Essay
The essay is split into 2 parts section( A) title is critically discuss the benefits and limitations of research approaches used in medical imaging(1500 words) In this section you will need to talk about the importance of research in medical imaging ie( X-RAYS, MRI, Ultrasound and other medical modalities) and talk about how research has helped advance medical imaging you then need to talk about different types of research done using quantitative and qualitative methods ie ( purposive sampling for qulitative methods and randomised sampling for quantitative) you need to use a medical article as in example and use a lot of citations. try to use as much medical examples from articles comparing qualitative and quantive methods and talk about which ones the best method to use. you will need to talk about 1) data collection methods 2) methods of analysis 3) methods of sampling and recruitment part b title is critically discuss the benefits and limitations of audit approach used in medical imaging (1000 words) talk about why audit is relevant to diagnostic radiography practice. How its important to continuing professional development (CPD) how we use audits to improve patients care. use medical articles as examples for these. Talk about the difference between research and and audit. Quantitative
Research
Dr Olan Lawal
Session objectives
Understand the principles of quantitative research and recognise when a
researcher has undertaken a quantitative approach
Identify methodologies associated with quantitative research
Understand the methods of sampling adopted in the quantitative research
approach
Appreciate the strengths and limitations of quantitative research
2
Task 1
How do you know you are a good student?
3
“… a formal, objective, systematic process in which
numerical data are utilised to obtain information
about the world”
What is
quantitative
research?
and
“a research method which is used to describe and
test relationships and to examine cause-and-effect
relationships”.
Burns & Grove (1987)
Burns N, Grove S. (1987) The practice of nursing research. WB Satmders, Philadelphia
4
What does quantitative research look like?
• It is regarded as “the testing of
ideas and hypotheses” using
numerical measures
e.g. ‘how many Xs?’
Study of cause and effect,
differences or magnitude
Associated with experiments and
statistics
Collects data that can be
converted to numbers
or ‘Does A affect B?’
5
What can quantitative
research show us?
• Links between “cause and effect”
• Differences between groups of people or
different practices
• Effectiveness of equipment, practices,
treatments and diagnostic tests
• Changes over time
• Situations at a given point in time
6
Experimental: randomised
controlled trials research design
Quantitative
Research
Methods
Quasi-experimental: Cohort,
case-control research designs
Survey design: cross-sectional
and longitudinal research
designs
7
Hypothesis
• It is a claim that we want to test.
• A hypothesis is a prediction of what we
believe the study will find or is an
empirical statement that can be based on
observation or experience.
• There are two types of hypothesis
oNull hypothesis
oAlternative hypothesis
Hypothesis Examples
• Does the type of examination affect the radiographers’ use of
anatomical side markers?
o Null- The type of examination does not affect the use of anatomical side
markers.
o Alternative- The type of examination does affect the use of anatomical side
markers.
• Does the acute cervical spine request card in the accident and
emergency department adhere to the Royal College of Radiologists
2007 request standard?
o Write down the null and alternative hypotheses.
Variables
• A variable refers to a factor that can be
changed or varied.
• The variables are included in the hypothesis,
• The hypothesis assesses the relationship
between the dependent and independent
variables.
Types of variables
• They are essential components of quantitative research studies.
• There are two main types:
oDependent variables
oIndependent variables
Independent variable
Manipulator
Cause
Intervention
Influencer
Dependent variable
Result
Effect
Consequence
Outcome
• Other types are:
o Extraneous variable
o Demographic variable
o Confounding variable
o Environmental variable
A YouTube
video on
variables
Experimental Designs
The researcher
carefully manipulates
the intervention
(independent variable).
Requires tightly defined
and controlled
conditions (or a natural
occurrence).
It may include a pretest (before
intervention) and posttest (after intervention)
for both groups.
Randomisation is used
to allocate participants
into experiment and
control groups.
Experimental and
control groups are
systematically
investigated under
identical conditions.
13
Randomised Controlled
Trials (RCTs)
• Used to find out if a treatment (or
intervention) is effective or better than
an alternative intervention
• Widely considered to be the gold
standard form of evidence
• Participants are allocated by random
allocation into two or more groups
• Intervention is then given to one group
and not the other (Control group).
• The outcomes of each of the two groups
are then compared
14
Experimental methods
• Strengths:
• Randomisation of people to intervention and
control groups minimises extraneous variables
• Level of control can clarify the cause and effect
• Level of control can limit threats to validity
• In theory, it is the only research that can
identify causal relationships
• Weaknesses:
• Can create artificial situations
• Subject to human error
• Participants can be influenced by the
environment (bias)
• The manipulation of variables is not seen as
completely objective.
15
Quasi-experimental Designs
• The quasi-experimental design differs from the experimental design as
the research participants are not randomly allocated into the
experimental and control group and a placebo is not used.
• It is similar to the experimental design as it focuses on the impact of an
intervention and contains a control group.
• The two types of quasi-experimental designs are case-control and cohort
designs.
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• This identifies or studies the variables
contributing to the different health issues.
• They are retrospective studies comparing a
group with the disease to a group without
it.
• It is a relatively quicker, cheaper and
simpler study design compared with RCTs
and cohort design.
Case-control
studies
17
• Tibussek et al. (2017) assessed the level of
gadolinium deposition in the brain after
repeated contrast administration in children.
• Included 24 children with nine or more contrast
brain MRI scans with contrast and MRI brain
images of 24 children without contrast.
• No correlation was found between the number
of gadolinium contrast examinations and
gadolinium deposition in the brain. However,
the specific type of gadolinium-based contrast
was not provided, and retention in the brain
might be more common with some types of
contrasts.
An example
of a Casecontrol study
Tibussek, D., Rademacher, C., Caspers, J., Turowski, B., Schaper, J., Antoch, G., & Klee, D. (2017). Gadolinium brain deposition after
macrocyclic gadolinium administration: a pediatric case-control study. Radiology, 285(1), 223-230.
18
• A cohort is a large group of people with a
shared characteristic (such as having a
specific disease or characteristic or being
exposed to a hazard)
• • The cohort can be studied “longitudinally”,
over time
• They are usually prospective studies
comparing a group with the disease to a
group without it.
• They are time-consuming, and participants
may drop out of the study.
Cohort
studies
19
• Johnson et al. (2010) compared the clarity of
structured reports with an unstructured
report in patients with clinical suspicion of
stroke.
• Although they might not have used a
reliable scale to measure the clarity of the
reports, the finding suggests that the
structured reports did not improve the
perception of the clarity of the reports.
An example
of a Cohort
study
Johnson, A. J., Chen, M. Y., Zapadka, M. E., Lyders, E. M., & Littenberg, B. (2010). Radiology report clarity: a cohort study of structured
20
reporting compared with conventional dictation. Journal of the American College of Radiology, 7(7), 501-506.
Quasiexperimental
Design
Strengths:
• This is often an inexpensive way to collect data.
• It is helpful when it is unethical to manipulate the
independent variable.
• It examines the ‘real effects’ so there is increased
validity of results in clinical practice.
Weaknesses:
• Sometimes the environment or researcher may bias
the data, for example, when participants know they
are being observed.
• In cohort studies, if the situation to be observed
does not happen, researchers may waste a lot of
time during data collection.
21
Surveys Design
• This is the most popular research design in healthcare.
• It provides information about the attitude, opinions or behaviour of
participants.
• A survey can be taken at a point in time (cross-sectional surveys) or
repeatedly over some time (longitudinal survey).
• A cross-sectional survey design helps the researcher know what might
occur in a population of people at a particular time.
• If the researcher wants to see how the participants’ experience or opinion
changes over time, they use the longitudinal survey design.
22
Features of surveys/questionnaires
Can be online or paper
based
Indicate participants
responses to questions
on a particular topic at
a specific point in time
Useful for looking for
information about
activities or groups of
people (cohort
surveys)
Aims must be clear,
unambiguous and
specific.
Objectives must be
measurable.
The more measurable
the objectives the
easier the analysis
23
Surveys/questionnaires
– considerations
Who are the
target
respondents?
How will you
reach the
respondents?
What will the
questionnaire
content be?
Create a
meaningful order
of questions
How long will the
questionnaire
be?
Type of language
used
24
Strengths
• They are a common, fairly simple way to collect
data.
• They can be a cost-effective option for gathering
data from a large sample.
• Anonymous responses
Surveys/questionnaires
Weaknesses
• Responses may lack depth and provide limited
information.
• Poor response rates
• Limited flexibility
• Recruitment/respondent bias
25
Sampling in Quantitative Research
• Sampling is used in research as it might be too expensive and time-consuming to recruit
the entire population. Therefore, we select a portion of the individuals from the
population to make statistical inferences.
• A sample size calculation is required to determine the number of participants needed to
represent the population.
• The limitation of this is that the sample selected for the study might not entirely
represent the population which could be as a result of a weak selection process known
as sampling bias.
• The types of sampling methods used in qualitative research are
▪ Randomised sampling- simple randomised sampling, systematic randomised
sampling, and clustered randomised sampling.
▪ Non-randomised sampling- this includes convenience sampling, purposive sampling
and snowballing sampling.
26
Randomised sampling method
Benefits
• The sample is more likely to represent the population; therefore, it reduces sample bias
• Diverse populations are adequately represented in the research.
• It is used to acquire high-quality evidence.
Limitations
• It can be time-consuming to plan and manage.
• The researcher might require training on using this sampling technique as an error in use
can be costly.
27
Quantitative
Research
Methods
Strengths
Weaknesses
Findings can be
generalised
Limited exploration of
human issues
Relatively easy to
analyse
Data may not be
sufficient to explain
complex issues
Data can be
consistent, precise
and reliable
May not represent the
target population
28
• Data management tools
• Microsoft Excel
• SPSS
• There are two main types:
• Descriptive analysis- summarizes the
distribution of data.
• Inferential analysis- assesses
statistical significance between
group of data.
Methods of
Analysis
29
• Please watch the video on
quantitative data analysis before
you attempt the exercise on
Canvas.
Further
explanation
on
quantitative
data analysis
30
Questions?
31
Further Reading
• Bowling, A. (2014). Research Methods In Health: Investigating Health And
Health Services (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
• Curtis, E., & Drennan, J. (2013). Quantitative Health Research: Issues And
Methods. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Jolley, J. (2020). Introducing Research and Evidence-Based Practice for
Nursing and Healthcare Professionals (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis Group.
• Maltby, J. (2010). Research methods for nursing and healthcare. Pearson
Education.
• Ramlaul, A. (2020). Medical Imaging and Radiotherapy Research (2nd ed.).
Springer.
32
Introduction to Qualitative
Research Approaches
Nicola Cook
18.10.2022
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
What is qualitative research?
Non numerical data
Empirical – originates from observation or experience
Aims to study things in their natural setting – no form of
intervention involved
Beneficial in healthcare service improvement
Ranges from simple data collection to complex, deep and
meaningful insights
Features of qualitative research
It involves naturally occurring data – people in their natural environment
The approach is committed to understanding real world situations as they unfurl
from the point of view of the people who live in these worlds – eg people who
have experienced it (what is it like to travel in an aeroplane – need to have
travelled in an aeroplane)
It is an inductive process – the researcher starts by collecting data and then
looking for patterns / drawing theories from it
It is an iterative process – steps can be repeated, usually with improvements.
The topic can initially be approached broadly and then refined. It is an adaptive
and flexible approach, allowing new elements to be incorporated along the way
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Data collection methods
Interviews – in-depth / semi-structured / group
Observation – participant / direct / indirect
Documents – reports / letters
Questionnaires / surveys
Interviews
In depth, semi-structured, group
Social research data collection method
Used to explore and probe complex issues
Needs some structure
Content needs to be considered closely to ensure logical and useful responses
Weighting towards the interviewee in terms of dialogue
Focus groups are a less structured type of interview – discussing a specific set of
topics
Observation
Preferred method in case studies or action research
Often used to supplement another method, eg questionnaire
Useful when the phenomenon is unfamiliar eg observing individuals living in a
remote and enclosed location
Non verbal behaviour is captured
Participants do not have to do anything, just act as they usually would
Documents, reports, letters
Hospital records, photographs, diaries,
requires repeated review, examination, and interpretation of the data in order
to gain meaning
Can be used in triangulation with other data collection methods, eg interviews or
observations
Questionnaires / surveys
Can be easy to administer eg online
Useful for a wider / larger population
Many types of questionnaires – different structure, styles
Open, closed and semi structured questions
Questions need to be considered carefully
Can have reliability and validity issues
Activity time ☺ In groups of 2s or 3s consider which data collection
method you would use, with reasons, for the following research questions:
‘Exploring the confidence of third
year radiography students on the
selection and manipulating of
exposure factors in a variety of
settings.’
‘Factors influencing paediatric
distress in the x-ray department’
‘Radiography students’ attitudes and
perceptions of the elderly’
‘Investigating anxiety following an
abnormal mammogram’
Data collection methods
Interviews – in-depth / semi-structured / group
Observation – participant / direct / indirect
Documents – reports / letters
Questionnaires / surveys
Sampling in qualitative research
Aim is to generate a sample which allows understanding of the topic of interest
Techniques – purposeful / snowballing / convenience
Looking for those who have enough knowledge to answer the question
Snowballing – through a network of people who have that knowledge about what
I want
Those readily available
Sample size not fixed – but enough to answer the question, until new themes and
categories stop emerging
Depends on time and resources
Until saturation reached
Data analysis methods
Intensive in qualitative research compared to quantitative research
Thematic analysis
Content analysis
Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software
Activity ☺☺
On a post it note, write down 1 phrase or word to answer the following question
What was the best part of your weekend?
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Qualitative research approaches
Phenomenological
Ethnographic
Grounded theory
Historical
Case study
Action research
Phenomenological
This research approach focuses on the lived experiences, beliefs and perceptions
of the participants
If I want to learn about what it is like to be a radiographer then I study
radiographers, interview them, have focus groups, I see and hear what they do
and make an understanding from this
For example, exploring the lived experiences of women undergoing breast
biopsy or the lived experiences of family members waiting for a loved one
undergoing major surgery
One of the most commonly used methodologies in qualitative research
Ethnographic
Grounded theory
Research on a group of people and
their behaviours and social
interactions within their own, native
environment
The generation of theory which is
‘grounded’ in data that has been
systematically collected and
analysed.
Finding out what goes on in social
and cultural groups
An example would be investigating
student radiographers perception of
dose creep – students are already
aware of the concept of dose creep
– the data is collected based on this
assumed knowledge – the theory
Anthropology and sociology based
An example would be observing
medical personnel in a busy hospital
setting – the medical personnel are
the group
Historical
Case study
Used to describe past events and
developments in order to better
understand the present and
anticipate potential effects on the
future
Detailed study of a specific subject
in its real world context
An example would be ‘what caused
an outbreak of polio in the past
that may contribute to the
outbreaks of today?’
Detailed and intensive analysis of a
specific event
Relies on multiple data sources for
evidence
An example would be a refugee
group resulting from a political
conflict – the group is the case
Action research
Action research is widely used in healthcare to investigate professional practice
and patients’ experience while simultaneously:
– introducing innovations
– planning, actioning and evaluating new ideas
– seeking to improve patient care
– working collaboratively.
Can be used to address operational problems, eg waiting times in Ultrasound
The research question
Succinct and thought provoking
Provides the researcher with explicit aims and targets to
work towards
Non-specific questions risk losing focus, confusing readers
and have no benefit
Subject / topic – something that the researcher has a
background interest in
Ethical considerations
Autonomy – anonymity, consent, full disclosure, right to
withdraw, confidentiality
Beneficence – ensuring that the results of the study will be
used to make improvements / do good / be beneficial
Non-maleficence – not causing physical or mental harm to
participants
Justice – fairness and equality to all participants
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Strengths of qualitative research
Rich data
Seeks to understand rather than explain
Investigates complex issues
Can include unusual details
Generates new ideas for further research
Weaknesses of qualitative research
Small sample size (relative)
Time consuming data collection and analysis
Subjective – possible bias
Dependent on researcher skills
Findings cannot be generalised – eg cannot compare radiography study with
nursing study
How do we determine quality in
qualitative research studies?
Dependability – can the findings be replicated
Confirmability – can the researcher demonstrate that the views represent the
studied group?
Transferability – can the findings be applied to other settings and groups?
Credibility – is the data true and do they reflect the views of the studied group?
Has the data been interpreted correctly?
Authenticity – can readers understand the feelings and emotions of the study
participants?
Triangulation as a checking method
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Qualitative research terminology
See document on Canvas unit
WRITING WORKSHOP
Olan Lawal & Louise Hadley
Session objectives
• Develop your understanding of the essay titles
• Consider the plan or structure to use for your assignment
• Know what to include the in introduction and summary sections
• Know where to find relevant articles to support the assignment
2
Assignment titles
A. Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of research approaches used in
medical imaging. (1500 words)
B. Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of the audit approach used in
medical imaging. (1000 words)
3
Breaking down the Part A title- the focus of the assignment
• Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of research approaches used in
medical imaging.
• You should cover the advantages and disadvantages of the quantitative and
qualitative research methods.
• The example(s) you include after you have discussed the advantages and
disadvantages of the methods should be in medical imaging.
4
The critical discussion should include the following
•
Data collection methods
•
Methods of analysis
•
Methods of sampling and recruitment
•
Consideration of quality, best practice, and ethics
How you could present this information in your essay.
5
Structing Part A
• Introduction 100 words
• Discussion
o Methods of sampling and recruitment 400 words
▪ Discuss the benefits and limitations of the quantitative and qualitative
methods of sampling.
▪ Include an example of an article in diagnostic radiography that has used
a method of sampling you have discussed.
o Data collection methods 500 words
▪ Same format as above
o Methods of analysis 400 words
▪ Same format as above
• Summary 100 words
6
An example text
The benefits and limitations of purposive sampling used in the qualitative approach Vs
randomised sampling used in the quantitative research approach could be discussed.
Ref A conducted a quantitative study on the effectiveness of mild sedation in helping
claustrophobic patients complete their magnetic resonance imaging examinations. The
authors have randomly allocated participants in the intervention and control groups,
thus reducing the risk of selection bias in the study (Ref B). However, the study reported
a single-blinding technique was used to assign the participant to the group that received
the mild sedation and the group that had the placebo. They could have used a doubleblinding method instead, as there is a tendency that the participants might sense which
group they were assigned to from the actions of the researcher (Ref C). Consequently,
the participants might start behaving in the way they feel would be appropriate, which
might affect the study’s outcome. Studies that use the quantitative approach should
endeavour to use a rigorous research process to improve the credibility of their findings.
7
Another example
Interviews can be a good way to gain understanding of individual patient
experiences (Ref A). As ref B argues, they can capture detail and nuances by
recording the experiences in the participants own voice, and allowing
clarification of points made, through follow up questions. For example, in the
research by X, interviews allowed the researchers to fully appreciate …. . This
insight, led the researchers to be able to … It seems unlikely this understanding
could have been captured, had a quantitative data collection method been
used. However, there are criticisms of interviews ….. (ref C)
Whatever your structure – ensure you:
• Logically progress the argument
• Avoid jumping from one topic to the
other
• Use sub-headings to guide the
reader
• Avoid repetition
Adapted from Essay Writing: The Basics, University of New South Wales
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/essay3.html
Breaking down the Part B title
• Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of the audit approach used in
medical imaging.
• Your discussion should cover the advantages and disadvantages of the audit
approach in comparison with the research approach used in medical imaging.
• The example(s) you include after you have discussed the advantages and
disadvantages of the methods should be in medical imaging.
10
Structing writing Part B
• Introduction 100 words
• Discussion
o Methods of sampling and recruitment 300 words
▪ Discuss the benefits and limitations of the sampling method audit
approach in comparison with research approach.
▪ Include an example of an article in diagnostic radiography that has used
a method of sampling you have discussed.
o Data collection methods 300 words
o Methods of analysis 200 words
• Summary 100 words
11
Introduction section
• Defines the main issues- Why is research/audit relevant to diagnostic radiography
practice? The professional regulatory body recommendation regarding continuing
professional development (CPD). How do radiographers use the knowledge of the
benefits and limitations of research/audit to improve practice or patients’
experience? Etc.
• State the purpose or aims of the essay concisely
• Prepares the reader ☺
• References appropriate and recent literature.
Body section
• This is where most of the marks will come from
• Will need to demonstrate knowledge and understanding in relation to the
learning outcomes of the module
• It should be structured to aid the flow
• Should demonstrate critical thinking
• Your essay plan will decide what will be discussed in which order …
Summary/conclusion section
A good summary:
• This should summarise the key
information from the body/discussion of
the essay. No new information should be
introduced in this section, so you do not
require citations to support the
information.
• Pick up on the theme given in the
introduction – reflect on this in light of
the discussion given in the body section –
have you achieved the aim set?
• Suggest wider implications if appropriate.
Paragraphs – good practice
• Aims for 5-8 sentences
• Topic sentence (first sentence) sets the scene for the paragraph stating the main idea/
argument of that paragraph.
• Within the paragraph
o Present your viewpoints and/or statements clearly
o Add a definition or explanation of any new terms used in the statements
o Then critically analyse the idea giving a short but succinct breakdown of the positives
and negatives of that point – this will come from your reading of the topic area.
o Then add evidence, i.e. assertions or statistics from literature sources, to justify that
idea.
o Reference the assertions used according to the HSK referencing guidelines.
Paragraphs – good practice
cont.
• All ideas are internally cohesive but externally different
• Paragraphs must be linked like a proverbial thread that is woven from one
paragraph to another. This gives your writing cohesion and flow…think of a river.
This is what your marker likes to read = good marks!
Paragraph structure – consider use of PEEL
Point – start with clear topic sentence
Evidence– support point with evidence or examples. For example, facts,
research findings or paraphrase from credible authority or text book.
Explain – show understating by explaining in more detail how and why the
evidence supports point. Your explanation should interpret the evidence for the
reader.
Link- link to initial point – reinforcing it or link to next paragraph – connects the
paragraph to the rest of the essay and allows paragraph to feel finished
Note: there are other structure aids out there, you may use, but they all need a topic sentence and focus!
For example
Ref A conducted a quantitative study on the effectiveness of mild sedation in helping
claustrophobic patients complete their magnetic resonance imaging examinations.
The authors have randomly allocated participants in the intervention and control
groups, thus reducing the risk of selection bias in the study (Ref B). However, the
study reported a single-blinding technique was used to assign the participant to the
group that received the mild sedation and the group that had the placebo. They could
have used a double-blinding method instead, as there is a tendency that the
participants might sense which group they were assigned to from the actions of the
researcher (Ref C). Consequently, the participants might start behaving in the way
they feel would be appropriate, which might affect the study’s outcome. Studies that
use the quantitative approach should endeavour to use a rigorous research process to
improve the reproducibility of their findings.
18
Source of evidence
• Books
• Methodology-based articles- examples Twycross & Shorten (2014); Raskind et al. (2019)
• Diagnostic radiography-based articles for your examples. The three most popular journals in
radiography
1.
Radiography Journal
2.
Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Science
3.
Journal of Medical Radiation Science
• It would be best if you aimed to have 1% of the total word count of your assignment for your
number of references. This means that in a 2,500 words essay, you should include about 25
references.
19
Other Information
• Be written in an acceptable academic style, which is clear and concise
• Use appropriate academic language
• Be structured logically
• Be word processed and 1.5 line spacing using a standard font size of 11 or 12
and acceptable font (Arial or Calibri).
20
Common Errors to Avoid in your Essay
• Avoid long sentences. You should consider breaking it into two sentences if it
is over three rows.
• Define all abbreviations when they are first used in the assignments.
• Avoid using direct quotes – paraphrase information and cite the source.
• Ensure you adhere to the School of Health and Social Work Referencing
Guidelines.
• Use relevant citations to support your arguments and ensure you include all
the article cited in your work in the reference list.
21
Common Errors to Avoid in your Essay
• Use subheadings to structure the discussion.
• Proofread your essay to identify grammatical or spelling errors.
• Do not use contractions. Examples- aren’t, can’t, don’t, couldn’t, wasn’t,
didn’t, etc.
• Check that your discussions/arguments are correct. Do not mistakenly write
qualitative when you mean quantitative.
• Write in the third person- e.g. he, she, him, her, himself, herself, it, they,
them, their, themselves.
Do not use first and second-person pronouns. e.g. I, we, us, our, me, my, mine, myself, you,
your, yourself.
22
Example of
critical
writing
On canvas – academic skills advice site, there are
examples of writing at different levels http://academicskills.health.herts.ac.uk/academic-writingexplained/
Excerpt from level 5 writing http://academicskills.health.herts.ac.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2018/11/Example-of-level-5writing-4.pdf
Reference list
Raskind, I. G., Shelton, R. C., Comeau, D. L., Cooper, H. L., Griffith, D. M., &
Kegler, M. C. (2019). A review of qualitative data analysis practices in health
education and health behavior research. Health Education & Behavior, 46(1),
32-39.
Twycross, A., & Shorten, A. (2014). Service evaluation, audit and research: what
is the difference?. Evidence-based nursing, 17(3), 65-66.
24
Critically Discuss the Benefits and Limitations of Research Approaches Used in Medical
Imaging
Introduction
Research plays a vital role in the advancement of various modalities in medical
imaging.
It provides evidence useful when changing practice and it is therefore a key aspect of CPD.
HCPC has set a standard that dictates that radiographers require to be in constant engagement
in evidence-based practice and should be in a position to evaluate research. With this,
radiographers can keep up with the advancements that come about in practice, proving that
research is vital in ensuring that the best patient care is delivered. The medical field has
experienced changes which demand high-quality research. When medics prioritize research
in medical imaging, patient care and satisfaction improve, training for healthcare professions
is enhanced and the use of radiation improves in terms of quality and safety.