuming as the earliest stages can be understanding, active listening, and being
inclusive and responsive to others’ views builds understanding and universal ownership of
change.
It is at this start-up stage where managers need to actively combat their own fears of failure.
Have faith that collaboration is powerful, and can and will result in changes within the
original perceptions of the issues. But is that a bad thing or is it effective adaptive
management and communication? It is a matter of putting the change management
process in charge, rather than the person/manager.
The example of ‘Learning Point Associates’ quoted in the textbook (p. 425) effectively
demonstrates the failure to engage from the start.
…the change team drew up a comprehensive road map for transformation but had
trouble getting the support of most managers. The managers argued they hadn’t been
consulted about the plans and didn’t feel compelled to participate in implementing them.
(Burchardt & Gerard, 2006)
Research studies have shown that proactively engaging front-line employees in upfront
planning and decision making about changes that affect their work results in smoother
implementation.
• Negotiation is a formalising tool that can be engaged at the management communication
level It involves transacting processes and agreements through which change can occur.
It can be used to gain a more formal means of achieving cooperation by making sure
everyone is in agreement. It may also involve negotiating and transacting with external
stakeholders such as unions and industry partners.
An important part of a successful formal negotiation is built on finely honing messages and
meaning in a written form. Often it can be said that the ‘devil is in the detail’ and this could
be no truer than here. If the proposed change is substantial enough to warrant formalising
the process, care must be taken to ensure that legal, social and even environmental issues
are fully agreed between the various parties.
• Coercion is, in many cases, the ‘court of last resort’ where management uses formal power
to force employees into change. It is a radical solution that may result in employees feeling
victimised, angry, and potentially even prone to sabotage. We have recently seen the use
of extreme coercion resulting in industrial action by employees in last year’s Qantas dispute
and the civil unrest on the wharves a decade ago in the dispute between the Maritime
Union of Australia and Patricks Stevedoring.
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REALITY CHECK. Follow the YouTube link to an interview with Richard Woodward, Vi ce-
President of the Australian and International Pilots Association where he outlines the pilots’
position in relation to the QANTAS lockout.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_a5aaiZzlI
• Top management support is a tactic that relies upon leadership communication to set the
vision for change.
One survey found that 80 per cent of companies that are successful innovators have top
executives who frequently reinforce the importance of innovation both verbally and
symbolically (Loewe & Dominiquini 2006).
REALITY CHECK Follow the YouTube link to an interview with Steve Jobs from Apple who
demonstrates the power of his leadership communication and vision,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4SDowINMjfo
The Jobs’ interview above sets a benchmark for delivering a framework for innovation from the very top
of a progressive organisation.
Innovation has nothing to do with how many R&D dollars you have. When Apple came up with the Mac,
IBM was spending at least 100 times more on R&D. ‘It’s not about money. It’s about the people you
have, how you’re led, and how much you get it’ (Steve Jobs qtd in Cramton 2011).
Without top level management support, change can become a complex play of power struggles and
politics between departments and individuals. Vision and leadership communication must flow down
from top management.
Read the ‘CASE STUDY: ‘A mini crisis of culture and performance’ in the Samson, Donnet & Daft
textbook (2018, pp. 478-9; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 466-67). It gives a real world picture of some of
the ways resistance to change can be overcome.
9.5 CREATING ENVIRONMENTS FOR CHANGE COMMUNICATION
There is much to consider when planning a change management communication plan. Cheney (2011,
pp. 347) cites research by Susan Jarboe who gives a summary of organisational characteristics to
encourage innovation and, subsequently, change. The primary characteristics are:
• Absence of Fear. In this environment, people feel free to express alternative views and,
in general, feel safe to participate in trying out new ideas. There is an absence of
surveillance.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_a5aaiZzlI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4SDowINMjfo
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• Training for Innovation. People who have received specific training on creativity and
innovation skills are usually more adaptive and this will hopefully build a more innovative
work environment.
• Rewards and Other Structures that Encourage Innovation. Individuals or groups are
rewarded through bonuses or other incentives for innovations and work structures that
allow alternative paths for achieving goals.
• Support Innovation. People have the time and resources needed to try out innovative
ideas.
• Vision or Objectives that highlight innovation. Creating an atmosphere and workplace
culture that supports innovation can appear a rather intangible goal. If there is some
recognition of innovation in the overarching vision and set objectives of an organisation,
however, this can be more easily built into the daily routines. People perceive that
innovation is important in achieving organisational goals.
• Task Orientation. This is a more standard requirement of any workplace but should be
clearly defined and recognised. People understand that working hard and focusing on
organisational objectives is valued.
• Create Leadership. The role of leadership in an innovative organisation is to encourage
and support creativity and avoid behaviours that block or discourage people fro m
innovating. It is important to recognise that leaders can emerge very naturally across all
levels of an organisation (departments, sub-sections, teams, work floor). This can have
positive and negative effects if wide-scale change is initiated, so empowering the right
people is an important consideration. A good leader will be able to ‘read’ the currents and
networks and respond positively. (Cheney 2011, pp.348)
9.6 GLOSSARY
Because change communication crosses over so many different social, psychological and
organisational frameworks, the following glossary of key concepts should prove useful in conducting
further research on this topic.
• Change is the process by which alteration occurs in the structure and function of a social
system. It is the difference(s) between two (or more) successive conditions, states, or
moments of time or a succession of differences in time within a persisting identity.
• Turbulence is a term used to describe the rapidly and unpredictably changing environment
within which contemporary organisations operate and is often used to justify continuous
change.
• Change-related communication is communication about change as well a
communication involved in organisational change processes.
• Change–Constancy (Stability) dialectic is the notion that change and constancy are in
a natural and inescapable tension. It implies that both are desirable, but also that they lean
on each other for meaning
• Homeostasis is a principle from ‘Open Systems Theory’ that assumes that organisations
strive for stability and routine.
• First-order Change is minor, incremental changes or adjustments that any living system
has to practice in order to avoid the more fundamental second-order changes.
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• Second-order Change is radical change that occurs when the entity becomes something
fundamentally different from what it was originally.
• Programmed Implementation is a process of change management in which top
management develops a plan for implementing the change and marshals the plan
throughout its many phases.
• Adaptive Implementation is a process of change management that may be initiated at
varying levels of the organisation. The implementation process is monitored and modified
as new information about the implementation emerges.
• Fidelity (of adoption) is a standard of evaluating change efforts in which the criterion is
the match between the designer’s intended use for the change and the user’s actual use.
• Uniformity (of adoption) is a standard of evaluating change efforts in which the criterion
for change is accepted by all users.
• Unintended Consequences is a concept from ‘Systems Theory’ that suggests that a
change in one part of the system will prompt changes in other parts of the system, some
of which will not be anticipated.
(Adapted from various sources)
These are some terms that you may encounter in your readings, so keep this Glossary handy. Once
again, you may find that glossary is a great tool to use when doing your assignments.
9.7 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
• Cultural Ethos. Any major change process disrupts existing patterns of behaviour,
routines, and networks of communication. It can challenge existing power structures,
relationships, attitudes and assumptions that can be deeply entrenched within daily
practice. By engaging all the stakeholders in the process of change, an organisation can
better define its evolving cultural ethos.
Remember that at the basic level, Ethos is an ancient Greek word still used today meaning
“character” and is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterise a
community, nation, ideology or, in this case, an organisation. By making sure that
everyone’s voice is heard in the change process, an organisation has its best chance of
evolving a new and authentic ‘public face and voice’.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. In the same way, the symbols, stories,
heroes, slogans and ceremonies can only be authentic if they reflect the real face of the
organisation. Consideration should be given to transposing or extending the existing story
lines and languages into the new framework of desired change and organisational vision
for the future.
If this is done positively and creatively it can generate support and enthusiasm or at least
assist in minimising resistance. Everyone will have some experience of a dull or lack lustre
framing of a change dialogue – watch any politician trying to ‘sell’ a contentious policy. The
change story, its languages and how it is communicated can positively facilitate the change
process, creating a more empowering work environment despite the many uncertainties.
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Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. In the change
management process, the capacity of an organisation to be truly adaptive and ‘lead from
the front’ is challenged at the highest level. Managers must face the challenge of change
while keeping the business profitable and productive. One of the best ways to ‘manage’
this process is by implementing a comprehensive communication strategy that will draw
from and speak to all levels of the organisation.
MORE THOUGHTS
Change is always difficult, yet we grow and learn every day of our lives. Often, as President Roosevelt
said ‘we have nothing to fear but fear itself’. Nonetheless change should be approached carefully. Once
you have engaged people’s hearts and minds, they will embrace it. This is where emotional intelligence,
active listening and being response to everyone’s concerns are paramount. After all, real revolutions
are people’s movements.
Most experienced executives would advise an approach which is rapid evolution and not a
revolution. Revolutions are risky and expensive and often fail. Evolutionary approaches have a
much higher likelihood of success, through carefully choosing pilot projects, continually working
on belief systems and incrementally building the new culture, broadening the vision and
implementing new measures and goals at all levels of the organisation. (Samson & Daft 2012,
p. 428).
There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its
success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things. (Niccolo Machiavelli, The
Prince, 1532)
REFERENCES
Cheney, C. Christensen, L T. Zorn, T E Jnr, Ganesh, Shiv. 2011, Organizational Communication in an
Age of Globalization, Issues, Reflections, Practices, Waveland Press, Illinois.
Piderit, S K, 2000, ‘Rethinking Resistance and Recognising Ambivalence: A Multidimensional View of
Attitudes Towards Organisational Change’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 26, No. 4.
Lewin, K. 1951, Field theory in social science: selected theoretical papers, Ed. Dorwin Cartwright,
Harpers, Oxford, England.
Cramton, M, 2011, 50 Quotes from the Genius Behind Apple. Accessed April 2012.
50 Steve Jobs quotes on life, leadership, and the future of Apple
50 Steve Jobs quotes on life, leadership, and the future of Apple
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WEEK TEN: THE INTEGRATION OF STRATEGIC
PLANNING AND COMMUNICATION
By the end of this week, students will develop an understanding of integration issues and how
leadership and management communication can best be aligned.
This will include:
• Examining goals, plans and performance of communication
• Sending the right messages
• Communication criteria for effective goals
• Key Result Areas (KRAs).
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific edition,
Australia, Cengage Learning. Chapter 7; Chapter 8, pp. 329-335.
or
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia, Cengage Learning.
Chapter 7; Chapter 8, pp. 320-26.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING
Complete the New Manager Self-Test ‘Does Goal Setting Fit Your Management
Style?’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 280; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 271) and
check your score. What did you learn from doing the test?
Post your piece to the Discussion Board and respond to the comments of
two peers under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT10 here’.
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10.1 INTRODUCTION
Men often oppose a thing merely because they have had no agency in planning it, or because it
may have been planned by those whom they dislike. (Alexander Hamilton, First US Secretary of the
Treasury, 1755-1804)
This week we will be exploring the integration of organisational goals, planning and communication.
Earlier, we discussed the four basic management functions: planning, organising, leading, controlling,
monitoring.
…planning is considered the most fundamental. Everything stems from planning. Yet planning is
the most controversial management function. … Planning cannot read an uncertain future, nor
can it tame a turbulent environment. … no plan can be perfect, but without plans and goals,
organisations and employees are left floundering. ( Samson, Donnet and Daft 2018, p. 281; Samson
and Daft 2015, p. 273)
Regular strategy meetings integrating leadership, management and communication are essential to the
setting and reviewing of the vision of the organisation (mission statements and goals) through to
strategic planning to meet the expectations of all stakeholders.
Samson and Daft (2015, p. 273; 2012, p. 256) go on to quote Wylie and this is worth reiterating here:
Most corporate planning is like a ritual rain dance, it has no effect on the weather that follows, but
it makes those who engage in it feel that they are in control. Most discussions of the role of models
in planning are directed at improving the dancing, not the weather.
This may be true, but what is also true is that the planning is just as important as the final plan through
its ability to weave together vision, negotiation, communication and implementation.
10.2 GOALS, PLANS AND PERFORMANCE OF COMMUNICATION
‘Goals specify future ends, plans specify today’s means.’ (Samson, Donnet and Daft 2018, p. 281;
Samson and Daft 2015, p. 273)
This quote sets the scene for this discussion of goals, plans and communication. The entire purpose of
an organisation should be defined by its goals, and its planning should entirely set out the strategy for
achieving them.
Exhibit 7.1 ‘Levels of goals and plans and their importance’ of the textbook (Samson, Donnet & Daft
2018, p. 282; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 274) sets out a pyramid chart. Accepting that planning starts at
the top of the pyramid, let’s ‘walk down’ the stages. It quickly becomes obvious that as the pyramid
widens, so does the number of participants and stakeholders involved:
• Top of the pyramid are the Organisational Mission (Mission Statement). This is a
broad statement of the owners or top executives and board describing the fundamental
purpose, values and future aspirations of the organisation.
Peter Drucker suggests that organisations focus on eight content areas in developing
goals: market standing, innovation, productivity, physical and financial resources,
profitability, managerial performance and development, worker performance and attitude,
and public responsibility.
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Most often these strategic goals are documented in a Mission Statement that Samson,
Donnet & Daft define as ‘a broadly stated definition of the organisation’s basic business
scope and operations that distinguishes it from similar types of organisations’ (Samson,
Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 285; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 277). Some organisations develop
additional materials to cover corporate values, product quality, location of facilities, and
other short descriptors often setting out the unique aspects of the organisation.
• First step down the pyramid. ‘Strategic plans define the action steps by which the
organisation intends to attain the strategic goals’ detailed in the broad Mission Statement.
• Next step down the pyramid are the tactical goals which are ‘the results that major
divisions and departments within the organisation intend to achieve’ (Samson, Donnet &
Daft 2018, p. 287; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 279). At this stage of planning you are directly
engaging with middle management and applying the strategic plans to identify what middle
management might need to do to achieve change. This is a consultative and collaborative
process to align vision with the realities faced by middle management.
Remembering that lack of inclusion at the earlier stages is a principle cause of resistance,
it is important that all stakeholders are engaged at this stage and during the pursuant
stages to minimalise resistance.
• Next step down. Once the process above has stabilised, it is important to move on to the
development of tactical plans that set out shorter term milestones to work towards.
Tactical plans define what the major department and organisational subunits will do to
implement the overall strategic plan. Generally, it is the middle manager’s job to take the
broad strategic plan and identify specific (and relevant) actions.
• Step down to ground level. ‘Operational plans are developed at the lower levels of the
organisation to specify specific action steps towards achieving operational goals and
support tactical plans’ on a day to day basis (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 287; Samson
and Daft 2015, p. 280). Once again, feedback from this daily activity is a powerful indication
of progress in change management and communication.
(Based on Samson & Daft 2018, pp. 282-87; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 277-81)
At all levels of the pyramid legitimacy, motivation, guidance, rationale and organisational standards
need to be considered so that consistent organisational planning sends the right messages to all
stakeholders as it is being built.
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10.3 THE RIGHT MESSAGES
Reality Check: Follow the YouTube link to a presentation by John Kotter about communicating a
vision for change.
The pyramid above is also very important because it provides a way of ensuring that the right
messages are being sent at each stage of planning.
Samson, Donnet and Daft (2018, pp. 281-3; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 275-6) pay specific attention to
the important benefits that can be gained within the processes of planning. These benefits include:
• Legitimacy. An organisation’s Mission Statement describes what an organisation stands
for and its reason for existence. Samson and Daft draw reference to Fortune Magazine’s
long-term survey, the ‘100 Best Companies to Work For’ as a measure of how top
organisations may legitimise themselves.
Researcher, Alex Edmans’ paper uses the survey to deconstruct some of the messages
within the 100 organisations and the survey. Let’s look at some of the dimensions surveyed
and some of the statements:
o Credibility. ‘Management keeps me informed about important issues and changes.
I can ask management any reasonable question and get a straight answer’.
o Caring. This dimension creates a psychologically and emotionally healthy place to
work. ‘Management shows a sincere interest in me as a person, not just as an
employee’.
o Fairness creates an environment where ‘everybody has an opportunity to get special
recognition’.
o Corporate Image. This dimension can build an ‘I’m proud to tell others I work here’
mentality.
o Hospitality. A common statement here would be ‘This is a fun place to work’.
o Welcome. This is an important building block in any organisation. ‘When you join the
company, you are made to feel welcome’.
(Edmans 2012, p. 21)
Edmans adds that the dimensions of the survey also measure Two-way Communication,
Informative Communication, Accessible Communication, Competence, Integrity, Respect,
Support, Collaboration, Work Environment, Personal life, Equity, Membership, Impartiality,
Justice, Personal and Team Pride, Camaraderie, Intimacy and Community. It is important to
note that all of these dimensions directly correlate with a humanist/behaviourist management
perspective.
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REALITY CHECK Follow the YouTube link to a presentation from John Kotter about the ‘Heart
of Change’.
• Source of motivation and commitment. A lack of clear goals and plans can damage
motivation and commitment. Whereas a goal provides the ‘what’ and the ‘why’ of an
organisation, a plan tells the ‘how’.
DISCUSSION POINT. Read the Australian Management Profile ‘Maureen and Tony Wheele r’,
Co-founders of Lonely Planet of the textbook (2015, p. 276; 2012, p. 260). They talk about their
original purpose and reason for starting Lonely Planet. What were their motivations and how
did they incorporate these into their mission and messaging?
• Resource Allocation. ‘Goals help managers decide where they need to allocate
resources, such as employees, money and equipment’ (Samson & Daft 2015, p. 275; 2012,
p. 259). Clearly this resetting of priorities and allocation of resources needs to be caref ully
communicated to be understood and accepted by those affected.
• Guide to Change. An important part of a change planning is to set up milestones as
strategic targets so that employees have a number of tangible outcomes to work towards.
When you arrive at a milestone, it is important to review the journey. By giving employees
the opportunity to participate in this process, you can evaluate your communication,
analyse it within a SWOT methodology and, potentially, reassign values within a force field
chart. It also gives management and employees an opportunity to celebrate at a number
of points along the journey of change.
• Rationale for Decisions. It is important that change across the whole organisation stays
aligned to the plan. Feedback from across the organisation needs to be continually filtered
and adjusted to ensure that everyone is on the journey of change. ‘Interrogating’ decision
rationales against the agreed actions within the change strategy also assists in identifying
potential areas of resistance and the re-focusing communication activities on these
emerging situations. This does not imply any totalitarian intent; it is simply a way of keeping
ahead of issues and allowing for adaptive management and communication responses.
• Standard of Performance. ‘Because goals define desired outcomes for an organisation,
they also becoming performance criteria. They provide a standard of assessment. If an
organisation wishes to grow 15 per cent, and actual growth is 17 per cent, managers will
have exceeded their prescribed standard’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 283; 2015, p.
275). These sorts of positive tangible outcomes need to be ‘owned’ and celebrated by all
stakeholders. Invariably, some resisters will only be placated by tangible data. Quite rightly,
they will say that the organisation exists to make a profit, and ‘noble’ humanistic
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and environmental outcomes are fine if the business is growing and production costs are
being managed. These objections are entirely valid and positive tangible outcomes need
to be communicated to all stakeholders.
An important aspect of any change strategy needs to be a close observation of how change is affecting
the culture ethos of the organisation. Important questions here are: How are we see n, how do we wish
to be seen, what is the journey, what are the new symbols, slogans, stories, heroes and ceremonies
that need to be adapted into change?
Exhibit 7.2 in the set textbook (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 290; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 275) looks
at a strategy map as a way of monitoring whether the various goals and strategies for change are staying
aligned to the vision for the organisation as set out in the Mission Statement.
10.4 CRITERIA FOR EFFECTIVE GOALS
Both tangible and intangible aspects of change need to be benchmarked against certain characteristics
and guidelines. Samson, Donnet and Daft (2018, p. 292; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 285) define some of
these. Read the text version first and then read an interpretation below that teases out some more of
the communication issues surrounding them.
Goal Characteristics:
• Specific and Measurable. By nature all goals and aspirations are both qualitative and
quantitative. Think about this as a simple example. We want to sell more apples because
they are good apples. The quantitative outcome is measurable if you sell twice as many
apples as last week. The qualitative outcome is less tangible. Then a customer is asked,
‘that’s a great apple where did you get it?’ and responds, ‘I’m shopping there’,
recommending the product.
Both outcomes feed each other and both do happen. The point is that goals not only need
to be carefully defined – they need to be measurable.
This is not to say that qualitative outcomes are not measurable – it just means that you
have to work harder at it. It is important to seek customer feedback from your staff. Actively
listen and respond to qualitative statements. You will always have the quantitative data
which tells you how many apples people might buy today – but it is only the qualitative
statements that will tell you why. This is a simplistic analogy; however it is also a basic
truism that goals must be measurable. David Jones is a good example of the importance
of qualitative outcomes. People shop there because of an established reputation for
service and expertise – there may well be no other store like David Jones.
• Key Result Areas (KRAs) are ‘those activities that contribute most to organisation
performance’. Hershey recommends that ‘organisations should monitor a maximum of 20
KRAs and divides these indicators into four distinct categories: financial indicators,
customer-related indicators, process-related indicators and future-value indicators
(including human resources)’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 292; Samson & Daft 2015,
p. 285).
Within those four indicators is a mix of quantitative and qualitative measures to be devised
within your change management planning and strategy. Many organisations use
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the term Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) as important management controls targeted
at specific outcomes. It is important that both KRAs and KPIs are redefined as part of the
change process.
• Remaining both Challenging and Realistic. This is actually one of the dialectical
problems that should be regularly challenged in the course of meetings. ‘Are we
overreaching?’ or ‘Are our goals achievable?’ are questions that need to sit at the very
basis on this debate. Certainly, it is an invitation for real feedback. And, the change/stability
dialectic needs to be kept in balance.
• Challenging but Realistic: A Timeframe. Goals cannot be open-ended or they run the
risk of never being finished. The risk is that the process of change can become the entire
process – whereas the outcome is not a process – it is real change. It is often the
communication aspect that needs to set the timeframes. It is fairly easy to set timing around
tangible change, but communication activities and processes are best at setting the
intangible readiness for change. Other intangibles might be inclusion, feedback, activity
outcomes, negotiation and transaction of change processes and responsiveness. Again,
remember that one of the major causes of resistance is lack of early participation which
has quite a lot to do with the measured and thoughtful progression of these intangible
aspects.
• Linked to Rewards. The textbook places much emphasis on rewards being based around
‘salary increases, promotions, and awards’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 292; Samson
& Daft 2015, p. 285). In addition, we can use communication tools and events like
storytelling, ceremonies, heroes and new slogans as a way of rewarding achievement. Of
course, money and promotions are strong rewards but equally so are inclusion, respect
and acknowledgement.
These management priorities need to be carefully considered since financial incentives
can turn sour if there is no acknowledgement of effort or due credit given to the correct
staff. As a manager it is also wise to remember these two things: what might be initially a
simple task could become incredibly complex as it unfolds and what may be a simple task
for you, might be a big challenge for the person who is delegated that task to complete.
DISCUSSION POINT: Can you remember a time in your work life when respect and
acknowledgement were all you really needed to feel valued?
10.5 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
• Cultural Ethos. Special attention should be paid to these ‘Criteria for Effective Goals’
outlined above if an organisation is to gain maximum benefit from its goal-setting strategies.
Having an informed and realistic understanding of the cultural ethos of an organisation can
be critical to achieving the desired goals. Entrenched attitudes, beliefs, interaction
dynamics can work either positively or negatively throughout any change process. Your
own ‘house’ needs to be in order and everyone needs to be behind the change and
understand why and how it is going to happen. To a very great extent,
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internal strategies, planning and communication generate the public face of an
organisation and the employees are its greatest communication asset.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. Similarly to last week and above,
finding and identifying the new stories, symbols and ceremonies starts in-house and can
become an exciting part of the unfolding change process. Creating the initial dialogue that
will introduce any change or activation process, the key symbols, slogans, languages, need
to be carefully planned. Something as simple as the headers for a power point slide in an
important presentation can make a difference.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. The sorts of strategies
and tactics discussed this week determine the day to day activities that drive change as a
reality. Creating adaptive behaviours and providing positive cultural leadership across all
levels of an organisation will generate long term benefits for an organisation.
Remember that staff respond to body language as well as words, so this can become an
added pressure for the middle manager who may also be struggling with the uncertainties
that a changing environment creates. These considerations can be pivotal to success .
Remember also that strategies and planning require thinking whereas implementation is
about doing.
MORE THOUGHTS
Everybody has accepted by now that change is unavoidable. But that still implies that change is
like death and taxes – it should be postponed as long as possible and no change would be vastly
preferable. But in a period of upheaval, such as the one we are living in, change is the norm.
(Peter Drucker)
REFERENCES
Edmans, A, 2012, The Link Between Job Satisfaction and Firm Value, with implications for Corporate
Social Responsibility, University of Pennsylvania, Finance Department; National Bureau of Economic
Research (NBER); European Corporate Governance Institute (ECGI).
http://faculty.london.edu/aedmans/RoweAMP
http://faculty.london.edu/aedmans/RoweAMP
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WEEK ELEVEN: COMMUNICATING IN DIFFICULT
TIMES AND CRISIS SITUATIONS
By the end of this week, students will understand essential strategies for preparation, prevention and
containment of a potential crisis during difficult times and after unexpected events.
This will include:
• Planning in difficult times
• Contingency plans
• Scenario building
• Shaping a crisis plan
• Organising a Crisis Management Team (CMT)
• Communication within a Crisis Management Plan (CMP)
• Managing team conflict.
REQUIRED READING
Samson, Danny, Donnet, Timothy & Daft, Richard L, 2018, Management, 6th Asia-Pacific
edition, Australia, Cengage Learning.
Chapter 1, pp. 36-7; Chapter 17, pp. 730–1; Chapter 7, pp. 303-5; Chapter 18, pp. 767–9.
Samson, D & Daft, R L, 2015, Management, 5th Asia-Pacific Edition, Australia,
Cengage Learning.
Chapter 1, pp. 36-37; Chapter 17, pp. 712–715; Chapter 7, pp. 294-298;
Chapter 18, pp. 747–749.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 11
This week we explore Scenario Building as a way of exploring what might happen to an
organisation struck by crisis in difficult times and through unexpected events. From your
work experiences develop a quick ‘sketch’ of two scenarios – the most optimistic and the
most pessimistic – in the event of a major crisis. What would that crisis be and how might
you communicate with stakeholders about this situation to minimise confusion or
disorder?
What contingency plans might be appropriate?
Post your piece into the Discussion Board and respond to the comments of two
peers under the thread heading ‘Post responses to ILT11 here’.
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11.1 INTRODUCTION
True stability results when presumed order and presumed disorder are balanced. A truly stable
system expects the unexpected, is prepared to be disrupted, and waits to be transformed. (Tom
Robbins, American novelist)
Earlier in this Unit we discussed the maddening pace of change in our personal and business lives.
Although most people crave stability, our shared reality is one of accelerating technical, industrial and
social change. While it has always been the manager’s responsibility to negotiate pathways through
unexpected disruptions of all levels of severity, Samson, Donnet & Daft point out that ‘our world has
become so fast, interconnected and complex that unexpected events happen more frequently and often
with greater and more painful consequences’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 36; Samson & Daft
2015, p. 36).
A crisis can be defined as ‘a non-routine, unpredictable event that imposes (a) significant threats to an
organization and (b) urgency to contain and respond that often interrupts normal organizational
functioning’ (Kalbfleisch 2005, p. 278). Depending on severity, a crisis can pose a threat across three
broad areas: public safety, financial loss and reputation loss (Coombs 2007). The level of susceptibility
is dependent on the nature of the crisis, its severity and the way it is managed.
The bizarre, the unthinkable, the unlikely, the unexpected, and the unimaginable can bring day –
to-day operations to a standstill and cause growth strategies and fiscal plans thrown out. The
only certainty is that no organization is immune; every organization is vulnerable to crises.
(Hagan 2007, pp. 403)
By their nature crises are potentially explosive public events, but the extent to which the organisation’s
reputation is damaged will in fact depend on how the crisis is managed. A poorly managed crisis has
both immediate and long term repercussions and has the capacity to destroy a company. On the other
hand, a well-managed crisis can be turned into an opportunity generating long term goodwill towa rd the
organisation (Griffin 2008, p. 206).
Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 36; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 36) define five leadership skills that meet
the demands of today’s crisis management scenarios:
• Staying calm
• Being visible
• Putting people before business
• Telling the truth
• Knowing when to get back to business.
(Adapted from Samson & Daft 2018, pp. 36-8; Samson & Daft 2015, pp. 36-7)
This week we will explore how to plan and communicate during turbulent times, unexpected events and
team conflict. Again, we will be looking into the convergence of leadership and management
communication running simultaneously alongside the convergence of strategic planning and
communication.
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REALITY CHECK Follow this YouTube link to see the story of how one small (but famous) Japanese
family business is rebuilding after the Tsunami.
11.2 PLANNING IN TURBULENT TIMES
Effective crisis management should start long before the crisis occurs. Pre-planning crisis management
can ensure that an organisation is best placed to ‘mitigate or reduce the severity and duration of a crisis’
(Johnston & Zawawi 2009, p. 307).
Firstly, we will look at some of the planning strategies that managers can deploy so that they are
constantly in a state of readiness should they strike turbulence or the unexpected.
11.2.1 CONTINGENCY PLANS
Preparing a business contingency plan is as important as developing a sales or marketing plan.
Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 301; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 294) state that contingency plans ‘define
organisation responses to be taken in the case of emergencies, setbacks or unexpected conditions’. In
developing an effective contingency plan, planners will initially identify and assess potential risks and
extrapolate these to ‘forecast the worst case scenarios’ (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 301; Samson
& Daft 2015, p. 294). From this point, strategies can be developed to best enable an organisation to
prevent or cope with a crisis (Kash & Darling 1998, p. 179).
Otto Lerbinger (2012) classified the following types of organisational crises: natural crises, biological
crises, technological crises, confrontation crises, crises of malevolence, crises of mismanagement,
crises of skewed management, management failure, crises of deception, crises of management
misconduct.
It is important to understand that these risk areas can apply to all organisations whatever the size,
strength or business field or nature of an organisation since everyone is exposed to risk in a diverse,
volatile work environment. It is not only Queensland Health that falls foul of a massive payroll system
problem and many workplaces have been the subject of sexual harassment allegations. A fast food
outlet can be taken to task for breach of Health and Safety regulations or an accountant might
misappropriate funds from a trust account creating a crisis in a reputable firm.
The Mindtools website identifies some important guidelines when building a contingency plan:
• Maintain business operations. Look closely at what you need to do to deliver a minimum
level of service and functionality.
• Define time periods. What must be done during the first hour of the plan being
implemented? The first day? The first week? If you break down the plan, you’re less likely
to leave out important details.
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• Identify the trigger. What specifically will cause you to implement the contingency plan?
Decide which actions you’ll take and when. Determine who is in charge at each stage and
what type of reporting process they must follow.
• Keep the plan simple. You don’t know who will read and implement the plan when it’s
needed, so use clear and plain language.
• Consider related resource restrictions. Will your organisation be able to function the
same way if you have to implement Plan B or will Plan B necessarily reduce capabilities?
• Identify everyone’s needs. Have people throughout the company identify what they must
have, at a minimum, to continue operations.
• Define ‘success’. What will you need to do to return to ‘business as usual’?
• Include contingency plans in standard operating procedures. Make sure you provide
initial training on the plan, and keep everyone up-to-date on changes.
• Manage your risks. Look for opportunities to reduce risk, wherever possible. This may
help you reduce, or even eliminate, the need for full contingency plans in certain areas.
• Identify operational inefficiencies. Provide a standard to document your planning
process, and find opportunities for performance improvement.
(Mindtools. Accessed 3 May 2019)
DISCUSSION POINT. Reflect on the guidelines above. Can you think of ways that you, as the
communication practitioner within an organisation, might enhance the delivery of these objectives? How
might you work to ensure that the messages sent are clear and that feedback is acknowledged and
absorbed into the development of a contingency plan?
11.2.2 SCENARIO BUILDING
One way managers cope with uncertainty is with a forecasting technique known as scenario
building. Scenario building involves looking at current trends and discontinuities and visualising
future possibilities. Rather than looking only at history and thinking about what has b een,
managers think about what could be. (Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 301; Samson & Daft 2015, p.
294-5)
The scenario building technique involves developing a small number of scenarios (no less than two and
no more than five) that offer managers an opportunity to explore alternative future outcomes. It is a
creative process quite similar to story boarding in film or in advertising. Obviously, the various scenarios
range from the most optimistic outcome to the most pessimistic.
Scenarios are not conceived of one at a time. You develop a range of two or three possible
futures, allowing you to address an array of possibilities and rehearse your responses to each of
them. At the same time, more than four scenarios tend to be too complex: you cannot keep track
of their ramifications in your mind. (Rhisiart, 2006)
Samson and Daft (2015, p. 295; 2012, p. 275) cite an example of scenario building from Royal Dutch
Shell. Rhisiart quotes Jeroen van der Veer, Shell’s CEO as saying:
Within Shell, I think the imperative is to use this tool to gain deeper insights into our global
business environment and to achieve the cultural change that is at the heart of our Group
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strategy. We face real challenges in the future, we will all need to be able to respond to changing
circumstances and make informed and rigorous judgements about our decisions: these scenarios
and methodology will help us to do that better. (van der Veer cited in Rhisiart 2006)
11.3 SHAPING A CRISIS PLAN
Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, pp. 303-5) detail the three stages of crisis management as Pre-Event,
Response and Recovery, Post-Event. In earlier editions of the set text, these stages are detailed as:
prevention, preparation and containment (2015, pp. 295-98; 2012, pp. 275-77). Although the labels
change and there is a more developed analysis in the 2018 edition, the essential principles and
strategies apply across the different editions. Below we will explore and adapt these to a more
communicative perspective.
11.3.1 PREVENTION
Earlier in this Unit we discussed strategic conversations, relationship building, network management
and communication. These elements form the basis of a prevention strategy when faced with turbulence
and the unexpected. Some key elements of prevention are:
• Build trusting relationships with key stakeholders (employees, customers, suppliers,
governments, unions and the community). Johnson and Zawawi (2009, p. 309) refer to this
as ‘the trust bank’ and argue that organisations with good reputations and high levels of
trust are likely to receive more understanding and forgiveness from their publics in a time
of crisis.
• Maintain open communication lines so that problems can be identified and prevented.
• Detect messages from business and community environment. Organisations need to
understand who their different ‘publics’ are and adjust communications to and from these
different audiences, not only in a crisis but throughout duration of the relationship
• Maintain environmental, social and community responsibilities as an organisation
and foster an identity as an integral part of a local and global market and community.
The bottom line is that if you are listening and responding to feedback from your stake holders, market
and community you might be the first to know that trouble is just around the next corner.
DISCUSSION POINT. Reflect on the points above. In your work or life experiences, can you think of a
time when crisis has been avoided simply through good will towards an organisation?
11.3.2 PREPARATION
Forward planning is essential to dealing with a crisis in order to ensure maximum preparedness.
Some key elements include:
• Set up a cross functional, interdepartmental Crisis Management Team (CMT) and ensure
that they are trained and qualified across a range of skills and policies to swing into action
once the crisis ‘tipping point’ is reached. Training and practice are important.
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• From a communication point of view, this would include having designated spokespersons
briefed and available.
The CMT may be a flexible group and membership might be based on what the perceived
crisis might be. For example, the team you might form to deal with a response to a cyclone
would be entirely different from that to deal with a failure of technology or a production or
product issue. Many organisations have set up permanent CMTs with a core group who
will call on specific content experts internally and externally to consult on particular issues.
• The CMT would develop a Crisis Management Plan (CMP) that works to a set formula
based on the structure and dynamics of the organisation as a template for dealing with a
wide range of issues. One of the roles of communication would be the delivery and
understanding of these plans across all stakeholders as a living and evolving document
within the work culture of the organisation.
Berstein identifies ten steps of a CMP comprising of the following techniques: identify your
crisis communications team, identify your spokesperson, crisis training, establishing a
notification system, identifying and knowing your stakeholders, anticipating crises, develop
holding statement, assess the crisis situation, identify key messages, and finally riding out
the storm (Bernstein 2004, p. 61). The first seven of these processes should be in practice
before a crisis emerges.
A major part of the CMP is a communication plan that designates a crisis command centre
and sets up a complete communication and messaging system. The command centre
serves as a place for the crisis management team to meet, gather data and monitor
incoming information, and disseminate information to the media, employees and public
(Samson, Donnet & Daft 2018, p. 305; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 296).
It is important to understand that each crisis management plan will be unique to the
organisation that creates it. As with all plans the crisis management plan must be flexible
and adapt to changes within the internal and external environment.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this link to a free downloadable CMP Template.
http://www.brighthub.com/office/project-management/articles/104970.aspx
[If the Brighthub cookie policy isn’t acceptable, then there are many other
useful templates available online.]
11.3.3 CONTAINMENT
Samson, Donnet & Daft (2018, p. 303; Samson & Daft 2015, p. 296) highlight some key stages of containment:
• Rapid response through activating the Crisis Management Plan. The CMP should be
maintained at a state of readiness and be constructed with sufficient flexibility to be applied
across the wide range of potential scenarios in a quick, coordinated and efficient manner.
• Getting out the ‘awful truth’. The Crisis Communication Plan must ensure that the
organisation speaks with one voice. Conflicting stories and reportage can cause chaos and
in the case of natural disaster, risk lives.
http://www.brighthub.com/office/project-management/articles/104970.aspx
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Rapid, clear and consistent communication increases the quality of decisions and reduces
the level of confusion. It is important not to underestimate the level of public fear in a major
crisis or the variety of publics that may be affected, either directly or indirectly. Internal
communication is just as important in crisis situations as it is able to provide cohesion and
coherence to the organisation involved. Without timely information in a crisis, people tend
to rely on rumours for their information, which increases uncertainty and the complexity of
the recovery process.
Best practice of crisis communication relies on effective communication with media. How
an organisation communicates with key stakeholders and the public will be just as
important as managing the crisis itself in the long term because of the ‘persistence of
memory’ of a poorly or deceptively managed crisis (Ucelli 2002, p. 21). In addition the
media can ‘assist in providing adjusting information and reputation management
messages’ (Veil 2010, p. 415), which is again, a long term recovery consideration.
• Meet emotional needs. There are many examples of recent attempts to downplay the
realities of a crisis and ample evidence that it just doesn’t work. Organisations must
recognise their social and ethical responsibilities, expressing concern and sympathy to
their employees, stakeholders and the general public.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this YouTube link to see reportage of anger in Japan after cover
ups over nuclear radiation exposure were revealed following the Tsunami.
11.4 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO CRISIS COMMUNICATION
• Cultural Ethos. Keep in mind that the messages that are sent to all stakeholders when an
organisation is in crisis will last longer and be more influential than routine communication
– simply because the eyes of all stakeholders will be on you. As the organisation’s central
and pivotal point of communication, it is imperative that any actions or communication
managers release within the crisis resolution be embedded within the organisation’s
cultural ethos. This particularly relates to the notion of telling ‘the awful truth’. Years of
shaping the public face of the organisation can be quickly negated if this rule is not applied.
There is more reason than ever to abide strictly to those core values and attributes through
which all your internal and external stakeholders know the organisation.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. In a similar vein, the ‘maintenance of
face’ can be achieved by acknowledging and rewarding those who rise to the occasion.
Crisis situations have a way of revealing new stories and heroes. These should be
celebrated as a way of reinforcing the cultural ethos of the organisation. These stories and
languages can become an empowering and affirming dialogue in any recovery process.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. The creation of a Crisis
Management Team is a great way of exercising adaptive management behaviours.
Scenario building and exploration will bring up strengths and weaknesses that can be
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utilised and adapted within the leadership culture and communication within the
organisation.
MORE THOUGHTS
Crisis management and communication should be considered to be organisational character b uilding,
creating new bonds within relationships, networks and stakeholders. It is essential to the growth and
maturation of an organisation.
One who gains strength by overcoming obstacles possesses the only strength which can
overcome adversity. (Albert Schweitzer)
REFERENCES
Bernstein, Jonathan, The 10 Steps of Crisis Communications. Crisis Response, Prevention, Planning
and Training. Accessed 3 May 2019.
Coombs, W T 2007, Crisis Management and Communications. Accessed 3 May
2019. https://instituteforpr.org/crisis-management-communications/
Griffin, Andrew 2008, New Strategies for Reputation Management: Gaining Control of Issues, Crises &
Corporate Social Responsibility, CIPR, London.
Hagan, Linda M 2007, ‘For Reputation’s Sake: Managing Crisis Communication’, in Toth, Elizabeth E,
The Future of Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management: Challenges for the Next
Generation, Lawrence Erlbaum and Assoc, Mahwah, New Jersey.
Johnston, J & Zawawi, C 2009, Public Relations: Theory and Practice, 3rd edn, Allen & Unwin, Crows
Nest, NSW.
Kalbfleisch, Pamela K 2005, Communication Yearbook 29, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah,
NJ.
Kash, Toby and Darling, John 1998, ‘Crisis Management: Prevention, Diagnosis and Intervention”,
Leadership & Organisation Development Journal, vol 19, no. 4, pp. 179–186.
Lerbinger, Otto, 2012, The Crisis Manager: Facing Disasters, Conflicts and Failures, Routledge, New
York.
Mindtools, Contingency Planning – Creating a Good Plan B. Accessed 3 May 2019.
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_51.htm
Rhisiart, M, 2006, ‘Scenario Building’, in FUTURRG: Futures Workshop, Turku. Accessed 3 May 2019.
http://www.urenio.org/futurreg/workshop1.html.
Ucelli, Loretta, 2002, ‘The CEO’s “How to” Guide to Crisis Communications’, Strategy & Leadership,
vol 30, no 2, pp. 21– 4.
Veil, Shari R, 2011, ‘Mindful Learning in Crisis Management’, The Journal of Business
Communication, vol 48, no 2, pp. 116-147.
Crisis Management and Communications (Updated September 2014)
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_51.htm
http://www.urenio.org/futurreg/workshop1.html
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MODULE 7
WEEK TWELVE: UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC
RELATIONS
By the end of this week, students will have gained a general basic understanding of the role of public
relations, its terminologies and practice. This will include:
• Identifying and defining publics
• Exploring internal and external publics
• Prioritising publics
• Exploring perceptions and public opinion
• Recognition of minority publics and women
• Listing some points to remember about public relations.
REQUIRED READING
Newsom, D, Turk, J and Kruckeberg, D 2010, This is PR: The Realities of Public
Relations, 10th ed, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, USA. Chapter 5, pp. 93–116.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 12
Focusing on the difference between publics and audiences, think about your own life and
work experiences and identity some publics you might be a member of – as a customer
or as a member of a social or professional organisation. You can also be a member of a
public simply because of your race, religion, sex or ethnic or national origin.
Post your piece into the Discussion Board and respond to the comments of two
peers under the link ‘Post responses to ILT12 here’.
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12.1 INTRODUCTION
Public relations is about reputation – the result of what you do, what you say and what others say
about you. Public relations practice is the discipline which looks after reputation with the aim of
earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour.
(https://www.cipr.co.uk/content/policy/careers-advice/what-pr )
Due to the globalisation of news services, social media and rapid technologies, it has become increasing
important for managers at all levels to be aware of public relations – its terminologies and functions.
An employee may not be in charge of public relations in the organisation, but must be aware of their
role as part of its public face. Therefore, they must be able to stay on message with the organisation’s
many ‘publics’ at a customer, market and community level.
This week we will explore the terminology and functions of public relations in order t o deliver a basic
understanding of its organisational role.
Public Relations has developed a bad reputation over the years as the YouTube clip below points out.
To a great extent, that is now ancient history because in today’s business world the greatest a sset of
an organisation is its reputation.
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip that follows the history of everything that is bad
about public relations.
12.2 IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING PUBLICS
Firstly, we should define some public relations terminologies that we can use in our discourse.
In public relations, the term public encompasses any group of people who are tied together,
however loosely, by some common bond of interest or concern and who have consequences for
the organisation. (Newsom et al. 2010, p. 94)
It is important to note that in a public relations perspective an audience and a public are not the same.
An audience is anyone who receives a message but is deemed to be inherently passive, whereas a
public is deemed to be anyone who is actively involved and may exercise some impac t on the
organisation.
Publics and organisations are interconnected through a shared and complex ability to have impacts on
each other.
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12.2.1 INTERNAL PUBLICS
Internal publics share the institutional identity. They may include management, employees, and
many other stakeholders such as shareholders, board members, investors. (Newsom et al 2010, p.
94)
One way of identifying internal publics is to list all the active opinion-making individuals and groups
within an organisation who may affect management and communication decisions. Often, there is a
healthy intergroup dynamic between these different internal publics but harking back to earlier
discussions in this course, exclusion and isolation of specific groups will only lead to lack of participation
or even active resistance.
So, although the terminology may differ, the roles of public relations and communication become
intertwined in avoiding conflict.
DISCUSSION POINT. Can you identity the different internal publics within your organisation and think
of how they might sometimes be at odds about management and communication issues?
How have these matters been resolved?
Feedback from strategic conversations, relationships and networks needs to be fed back into any public
relations activity. An organisation with a separate public relations arm, needs to ensure that PR
personnel are participating in these networks and receiving valuable information to include in their
approaches.
As with any communication, the PR face of the organisation must reflect its cultural ethos or run the risk
of being seen as fake or out of touch with the accepted public face of the organisation.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this YouTube link to a clip called ‘Toxic Sludge is Good for You’ which
discusses lack of integrity within some PR campaigns. In this case, perhaps the PR team could be
accused of trying too hard to shape perception.
12.2.2 EXTERNAL PUBLICS
Newsom et al identify external publics as any that exist outside the organisation. ‘They are not directly
or officially a part of the organisation, but they do have a relationship with it’ (Newsom et al 2010,
p. 94). These may include government, the media, clients, suppliers and/or consumers. These also
need to be identified.
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12.3 PRIORITISING PUBLICS
Both the YouTube clips above demonstrate that, at least in PR terms, any notion of a mass audience is
a myth and that using one standard approach to connect with all priority targets is fraught with danger
because their attitudes and behaviours towards your organisation may differ significantly.
Figure 5.1 in Newsom et al, (pp. 95) ‘Prioritising Publics’, details how a formula called the Public
Vulnerability Importance Index (PVI) based on a scale of one to ten can be applied to the priority rating
of a target public.
P (Potential for other organisation to Influence)
+
V (Vulnerability of your organisation to being affected)
=
I (Importance of Public or Audience to your organisation)
The PVI is a tool to assist PR and communication managers to identify risk, but it is ce rtainly not the
end of the story. Communication skills like emotional intelligence, active listening, feedback and
responsiveness are the key elements of successfully negotiating these prioritisation strategies. Key
questions that can be asked are ‘what would I feel about this idea if I was a member of a particular
public?’, ‘how might I respond to the changes being introduced’?
Newsom et al (p. 98) state that priority publics can be described in three ways:
• Nominatively. This means simply applying their name to all communication whether
employees, stockholders, media, government and so on.
• Demographically. This refers to defining a public by looking at their statistical
characteristics such as age, sex, income and other hard data.
• Psychographically. This method defines a public by their emotional and behavioural
traits.
Psychographical testing has become increasingly sophisticated with a number of different systems that
attempt to measure attitudes and behaviours. These are discussed in more detail in this week’s required
reading (Newsom et al 2010, p. 96–7).
Suffice it to say, that this testing is now a major application of the humanist/behaviourist perspective
where, to use the SRI questionnaire as an example, adults are categorised according to eight types:
thinkers, innovators, achievers, experiencers, believers, strivers, makers and survivors. Although results
may prove patchy, this practice of trying to predict behaviours from attitudes is gaining strength,
especially as more data about us is gleaned from the Internet.
The working reality is that it is wise to at all these methodologies in order to gain the most accurate
picture on the priority public.
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12.4 PERCEPTIONS AND PUBLIC OPINION
You may have heard of a saying that people have been ‘tried and found guilty in the court of public
opinion’. This is the world that public relation practitioners live in.
Public opinion is what most people in a particular public think; in other words, it is the collective
opinion of, for instance, what voters or teenagers or senior citizens or politicians think about a
specific issue. (Newsom et al 2010, p. 108)
Public opinion is all powerful in our modern business and society. It expresses beliefs built around
perceptions or evaluations of events, people, organisations or products, rather than facts. It can range
across the whole spectrum from extremely positive or devastatingly negative. Alternatively, it may not
exist for your organisation at all. All of these PR states need to be questioned as part of both a
communication and PR role.
Long before the pollsters were on the scene, nineteenth-century essayist Charles Dudley Warner
said ‘Public opinion is stronger than the legislature and nearly as strong as the Ten
Commandments’. (Newsom et al 2010, p. 108)
Given that we live in a world where public opinion is quite transient, an enormously influential industry
has grown up about polling all of us, all the time to see what we are thinking, buying and feeling. But
make no mistake, you are being polled as a member of an identified public and not as an individual.
Pollsters are not measuring so much what you personally think as much as they are measuring for
discernible trends amongst your public.
REALITY CHECK. Follow this YouTube link to a report on a Gallup poll about attitudes of seniors in
America. Give particular attention to what is actually been measured and how it i s reported as trending
rather than individual opinions.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZA8RD94fekc&feature=results_video&playnext=1&li st=PL5F275D
D87195CB40
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12.5 PERCEPTIONS OF THE ORGANISATION
12.5.1 INTERNAL PUBLICS
In PR, much has been spoken of the ‘image’ of an organisation. What is it and where can it be found?
Newsom et al contend that ‘the collective perceptions of all publics for an organisation – based on what
it says and does – constitute its image’ (Newsom et al 2010, p. 103).
Newsom et al comment further that this image needs to be tested in the following ways:
• If the institution has an image, does it live up to it? Or, does it say one thing and mean
another?
• If the organisation has a favourable image, does it live up to it? Or do conflicting demands,
low pay or other factors render this impossible?
• When an image change is necessary, have the employees been helped to make the
change through participative management?
• If the company has no recognisable image, does this result in confusion, limited
identification and disparate values?’
(Newsom et al 2010, p. 103)
Many of you will be able to identify the clear resonances between these PR statements and the role of
communication – particularly in the strategies and tactics around change.
DISCUSSION POINT. In your work experiences, have you worked for an organisation whose public
image did not align with its internal reality? Did this cause disruption and confusion?
12.5.2 EXTERNAL PUBLICS
In a similar way, Newsom et al identify some key questions that organisations should be regularly
testing to challenge their relationships with their external publics. These include situations where:
• Public perceptions of a company do not reflect reality. This would include situations where
vestiges of past mistakes, poor earnings, environmental problems and the like may still be
having negative impact.
• External forces such as a new competitor, a breakthrough product, deregulation or an
existing competitor’s new identity require identification countermeasures.
• Competitors are slow to form clearly defined and effectively projected corporate and/or
product presentation. In this sense, identity is opportunistic and can become a competitive
advantage in itself.
(Newsom et al 2010, p. 105)
From a communication perspective all of these ‘tests’ need to be measured against the cultural ethos
of the organisation within a continuous change environment.
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12.6 WOMEN AND MINORITIES
When discussing publics, it is not just the size of a public that makes it influential. Earlier in the unit we
discussed diversity because of gender, race, religion, sexual preference and other potentially divisive
issues. These diversity groups need also to be included in any investigation of the many publics that
may impact on your organisation.
In business, it is important to acknowledge the power differential between men and women. We have
discussed this matter earlier in the unit, but it should be reiterated here that this is a pervasive force.
The fact that many women work in male-dominated workplaces creates a dynamic public (internally and
externally) and they are likely to display their own set of attitudes and behaviours towards the
organisation. The same can be said of a range of minority group publics. These groups are sometimes
referred to as counter publics and they can tend to group together to oppose a dominant mon oculture.
DISCUSSION POINT. Drawing on your own life and work experiences, can you identify how women
and minority publics in the workplace might have different attitudes and behaviours to the dominant
culture(s)?
12.7 POINTS TO REMEMBER
This week’s required reading identifies some key PR points (Newson et al 2011, p. 114). Below is a
short version.
• In PR, no ‘general public’ exists; there are many publics.
• In PR terms, mass audience is a myth.
• Priority publics are those that might have the most impact on the organisation.
• Psychographics is increasingly important in identifying diverse and complex publics.
• Increasingly people are turning away from traditional media which is causing fragmentation
of publics and challenging PR practitioners to find new connections on the Web and
through social media.
• Employees are a very important public as they have direct connection to any number of
the organisation’s other publics.
• Women and minorities need to be included and their different perspectives as s eparate
publics need to be acknowledged.
• Identifying potential issues early is a good sign of strong relationships with publics.
• ‘Image’ describes the collective perceptions of an organisation by all of its publics.
• An external public may be a supportive or adversarial constituency.
• Attitudes are a tendency or orientation toward something or someone.
• Opinions are expressions of estimates or judgements articulating a sentiment or point of
view.
• Beliefs are convictions firmly fixed within a value system.
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• Public opinion expresses beliefs not necessarily based on facts but on perception.
• Insensitivity or unawareness of the interconnectedness of publics is a formula for failure.
• Information and opinion are different. Appreciating that difference means recognising how
understanding and knowledge differ.
(Adapted from Newsom et al 2010, p. 114-116)
REALITY CHECK. Follow the link to a YouTube clip which summarises a recent conference about the
future of Public Relations.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8pKQCoG5VI
12.8 APPLYING KEY THEMES TO COMMUNICATION
• Cultural Ethos. Communication strategies and public relations strategies must work
together to protect and grow the cultural ethos of an organisation. In this ever-changing
environment it is only safe to assume that this cultural ethos is evolving and changing
continuously.
• Symbols, Stories, Heroes, Slogans, Ceremonies. It is the role of communication
strategies, techniques and processes to identify emerging symbols, stories, heroes and
slogans and, most often, it is the role of PR to use these elements. There is a balance and
relationship there that must be measured to protect the work culture and public face of the
organisations. It must remain ‘real’.
• Adaptive Management Behaviours and Cultural Leadership. Both communication and
PR are at the cutting edge of adaptive management. They are both required to actively
listen, respond and be inclusive of all their stakeholders and publics.
MORE THOUGHTS
Communication practice and public relations practice are bonded yet different. Communication
observes what is, and public relations take what is and spin it to meet the perceptions, attitudes and
behaviours of priority publics. A good public relations practitioner is neither a spin doctor, nor an image
maker. They should never lose sight of the fact that it is the diverse publics who fix on an image of an
organisation rather than some magic they may conjure.
We believe PR should be practiced to serve the public interest, to develop mutual understanding
between organizations and their publics, and to contribute to informed debate on issues in
society. (James E Grunig)
REFERENCES
Chartered Institute of Public Relations (UK). Accessed 3 May 2019.
https://www.cipr.co.uk/content/policy/careers-advice/what-pr
Newsom, D, Turk, J and Kruckeberg, D 2010, This is PR: The Realities of Public Relations, 10th edn,
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, USA.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8pKQCoG5VI
https://www.cipr.co.uk/content/policy/careers-advice/what-pr
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WEEK THIRTEEN: WHERE HAVE WE BEEN?
REQUIRED READING
There are no set readings this week.
There is no set reading for this week, but there is a private independent learning task.
Apart from your reflection task, use your study time this week to hone your final piece of assessment.
Your final report should show you have read and applied the ideas presented in the Study Guide, your
text book and your additional readings. We are looking for evidence that you have been able to draw
together the connections between theory and management communication in the business
environment.
Consider too the work you have completed through your Independent Learning Tasks. These tasks
were set quite deliberately to give you an opportunity to practise some of the skills you will draw on in
producing this final report. We hope they will also be helpful in your work life too.
Use this week to revisit some of the topics we have covered and to consider how the ideas presented
are manifested in your own work environment.
COM21 Management Communication is a second level unit in the Business Communication major that
is part of the Griffith University, Bachelor of Communication degree that was intr oduced in 2012. The
follow on unit for a Communications major with Griffith University is COM31 Organisational
Communication.
If you have enjoyed this unit, please consider COM31 and check the OUA website for other units
available from Griffith University.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING TASK 13
Don’t post this to the Discussion Board. This task is between you and your tutor.
Now we are in week 13, reflect back on your understanding of your own
management communication style and the management communication structure
in the organisation you work in. How has your understanding changed? What did
you learn from this unit that you think will help you become a more effective
manager and communicator? Is there anything you will do differently in your work
life?
If you wish, you may email your response to your tutor.
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130
Some final words about our aims over the past 13 weeks
This unit has introduced you to the study of internal management communication. On a real world level,
we have outlined the sorts of expectations modern businesses have about the pivotal role of a manager
as a communications practitioner within an organisation.
Whether you are an aspiring manager, an administrator or are on the first rungs of the corporate ladder,
much of the information contained in this course will help you be a better communicator.
Over the past 13 weeks we have:
• investigated the symbiotic relationships between leadership and management
communication both on a theoretical as well as in a practical sense.
• considered concepts such as management ethics and decision making; the evolution
towards becoming a learning organisation and perspectives and recent trends for
sustainable development; strategic conversations, building workplace relationships and
developing and sustaining effective networks
• highlighted societal issues like diversity, the glass ceiling and workplace bullying and
harassment, and attitudes towards women and minorities.
• discussed one of the greatest challenge facing managers today – the pace of change.
• defined change related communication and strategies for innovation which are most
likely to be driving the need for change.
• established that management needs to allow for the convergence of planning and
communication especially in the face of change or crisis, and lastly
• introduced basic concepts and principles of public relations theory and terminologies.
COM21 has provided students with an overview of the general principles and practice of management
communication in these times of turbulent market forces, globalisation and continuous change.
Thank you for studying COM21 Management Communication with us this study period.
We hope you have enjoyed this unit and we welcome your feedback via email to Dr Elizabeth Burrows,
e.burrows@griffith.edu.au. We encourage you to complete our evaluation questions on the
Discussion Board in the Learning@Griffith site for COM21. Only through your feedback can we
understand your learning experience throughout this unit. Your input helps us to improve the learning
experience for those who follow you.
OR
We hope you have enjoyed this unit and we welcome your feedback. We encourage you to complete
our evaluation questions posted over the last two weeks on the Discussion Board in the
Learning@Griffith site for COM21. Only through your feedback can we understand your learning
experience throughout this unit. Your input helps us to improve the learning experience for those who
follow you.
mailto:e.burrows@griffith.edu.au