Hello, I’m looking for someone who has background knowledge in Biology/ Human Anatomy.
Identify the muscle used to bring the thigh in this position.
Identify three muscles used to bring the leg in this position
Identify the muscle used to bring the eye in this position.
What muscle is responsible for bringing the mouth in this position?
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2
3
4
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
What is the insertion of #6?
What is the origin of #6?
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6
Identify the muscle 7a. What is the action 7b. Identify one antagonist
Identify the muscle 8a. What is the action 8b. Identify one synergist
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9
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
13. Identify the muscle
What is the action if one origin contracts?
What is the action of both origins contract?
Identify one synergist
Identify one antagonist
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13
Identify the muscle
Identify one antagonist
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify one antagonist
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14
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify three synergists.
Identify one antagonist
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify the muscle
What is the action?
Identify one antagonist.
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22. Identify the structure
Why is it ruffled?
Identify the structure
Identify the structure
What is the function?
Identify the structure
What is the function?
Identify the muscle used to bring the hand in this position.
Identify the muscle used to bring the hand in this position
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Identify the muscle
Identify the muscle
Identify the muscle
Name 3 antagonists
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Identify two muscles used to bring the foot in this position
Identify one antagonist
Somatic vs. Autonomic
Voluntary
Skeletal muscle
Single efferent neuron
Axon terminals release acetylcholine
Always excitatory
Controlled by the cerebrum
Involuntary
Smooth, cardiac muscle; glands
Multiple efferent neurons
Axon terminals release acetylcholine or norepinephrine
Can be excitatory or inhibitory
Controlled by the homeostatic centers in the brain – pons, hypothalamus, medulla oblongata
ANS Versus Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
The ANS differs from the SNS in the following three areas
Effectors
Efferent pathways
Target organ responses
Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System
Both have motor fibers
Differ in:
Effectors
Efferent pathways
ANS
Preganglionic neuron
Ganglion
Postganglionic neuron
Target organ responses to neurotransmitters
*
Efferent Pathways
Heavily myelinated axons of the somatic motor neurons extend from the CNS to the effector
Axons of the ANS are a two-neuron chain
The preganglionic (first) neuron has a lightly myelinated axon
The ganglionic (second) neuron extends to an effector organ
Neurotransmitter Effects
All somatic motor neurons release Acetylcholine (ACh), which has an excitatory effect
In the ANS:
Preganglionic fibers release ACh
Postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine or ACh and the effect is either stimulatory or inhibitory
ANS effect on the target organ is dependent upon the neurotransmitter released and the receptor type of the effector
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Systems
Figure 14.2
ANS Architecture
Both ANS divisions share the same general structure.
Autonomic pathways always consist of 2 neurons in series.
They synapse in an autonomic ganglion – would this be inside or outside the CNS?
The 1st neuron in the autonomic pathway is the preganglionic neuron,
Cell body in CNS, myelinated, and projects to the autonomic ganglion.
While the 2nd neuron is the postganglionic neuron.
Cell body in autonomic ganglion, unmyelinated, and projects to the effector.
ANS Divisions & Dual Innervation
*
Exceptions To Dual Innervation
Adrenal medulla
Sweat glands
Arrector pili
Kidneys
Most blood vessels
*
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Regulates (examples)
Glands
Blood glucose
Body temperature
Osmotic balance
Cardiac muscle
Heart rate
Blood pressure
Smooth muscle
Digestion
Waste disposal
Breathing
Lecture 4
Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Central components:
hypothalamus
brain stem
spinal cord
Peripheral components
sympathetic nerves
parasympathetic nerves
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The ANS consists of motor neurons that:
Innervate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
Make adjustments to ensure optimal support for body activities
Operate via subconscious control
Have viscera as most of their effectors
ANS Anatomy
Distinctions between divisions
Unique origin site
Relative lengths of fibers
Ganglia location
*
Parasympathetic Division
Craniosacral division
Cranial outflow
Sacral outflow
*
Role of the Parasympathetic Division
Concerned with keeping body energy use low
Involves the D activities – digestion, defecation, and diuresis
Its activity is illustrated in a person who relaxes after a meal
Blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates are low
Gastrointestinal tract activity is high
The skin is warm and the pupils are constricted
Sympathetic Nervous System
Thoracolumbar
More complex
*
*
Role of the Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division is the “fight-or-flight” system
Involves E activities – exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
Promotes adjustments during exercise – blood flow to organs is reduced, flow to muscles is increased
Its activity is illustrated by a person who is threatened
Heart rate increases, and breathing is rapid and deep
The skin is cold and sweaty, and the pupils dilate
Lecture 4
*
A dynamic balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity maintains homeostasis in the body.
The sympathetic division helps us during fight or flight situations, while the parasympathetic division helps us during times of rest and calm
Antagonistic Control
Most internal organs are innervated by both branches of the ANS which exhibit antagonistic control.
A great example is heart rate. An increase in sympathetic stimulation causes HR to increase whereas an increase in parasympathetic stimulation causes HR to decrease.
Sympathetic Outflow
Arises from spinal cord segments T1 through L2
Sympathetic neurons produce the lateral horns of the spinal cord
Preganglionic fibers pass through the white rami communicantes and synapse in the chain (paravertebral) ganglia
Fibers from T5-L2 form splanchnic nerves and synapse with collateral ganglia
Postganglionic fibers innervate the numerous organs of the body
2.bin
Sympathetic Trunks and Pathways
The paravertebral ganglia form part of the sympathetic trunk or chain
Typically there are 23 ganglia – 3 cervical, 11 thoracic, 4 lumbar, 4 sacral, and 1 coccygeal
Sympathetic Chain Ganglia
Each paravertebral ganglion is connected to spinal nerves by 2 branches
White communicating ramus
Grey communicating ramus
Flow in 3 different ways
*
Sympathetic Trunks and Pathways
A preganglionic fiber follows one of three pathways upon entering the paravertebral ganglia
Synapse with the ganglionic neuron within the same ganglion
Ascend or descend the sympathetic chain to synapse in another chain ganglion
Pass through the chain ganglion and emerge without synapsing
Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE) are the two major neurotransmitters of the ANS
ACh is released by all preganglionic axons and all parasympathetic postganglionic axons
Cholinergic fibers – ACh-releasing fibers
Adrenergic fibers – sympathetic postganglionic axons that release NE
Neurotransmitter effects can be excitatory or inhibitory depending upon the receptor type
Cholinergic Receptors
The two types of receptors that bind ACh are nicotinic and muscarinic
These are named after drugs that bind to them and mimic ACh effects
Nicotinic Receptors
Nicotinic receptors are found on:
Motor end plates (somatic targets)
All ganglionic neurons of both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
The hormone-producing cells of the adrenal medulla
The effect of ACh binding to nicotinic receptors is always stimulatory
Muscarinic Receptors
Muscarinic receptors occur on all effector cells stimulated by postganglionic cholinergic fibers
The effect of ACh binding:
Can be either inhibitory or excitatory
Depends on the receptor type of the target organ
Adrenergic Receptors
The two types of adrenergic receptors are alpha and beta
Each type has two or three subclasses
(1, 2, 1, 2 , 3)
Effects of NE binding to:
receptors is generally stimulatory
receptors is generally inhibitory
A notable exception – NE binding to 1 receptors of the heart is stimulatory whereas binding to B2 receptor on the bronchioles is inhibitory
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic
Receptor/NT Differences: Symp . Parasymp.
NT at Target Synapse Norepinephrine
(adrenergic neurons) Acetylcholine
(cholinergic neurons)
Type of NT Receptors at Target Synapse Alpha and Beta
( and ) Muscarinic
NT at Ganglion Acetylcholine Acetylcholine
Receptor at Ganglion Nicotinic Nicotinic
Local vs. Diffuse Effects
The parasympathetic division has more localized effects for two reasons:
ACH is quickly destroyed by acetylcholinesterase
Parasympathetic preganglionic axons synapse with few ganglionic neurons
The sympathetic effects are more diffuse:
NE is taken back up by the preganglionic neuron
Sympathetic preganglionic neurons synapse with many ganglionic neurons
*
Duration/Location of Parasympathetic Effects
Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons synapse on only a few postganglionic neurons.
Would you expect parasympathetic activity to be widespread or local?
All parasympathetic fibers release ACh.
ACh is quickly broken down by what enzyme?
What can you say about the duration of parasympathetic effects?
Why Is Sympathetic Activity Diffuse?
Preganglionic fibers have their somata in the lateral horns of the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord.
Preganglionic fibers leave the cord via the ventral root and enter a white ramus communicans to enter a chain ganglion – which is part of the sympathetic trunk.
Prolonged by stimulation of ADRENAL MEDULLA
How Does the Brain Control the ANS?
The hypothalamus is the Boss:
Its anterior and medial regions direct parasympathetic function while its posterior and lateral regions direct sympathetic function
These centers exert control directly and via nuclei in the reticular formation (e.g., the cardiovascular centers in the MO, respiratory centers in MO and pons, etc.)
The connection of the limbic system to the hypothalamus mediates our “flight or flight” response to emotional situations.
The relationship btwn the hypothalamus and the amygdala and periaquaductal gray matter allow us to respond to fear (emotion).
REGULATION OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMUS
Major control and integration center
Receives input on
Smell, taste
Temperature
Chemical composition
of blood
Visceral changes
Emotions
Sends commands through
Medulla and spinal cord
Lecture 4
*
The hypothalamus is a critical site of much of autonomic control*Nuclei in centers here control the activities of the autonomic nervous system, and also the pituitary gland
Study guide for A & P 1 –Exam 4.
The names of the fiber tract that arise from the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus).
The layers of meninges in the brain compared to that in the spinal cord. Also the names and composition of the spaces between the meninges.
The production of cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) in the ventricles, its rate of production per day, its pathway of flow within the brain, its circulation within and around the brain, and how it is able to get back into the blood circulation through the superior sagittal sinus.Composition of CSF.
Structures in the brain associated with memory.Also the categories of memory.
Anatomy of autonomic nervous system (ANS), including the names and location of the ganglia. Know also the characteristic of ANS (Sympathetic and parasympathetic).Know the distribution of the ANS to the effectors. Know the differences between paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia of sympathetic division of ANS .Know what form the splanchnic nerve in the sympathetic division.Also know which brach of ANS is ‘resting and digestion’.Major route of parasympathetic outflow to the body.
Know the comparison between autonomic and somatic nervous system.
Know the center in the brain that controls/regulates wakefulness.
Effects of binding of acetylcholine(ACH) to nicotinic receptor. Also the locations of nicotinic, muscarinic receptors.
The meaning of dual innervation and the exception to dual innervation.Also the unique characteristic of adrenal medulla (How it is different from other ANS effectors).
The components of blood-brain barrier and how it is different from what operate in other body tissues.Also know some chemical that the blood brain barrier is not effective against.
The parts of the cerebral cortex that is involved in speech production, understanding speech, sight (seeing), hearing and recognizing an object. Also the functional area of the cortex that control cognition.Know the general function/role of cerebral cortex.
Damage to what part of the brain result in Parkinsonism.
The functions of hypothalamus.The effects of damage to the hypothalamus.
The meaning of cerebral activities being contralateral.
Effects of a cut/severe to the vagus nerve, especially on the heart.
Locations of dural septa (falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli) in the brain
Effects of binding of norepinephrine to beta receptors in the heart and lung.
What linking of new facts with old ones already stored is called
Pathway of fiber communication within and between the cerebral hemispheres.
Pathway of sending sympathetic signals from the brain to the rectum. Also pathway of sending parasympathetic signals from the brain to the urinary bladder.
Effects of sympathetic division of ANS on blood vessels of the skeletal muscles. Also the effects of the sympathetic division of ANS on organs like the stomach, lungs, salivary glands, pupils, and gastric glands.
Effects of disorder of premotor cortex.
The differences between sulci and gyri,and also fissures.
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Muscle Tissue
Highly vascularized
Responsible for most types of movement
Three types
Skeletal muscle tissue
Found in skeletal muscle
Voluntary
Cardiac muscle tissue
Found in walls of heart
Involuntary
Smooth muscle tissue
Mainly in walls of hollow organs other than heart
Involuntary
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Skeletal muscle
Description: Long, cylindrical,
multinucleate cells; obvious
striations.
Function: Voluntary movement;
locomotion; manipulation of the
environment; facial expression;
voluntary control.
Location: In skeletal muscles
attached to bones or occasionally
to skin.
Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle
(approx. 440x). Notice the obvious banding
pattern and the fact that these large cells are
multinucleate.
Striations
Nuclei
Part of
muscle
fiber (cell)
Figure 4.9a Muscle tissues.
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle
Location: Skeleton
Function:
Features
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Cardiac muscle
Description: Branching, striated,
generally uninucleate cells that
interdigitate at specialized
junctions (intercalated discs).
Function: As it contracts, it
propels blood into the circulation;
involuntary control.
Location: The walls of the heart.
Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (900x);
notice the striations, branching of cells, and
the intercalated discs.
Striations
Nucleus
Intercalated
discs
Figure 4.9b Muscle tissues.
Muscle Tissue
Cardiac Muscle
Location: Heart
Function:
Features
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Smooth muscle
Description: Spindle-shaped
cells with central nuclei; no
striations; cells arranged closely
to form sheets.
Function: Propels substances or
objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby)
along internal passageways;
involuntary control.
Location: Mostly in the walls of
hollow organs.
Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth
muscle (720x).
Smooth
muscle
cell
Nuclei
Figure 4.9c Muscle tissues.
Muscle Tissue
Smooth Muscle
Location: Organs and blood vessels
Function:
Features
Neuromuscular Junction
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION STRUCTURES
AXON TERMINAL
End of axon that
contacts the muscle cell
SYNAPTIC
END BULBS
Feet on the end
of the axon terminal
SYNAPTIC VESICLES
Inside end bulbs
Filled with
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Muscle- Terms
Skeletal muscles
Shorten & pull on the bones they are attached to
Muscle Attachment Sites:
Origin
Insertion
Origin & Insertion
Origin
Fixed point where muscles attach to a bone (normally proximal)
Insertion
Moveable point where muscles attach to bone (normally distal)
In some muscles, both attachment points can function as either the origin or insertion
Depends on which end is stabilized by other muscles
Types of Movement
Prime mover (agonist):
Main muscle responsible for a particular movement
What muscle is the prime mover when you flex your arm?
Antagonist:
Works in opposition to prime mover
Relaxes when prime mover contracts
What muscle is an antagonist to the biceps?
Synergist:
Assists prime mover in producing a movement
Types of Movement
Flexion
Makes angle between bones smaller
Extension
Makes angle between two bones larger
Hyperextension
Extension of joint past straight position
Types of Movement
Protraction
Forward movement of jaw or mandible
Retraction
Posterior movement of jaw or mandible
Elevation
Movement upward
Depression
Movement downward
Types of Movement
Abduction
Movement away from midline
Adduction
Movement towards the midline
Rotation
Movement around an axis
Circumduction
Circular movement of a structure where the proximal end remains fixed
Types of Movement
Supination
Palm up or anterior
Pronation
Palm down or posterior
Dorsiflexion
Top of the foot is elevated, toes point upward
Plantar flexion
Bottom of the foot is downward, toes point downward
Muscles that Move the Mandible
Temporalis
O: Temporal bone
I: Coronoid process
What does this muscle do?
Masseter
O: Zygomatic bone& maxilla
I: Mandible ramus
What does this muscle do?
Are these muscles synergists or antagonists?
Muscles of Facial Expression
Orbicularis oris
Closes and puckers lips (kissing)
Orbicularis oculi
Closes eyelid
Epicranius
Muscles of Facial Expression
Zygomaticus minor
Raises upper lip
Zygomaticus major
Draws angle of mouth up (smiling)
Zygomaticus minor
Zygomaticus major
Activity
Locate the mandible and facial muscles on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.
Muscles of the Neck
Platysma
O: Deltoid fascia, pectoralis major
I: Mandible, muscles of mouth
Depresses mandible, pulls lower lip down
Muscles of the Neck
Sternocleidomastoid
O: Sternum & clavicle
I: Mastoid process
Flexes and rotates head
Muscles of the Neck
Splenius capitis
O: Thoracic and cervical vertebra
I: Occipital bone
Extends, laterally flexes and rotates head
Six muscles that insert on the exterior surface of the eyeball
Four rectus muscles
Superior rectus
Inferior rectus
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Two oblique muscles
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique
Extrinsic Muscles
Rectus muscles
Superior rectus
Eyeball movements
Superior
Inferior rectus
Eyeball movements
Inferior
Extrinsic Muscles
Superior rectus
Superior rectus
Inferior rectus
Extrinsic Muscles
Rectus muscles
Lateral rectus
Eyeball movements
Lateral
Medial rectus
Eyeball movements
Medial
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Medial rectus
Two oblique muscles
Superior
Eyeball movements
Inferior, lateral, and medial
Inferior
Eyeball movements
Superior, lateral, and medial
Extrinsic Muscles
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique
Superior oblique
Activity
Locate the muscles of the neck on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.
Muscles that move the Neck and Scapula
Trapezius
O or I: Occipital bone and cervical & thoracic vertebrae
I or O: Scapula & clavicle
Elevates and adducts scapula
Extends neck
Muscles that Move Upper Arm
Latissimus dorsi
O: Thoracic & lumbar vertebrae
I: Humerus
Adducts and extends arm
Muscles that Move Upper Arm
Deltoid
O: Clavicle & scapula
I: Humerus
Abducts the arm
Pectoralis major
O: Clavicle, sternum & ribs
I: Humerus
Adducts, flexes, the arm
Anterior Deep Thoracic Muscles
Pectoralis minor
O :3.4,5 ribs
I or O: Coracoid process of scapula
Elevates ribs
Abducts and rotates Scapula
Serratus anterior
O or I: Scapula
I or O: Ribs
Stabilizes & abducts scapula
Activity
Locate the muscles of the thorax and arms on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.
Muscles that Move Arm
Biceps brachii
O: Coracoid process of Scapula & Edge of glenoid cavity, I: Radius
Flexes the forearm
Brachialis
O: Humerus, I: Ulna
Flexes forearm
How are these muscles related to each other?
Muscles that Move Arm
Brachioradialis
O: Distal humerus, I: Styloid process of the radius
Flexes the forearm
Triceps Brachii
O: Scapula, Humerus, I: Ulna
Long head
Lateral head
Medial head
Extends the forearm
Muscles that Move the Arm
Flexor Group
O (FCR): Medial epicondyle of Humerus
I(FCR): 2nd & 3rd Metacarpals
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexes and adducts hand
Flexor carpi Radialis(FCR)
Flexes and abducts hand
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Repetitive motions cause inflammation and pressure on median nerve
Extensor Group
O: Humerus
I: Metacarpals and phalanges
Extensor Carpi radialis longus.
Extends hand and fingers & abduct the hands
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Extends and adducts hand
Activity
Locate the muscles of the arm on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.
Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
Rectus abdominus
O: Pubic crest, Pubic symphysis
I: 5th -7th ribs, xipyhoid process
Compresses abdomen, flexes vertebral column
Rectus Sheath and Linea alba
External oblique
O: Inferior 8 ribs
I: Iliac crest, Linea alba
Compresses abdomen, flexes and rotates vertebral column
Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
Internal oblique
O: Iliac crest, I: last 3 or 4 ribs
Same as external oblique
Transversus abdominis
O: Iliac crest, I: 12th rib, Lumbar vertebrae
Compresses abdomen
Activity
Locate the Muscles of the Abdomen on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.
Muscles that Move the Thigh
Adductor longus
O: Pubis, I: Femur
Adducts and flexes, rotates thigh
Adductor magnus
O: Pubis, ischial tuberosity, I: Femur
Adducts and flexes, extends rotates thigh
Muscles that Move the Thigh
Gluteus maximus
O: Ilium, sacrum, I: Femur
Extends the thigh
Gluteus medius
O: Ilium(lateral surface) I: Greater trochanter of femur
Abducts the thigh
Muscles that Move the Thigh
Iliopsoas (2 parts)
Iliacus + Psoas major
O: Lumbar vertebrae, Ilium
I: Lesser trochanter of Femur
Flex the thigh
Tensor faciae latae
O: Ilium
I: Tibia
Flexes and abducts thigh
Muscles that Move the Leg
Sartorius
O: Ilium, I: Tibia
Flexes knee laterally rotates thigh
Muscles that Move the Leg
Quadraceps femoris:
Rectus femoris
O: Iliac spine
I: Patella
Extends knee.
Vastus lateralis, medialis, intermedius
O: Femur
I: Tibia, patella
Extends knee
Muscles that Move the Leg
Hamstring muscles:
Semimembranosus (medial)
Semitendinosus (medial)
Biceps femoris (lateral)
O(BF): Ischial tuberosity.linea aspera of femur.
I: Fibula & Tibia
Flex knee .
Activity
Locate the Muscles of the leg on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.
Muscles that Move the Foot
Tibialis anterior
O- Tibia, I-Cuneforms & Metatarsals
Dorsiflexes foot
Muscles of the Calf
Gastrocnemius
O: Medial and lateral condyl of femur
I: Calcaneus
Planter flexes foot.
Soleus
O: Fibula & Tibia
I: Calcaneus
Planter flexes foot
Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
Point of attachment for to calcaneus for soleus and gastrocnemius
54
Tendons & Fascia
Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
Rectus Sheath
Linea alba
Inferior and Lateral View
Gastrocnemius
Activity
Locate the Muscles of the Foot on your models.
Remember to use the WOODEN POINTERS when touching the models, NOT PENS.