Briefly describe the urban land use patterns predicted by the concentric zone, sector, multiple-nuclei, and peripheral models of urban development. Which one, if any, best corresponds to the growth and land use pattern of the community most familiar to you?
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Introduction to
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Mark Bjelland, David Kaplan,
Jon Malinowski, Arthur Getis
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An Urban World
Chapter 11
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
Overview
• An Urbanizing World.
• Origins and Evolution of
Cities.
Cairo, Egypt
• Functions of Cities.
• Systems of Cities.
• Inside the City.
• Global Urban Diversity.
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3
An Urbanizing World
Rapid growth of cities
• 1800: 3% of world’s population lived in cities.
• 1900: 13 cities with 1 million or more population.
• Now: more than 56% of world’s people live in cities.
2020 – 579 cities with 1 million or more
Industrialization fosters urbanization
• The most industrialized regions are the most urbanized.
Urbanization in developing countries only partly due to
industrialization
People from rural areas seeking a better life.
• Economic system often unable to support rapid urban growth.
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Trends in World Urbanization
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Metropolitan Areas of 5 Million or More in
2020
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UN Population Division
6
Estimated Urban Share of Total Population
for Selected Regions
Table 11.2 Estimated Urban Share of Total Population for Selected
Regions, 1950, 2000, 2020 with Projections to 2050
Region
1950
2000
2020
2050
North America
64
79
83
89
Latin America and the
Caribbean
41
76
81
87
Europe
51
71
75
82
Oceania
62
68
68
73
Asia
18
38
51
64
Africa
14
35
43
58
World
29
47
56
67
Source: UN Population Division.
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Origins and Evolution of Cities
1
Origins of towns lie in several factors:
• Existence of a settled community.
• A concentration of people.
• Groups not directly engaged in agriculture.
• Existence and governance of an elite group.
These factors are the basis for urban settlement and the
underpinnings of civilization
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Origins and Evolution of Cities
2
Requisites for urban development in the ancient world
Agricultural surplus.
• Food provided by hinterland surrounding the city.
Social organization and power.
Defensible location.
Development of a more complex economy.
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Origins and Evolution of Cities:
Defining the City Today
1
U.S. Census Bureau definition of urban places
• 2500 or more inhabitants.
City and town
Multifunctional nucleated settlements.
• Central business district, both residential and nonresidential
land uses.
Towns are smaller, less functional complexity.
Suburb
• Functionally specialized segment of a large urban area outside
the central city.
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Origins and Evolution of Cities:
Defining the City Today
2
Central city
• Part of the urban area contained within the suburban ring,
it usually has official boundaries.
Urbanized area
• Continuously built-up landscape defined by building and
population densities with no reference to political
boundaries.
Metropolitan area
• Large-scale functional entity discontinuously built-up but
operating as an economic whole.
• May contain multiple urbanized areas.
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Origins and Evolution of Cities:
Location of Urban Settlements
Site
Latitude and longitude or physical characteristics.
Classification of cities according to site characteristics:
• Break-of-bulk locations.
• Head-of-navigation/bay head.
• Railheads.
Situation
In relation to the physical and cultural characteristics of
surrounding areas.
• Raw materials, market areas, agricultural regions, mountains,
oceans, etc.
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Site and Situation of Philadelphia
The fall line
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The Situation of Chicago
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b: © Christian B. Valle/Moment Open/Getty Images RF
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Functions of Cities
1
Urban settlements exist for the efficient performance of
three main functions:
• Central place functions.
• Transport functions.
• Special functions.
All towns provide the first two functions, but not
necessarily the third.
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Functions of Cities
2
Cities as central markets
Central Place Theory – Walter Christaller.
• Developed to explain the size and
distribution of settlements based on
their roles as marketplaces .
Urban influence zones.
• Areas outside a city that are affected
by it.
• Usually proportional to size of city.
• Urban influence is affected by
distance decay.
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Functions of Cities
3
Cities as centers of production and services
Urban growth, particularly in the last 200 years, has been
tied to the development of industries.
Growth of cities may be self-generating – “circular and
cumulative” due to attraction of service activities.
Just as settlements grow in size and complexity, so do they
decline.
• When demand for goods and services of an urban unit fall,
fewer workers are needed and thus both the basic and nonbasic
components of a settlement system are affected.
• However, resistance to decline impedes process and delays its
impact.
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Functions of Cities: The Economic
Base
1
Activities people do to support the urban population
Basic sector.
• Bring money in from outside the community.
Nonbasic sector.
• Supply residents with goods and services.
Multiplier Effect.
• Increase in Basic sector employment leads to increase in
Nonbasic sector employment.
• Size of effect determined by basic/nonbasic ratio
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Functions of Cities
4
Cities as centers of administration and institutions
Size of government sector of employment usually
proportional to population size.
Exceptions:
• State capitals.
• Cities with large public universities.
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Systems of Cities
1
Cities today are interdependent
Urban hierarchy
• Ranking based on size and functional complexity.
• Structured like a pyramid.
• All centers at all levels in the hierarchy constitute an urban system.
Rank-size rule to describe urban system
• nth largest city of a national system of cities will be 1/n the size of
the largest city.
• No national urban system exactly meets this requirement; it is an
approximation.
• Russia and U.S. closely approximate it.
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The Pattern of Metropolitan Growth and
Decline in the United States, 2000 to 2010
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Bjelland, Human Geography 12e, Fig.11.34, p. 375
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A Hierarchy of U.S. Metropolitan Areas
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Based on financial employment data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
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Systems of Cities
2
Primate city
Rank size rule is less applicable to countries with developing
economies and those in which the urban system is
dominated by a primate city.
Much larger and functionally more complex than any other
city in the country.
• For Example, Seoul, Bangkok.
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Systems of Cities
3
World cities
• Stand at top of national systems of cities.
• Interconnected, internationally dominant centers of global
finance and commerce.
• London and New York are the dominant financial world
cities.
• Major secondary cities include: Tokyo, Hong Kong, Paris,
Singapore, Shanghai, Chicago, Dubai, and Sydney.
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A Classification of World Cities
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Inside the City: Patterns of Land Use
1
Urban areas have distinct physical and cultural
landscapes
Following discussion is based on U.S. cities
Central Business District (CBD)
• Center of an urban unit, where retail stores, offices, and
cultural activities are concentrated.
• High accessibility (mass transit, central roads).
• High land values (high density utilization).
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Inside the City: Patterns of Land Use
2
Outside the CBD
Land value and population density decrease as distance from
the CBD increases.
Two separate but related distance-decay patterns for land
value:
• Sharp drop a short distance from the peak land value
intersection.
• Value then declines less steeply to margins of built-up area.
Population density pattern shows comparable distancedecay arrangement.
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A generalized urban land use pattern
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A Generalized Population Density Curve
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Inside the City: Classic Models of Urban
Form
3
Concentric zone model.
• Developed by Ernest Burgess in 1920s.
• Five zones as a series of rings around a core CBD.
Sector model.
• Developed in 1930s.
• Sectors radiating outward from CBD along transportation
corridors.
Multiple-nuclei model.
• Developed in 1940s.
• Spread from several specialized nodes of growth.
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Three Classic Models of the Internal
Structure of Cities
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Inside the City: Institutional Controls
1
Institutional and governmental controls have strongly influenced
land use arrangements and growth patterns of most cities in the
world
Nonmarket governmental controls on land use
• Land use plans, subdivision regulations, zoning ordinances.
• Building, health, and safety codes.
Goals of nonmarket controls:
• Minimize incompatibilities.
• Appropriate locations for public and private uses.
• Preclude emergence of slums.
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Inside the City: Institutional Controls
2
U.S.
• Zoning ordinances and subdivision regulations have been used
to exclude “undesirable” uses.
Asia
• No zoning in most of Asia.
• Common to have small-scale industrial activities operating in
residential areas.
Europe and Japan
• Common to have a wide variety of building types from various
eras on the same street.
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Inside the City: Social Areas of Cities
1
City residents tend to segregate themselves
• Especially in larger, more complex cities.
• Many groupings fostered by size and value of available
housing.
Groupings according to:
Family status.
• For example, As distance from the city center increases,
the average age of head of household declines or the size
of the family increases or both.
• Concentric-circle patterning.
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Inside the City: Social Areas of Cities
2
Groupings according to:
Social status.
• Determined by income, education, occupation and home
value.
• Housing indicator of social status: people per room.
• Sector model patterning.
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Inside the City: Social Areas of Cities
3
Groupings according to:
Ethnicity.
• For some groups, ethnicity is a
more important residential
location determinant that social
or family status.
• Self-maintained segregation in
ethnic neighborhoods.
• Certain ethnic or racial groups
have been segregated in
nuclear communities.
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The Social Geography of American and
Canadian Urban areas
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Inside the City: Changes in Urban Form
Technological, physical, institutional structure fostered
change in the 20th century
• Automobile. Freed owner from fixed-route public transit.
• 40-hour work-week. Time available for commuting.
• Increased home ownership. Changes in home loan terms
(FHA, VA).
• Interstate highway system. Commuting long distances
became more feasible.
• Vast areas of nonurban land developed
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Inside the City: Suburbanization
Residential development came first, followed by shopping,
then industries and service activities
Populations drawn away from the central core
Suburbs became collectively self-sufficient
Edge cities.
• Large nodes of office and retail activity at the margin of an urban area.
Megalopolis
• Continuous functionally urban corridor from Boston to Washington,
D.C.
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Inside the City: Decline of the Central
City
1
Central city increasingly viewed as congested and relatively
inaccessible
Many jobs and prosperous residents moved from the central
city to the urban periphery, leaving poorer, older, least –
advantaged urbanites behind
• Loss of tax bases = inadequate social services.
• Limited job opportunities.
• Spatial mismatch.
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Inside the City: Decline of the Central
City
2
Government urban renewal programs
• Starting with Housing Act of 1949.
Poverty and homelessness
Cities in the western U.S.
• Rapid growth and sprawling physical expansion.
• Similar inner city problems.
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Population Density, Atlanta, 1980 and 2010
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Inside the City: The Peripheral Model of
Urban Form
5
Models of urban form
Peripheral model.
• Takes into account major changes in urban form since
World War II, especially suburbanization.
• Supplements three earlier models.
• Describes land uses in peripheral belt around a city.
• Circumferential highway outside city center.
• Nodes on the peripheral belt are centers for employment or
services.
New polycentric metropolis.
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The Peripheral Model of Urban Form
1.Central city.
2.Suburban residential area.
3.Circumferential highway.
4.Radial highway.
5.Shopping mall.
6.Industrial district.
7.Office park.
8.Service center.
9.Airport complex.
10. Combined employment and shopping
center.
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Inside the City: Downtown Renewal
and Gentrification
1
Significant economic growth in large urban areas
during 1990s
• Provide first-rate telecommunications and fiber optics
infrastructures and the access to skilled workers,
customers, investors, and research, educational and
cultural institutions needed by the postindustrial economy.
Immigration to U.S. concentrated in gateway cities
between 1980 and 2000
• Revitalization of inner cities.
• Important additions to urban labor force.
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Inside the City: Downtown Renewal
and Gentrification
2
Gentrification
Rehabilitation of housing in deteriorated inner-city areas by
middle- and high-income groups.
• Young professionals and “empty nesters” returning to urban
centers.
• Displacement of low-income populations.
Local, state or federal governments foster revival by
investing in slum clearance, park development, cultural
center construction, sports facilities, etc.
May produce tensions between long-time residents and
newcomers.
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Inside the City: Downtown Renewal
and Gentrification
3
• Fiscal problems due to unrestricted expansion.
• Growth boundaries and “smart growth.”
• The rise of Edge cities.
• The establishment of specialized suburbs; defense-related,
pharmaceuticals, high technology.
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Global Urban Diversity
• Structure, form and functions of cities differ between
regions, reflecting diverse heritages and
economies.
• Models of the U.S. city do not generally apply to
cities in other parts of the world.
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Global Urban Diversity: Western
European Cities
1
Compact, high density
Most residents are apartment dwellers
Distinct historical features
• For example, irregular system of narrow streets from
medieval times.
Pedestrian oriented
Lower skyline
Well-developed public transportation system
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Global Urban Diversity: Western
European Cities
2
Also affected by processes of decentralization
Grouping of industrial developments and workingclass homes in suburban areas outside the city core
• Housing for immigrants.
• Have been neglected and suffer decline.
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Global Urban Diversity: Eastern
European Cities
1
Share traditions and practices of Western European cities
But reflect communist planning principles
• Limit city size.
• Ensure an internal structure of neighborhood equality and selfsufficiency.
• Segregate land uses.
Planned communist city fully achieved none of these objectives,
but by attempting them it has emerged as a distinctive urban form.
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Global Urban Diversity: Eastern
European Cities
2
Planned communist city fully achieved none of these
objectives, but by attempting them it has emerged as a
distinctive urban form (continued)
Compact, high density.
Nearly universal apartment dwelling.
Sharp break between urban and rural land uses.
Largely dependent on public transportation.
Central area for public use.
Microdistricts.
• Uniform apartment blocks housing thousands of people.
• Centrally sited schools, stores, clinics, amenities.
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Global Urban Diversity: Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
1
• Fastest-growing cities and fastest-growing urban
populations are found in the developing world.
• Modern technologies in transportation and public facilities
are sparsely available.
• Structures of cities and cultures of inhabitants are far
different from urban world familiar to North Americans.
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Global Urban Diversity: Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
2
• Backgrounds, histories and current economies and
administrations vary so greatly that it is impossible to
generalize about their internal structure.
• However, some features are common to most of them.
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Global Urban Diversity – Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
3
Colonial and noncolonial antecedents
Many cities established by Europeans as ports or outposts of
administration and exploitation.
Cities with different roles have different physical layouts:
• Religious center.
• Market center.
• Cultural capital.
• Industrial or mining center.
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Global Urban Diversity: Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
4
Urban primacy and rapid growth
Disproportionate population concentrations in national and
regional capitals.
• Primate city dominates urban system.
Many cities have vibrant and modern city center.
Yet, most cities cannot keep pace with growth.
• Lack of access to water, sewage, telephone.
• Traffic and air pollution problems.
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Global Urban Diversity: Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
5
Squatter settlements
Growth of cities spurred by rural-to-urban migration of lowincome residents seeking jobs.
Large numbers of people work in the “informal” sector.
Many new urbanites must live in shantytowns and squatter
settlements on fringes of the city.
• Isolated from sanitary facilities and public utilities.
• Isolated from jobs in city center.
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Slum Dwellers’ Share of Urban Population
Table 11.4 Slum Dwellers’ Share of Urban Population
Region
© McGraw Hill
1990
2000
2014
Sub-Saharan African
70
65
55
South Asia
57
46
31
East Asia
44
37
25
Western Asia
23
21
25
Latin America and Caribbean
34
29
20
North Africa
34
20
11
Oceania
24
24
24
Developing regions
46
39
30
Source: United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2010 and 2015.
59
Global Urban Diversity: Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
6
Squatter settlements (continued)
• Informal housing ignores building codes, zoning
restrictions, property rights and infrastructure standards.
• Threat of disease.
• Danger from landslides, fire and flooding.
• Occupants lack ownership of shelters and land.
• Squatter districts exist around most major cities in Africa,
Asia and Latin America.
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Global Urban Diversity: Rapidly Growing
Cities in the Developing World
7
Planned cities
Some capital cities have relocated outside the core.
• For centrality, more uniform national development .
• Islamabad, Ankara, Brasίlia, Abuja.
Some developing countries have created or are currently
building new cities to draw population away from overgrown
metropolises and/or to house industrial or transport centers.
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