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Logical Fallacies Study Guide
Definition |
Fallacious Example |
Visual/Memory Tool |
Provide a Clear Definition of what the Fallacy is and what it looks like in the context of an argument |
Generate an original example of this fallacy in the context of an argument |
Find or craft a tool that will help you remember this definition and example. This may include a visual or image. |
Fallacies of Pathos |
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Argument to the People: |
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Appeal to Ignorance: |
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Appeal to Popularity-Bandwagon: |
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Appeal to Pity: |
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Red Herring: |
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Fallacies of Ethos |
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Appeal to False Authority: |
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Ad Hominem: |
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Poisoning the Well: |
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Straw Man: |
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Fallacies of Logos |
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Hasty Generalization: |
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Part for the Whole: |
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Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc: |
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Begging the Question-Circular Reasoning: |
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False Dilemma-Either/Or: |
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Slippery Slope: |
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False Analogy: |
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Non-Sequitur: |
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Loaded Label or Definition: |
Week 2: Core Argument Structures
Fallacy Study Guide
Assignment Sheet and Grading Rubric
In order to prepare for the Fallacies Quiz, complete this study guide with original example and memory/visual
tools you will use to prepare. In order to complete this study guide, utilize the weekly assigned readings and
the Informal Fallacies Appendix on pages 397-404. If you are struggling to come up with an original fallacy
example, consult classmates or use online resources. Fill out the Logical Fallacies study guide completely and
turn it into our online classroom. You are not required to cite any outside materials for this assignment. Even if
you are taking images or links from online, for this assignment, I don’t want you to concern yourself with MLA
citation. First and foremost, this is a study guide and personal tool that I want you to use in order to best
prepare for the upcoming Fallacy quiz. I encourage you to draw from course assigned readings, our course
textbook, and use any and all online resources to help you memorize all of the logical fallacies.
Remember: For the Fallacy quiz, you need to be able to 1) define each fallacy, 2) identify and classify
fallacious arguments and 3) generate examples of fallacies.
Step 1: Download the Logical Fallacies Study Guide Template
Step 2: Fill out a definition, fallacy example, and visual or memory tool for each Fallacy type
Step 3: Submit Fallacy Study Guide as a or x to our online classroom
Criteria Below Expectation
(0-9)
Meeting Expectations
(10-17)
Outstanding
(18-25)
Total
Points
Nuts and Bolts
Did student fully complete the fallacy study guide template? Are all 18 Fallacy types
identified and did students provide an original and generative example? Did students
carefully craft a memory or visual tool to help facilitate thoughtful studying?
This Study guide is for your benefit in order to prepare yourself for the summative
Fallacy Quiz. While this assignment is based on completion, points will be awarded
based on the breadth, quality, and completeness of your study guide.
__/ 25
Definition Fallacious Example Visual/Memory Tool
Example: Appeal to False Authority (ethos): This
fallacy happens when you use a popular person,
often a celebrity or star, to support your
argument despite not having any kinds of
expertise/authority.
For example, a celebrity might be a popular
public figure but might not be qualified to sell or
endorse a health product or cultural fad.
Regina George wears
pink on Wednesdays
and only eats carbs so
you should too.
Chapter 2
A Claim with Reasons
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
2.1 Describe the key elements of classical argument.
2.2 Explain the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos.
2.3 Distinguish between issue and information questions and
between
genuine and pseudo-arguments.
2.4 Describe the basic frame of an argument.
In Chapter 1 we explained that argument is best viewed not as a quarrel or as a
pro-con debate, but rather as a conversation of reasonable stakeholders seeking
the best solution to a shared problem or issue. As a conversation of stakehold-
ers, argument is both a process and a product. The rest of Part One provides an
overview of the parts of an argument along with the general principles that make
arguments effective. This chapter focuses on the core of an argument, which is
a structure of claim, reasons, and evidence. The remaining chapters of Part One
cover the same territory with more elaboration and detail.
The Classical Structure of Argument
2.1 Describe the key elements of classical argument.
The core of an argument can best be understood by connecting it to the ancient
pattern of classical argument revealed in the persuasive speeches of ancient Greek
and Roman orators. Formalized by the Roman rhetoricians Cicero and Quintilian,
the parts of the argument speech even had special names: the exordium, in which
the speaker gets the audience’s attention; the narratio, which provides needed
background; the propositio, which is the speaker’s claim or thesis; the partitio,
17
18 Chapter 2
which forecasts the main parts of the speech; the confirmatio, which presents the
speaker’s arguments supporting the claim; the confutatio, which summarizes and
rebuts opposing views; and the peroratio, which concludes the speech by summing
up the argument, calling for action, and leaving a strong, lasting impression. (Of
course, you don’t need to remember these tongue-twisting Latin terms. We cite
them only to assure you that in writing a classical argument, you are joining a
time-honored tradition that links back to the origins of democracy.)
Let’s go over the same territory again using more contemporary terms.
Figure 2.1 provides an organization plan showing the structure of a classical argu-
ment, which typically includes these sections:
• The introduction. Writers of classical argument typically begin by connecting
the audience to the issue by showing how it arises out of a current event or
by using an illustrative story, memorable scene, or startling statistic some-
thing that grabs the audience’s attention. They continue the introduction by
focusing the issue often by stating it directly as a question or by briefly
Figure 2.1 Organ ization p lan for an argument with c lassical structure
Organization Plan for an Argument with a Classical Structure
• Exordium
• Narratio
• Propositio
• Partitio
• Confirmatio
• Confutatio
• Peroratio
Introduction
(one to
several paragraphs)
Presentation of writer· s
position
Summary of opposing
• VIews
Response to opposing
• VIews
Conclusion
• Attention grabber (often a memorable scene)
• Explanation o f issue and needed backgroun d
• Writer’s t hesis (claim)
• Forecasting passage
• Main body of essay
• Presents an d supports each reason in turn
• Each reason is tied to a value or belief h eld
by the audience
• Summary of views differing from writer’s
(sh ould be fair and complete)
• Refutes or concedes to opposing views
• Shows weaknesses in opposing views
• May concede to some strength s
• Brings essay to closure
• Often sums up argument
• Leaves strong last impression
• Often calls for action or relates topic
to a larger context of issues
The Core of an Argument 19
summarizing opposing views and providing needed background and con-
text. They conclude the introduction by p resenting their claim (thesis state-
ment) and forecasting the argument’s structure.
• The presentation of the writer’s position. The presentation of the writer’s own
position is usually the longest part of a classical argument. Here writers
present the reasons and evidence supporting their claims, typically choosing
reasons that tie into their audience’s values, beliefs, and assumptions. Usually
each reason is developed in its own paragraph or sequence of paragraphs.
When a paragraph introduces a new reason, writers state the reason directly
and then support it with evidence or a chain of ideas. Along the way, writers
guide their readers with appropriate transitions.
• The summary and critique of alternative views. When summarizing and
responding to opposing views, writers have several options. If there are
several opposing arguments, writers may summarize all of them together
and then compose a single response, or they may summarize and respond
to each argument in turn. As we explain in Chapter 6, writers may respond
to opposing views either by refuting them or by conceding to their strengths
and shifting to a different field of values.
• The conclusion. Finally, in their conclusion, writers sum up their argument,
often restating the stakes in the argument and calling for some kind of action,
thereby creating a sense of closure and leaving a strong final impression.
In this organization, the body of a classical argument has two major
sections one presenting the writer’s own position and the other summarizing
and responding to alternative views. The organization plan in Figure 2.1, and
the discussion that fo llows, have the writer’s own position coming first, but it is
possible to reverse that order.
For all its strengths, an argument with a classical structure may not always be
your most persuasive strategy. In some cases, you may be more effective by delay-
ing your thesis, by ignoring alternative views altogether, or by showing great sym-
pathy for opposing views (see Chapter 6). In some cases, in fact, it may be better to
abandon argument altogether and simply enter into a empathic conversation w ith
others to bridge the gaps between opposing points of view (see Chapter 10 on col-
laborative rhetoric as an alternative to classical argument). In most cases, however,
the classical structure is a useful p lanning tool. By calling for a thesis statement
and a forecasting statement in the introduction, it helps you see the whole of your
argument in miniature. And by requiring you to summarize and consider oppos-
ing views, the classical structure alerts you to the limits of your position and to
the need for further reasons and evidence. As we w ill show, the classical structure
is particularly persuasive when you address a neutral or undecided audience.
Classical Appeals and
the etorical Triangle
2.2 Explain the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos.
Besides developing a template or structure for an argument, classical rhetori-
cians analyzed the ways that effective speeches persuaded their audiences. They
identified three kinds of persuasive appeals, which they called logos, ethos, and
20 Chapter 2
Figure 2.2 The rhetorical triangle
Message
LOGOS: How can I make the argument
internally consistent and logical?
How can I find the best reasons and
support them with the best evidence?
Audience
PATHOS: How can I make the reader
open to my message? How can I best
appeal to my reader’s values and
interests? How can I engage my
reader emotionally and imaginatively?
Writer or Speaker
ETHOS: How can I present myself
effectively? How can I enhance my
credibility and trustworthiness?
pathos. These appeals can be understood within a rhetorical context illustrated by
a triangle with points labeled message, writer or speaker, and audience (Figure 2.2).
Effective arguments pay attention to all three points on this rhetorical triangle.
As Figure 2.2 shows, each point on the triangle corresponds to one of the
three persuasive appeals:
• Logos (Greek for “word”) focuses attention on the quality of the message-
that is, on the internal consistency and clarity of the argument itself and on
the logic of its reasons and support. The impact of logos on an audience is
referred to as its logical appeal.
• Ethos (Greek for “character”) focuses attention on the writer’s (or speaker’s)
character as it is projected in the message. It refers to the writer’s credibility.
Ethos is often conveyed through the writer’s investment in his or her claim;
through the fairness with which the writer considers alternative views;
through the tone and style of the message; and even through the message’s
professional appearance on paper or screen, including correct grammar, flaw-
less proofreading, and appropriate formats for citations and bibliography. In
some cases, ethos is also a function of the writer’s reputation for honesty and
expertise independent of the message. The impact of ethos on an audience is
referred to as the ethical appeal or appeal from credibility.
• Pathos (Greek for “suffering” or “experience”) focuses attention on the val-
ues and beliefs of the intended audience. It is often associated with emotional
appeal. But pathos appeals more specifically to an audience’s imaginative
sympathies their capacity to feel and see what the writer feels and sees.
Thus, when we turn the abstractions of logical discourse into a tangible and
immediate story, we are making a pathetic appeal. Whereas appeals to logos
The Core of an Argument 21
and ethos can further an audience’s intellectual assent to our claim, appeals to
pathos engage the imagination and feelings, moving th e audience to a deeper
ap preciation of the argument’s significance.
A related rhetorical concept, connected to the appeals of logos, ethos, and
pathos, is that of kairos, from the Greek word for “right time,” “season,” or “opp or-
tunity.” This concept suggests that for an argument to be persuasive, its timing
must be effectively chosen and its tone and structure in right proportion or mea-
sure. You may have had the experience of composing a contentious e-mail and
then hesitating before clicking the “send” button. Is this the right moment to send
this message? Is my audience ready to hear what I’m saying? Would my views be
better received if I waited for a couple of days? If I send this message now, should
I change its tone and content? Kairos refers to this attentiveness to the unfolding
of time. We will return to this concept in Chapter 5, when we consider ethos and
pathos in more depth.
Given this background on the classical appeals, let’s turn now to logos the
logic and structure of arguments.
Issue uestions as
the Origins of Argument
2.3 Distinguish between issue and information questions and between
genuine and pseudo-arguments.
At the heart of any argument is an issue, which we can define as a controver-
sial topic area (such as legalizing marijuana or building a wall between Mexico
and the United States) that gives r ise to differing points of view and conflict-
ing claims. A writer can usually focus an issue by asking an issue question that
invites alternative answers. Within any complex issue for example, the issue of
abortion there are usually a number of separate issue questions: What govern-
mental restrictions should be placed on abortion? Should the federal government
authorize Medicaid payments for abortions? When does a fetus become a human
person? (At conception? At three months? At birth?) What would be the conse-
quences of expanding or limiting a woman’s right to an abortion? (One person
might stress that legalized abortion leads to greater freedom for women. Another
person might respond that it lessens a society’s respect for human life.)
Difference between an Issue Question
and an Infortnation Question
Of course, not all questions are issue questions that can be answered reasonably
in differing ways. Some questions ask for information rather than for arguments.
Rhetoricians have traditionally distinguished between explication, which is writing
that sets out to inform or explain, and argumentation, which sets out to change a
reader’s mind. The fo llowing example illustrates the difference between an issue
question and an information question:
Issue question: Should health insurance policies be required to cover contra-
ceptives? (Reasonable persons can disagree.)
22 Chapter 2
Information question: How does the teenage pregnancy rate in the United
States compare with the rate in Sweden? (Reasonable persons assume that a
“right answer” to this question is available.)
Although the difference between the two kinds of questions may seem simple,
the distinction can become blurry. Suppose we asked “Why is the teenage preg-
nancy rate in Sweden lower than in the United States?” Although this might seem
to be an informative question with a right answer, we can also imagine disagree-
ment. One writer might emphasize Sweden’s practical, secular sex-education
courses, leading to more consistent use of contraceptives among Swedish teenagers.
Another writer might point to the higher use of birth-control pills among teenage
girls in Sweden (partly a result of Sweden’s generous national health program) and
to less reliance on condoms for preventing unwanted pregnancy. Another might
argue that moral decay in the United States or a breakdown of the traditional fam-
ily is responsible for the higher teenage pregnancy rate in the United States. Thus,
what initially looks like a simple information question becomes an issue question.
How to Identify an Issue Question
You can generally tell whether a question is an information question or an issue
question by determining whether your purpose is (1) to explain or teach some-
thing to your audience or (2) to change their minds about something. Often the
same question can be an information question in one context and an issue ques-
tion in another. Let’s look at the following examples:
• How does a diesel engine work? (This is an information question because rea-
sonable people who know about diesel engines will agree on how they work.
This question would be posed by an audience of new learners asking experts
for an explanation.)
• Why is a diesel engine more fuel efficient than a gasoline engine? (This also seems
to be an information question because experts will probably agree on the
answer. Once again, the audience seems to be new learners, perhaps students
in an automotive class.)
• What is the most cost-effective way to produce diesel fuel from crude oil? (This
could be an information question if experts agree and you are addressing new
learners. But if you are addressing engineers and one engineer says process
X is the most cost-effective and another engineer argues for process Y, then
the question is an issue question.)
• Should the present highway tax on diesel fuel be increased? (This is certainly an issue
question. One person says yes; another says no; another offers a compromise.)
For Writing and Discussion
Information Questions Versus Issue Questions
Working as a class or in small groups, decide wh ich of the fo llowing questions are information questions
and wh ich are issue questions. Many of them could be either, depending on the rhetorical context. For those
questions, create hypothetical contexts to show your reasoning.
The Core of an Argument 23
1. What percentage of public schools in the United States are failing?
2. Which causes more t raff ic accidents, d runk driving or texting w hile driving?
3. What is the effect on chi ld ren of playing first-person-shooter video games?
4. What effect w ill the advent of self-d riving cars have on truck drivers?
5. Shou ld people get rid of t heir land lines and have only cell phones?
Difference between a Genuine Argum.ent
and a Fseudo-Argum.ent
Although every argument is sparked by an issue question w ith alternative
answers, not every disp ute over answers constitutes a rational argument. Ratio-
nal arguments require three additional factors: (1) reasonable participants who
operate within the conventions of reasonable behavior; (2) potentially sharable
assumptions that can serve as a starting place or foundation for the argument;
(3) confidence that evidence used in an argument is verifiable. Lacking these con-
ditions, disagreements remain stalled at the level of pseudo-arguments. Let’s look
at each of these conditions in turn.
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY UNREASONABLE BEHAVIOR Reasonable
behavior in argument assumes the possibility of growth and change; disputants
may modify their views as they acknowledge strengths in an alternative view
or weaknesses in their own. Such growth becomes impossible and argument
degenerates to pseudo-argument when disputants are so rigid ly committed to
their positions that they can’t imagine alternative views. Consider the case of the
true believer and the fanatical skeptic.
From one perspective, true believers are admirable persons, guided by
unwavering values and beliefs. True believers stand on solid rock, unwilling to
compromise their principles or bend to the prevailing w inds. But from another
perspective, true believers can seem rigidly fixed, incapable of growth or change.
In Chapter 1, we mentioned that arguers can cling to sacred values either reli-
gious or secular princip les that they consider absolute, inviolable, indisputable.
When true believers from two clashing belief systems each with its own set
of sacred values try to engage in dialogue with each other, a truth-seeking
exchange of views becomes difficult. They talk past each other; dialogue is
replaced by monologue from within isolated silos. Once true believers push
each other’s buttons on global warming, guns, health care, taxes, political cor-
rectness, or some other issue, each disputant resorts to an endless replaying
of the same prepackaged arguments based on absolute principles. Disagreeing
with a true believer is like ordering the surf to quiet down. The only response is
another crashing wave.
In contrast to the true believer, the fanatical skeptic d ismisses the possibility
of ever believing anything. Skeptics often demand proof where no proof is pos-
sible. So what if the sun has risen every day of recorded history? That’s no proof
that it will rise tomorrow. Short of absolute proof, which never exists, fanatical
skeptics accept nothing. In a world where the most we can hope for is increased
audience adherence to our ideas, the skeptic demands an ironclad, logical dem-
onstration of our claim’s rightness.
24 Chapter 2
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF SHARED ASSUMPTIONS As
we have seen, reasonable argument degenerates to pseudo-argument when there
is no possibility for listening, learning, growth, or change. In this section, we
look more closely at a cause of unreasonableness in argument: lack of shared
assumptions.
A lack of shared assumptions necessarily dooms arguments about purely
personal opinions for example, someone’s claim that opera is boring or that
pizza tastes better than nachos. Of course, a pizza-versus-nachos argument
might be possible if the disputants assume a shared criterion about nutrition. For
example, a nutritionist could argue that a vegetable-laden pizza is better than
nachos because pizza provides more balanced nutrients per calorie than nachos
do. But if one of the disputants responds, “Nah, nachos are better than pizza
because nachos taste better,” then he makes a different assumption “My sense
of taste is better than your sense of taste.” This is a wholly personal standard, an
assumption that others are unable to share.
Lack of shared assumptions can also doom arguments when the disputants
have different ideologies, as we saw in the discussion of true believers. Ideology is
an academic word for belief systems or world views. We all have our own ideolo-
gies. We all look at the world through a lens shaped by our life’s experiences. Our
beliefs and values are shaped by our family background, our friends, our culture,
our particular time in history, our race or ethnicity, our gender or sexual orienta-
tion, our social class, our religion, our education, and so forth. Because we tend
to think that our particular lens for looking at the world is natural and universal
rather than specific to ourselves, we must be aware that persons who disagree
with us may not share our deepest assumptions and beliefs.
This lack of shared assumptions is evident in many disputes concerning poli-
tics or religion. For example, consider differences over how to interpret the Bible
within communities identifying as Christian. Some Christian groups choose a
straightforward, literal interpretation of the Bible as God’s inerrant word, some-
times quoting Biblical passages as “proof texts” to support their stand on civic
issues. Others believe the Bible is divinely inspired, meant to lead humans to a
relationship with God, but transmitted through human authors. Other groups
tend to read the Bible metaphorically or mythically, focusing on the paradoxes,
historical contexts, and interpretive complexities of the Bible. Still other Christian
groups read it as an ethical call for social justice. Members of these different
Christian groups may not be able to argue rationally about, say, evolution or
gay marriage because they have very different ways of reading Biblical passages
and invoking the Bible’s authority. Similarly, within other religious traditions,
believers may also differ about the meaning and applicability of their sacred texts
to scientific issues and social problems.
Similar disagreements about assumptions occur in the political arena as well.
Our point is that certain religious or political beliefs or texts cannot be evoked for
evidence or authority when an audience does not assume the belief’s truth or does
not agree on the way that a given text should be read or interpreted.
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF CONFIDENCE IN EVIDENCE
Finally, pseudo-arguments arise when disputants can’t agree about the trustwor-
thiness of particular evidence or about the possibility of trustworthy evidence
existing at all, as if all facts are relative an especially troublesome problem in
The Core of an Argument 25
an era where many have raised concern s about “fake news” and “alternative
facts.” Reasonable arguments must be grounded in evidence that can be verified
and trusted. Sometimes unethical writers invent facts and data to create propa-
ganda, advance a conspiracy theory, or make money from the sale of fake stories.
Scientific fraud has also occasionally occurred wherein scientists have fudged
their data or even made up data to support a claim. Tabloids and fringe news
sites are notorious for spreading fake news, often in their attention-grabbing but
bizarre headlines (“Farmer shoots 23-pound grasshopper”).
For disputants with different ideologies, pseudo-arguments may even occur
w ith issues grounded in science. Liberals may distrust scientific data about the
safety of genetically modified organisms, whereas conservatives may distrust the
scientific data about climate change. Genuine argument can emerge only when all
sides of the dispute agree that any given evidence derives from verifiable facts or
data. We don’t mean that reasonable disputants must use the same facts: Arguers
necessarily and always select and frame their evidence to support their points
(see the discussion of angle of vision in Chapter 4). But no matter what evidence is
chosen, disputants must agree that the evidence is verifiable that it is real news
or evidence, not fake news or evidence.
For Writing and Discussion
Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments
Individual task:
Which of the following questions wil l lead to reasonable arguments, and which wil l lead only to pseudo-
arguments? Explain your reasoning.
1. Are the Star Wars films good science fiction?
2. Is it ethically justifiable to capture dolphins or orca whales and train them for human entertainment?
3. Should cities subsidize professional sports venues?
4. Is this abstract oil painting created by a monkey smearing paint on a canvas a true work of art?
5. Are nose rings and tongue studs attractive?
Group task:
Working in pairs, small groups, or as a class, share your reasoning about these questions with classmates.
Frame of an Argument:
A Claim Supported by Reasons
2.4 Describe the basic frame of an argument.
We said earlier that an argument originates in an issue question, which by defini-
tion is any question that provokes disagreement about the best answer. When you
w rite an argument, your task is to take a position on the issue and to support it
w ith reasons and evidence. The claim of your essay is the position you want your
26 Chapter 2
audience to accept. To put it another way, your claim is your essay’s thesis state-
ment, a one-sentence summary answer to your issue question. Your task, then, is
to make a claim and support it with reasons.
What Is a Reason?
A reason (also called a premise) is a claim used to support another claim. In speaking
or writing, a reason is usually linked to the claim with a connecting word such as
because, since, for, so, thus, consequently, or therefore, indicating that the claim follows
logically from the reason.
Let us take an example of a controversial issue that frequently gets reported
in the news the public debate over keeping large sea mammals such as dol-
phins, porpoises, and orcas (killer whales) in captivity in marine parks where
they entertain large crowds with their performances. This issue has many dimen-
sions, including safety concerns for both the animals and their human trainers,
as well as moral, scientific, legal, and economic concerns. Popular documentary
films have heightened the public’s awareness of the dangers of captivity to both
the animals and the humans who work with them. For example, The Cove (2009)
exposes the gory dolphin hunts in Japan in which fishermen kill dolphins en
masse, capturing some for display in shows around the world. Blackfish (2013) tells
the history of the orca Tilikum, who in 2010 killed his trainer, Dawn Blancheau,
at Sea World in Orlando, Florida. The death of Tilikum in 2017 resparked public
debates about treatment of marine animals in captivity. Recently a flurry of legal
efforts to release the captive orca Lolita back into the wild has also contributed
to the larger battle among advocacy, governmental, scientific, and commercial
groups over the value of marine parks.
In one of our recent classes, students heatedly debated the ethics of capturing
wild dolphins and training them to perform in marine parks. One student cited
his sister’s internship at Sea World San Diego, where she worked on sea mammal
rescue and rehabilitation, one of the marine park’s worthy projects. In response,
another student mentioned the millions of dollars these marine parks make on
their dolphin and orca shows as well as on the stuffed animals, toys, magnets,
T-shirts, and hundreds of other lucrative marine park souvenirs. Here are the
frameworks the class developed for two alternative positions on this public issue:
One View
CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks.
REASON 1: Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from
their natural habitats.
REASON 2: The education these parks claim to offer about marine mammals
is just a series of artificial, exploitive tricks taught through behavior
modification.
REASON 3: These parks are operated by big business with the goal of mak-
ing large profits.
REASON 4: Marine parks encourage artificial breeding programs and cruel
hunts and captures.
REASON 5: Marine parks promote an attitude of human dominance over
animals.
The Core of an Argument 27
Alternative View
CLAIM: The public should continue to enjoy marine parks.
REASON 1: These parks observe accreditation standards for animal welfare,
h ealth, and nutrition.
REASON 2: These marine p arks enable scientists and veterinarians to study
animal behavior in ways not possible w ith field studies in the wild.
REASON 3: These marine parks provide environmental education and
memorable entertainment.
REASON 4: Marine parks use some of their profits to support research,
conservation, and rescue and rehabilitation programs.
REASON 5: In their training of dolphins and orcas, these marine parks
reinforce natural behaviors, exercise the animals’ intelligence, and promote
beneficial bonding with humans.
Formulating a list of reasons in this way breaks your argumentative task
into a series of subtasks. It gives you a frame for building your argument in
parts. In this example, the frame for the argument opposing commercial use of
sea mammals suggests five different lines of reasoning a writer might pursue.
You might use all five reasons or select only two or three, depending on which
reasons would most persuade the intended audience. Each line of reasoning
would be developed in its own separate section of the argument. For example,
you m ight begin one section of your argument w ith the follow ing sentence:
“The public should not support marine parks because they teach dolphins and
orcas clownish tricks and artificial behaviors, which they pass off as ‘education’
about these animals.” You would then provide examples of the tricks that dol-
phins and orcas are taught, explain how these stunts contrast with their natu-
ral behaviors, and offer examples of erroneous facts or information provided
by commercial marine parks. You might also need to support the underlying
assumption that it is good to acquire real knowledge about sea mammals in the
wild. You would then proceed in the same manner for each separate section of
your argument.
To summarize: The frame of an argument consists of the claim (the essay’s
thesis statement), which is supported by one or more reasons, which are in turn
supported by evidence or sequences of further reasons.
For Writing and Discussion
Using Images to Support an Argument
In Chapter 1, we discussed the way that images and photographs can make implicit arguments. This
exercise asks you to consider how images can shape or enhance an argument. Imag ine that your task is
to argue why a nonprofit group in your city should (or should not) offer as a fund- raising prize a trip to Sea-
World in Orlando, Florida; San Antonio, Texas; or San Diego, Cal ifornia. Examine the photographs of orcas in
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 and describe the implicit argument that each photo seems to make about these whales.
How might one or both of these photos be used to support an argument fo r or against the prize t rip to Sea-
World? What reasons for going (or not going) to SeaWorld are implied by each photo? Briefly sketch out you r
argument and explain your choice of t he photograph(s) that support your position.
28 Chapter 2
Figure 2.3 Orca performance at a marine park
Figure 2.4 Orcas breaching
The Core of an Argument 29
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses
Chances are that when you were a child, the word because contained magical
explanatory powers. (I don’t want that kind of butter on my toast! Why? Because.
Because why? Just because.) Somehow because seemed decisive. It persuaded people
to accept your view of the world; it changed people’s minds. Later, as you got
older, you discovered that because only introduced your arguments and that it was
the reasons following because that made the difference. Still, because introduced
you to the powers potentially residing in the adult world of logic.
This childhood power of because perhaps explains why because clauses are the
most common way of linking reasons to a claim. For example:
The public should not support marine parks because these parks inhumanely
separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.
Of course, there are also many other ways to express the logical connection
between a reason and a claim. Our language is rich in ways of stating because
relationships:
• Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural
habitats. Therefore, the public should not support marine parks.
• Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural
habitats, so the public should not support these parks.
• One reason that the public should not support marine animal parks is that these
parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.
• My argument that the public should not support marine animal parks is
grounded on evidence that these parks inhumanely separate dolphins and
orcas from their natural habitats.
Even though logical relationships can be stated in various ways, writing out
one or more because clauses seems to be the most succinct and manageable way
to clarify an argument for yourself. We therefore suggest that at some time in the
writing process, you create a working thesis statement that summarizes your main
reasons as because clauses attached to your claim.*
When you compose your own working thesis statement depends largely on
your writing process. Some writers like to p lan their whole argument from the
start and compose their working thesis statements with because clauses before
they write their rough drafts. Others discover their arguments as they write. Some
writers use a combination of both techniques. For these writers, an extended
working thesis statement is something they might write halfway through the
composing process as a way of ordering their argument when various branches
seem to be growing out of control. Or they might compose a working thesis
* A working thesis statement opposing the commercial use of captured dolphins and orcas
might look like this: The public should not support marine parks because marine parks inhu-
manely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats; because marine parks are
mainly big businesses driven by profit; because marine parks create inaccurate and incom-
plete educational information about dolphins and orcas; because marine parks encourage
inhumane breeding programs, hunts, and captures; and because marine parks promote an
attitude of human dominance over animals. You probably would not put a bulky thesis
statement like this into your essay; rather, a working thesis statement is a behind-the-scenes
way of summarizing your argument so that you can see it fully and clearly.
30 Chapter 2
statement after they’ve written a complete first draft as a way of checking the
essay’s unity.
The act of writing your extended thesis statement can be simultaneously
frustrating and thought provoking. Composing because clauses can be a power-
ful discovery tool, causing you to think of many different kinds of arguments to
support your claim. But it is often difficult to wrestle your ideas into the because
clause shape, which may seem overly tidy for the complex network of ideas you
are working with. Nevertheless, trying to summarize your argument as a single
claim with reasons should help you see more clearly the emerging shape of your
argument.
For Writing and Discussion
Developing Claims and Reasons
Try this group exercise to help you see how writing because clauses can be a discovery procedure. Divide
into smal l groups. Each group member should contribute an issue with potentially opposing c laims. Whi le
thinking of your issue, imagine a person who might disagree w ith you about it. This person w ill become your
audience. Discussing each group member’s issue in turn, help each member develop a claim supported
by several reasons that might appeal to the imagined aud ience. Express each reason as a because clause.
Then write out the working thesis statement for each person’s argument by attaching the because c lauses to
the claim. Finally, try to create because clauses in support of an alternative claim for each issue. Each group
should select two or three working thesis statements to present to the c lass.
Conclusion
This chapter introduced you to the structure of classical argument, to the rhetorical
triangle (message, writer or speaker, and audience), and to the classical appeals
of logos, ethos, and pathos. It also showed how arguments originate in issue ques-
tions, how issue questions differ from information questions, and how reasonable
arguments differ from pseudo-arguments. The frame of an argument is a claim
supported by reasons. As you generate reasons to support your own arguments,
it is often helpful to articulate them as because clauses attached to the claim.
In the next chapter we will see how to support a reason by examining its logical
structure, uncovering its unstated assumptions, and planning a strategy of
development.
Writing Assignment
An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Decide on an issue and a claim for a classical argument that you wou ld like to write. Also imagine a reader
who might be skeptical of your claim. Write a one-sentence question that summarizes the controversial is-
sue that your c laim addresses. Then draft a working thesis statement for your proposed argument. Organize
the thesis as a claim w ith bulleted because clauses for reasons. You should have at least two reasons, but
it is okay to have three or four. Also include an opposing thesis statement-that is, a claim with because
The Core of an Argument 31
clauses for an alternative position on your issue. Think of this opposing argument as your imagined reader’s
starting position.
Unless you have previously done research on an issue, it is probably best to choose an issue based on
your personal experiences and observations. For example, you might consider issues related to your college
or high school life, your work life, your experiences in clubs or family life, your prospective career, and so
forth. (Part Two of this text introduces you to research-based argument.) As you think about your claim and
because clauses for this assignment, take comfort in the fact that you are in a very early stage of the writing
process: the brainstorming stage. Writers almost always discover new ideas when they write a first draft.
As they take their writing project through multiple drafts and share their drafts with readers, their views may
change substantially. In fact, honest writers can change positions on an issue by discovering that a counter-
argument is stronger than their own. Thus the working thesis statement that you submit for this assignment
may evolve when you begin to draft your essay.
Below, as well as in Chapters 3 and 4, we follow the process of student writer Carmen Tieu as she
constructs an argument on violent video games. During a class discussion, Carmen mentioned a psychol-
ogy professor who described playing violent video games as gendered behavior (overwhelmingly male). The
professor ind icated his dislike for such games, pointing to their antisocial, dehumanizing values. In class,
Carmen described her own enjoyment of violent video games-particularly first-person-shooter games-
and reported the pleasure that she derived from beating boys at Halo 2 and 3. Her classmates were inter-
ested in her ideas. She knew that she wanted to write an argument on this issue. The following is Carmen’s
submission for this assignment.
Carmen’s Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Issue Question: Should girls be encouraged to play f irst-person-shooter video games?
My claim: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great activities for girls,
• because they empower girls when they beat guys at their own game.
• because they equip girls with skills that free them from feminine stereotypes.
• because they give girls a different way of bonding with males.
• because they give girls new insights into a male subculture.
Opposing claim: First-person-shooter games are a bad activity for anyone, especially girls,
• because they promote antisocial values such as indiscriminate kil ling.
• because they amplify t he bad, macho side of male stereotypes.
• because they waste valuable time that could be spent on something constructive.
• because FPS games could encourage women to see themselves as objects.
32
Chapter 3
•
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
3.1 Explain the logical structure of argument in terms of claim,
reason,
and assumption granted by the audience.
3.2 Use the Toulmin system to describe an argument’s logical
structure.
3.3 Use the Toulmin system to generate ideas for your argument
and test it
for completeness.
In Chapter 2 you learned that the core of an argument is a claim supported by
reasons and that these reasons can often be stated as because clauses attached to a
claim. In this chapter, we examine the logical structure of arguments in more depth.
An Overview of Logos: hat Do e
Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an
Argument?
3.1 Explain the logical structure of argument in terms of claim, reason,
and assumption granted by the audience.
As you will recall from our discussion of the rhetorical triangle, logos refers to the
strength of an argument’s support and its internal consistency. Logos is the argu-
ment’s logical structure. But what do we mean by “logical structure”?
The Logical Structure of Arguments 33
Forinal Logic Versus Real-World Logic
First of all, what we don’t mean by logical structure is the kind of precise certainty
you get in a philosophy class in formal logic. Logic classes deal with symbolic
assertions that are universal and unchanging, such as “If all ps are qs and if r is a
p, then r is a q.” This statement is logically certain so long asp, q, and rare pure
abstractions. But in the real world, p, q, and r turn into actual things, and the rela-
tionships among them suddenly become fuzzy. For example, p might be a class
of actions called “Sexual Harassment,” while q could be the class called” Actions
That Justify Getting Fired from One’s Job.” If r is the class “Telling Off-Color Sto-
ries,” then the logic of our p-q-r statement suggests that telling off-color stories
(r) is an instance of sexual harassment (p), which in turn is an action justifying
getting fired from one’s job (q).
Now, most of us would agree that sexual harassment is a serious offense
that might well justify getting fired. In turn, we might agree that telling off-color
stories, if the jokes are sufficiently raunchy and are inflicted on an unwilling audi-
ence, constitutes sexual harassment. But few of us would want to say categorically
that all people who tell off-color stories are harassing their listeners and ought to
be fired. Most of us would want to know the particulars of the case before making
a final judgment.
In the real world, then, it is difficult to say that rs are always ps or that every
instance of a p results in q. That is why we discourage students from using the
word prove in claims they write for arguments (as in “This paper will prove that
euthanasia is wrong”). Real-world arguments seldom prove anything. They can
only make a good case for something, a case that is more or less strong, more or
less probable. Often the best you can hope for is to strengthen the resolve of those
who agree with you or weaken the resistance of those who oppose you.
The Role of Assuinptions
A key difference, then, between formal logic and real-world argument is that real-
world arguments are not grounded in abstract, universal statements. Rather, as
we shall see, they must be grounded in beliefs, assumptions, or values granted
by the audience. A second important difference is that in real-world arguments,
these beliefs, assumptions, or values are often unstated. So long as writer and
audience share the same assumptions, it’s fine to leave them unstated. But if these
underlying assumptions aren’t shared, the writer has a problem.
To illustrate the nature of this problem, suppose that you are an environmen-
talist opposed to the use of plastic bags in grocery stores. You have several reasons
for opposing these bags, one of which is their role in polluting the oceans. You
express this reason in a because clause as follows:
States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because banning bags
will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.
On the face of it, this is a plausible argument, but it depends on the audience’s
accepting the writer’s assumption that it is good to reduce plastic pollution in the
ocean. In other words, you might agree that plastics are polluting the ocean, but
unless you also believe that this pollution is significantly harming the oceans, you
might not automatically agree that plastic bags should be banned from grocery
stores. What if you believe that pollution-caused damage to the ocean is not as
34 Chapter 3
severe as proponents claim? What if you believe that p lastic bags account for only
a small percentage of plastic pollution in the oceans? What if you believe that the
harm to the oceans is outweighed by the environmental benefits of plastic bags,
which are reusable, recyclable, and more ecofriendly to produce and transport
than paper bags? What if you believe that harm to the oceans might soon be
reduced by scientific advances in creating biodegradable p lastics or in developing
microorganisms that “eat” plastics? If these were your beliefs, the argument
wouldn’t work for you because you would reject its underlying assumption that
plastic pollution is significantly harmful. To make this line of reasoning persua-
sive, the writer would have to provide evidence not only that plastic bags are
polluting the ocean but also that this pollution is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
The Core of an Argu111ent: The Enthy111e111e
The previous core argument (“States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores
because banning bags will reduce p lastic pollu tion in the ocean”) is an incom-
p lete logical structure called an enthymeme. Its persuasiveness depends on an
underlying assumption or belief that the audience must accept. To complete the
enthymeme and make it effective, the audience must willingly supply a missing
premise in this case, that plastic pollution of the oceans is significantly harmful.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle showed how successful enthymemes root the
speaker’s argument in assumptions, beliefs, or values held by the audience. The
word enthymeme comes from the Greek en (meaning “in”) and thumos (meaning
“mind”). Listeners or readers must have in mind an assumption, belief, or value
that lets them willingly supply the missing premise. If the audience is unwilling
to supply the missing premise, then the argument fails. Our point is that success-
ful arguments depend both on what the arguer says and on what the audience
already has “in mind.”
To clarify the concept of enthymeme, let’s go over this same territory again,
this time more slowly, examining what we mean by “incomplete logical struc-
ture.” The sentence “States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because
banning bags will reduce p lastic pollution in the ocean” is an enthymeme. It
combines a claim (States should ban p lastic bags from grocery stores) with a rea-
son expressed as a because clause (because banning bags will reduce plastic pol-
lution in the ocean). To render this enthymeme logically complete, the audience
must willingly supply a missing assumption that plastic pollution is harmful
enough to the oceans to justify a ban on plastic bags. If your audience accepts this
assumption, then you have a starting p lace on which to build an effective argu-
ment. If your audience doesn’t accept this assumption, then you must supply
another argument to support it, and so on until you find common ground with
your audience.
To sum up:
1. Claims are supported with reasons. You can usually state a reason as a because
clause attached to a claim.
2. A because clause attached to a claim is an incomplete logical structure called
an enthymeme. To create a complete logical structure from an enthymeme,
the underlying assumption (or assumptions) must be articulated.
3. To serve as an effective starting point for the argument, this underlying
assumption should be a belief, value, or principle that the audience grants.
The Logical Structure of Arguments 35
Let’s illustrate this structure by putting the previous example into schematic
form.
Audience must supply this assumption
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: States should ban p lastic bags from grocery stores
REASON: because banning p lastic bags will reduce plastic
pollution in the ocean.
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTION
Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons
Aristotle’s concept of the enthymeme focuses on the writer’s need to create what
we can now call”audience-based reasons” as opposed to “writer-based reasons.”
A reason that is persuasive to you as a writer might not be persuasive to your
audience. Finding audience-based reasons means finding arguments effectively
anchored within your audience’s beliefs and values.
To illustrate the difference between an audience-based reason and a writer-
based reason, suppose that you are a vegetarian persuaded mainly by ethical
arguments against causing needless suffering to animals. Suppose further that
you want to persuade others to become vegetarians or at least to reduce their
consumption of meat. Your “writer-based reason” for vegetarianism could be
stated as follows:
You should become a vegetarian because doing so will help reduce the need-
less suffering of animals.
The underlying assumption here is that it is wrong to cause the suffering of ani-
mals. This writer-based reason might also be an audience-based reason for per-
sons who are wrestling with the moral dimension of animal suffering. But this
assumption might not resonate with people who have made their own peace with
eating meat. How might you use audience-based reasons to appeal to these meat-
eaters? Here are two more possible enthymemes:
You should become a vegetarian because doing so may help you lower your
cholesterol.
You should become a vegetarian because doing so will significantly lower
your carbon footprint.
These arguments hook into the assumption that it is good to lower one’s choles-
terol (health values) or that it is good to lower one’s carbon footprint (environ-
mental values). All three of the arguments whether based on ethics, health, or
the environment might further the practice of vegetarianism or at least reduce
the amount of meat consumed, but they won’t appeal equally to all audiences.
From the perspective of logic alone, all three arguments are equally sound. But
they will affect different audiences differently.
36 Chapter 3
For Writing and Discussion
Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing
Audience-Based Reasons
Part 1 Working individually or in small groups, identify the unstated assumption that the aud ience must
supply in order to make the fo llowing enthymemes persuasive.
Example
Enthymeme: Rabbits make good pets because they are gentle.
Underlying assumption: Gentle animals make good pets.
1. We shouldn’t elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy.
2. The federal government shou ld institute a carbon tax because doing so w ill reduce U.S. production
of greenhouse gases.
3. The federal government should not institute a carbon tax because doing so will damage the economy.
4. We should strengthen the Endangered Species Act because doing so will preserve genetic d iversity
on the planet.
5. The Endangered Species Act is too stringent because it severely restricts the rights of property owners.
Part 2 For each of the following items, decide which of the two reasons offered would be more persuasive
to the specified audience. How might the reason not chosen be effective fo r a different kind of aud ience?
Explain your reason ing.
1. Aud ience: people who advocate a pass/fail grad ing system on the grounds that the present grad ing
system is too competitive
a. We should keep the present grading system because it prepares people fo r the dog-eat-dog pres-
sures of the business world.
b. We should keep the present grading system because it tells students that certain standards of
excel lence must be met if individuals are to reach their ful l potential.
2. Aud ience: environmentalists
a. We shou ld support tracking for natural gas because doing so wi ll help reduce our dependence on
foreign sources of oi l.
b. We should support tracking fo r natural gas because doing so will provide a g reener “bridge fuel”
that will give us t ime to develop better renewable technolog ies.
3. Audience: proponents of preventing illegal immigration into the United States by building a wall between
the United States and Mexico
a. U.S. citizens shou ld oppose building the wall because doing so promotes a racist image of America.
b. U.S. cit izens should oppose building the wall because doing so may end up giving control of the
Rio Grande river to Mexico.
Adopting a Language for Describing
Arguments: The Toulmin System
3.2 Use the Toulmin system to describe an argument’s logical structure.
Understanding a new fie ld usually requires you to learn a new vocabulary. For
example, if you were taking biology for the first time, you’d have to learn hun-
dreds and hundreds of new terms. Luckily, the field of argument requires us to
learn a mere handful of new terms. A particularly useful set of argument terms,
one we’ll be using occasionally throughout this text, comes from philosopher
The Logical Structure of Arguments 37
Stephen Toulmin. In the 1950s, Toulmin rejected the prevailing models of argu-
ment based on formal logic in favor of a very audience-based courtroom model.
Toulmin’s courtroom model differs from formal logic in that it assumes that
(1) all assertions and assumptions are contestable by “opposing counsel” and
that (2) all final”verdicts” about the persuasiveness of the opposing arguments
will be rendered by a neutral third party, a judge, or a jury. As writers, keeping
in mind the “opposing counsel” forces us to anticipate counterarguments and
to question our assumptions. Keeping in mind the judge and jury reminds us to
answer opposing arguments fully and without rancor, and to present positive
reasons for supporting our case as well as negative reasons for disbelieving the
opposing case. Above all else, Toulmin’ s model reminds us not to construct an
argument that appeals only to those who already agree with us. In short, it helps
arguers tailor arguments to their audiences.
The system we use for analyzing arguments combines Toulmin’s language
with Aristotle’s concept of the enthymeme. It builds on the system you have already
been practicing. We simply need to add a few key terms from Toulmin. The first
term is Toulmin’s warrant, the name we will now use for the underlying assump-
tion that turns an enthymeme into a complete, logical structure as shown below.
Toulmin derives his term warrant from the concept of “warranty” or “guar-
antee.” The warrant is the value, belief, or principle that the audience has to hold
if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or warranted. We some-
times make similar use of this word in ordinary language when we say “That is
an unwarranted conclusion,” meaning one has leaped from information about
a situation to a conclusion about that situation without any sort of general prin-
ciple to justify or “warrant” that move. Thus the warrant once accepted by the
audience “guarantees” the soundness of the argument.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores
REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic
pollution in the ocean.
Audience must supply this warrant ——–..t
WARRANT
Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
But arguments need more than claims, reasons, and warrants. These are sim-
ply one-sentence statements the frame of an argument, not a developed argu-
ment. To give body and weight to our arguments and make them convincing, we
need what Toulmin calls grounds and backing. Let’s start with grounds. Grounds
are the supporting evidence that causes an audience to accept your reason.
Grounds are facts, data, statistics, causal links, testimony, examples, anecdotes-
the blood and muscle that flesh out the skeletal frame of your enthymeme. Toul-
min suggests that grounds are “what you have to go on” in an argument the
stuff you can point to and present before a jury. Here is how grounds fit into our
emerging argument schema:
38 Chapter 3
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores
/~REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.
Grounds support .L—-
thereason
GROUNDS
Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away plastic bags end up as ocean pollution
and could be reduced with bans:
• According to the Earth Policy Institute, I 00 billion plastic bags pass through the hands of
U.S. consumers each year.
• Plastic bags that don’t end up in landfills often float into the oceans from river and stream
pollution.
• According to Ocean Crusaders, plastic bags are the most prevalent man-made thing that
sailors see in the ocean.
• A scientific study in 2014 estimated that there are 269,000 metric tons of plastic and 5.25
trillion plastic particles on the ocean’s surface.
• Plastics float on the surface, where they are concentrated by ocean currents. National
Geographic has documented the uPacific trash vortex” -a floating garbage patch the size of
Texas.
• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as shown by states and cities that have
recently instituted bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down on plastic bags in landfills
and coastal areas.
In many cases, successful arguments require just these three components:
a claim, a reason, and grounds. If the audience already accepts the unstated
assumption behind the reason (the warrant), then the warrant can safely remain
in the background, unstated and unexamined. But if there is a chance that the
audience will question or doubt the warrant, then the writer needs to back it up by
providing an argument in its support. Backing is the argument that supports the
warrant. It may require as little as one or two sentences or as much as a major sec-
tion in your argument. Its goal is to persuade the audience to accept the warrant.
Here is how backing is added to our schema:
WARRANT
Backing supports BACKING
the warrant Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are significantly harmful to the oceans:
• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat plastic bags, which look like
jellyfish; birds and surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of plastic, which often
results in death or starvation).
• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up the food chain, including
into the fish we eat, jeopardizing food safety.
• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example, some ocean insect species
breed more quickly where plastics are floating.
• National Geographic News reports a study showing that udegrading plastics are
leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A into the seas, possibly
threatening ocean animals, and us.”
The Logical Structure of Arguments 39
Toulmin’ s system next asks us to imagine how a resistant audience would try
to refute our argument. Specifically, an adversarial audience might challenge our
reason and grounds by arguing that plastic bags are not polluting the oceans or
that the pollution is not extensive. The adversary might also attack our warrant
Writer must an tid pate these attacks from skeptics
ENTHYMEME t
CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores
_J
..-7 POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic –
pollution in the ocean. V
/
A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds:
• Arguments that plastic bags from grocery
stores comprise only a small proportion of
plastic pollution in the ocean (far greater
damage comes from plastic bottles, Styrofoam
pellets, and floating fish nets)
GROUNDS
Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away
plastic bags end up as ocean pollution:
• According to the Earth Policy Institute, 1 00 billion plastic
bags pass through the hands of U.S. consumers each year.
• Plastic bags that don’t end up in landfills often float into
the oceans from river and stream pollu-tion.
• According to Ocean Crusaders, plastic bags are the most
prevalent man-made thing that sailors see in the ocean.
• A scientific study in 2014 estimated that there are 269,000
metric tons of plastic and 5.25 trillion plastic particles on
the ocean’s surface.
• Plastics float on the surface, where they are con-centrated
by ocean currents. National Geographic has documented
the llPacific trash vortex” -a floating garbage patch the
size ofT exas.
• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as
shown by states and cities that have recently instituted
bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down on plastic
bags in landfills and coastal areas.
• Arguments that the pollution is not extensive
• Arguments that banning plastic bags would
eliminate all the ecological and consumer
benefits of plastic bags
• Arguments that plastic bags are more
eco-friendly to produce than paper bags and
are completely recyclable
• Arguments that plastic bags are reusable, are
better than paper for storing moist products,
and save on use of plastic wrapping
• Arguments that bans don’t work and that other
polices would be more effective at tackling this
problem, such as placing higher fees on plastic
bags or implementing intensive recycling
•
campaigns
WARRANT ~—–+–~POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
V A skeptic could attack the warrant and backing: Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
BACKING
Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are
significantly harmful to the oceans:
• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat
plastic bags, which look like jellyfish; birds and
surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of plastic, which
often results in death or starvation).
• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up
the food chain, including into the fish we eat,
jeopardizing food safety.
• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example,
some ocean insect species breed more quickly where
plastics are floating.
• National Geographic News reports a study showing that
II degrading plastics are leaching potentially toxic
chemicals such as bisphenol A into the seas, possibly
threatening ocean animals, and us.”
• Arguments that data about harm to sea life are
primarily anecdotal and amplified by
photographs appealing to pathos
• Argument conceding that some harm is done to
the ocean, but research has not yet
documented the extent of the danger to
marine life
• Arguments that ocean damage is not severe
enough to justify a ban, especially when
balanced against the ecological benefits of
plastic bags
• Arguments that the problem of ocean pollution
might soon be solved by science, which is on
track to devise biological methods to ll eat
plastic” or to make plastic more biodegradable
40 Chapter 3
and backing by arguing that the harm caused by plastic pollution is not significant
enough to justify a ban on plastic bags. These rebuttal strategies are outlined in
the right-hand column of our schema:
As this example shows, adversarial readers can question an argument’s reasons
and grounds, or its warrant and backing, or sometimes both. Conditions of rebuttal
remind writers to look at their arguments from the perspective of skeptics.
The use of a Toulmin schema to plan an argument strategy can also be illus-
trated in the issue we examined in the last chapter whether the public should
support marine parks that use trained captive orcas and dolphins for public enter-
tainment. In the following example, the writer argues that the public should not
support these parks because they inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from
their natural habitat.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks
REASON: because marine parks inhumanely separate
dolphins and orcas from their natural habitat.
GROUNDS
Evidence and arguments showing the inhumane difference
between the wild environment of dolphins and orcas and
their environment in captivity:
• In the wild, dolphins swim in pods in the open oceans,
dolphins around forty miles a day, and orcas around sixty
miles a day, whereas marine park tanks provide only a
fraction of that space.
• Evidence that the echoes from concrete pools, music of
dolphin shows, and the applause and noise of audiences
are stressful and harmful
• Statistics about the excessive number of performances or
about the levels of stress hormones produced in dolphins
Writer must anticipate these attacks from skeptics
t
J—–:/IIPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds”:
• Argument that these programs must observe
strict accreditation standards for animal welfare,
health, and education
• Marine parks exercise dophins’ and orcas’
intelligence and abilities and build on their
natural behaviors.
• Many dolphins and orcas have been bred in
captivity, so they aren’t #wild.”
• The education and entertainment provided by
marine parks promote public concern for
dolphins and orcas.
WARRANT “————-,. 11POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
It is wrong to separate wild animals from their natural
habitats.
BACKING
Arguments showing why it is unwise, unethical, or
otherwise wrong to separate wild animals from their
natural environments:
• Examples of wild animals (those in aquariums and zoos)
that do not thrive in artificially constructed environments,
that don’t live long, or that suffer psychological stress
from confinement
• An ecological argument about the beauty of animals in
the wild and the complexity of the natural webs of
which animals are a part
• A philosophical argument that humans shouldn’t treat
animals as instruments for their own enjoyment or profit
A skeptic can attack the warrant and backing.
• The natural habitat is not always the best
environment for wild animals.
• Captivity may actually preserve some species.
• Scientists have been able to conduct valuable
studies of dolphins and learn more about orcas
in captivity, which would have been impossible
in the wild.
The Logical Structure of Arguments 41
Toulmin’s final term, used to limit the force of a claim and indicate the degree
of its probable truth, is qualifier. The qualifier reminds us that real-world argu-
ments almost never prove a claim. We may say things such as very likely, probably,
or maybe to indicate the strength of the claim we are willing to draw from our
grounds and warrant. Thus, if there are exceptions to your warrant or if your
grounds are not very strong, you may have to qualify your claim. For example,
you might say, “States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because ban-
ning plastic bags would be a small first step toward reducing plastic pollution of
the oceans” or “Except for limited cases of scientific research, dolphins and orcas
should not be held in captivity.” In our future displays of the Toulmin scheme
we will omit the qualifiers, but you should always remember that no argument
is 100 percent conclusive.
For Writing and Discussion
Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema
Working individually or in small groups, imagine that you have to write arguments developing the five
enthymemes listed in the first For Class Discussion exercise in this chapter. Use the Toulmin schema to help
you determine what you need to consider when developing each enthymeme. We suggest that you try a
four-box diagram structure as a way of visualizing the schema. We have applied the Toulmin schema to the
first enthymeme: “We shouldn’t elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy.”
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM We shouldn’t e lect Joe as committee chair
REASON because he is too bossy.
GROUNDS
Evidence of Joe’s bossiness:
• Examples of the way he dominates meetings-doesn’t
call on people, talks too much
• Testimony about his bossiness from people who have
served with him on committees
• Anecdotes about his abrasive style
WARRANT
Bossy people make bad committee chairs.
BACKING
Problems caused by bossy committee chairs:
• Bossy people don’t inspire cooperation and enthusiam.
• Bossy people make others angry.
• Bossy people tend to make bad decisions because
they don’t incorporate advice from others.
CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
Attacking the reason and grounds:
Evidence that Joe is not bossy or is only
occasionally bossy:
• Counterevidence showing his collaborative style
• Testimony from people who have liked Joe as a
leader and claim he isn’t bossy; testimony about his
cooperativeness and kindness
• Testimony that anecdotes about Joe’s bossiness
aren’t typical
CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
Attacking the warrant and backing:
• Arguments that bossiness can be a good trait
o Sometimes bossy people make good chairpersons.
o This committee needs a bossy person who can
make decisions and get things done.
• Argument that Joe has other traits of good
leadership that outweigh his bossiness
42 Chapter 3
Using Toulmin’ s Schema to Plan
and Test Your Argument
3.3 Use the Toulmin system to generate ideas for your argument and test it
for completeness.
So far we have seen that a claim, a reason, and a warrant form the frame for a line
of reasoning in an argument. Most of the words in an argument, however, are
devoted to grounds and backing.
Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes
For an illustration of how a writer can use the Toulmin schema to generate ideas
for an argument, consider the following case. In April2005, the Texas House of
Representatives passed a bill banning “sexually suggestive” cheer leading. Across
the nation, evening TV comedians poked fun at the bill, while newspaper edito-
rialists debated its wisdom and constitutionality. In one of our classes, however,
several students, including one who had earned a high school varsity letter in
competitive cheer leading, defended the bill by contending that provocative dance
moves hurt the athletic image of cheerleading. In the following example, which
draws on ideas developed in class discussion, we create a hypothetical student
writer (we’ll call her Chandale) who argues in defense of the Texas bill. Chan-
dale’s argument is based on the following enthymeme:
The bill banning suggestive dancing for high school cheerleaders is a good law
because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders as athletes.
Chandale used the Toulmin schema to brainstorm ideas for developing her argu-
ment. Here are her notes:
Chandale’s Planning Notes Using the Toulmin Schema
Enthymeme: The bill banning suggestive dancing for high school cheerleaders
is a good law because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders as athletes.
Grounds: First, I’ve got to use evidence to show that cheerleaders are athletes.
• Cheerleaders at my high school are carefully chosen for their stamina and
skill after exhausting two-week tryouts.
• We begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of warm-up exercises-
we are also expected to work out on our own for at least an hour on week-
ends and on days without practice.
• We learned competitive routines and stunts consisting of lifts, tosses, flips,
catches, and gymnastic moves. This requires athletic ability! We’d practice
these stunts for hours each week.
• Throughout the year cheerleaders have to attend practices, camps, and
workshops to learn new routines and stunts.
• Our squad competed in competitions around the state.
• Competitive cheerleading is a growing movement across the country the
University of Maryland has made it a varsity sport for women.
• Skimpy uniforms and suggestive dance moves destroy the image of cheer-
leaders as athletes by making women eye candy (for example, the Dallas
Cowboys cheerleaders).
The Logical Structure of Arguments 43
Warrant: It is a good thing to view female cheerleaders as athletes.
Backing: Now I need to make the case that it is good to see cheerleaders as
athletes rather than as eye candy.
• Athletic competition builds self-esteem, independence, and a powerful sense
of achievement. It also contributes to health, strength, and conditioning.
• Competitive cheer leading is one of the few sports where teams are made
up of both men and women. (Why is this good? Should I use this?)
• The suggestive dance moves turn women into sex objects whose function
is to be gazed at by men, which suggests that women’s value is based on
their beauty and sex appeal.
• We are talking about HIGH SCHOOL cheerleading it is a very bad early
influence on girls to model themselves on Dallas Cowboys cheerleaders
or sexy videos of rock stars.
• Junior-high girls want to do what senior-high girls do suggestive dance
moves promote sexuality way too early.
Conditions of Rebuttal: Would anybody try to rebut my reasons and grounds
that cheerleading is an athletic activity?
• No. I think it is obvious that cheerleading is an athletic activity once they
see my evidence.
• However, they might not think of cheerleading as a sport. They might say
that the University of Maryland just declared it a sport as a cheap way to
meet Title IX federal rules to have more women’s sports. I’ll have to make
sure that I show that cheerleading is really a sport.
• They also might say that competitive cheerleading shouldn’t be encour-
aged because it is too dangerous lots of serious injuries, including paral-
ysis, have been caused by mistakes in doing flips, lifts, and tosses. If I
include this, maybe I could say that other sports are dangerous also, and
it is in fact danger that makes this sport so exciting.
Would anyone doubt my warrant and backing that it is good to see female
cheerleaders as athletes?
• Yes, all those people who laughed at the Texas legislature think that
people are being too prudish and that banning suggestive dance moves
violates free expression. I’ll need to make my case that it is bad for young
girls to see themselves as sex objects too early.
The information that Chandale lists under “grounds” is what she sees as the facts
of the case the hard data she will use as evidence to support her contention that
cheer leading is an athletic activity. The following paragraph shows how this argu-
ment might look in a more formally written format.
First Part of Chandale’s Argument
Although evening TV comedians have made fun of the Texas legislature’s
desire to ban “suggestive” dance moves from cheerleading routines, I
applaud this bill because it promotes a healthy view of female cheerleaders
as athletes rather than showgirls. I was lucky enough to attend a high school
(continued)
Summarizes oppos-
• •
1ngv1ew
States her claim
44 Chapter 3
For grounds, uses
personal experience
details to show that
cheer leading is an
athletic activity
Provides more
grounds by show-
• • •
Ing emerging views
of cheer leading as a
competitive sport
Supplies warrant: It
is good to see cheer-
leaders as athletic
and bad to see them
as sex objects
Supplies backing:
Shows benefits that
come from see-
ing cheerleaders as
athletes
Anticipates an
objection
where cheer leading is a sport, and I earned a varsity letter as a cheerleader.
To get on my high school’s cheer leading squad, students have to go through
an exhausting two-week tryout of workouts and instruction in the basic
routines; then they are chosen based on their stamina and skill. Once on
the squad, cheerleaders begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of
grueling warm-up exercises, and they are expected to exercise on their own
on weekends. As a result of this regimen, cheerleaders achieve and maintain
a top level of physical fitness. In addition, to get on the squad, students
must be able to do handstands, cartwheels, handsprings, high jumps, and
splits. Each year the squad builds up to its complex routines and stunts con-
sisting of lifts, tosses, flips, catches, and gymnastic moves that only trained
athletes can do. In tough competitions at the regional and state levels, the
cheerleading squad demonstrates its athletic talent. This view of cheer-
leading as a competitive sport is also spreading to colleges. As reported
recently in a number of newspapers, the University of Maryland has made
cheer leading a varsity sport, and many other universities are following suit.
Athletic performance of this caliber is a far cry from the sexy dancing that
many high school girls often associate with cheer leading. By banning sug-
gestive dancing in cheerleading routines, the Texas legislature creates an
opportunity for schools to emphasize the athleticism of cheer leading.
As you can see, Chandale has plenty of evidence for arguing that competi-
tive cheerleading is an athletic activity quite different from sexy dancing. But
how effective is this argument as it stands? Is Chandale’s argument complete?
The Toulmin schema encourages writers to include if needed for the intended
audience explicit support for their warrants as well as attention to conditions for
rebuttal. Because the overwhelming national response to the Texas law was ridi-
cule at the perceived prudishness of the legislators, Chandale decided to expand
her argument as follows:
Continuation of Chandale’s Argument
This emphasis on cheerleaders as athletes rather than sexy dancers is good
for girls. The erotic dance moves that many high school cheerleaders now
incorporate into their routines show that they are emulating the Dallas Cow-
boys cheerleaders or pop stars in music videos. Our already sexually satu-
rated culture (think of the suggestive clothing marketed to little girls) pushes
girls and women to measure their value by their beauty and sex appeal. It
would be far healthier, both physically and psychologically, if high school
cheerleaders were identified as athletes. For women and men both, competi-
tive cheerleading can build self-esteem, pride in teamwork, and a powerful
sense of achievement, as well as promote health, strength, and fitness.
Some people might object to competitive cheerleading by saying that
cheer leading isn’t really a sport. Some have accused the University of Mary-
land of making cheer leading a varsity sport only as a cheap way of meeting
Title IX requirements. But anyone who has watched competitive cheer lead-
ing, and imagined what it would be like to be thrown high into the air, knows
The Logical Structure of Arguments 45
instinctively that this is a sport indeed. In fact, other persons might object to
competitive cheerleading because it is too dangerous, with potential for very
severe injuries, including paralysis. Obviously the sport is dangerous but
so are many sports, including football, gymnastics, diving, and trampoline.
The danger and difficulty of the sport are part of its appeal. Part of what can
make cheerleaders as athletes better role models for girls than cheerleaders as
erotic dancers is the courage and training needed for success. Of course, the
Texas legislators might not have had athleticism in mind when they banned
suggestive dancing. They might only have been promoting their vision of
morality. But at stake are the role models we set for young girls. I’ll pick an
athlete over a Dallas Cowboys cheerleader every time.
Our example suggests how a writer can use the Toulmin schema to generate
ideas for an argument. For evidence, Chandale draws primarily on her personal
experiences as a cheerleader I athlete and on her knowledge of popular culture.
She also draws on her reading of several newspaper articles about the University
of Maryland making cheerleading a varsity sport. (In an academic paper rather
than a newspaper editorial, she would need to document these sources through
formal citations.) Although many arguments depend on research, many can be
supported wholly or in part by your own personal experiences, so don’t neglect
the wealth of evidence from your own life when searching for data. (Chapter 4
provides a more detailed discussion of evidence in arguments.)
Extend=ed Student Exa:mple:
Girls and Violent Video Ga:mes
Let’s look at one more example of how the Toulmin system can help you generate
ideas for your argument. In this case, we will look at a complete example from
student writer Carmen Tieu, whose evolving argument about girls and violent
video games was introduced in the last chapter. Carmen’s assignment was to
write a “supporting reasons” argument, which is a shortened form of the classi-
cal argument described at the beginning of Chapter 2. It has all the features of a
classical argument except for the requirement to summarize and rebut opposing
views. In planning her argument, Carmen decided to use four lines of reasoning,
as shown in her because clauses listed at the end of Chapter 2. She began by creat-
ing a basic Toulmin frame for each reason:
Carmen’s Toulmin Frames
My claim: Playing first-person-shooter (FPS) video games is good for girls
1. Reason: because playing FPS games empowers girls when they beat
guys at their own game. Warrant: It is good for girls to feel empowered.
2. Reason: because playing FPS games equips girls with skills that free
them from feminine stereotypes. Warrant: It is good for girls to be
freed from feminine stereotypes.
3. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls a different way of
bonding with males. Warrant: It is good for girls to find a different
way of bonding with males.
Responds to objection
by supplying more
evidence that ch eer-
leading is a sport; in
fact , it is a dangerous
sport
Sums up by returning
to claim
46 Chapter 3
4. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls new insights into a
male subculture. Warrant: It is good for girls to get new insights into
a male subculture.
As Carmen began drafting her essay, she was confident she could support her first
three lines of reasoning. For reason 1 she could use evidence (grounds) from per-
sonal experience to show how she learned to beat guys at video games. She could
also support her warrant by showing how beating guys made her feel empow-
ered. For reason 2, she decided that she primarily needed to support her warrant
(backing). It is obvious that playing FPS games breaks feminine stereotypes. What
she had to show was why it was good or valuable to be freed from feminine ste-
reotypes. Reason 3, she felt, needed support for both the reason and the warrant.
She had to show how these games gave her a different way of bonding with males
(grounds) and then why this different way was a good thing (backing). Carmen
felt that her reason 4 was the most complex. Here are her more detailed planning
notes for reason 4:
Carmen’s Planning Notes for Reason 4
Enthymeme: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great activities for
girls because playing these games gives girls new insights into male subculture.
Grounds: I’ve got to show the insights into male subculture I gained.
• The guys who play these video games are intensely competitive.
0 They can play for hours without stopping intense concentration.
0 They don’t multitask no small talk during the games; total focus on
playing.
0 They take delight in winning at all costs they boast with every kill;
they call each other losers.
• They often seem homophobic or misogynist.
0 They put each other down by calling opponents “faggot” and “wussy,”
or other similar names that are totally obscene.
o They associate victory with being macho.
Warrant: It is beneficial for a girl to get these insights into male subculture.
Backing: How can I show these benefits?
• It was a good learning experience to see how girls’ way of bonding is very
different from that of guys; girls tend to be nicer to one another rather than
insulting one another. Although I enjoy winning at FPS games, as a girl I
feel alienated from this male subculture.
• The game atmosphere tends to bring out these homophobic traits; guys
don’t talk this way as much when they are doing other things.
• This experience helped me see why men may progress faster than women
in a competitive business environment men seem programmed to crush
one another, and they devote enormous energy to the process.
• What else can I say? I need to think about this further.
Based on these planning notes, Carmen’s composed argument went through sev-
eral drafts. Here is her final version.
The Logical Structure of Arguments 47
Student Essay
Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls
Carmen Tieu
It is ten o’clock P.M., game time. My entire family knows by now that
when I am horne on Saturday nights, ten P.M. is my gaming night when
I play my favorite first-person-shooter (FPS) games, usually Halo 3, on
Xbox Live. Seated in my mobile chair in front of my family’s 42-inch flat
screen HDTV, I log onto Xbox Live. A small message in the bottom of the
screen appears with the words “KrlpL3r is online,” alerting me that one of
my male friends is online and already playing. As the game loads, I send
KrlpL3r a game invite, and he joins me in the pre-game room lobby.
In the game room lobby, all the players who will be participating in the
match are chatting aggressively with each other: “Oh man, we’re gonna
own you guys so bad.” When a member of the opposing team notices my
garner tag, “ernbracingapathy,” he begins to insult me by calling me various
degrading, gay-associated names: “Embracing apa-what? Man, it sounds so
erno. Are you some fag? I bet you want me so bad. You’re gonna get owned!”
Players always assume from my garner tag that I am a gay male, never a
female. The possibility that I am a girl is the last thing on their minds. Of
course, they are right that girls seldom play first-person-shooter games.
Girls are socialized into activities that promote togetherness and talk, not
high-intensity competition involving fantasized shooting and killing. The
violent nature of the games tends to repulse girls. Opponents of violent
video games typically hold that these games are so graphically violent that
they will influence players to become amoral and sadistic. Feminists also
argue that violent video games often objectify women by portraying them
as sexualized toys for men’s gratification. Although I understand these
objections, I argue that playing first-person-shooter games can actually be
good for girls.
First, playing FPS games gives girls the chance to beat guys at their
own game. When I first began playing Halo 2, I was horrible. My male
friends constantly put me down for my lack of skills, constantly telling
me that I was awful, “but for a girl, you’re good.” But it didn’t take much
practice until I learned to operate the two joysticks with precision and with
quick instinctual reactions. While guys and girls can play many physical
games together, such as basketball or touch football, guys will always have
the advantage because on average they are taller, faster, and stronger than
females. However, when it comes to video games, girls can compete equally
because physical strength isn’t required, just quick reaction time and man-
ual dexterity skills that women possess in abundance. The adrenaline rush
that I receive from beating a bunch of testosterone-driven guys at something
they supposedly excel at is empowering and exciting; I especially savor the
look of horror on their faces when I completely destroy them.
(continued)
Title makes persua-
sive claim
Attention -grabbing
scene
Continues scene
and provides more
background
Sums up opposing
-· v1ews
States claim
States first reason
For grounds, uses
:personal narrative to
show how she can
beat guys
Briefly backs
warrant by showing
the good feeling of
empowerment
48 Chapter 3
States second reason
Details focus on back-
ing for warrant: It is
good for girls -t-o be
freed from feminine
stereotypes
Provides third reason
Uses a narrative
example for grounds;
shows how FPS
games give her a dif-
ferent way of bonding
with males
Backing for warrant:
This new kind of
bonding is good
Provides final reason
Provides grounds:
gives examples of
what she learned
about male
subculture
Provides backing for
warrant: Shows value
of learning about
male subcultu-re
while keeping sepa-
rate from it
Because female video garners are so rare, playing shooter games allows
girls to be freed from feminine stereotypes and increases their confidence.
Our culture generally portrays females as caring, nonviolent, and motherly
beings who are not supposed to enjoy FPS games with their war themes
and violent killings. I am in no way rejecting these traditional female values
because I myself am a compassionate, tree-hugging vegan. But I also like to
break these stereotypes. Playing video games offers a great way for females
to break the social mold of only doing “girly” things and introduces them
to something that males commonly enjoy. Playing video games with sexist
males has also helped me become more outspoken. Psychologically, I can
stand up to aggressive males because I know that I can beat them at their
own game. The confidence I’ve gotten from excelling at shooter games may
have even carried over into the academic arena because I am majoring in
chemical engineering and have no fear whatsoever of intruding into the
male-dominated territory of math and science. Knowing that I can beat all
the guys in my engineering classes at Halo gives me that little extra confi-
dence boost during exams and labs.
Another reason for girls to play FPS games is that it gives us a different
way of bonding with guys. Once when I was discussing my latest Halo 3
matches with one of my regular male friends, a guy whom I didn’t know
turned around and said, “You play Halo? Wow, you just earned my respect.”
Although I was annoyed that this guy apparently didn’t respect women in
general, it is apparent that guys will talk to me differently now that I can
play video games. From a guy’s perspective I can also appreciate why males
find video games so addicting. You get joy from perfecting your skills so
that your high-angle grenade kills become a thing of beauty. While all of
these skills may seem trivial to some, the acknowledgment of my skills from
other players leaves me with a perverse sense of pride in knowing that I
played the game better than everyone else. Since I have started playing, I
have also noticed that it is much easier to talk to males about lots of differ-
ent subjects. Talking video games with guys is a great ice-breaker that leads
to different kinds of friendships outside the realm of romance and dating.
Finally, playing violent video games can be valuable for girls because
it gives them insights into a disturbing part of male subculture. When the
testosterone starts kicking in, guys become blatantly homophobic and
misogynistic. Any player, regardless of gender, who cannot play well (as
measured by having a high number of kills and a low number of deaths)
is made fun of by being called gay, a girl, or worse. Even when some guys
finally meet a female player, they will also insult her by calling her ales-
bian or an ugly fat chick who has no life. Their insults towards the girl will
dramatically increase if she beats them because they feel so humiliated. In
their eyes, playing worse than a girl is embarrassing because girls are sup-
posed to be inept at FPS games. Whenever I play Halo better than my male
friends, they often comment on how “it makes no sense that we’re getting
owned by Carmen.”
When males act like such sexist jerks it causes one to question if they are
always like this. My answer is no because I know, firsthand, that when guys
like that are having one-on-one conversations with a female, they show a
softer side, and the macho side goes away. They don’t talk about how girls
The Logical Structure of Arguments 49
should stay in the kitchen and make them dinner, but rather how they think
it is cool that they share a fun, common interest with a girl. But when they
are in a group of males their fake, offensive macho side comes out. I find
this phenomenon troubling because it shows a real problem in the way
boys are socialized. To be a real”man” around other guys, they have to put
down women and gays in activities involving aggressive behavior where
men are supposed to excel. But they don’t become macho and aggressive
in activities like reading and writing, which they think of as feminine. I’ve
always known that guys are more physically aggressive than women, but
until I started playing violent video games I had never realized how this
aggression is related to misogyny and homophobia. Perhaps these traits
aren’t deeply ingrained in men but come out primarily in a competitive
male environment. Whatever the cause, it is an ugly phenomenon, and I’m
glad that I learned more about it. Beating guys at FPS games has made me
a more confident woman while being more aware of gender differences in
the way men and women are socialized. I joined the guys in playing Halo,
but I didn’t join their subculture of ridiculing women and gays.
The Th-esis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure
of Classical Argument
Like the complete classical argument explained at the beginning of Chapter 2,
Carmen’s supporting-reasons argument has a thesis-governed structure in which
she states her claim near the end of the introduction, begins body paragraphs
with clearly stated reasons, and uses effective transitions throughout to keep her
reader on track. This kind of tightly organized structure is sometimes called a
self-announcing or closed-form structure because the writer states his or her claim
before beginning the body of the argument and forecasts the structure that is to
follow. In contrast, an unfolding or open-form structure often doesn’t give away the
writer’s position until late in the essay. (We discuss delayed-thesis arguments in
Chapter 6.) A general rule of thumb for arguments using more than one line of
reasoning is to place your most important or most interesting reason last, where
it will have the greatest impact on your readers.
In writing a self-announcing argument, students often ask how much of the
argument to summarize in the thesis statement. Consider Carmen’s options:
• She might announce only her claim:
Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls.
• She might forecast a series of parallel reasons:
There are several reasons that playing first-person-shooter games can be
good for girls.
• She might forecast the actual number of reasons:
I will present four reasons that playing first-person-shooter games can be
good for girls.
• Or she might forecast the whole argument by including her because clauses
with her claim:
Su ms up why her
playing FPS games is
valuable
50 Chapter 3
Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls because it lets girls
feel empowered by beating guys at their own game, because it frees girls
from feminine stereotypes, because it gives girls a different way of bonding
with guys, and because it gives girls new insights into a male subculture.
This last thesis statement forecasts not only the claim, but also the supporting
reasons that will serve as topic sentences for key paragraphs throughout the body
of the paper.
No formula can tell you precisely how much of your argument to forecast
in the introduction. However, these suggestions can guide you: In writing a self-
announcing argument, forecast only what is needed for clarity. In short arguments,
readers often need only your claim. In longer arguments, however, or in especially
complex arguments, readers appreciate your forecasting the complete structure of
the argument (claim with reasons). Also, as we explain in later chapters, the direct-
ness of classical argument is not always the best way to reach all audiences. On
many occasions more open-form or delayed-thesis approaches are more effective.
For Writing and Discussion
Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal
Individual task:
1. Choose one of the following reasons. Then write a passage that provides grounds to support the
reason. Use details from personal experience or imagine plausible, hypothetical details.
a. Web surfing or checking social media can be harmful to college students because it wastes study time.
b. Getting one’s news from social media undermines informed citizenship because social media tend
to sensationalize news events.
c. The university’s decision to raise parking fees for solo drivers is a good environmental plan because
it encourages students to use public
transportation.
2. Now create an argument to support the warrant for the reason you chose in task 1. The warrants for
each of the arguments are stated below.
a. Support this warrant: Wasting study time is harmful for college students.
b. Support this warrant: Sensationalizing of the news is harmful to citizens’ understanding.
c. Support this warrant: It is good for the environment to encourage students to use public
transportation.
Group task:
Working in pairs, small groups, or as a class, share your strategies for supporting your chosen reason and
warrant.
Conclusion
Chapters 2 and 3 have provided an anatomy of argument. They have shown that
the core of an argument is a claim with reasons that usually can be summarized in
one or more because clauses attached to the claim. Often, it is as important to articu-
late and support the underlying assumptions in your argument (warrants) as it is
to support the stated reasons because a successful argument should be rooted in
The Logical Structure of Arguments 51
your audience’s beliefs and values. To plan an audience-based argument strategy,
arguers can use the Toulmin schema to help them discover grounds, warrants, and
backing for their arguments and test them through conditions of rebuttal.
A Note on the Informal Fallacies
The Toulmin system explained in this chapter is a response to the problem of
uncertainty or inconclusiveness in real-world arguments, where we have to deal
with probability as opposed to the certainty of formal logic. In the real world, we
seldom encounter arguments that are absolutely conclusive. We can say that an
argument is more or less “persuasive” or “non-persuasive” to certain audiences
but not that it proves its case conclusively.
Another response to the problem of conclusiveness is the class of reasoning prob-
lems known as the informal fallacies. (You have probably heard of at least some of
them with their exotic, Latinate, or sometimes funny names hasty generalization,
post hoc ergo propter hoc, slippery slope, or poisoning the well.) They are called
“informal” because, like the Toulmin system, they don’t focus on the form of the
syllogism.* Although the fallacies are not useful for helping writers plan and test
their own arguments, they can often help us name what is uncertain or illogically
seductive in someone else’s argument. They function as a compendium of the ways
that flawed arguments can nevertheless seem persuasive on the surface. To provide
flexibility in the way that informal fallacies can be integrated into a course, we have
placed them all together in a convenient appendix at the end of the text.
Writing Assignment
Plan of an Argument’s Details
This assignment asks you to return to the working thesis statement that you created for the brief writing
assignment in Chapter 2. From that thesis statement extract one of your enthymemes (your claim with one
of your because clauses). Write out the warrant for your enthymeme. Then use the Toulmin schema to brain-
storm the detai ls you might use (grounds, backing, conditions of rebuttal) to convert your enthymeme into
a fleshed-out argument. Use as your model Chandale’s planning notes or Carmen’s planning notes earl ier
in this chapter. Note that this is a process-oriented brainstorming task aimed at helping you generate ideas
for an argument in progress. You may end up changing your ideas substantially as you compose the actual
argument. (An assignment to write a complete “supporting reasons” argument like Carmen’s comes at the
end of the next chapter, which explains the uses of evidence.)
*A syllogism is a three-part logical structure containing a major premise, a minor p remise,
and a conclusion. If the syllogism is worded in a valid, correct way and if the premises are
both true, then the conclusion must necessarily be true.
Major premise: All men are mortal.
Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
Chapter 5
Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
5.1 Explain how the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos
work
together to move your audience.
5.2 Create effective appeals to ethos.
5.3 Create effective appeals to pathos.
5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the “timeliness” of your argument.
5.5 Explain how images make visual appeals to logos, ethos, pathos,
and kairos.
5.6 Explain how audience-based reasons appeal to logos, ethos,
pathos, and kairos.
In Chapters 3 and 4 we focused on logos the logical structure of reasons and
evidence in argument. Even though we have treated logos in its own chapters, an
effective arguer’s concern for logos is always connected to ethos and pathos (see
the rhetorical triangle in Figure 2.2) and always considers the kairos, or timeliness
of the argument. This chapter explains how arguers can create effective appeals
from ethos, pathos, and kairos. It also explains the crucial role played by concrete
language, examples, narrative stories, and use of images in enhancing ethical
and emotional appeals. We conclude by showing how audience-based reasons
enhance logos while also appealing to ethos and pathos.
67
68 Chapter 5
Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive
Appeals: An Overview
5.1 Explain how the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos work
together to move your audience.
At first, one may be tempted to think of logos, ethos, and pathos as “ingredients”
in an essay, like spices you add to a casserole. But a more appropriate meta-
phor might be that of different lamps and filters used on theater spotlights to
vary lighting effects on a stage. Thus, if you switch on a pathos lamp (possibly
through using more concrete language or vivid examples), the resulting image
will engage the audience’s sympathy and emotions more deeply. If you overlay
an ethos filter (perhaps by adopting a different tone toward your audience), the
projected image of the writer as a person will be subtly altered. If you switch on
a logos lamp (by adding, say, more data for evidence), you will draw the reader’s
attention to the logical appeal of the argument. Depending on how you modulate
the lamps and filters, you shape and color your readers’ perception of you and
your argument.
Our metaphor is imperfect, of course, but our point is that logos, ethos, and
pathos work together to create an impact on the reader. Consider, for example,
the different impacts of the following arguments, all having roughly the same
logical appeal.
1. People should adopt a vegetarian diet because doing so will help prevent the
cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.
2. If you are planning to eat chicken tonight, please consider how much that
chicken suffered so that you could have a tender and juicy meal. Commer-
cial growers cram the chickens so tightly together into cages that they never
walk on their own legs, see sunshine, or flap their wings. In fact, their beaks
must be cut off to keep them from pecking each other’s eyes out. One way to
prevent such suffering is for more people to become vegetarians.
3. People who eat meat are no better than sadists who torture other sentient
creatures to enhance their own pleasure. Unless you enjoy sadistic tyranny
over others, you have only one choice: Become a vegetarian.
4. People committed to justice might consider the extent to which our love of
eating meat requires the agony of animals. A visit to a modern chicken fac-
tory where chickens live their entire lives in tiny, darkened coops without
room to spread their wings might raise doubts about our right to inflict such
suffering on sentient creatures. Indeed, such a visit might persuade us that
vegetarianism is a more just alternative.
Each argument has roughly the same logical core:
But the impact of each argument varies. The difference between arguments
1 and 2, most of our students report, is the greater emotional power of argument
2. Whereas argument 1 refers only to the abstraction “cruelty to animals,” argu-
ment 2 paints a vivid picture of chickens with their beaks cut off to prevent their
pecking each other blind. Argument 2 makes a stronger appeal to pathos (not
necessarily a stronger argument), stirring feelings by appealing simultaneously
to the heart and to the head.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: People should adopt a vegetarian diet
REASON: because doing so will help prevent
the cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.
GROUNDS
• Evidence of suffering in commercial chicken
farms, where chickens are crammed together
and lash out at one another
• Evidence that only widespread adoption of
vegetarianism will end factory farming
WARRANT
If we have an alternative to making animals
suffer, we should use it.
Moving Your Audience 69
The difference between arguments 1 and 3 concerns both ethos and pathos.
Argument 3 appeals to the emotions through highly charged words such as tor-
ture, sadists, and tyranny. But argument 3 also draws attention to its writer, and
most of our students report not liking that writer very much. His stance is self-
righteous and insulting. In contrast, argument 4’s author establishes a more posi-
tive ethos. He establishes rapport by assuming his audience is committed to justice
and by qualifying his argument with the conditional term might. He also invites
sympathy for the chickens’ plight an appeal to pathos by offering a specific
description of chickens crammed into tiny coops.
Which of these arguments is best? The answer depends on the intended audi-
ence. Arguments 1 and 4 seem aimed at receptive audiences reasonably open to
exploration of the issue, whereas arguments 2 and 3 seem designed to shock com-
placent audiences or to rally a group of true believers. Even argument 3, which is
too abusive to be effective in most instances, might work as a rallying speech at a
convention of animal liberation activists.
Our point thus far is that logos, ethos, and pathos are different aspects of the same
whole, different lenses for intensifying or softening the light beam you project onto
the screen. Every choice you make as a writer affects in some way each of the three
appeals. The rest of this chapter examines these choices in more detail.
How to Create an Effective Ethos:
The Appeal to Credibility
5.2 Create effective appeals to ethos.
The ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians recognized that an argument would be
more persuasive if the audience trusted the speaker. Aristotle argued that such trust
resides within the speech itself, not in the speaker’s prior reputation. Speakers proj-
ect their credibility through their manner and delivery, their tone, their word choice,
70 Chapter 5
their use of trustworthy evidence, and the sympathy and fairness with which they
treat alternative views. Aristotle called the impact of the speaker’s credibility the
appeal from ethos. How does a writer create credibility? We suggest four ways:
• Be knowledgeable about your issue. The first way to gain credibility is to
be credible that is, to argue from a strong base of knowledge, to have at
hand the examples, personal experiences, statistics, and other empirical data
needed to make a sound case. If you have done your homework, you will
command the attention of most audiences.
• Be fair. Besides being knowledgeable about your issue, you need to demon-
strate fairness and courtesy to alternative views. Because true argument can
occur only where people may reasonably disagree with one another, your
ethos will be strengthened if you demonstrate that you understand and empa-
thize with other points of view. There are times when you may appropriately
scorn an opposing view. But these times are rare, and they mostly occur when
you address audiences predisposed to your view. Demonstrating empathy to
alternative views is generally the best strategy.
• Build a bridge to your audience. A third means of establishing credibility-
building a bridge to your audience has been treated at length in our ear-
lier discussions of audience-based reasons. By grounding your argument in
shared values and assumptions, you demonstrate your goodwill and enhance
your image as a trustworthy person respectful of your audience’s views. We
mention audience-based reasons here to show how this aspect of logos-
finding the reasons that are most rooted in the audience’s values also affects
your ethos as a person respectful of your readers’ views.
• Demonstrate professionalism. Finally, you can enhance your ethos by the
professionalism revealed in your manuscript itself. Appropriate style, care-
ful editing and proofreading, accurate documentation, and adherence to the
genre conventions expected by your audience all contribute to the image of
the person behind the writing. If your manuscript is sloppy, marred by spell-
ing or grammatical errors, or inattentive to the tone and style of the expected
genre, your credibility will be damaged.
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal
to Beliefs and Emotions
5.3 Create effective appeals to pathos.
Before the federal government outlawed unsolicited telephone marketing, news-
papers published flurries of articles complaining about annoying telemarketers.
Within this context, a United Parcel Service worker, Bobbi Buchanan, wanted
to create sympathy for telemarketers. She wrote a New York Times op-ed piece
entitled “Don’t Hang Up, That’s My Mom Calling,” which begins as follows:
To those Americans who have signed up for the new national do-not-call list, my
mother [a telemarketer] is a pest …. To others, she’s just another anonymous voice
on the other end of the line. But to those who know her, she’s someone struggling
to make a buck, to feed herself and pay her utilities.
Moving Your Audience 71
The op-ed continues with a heartwarming description of Buchanan’s mother,
La Verne. Buchanan’s rhetorical aim is to transform the reader’s anonymous,
depersonalized image of telemarketers into the concrete image of her mother:
a “hardworking, first generation American; the daughter of a Pittsburgh steel-
worker; survivor of the Great Depression; the widow of a World War II veteran;
a mother of seven, grandmother of eight, great-grandmother of three …. “The
intended effect is to alter our view of telemarketers through the positive emotions
triggered by our identification with La Verne.
By urging readers to think of “my mother, La Verne” instead of an anonymous
telemarketer, Buchanan illustrates the power of pathos, an appeal to the reader’s
emotions. Arguers create pathetic appeals whenever they connect their claims
to readers’ values, thus triggering positive or negative emotions depending on
whether these values are affirmed or transgressed. Pro-life proponents appeal to
pathos when they graphically describe the dismemberment of a fetus during an
abortion. Proponents of improved women’s health and status in Africa appeal to
pathos when they describe the helplessness of wives forced to have unprotected
sex with husbands likely infected with HIV. Opponents of oil exploration in the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) appeal to pathos when they lovingly
describe the calving grounds of caribou.
Are such appeals legitimate? Our answer is yes, if they intensify and deepen
our response to an issue rather than divert our attention from it. Because under-
standing is a matter of feeling as well as perceiving, pathos can give access to
nonlogical, but not necessarily nonrational, ways of knowing. Pathos helps us see
what is deeply at stake in an issue, what matters to the whole person. Appeals to
pathos help readers walk in the writer’s shoes. That is why arguments are often
improved through the use of stories that make issues come alive or sensory details
that allow us to see, feel, and taste the reality of a problem.
Appeals to pathos become illegitimate, we believe, when they confuse an issue
rather than clarify it. Consider the case of a student who argues that Professor
Jones ought to raise his grade from aD to a C, lest he lose his scholarship and
be forced to leave college, shattering the dreams of his dear old grandmother. To
the extent that students’ grades should be based on performance or effort, the
student’s image of the dear old grandmother is an illegitimate appeal to pathos
because it diverts the reader from rational criteria to irrational criteria. The weep-
ing grandmother may provide a legitimate motive for the student to study harder
but not for the professor to change a grade.
Although it is difficult to classify all the ways that writers can create appeals
from pathos, we will focus on four strategies: concrete language; specific exam-
ples and illustrations; narratives; and connotations of words, metaphors, and
analogies. Each of these strategies lends presence to an argument by creating
immediacy and emotional impact.
Use Concrete Language
Concrete language one of the chief ways that writers achieve voice can
increase the liveliness, interest level, and personality of a writer’s prose. When
used in argument, concrete language typically heightens pathos. For example,
consider the differences between the first and second drafts of the following
student argument:
72 Chapter 5
FIRST DRAFT
People who prefer driving a car to taking a bus think that taking the bus will
increase the stress of the daily commute. Just the opposite is true. Not being able
to find a parking spot when in a hurry to be at work or school can cause a person
stress. Taking the bus gives a person time to read or sleep, etc. It could be used as
a mental break.
SECOND DRAFT (CONCRETE LANGUAGE ADDED)
Taking the bus can be more relaxing than driving a car. Having someone else
behind the wheel gives people time to chat with friends or study for an exam. They
can check Instagram and Twitter, send text messages, doze off, read their favorite
news website, or get lost in a novel rather than foam at the mouth looking for a
parking space.
In this revision, specific details enliven the prose by creating images that
evoke positive feelings. Who wouldn’t want some free time to doze off or to get
lost in a novel?
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations
Specific examples and illustrations serve two purposes in an argument: They pro-
vide evidence that supports your reasons; simultaneously, they give your argu-
ment presence and emotional resonance. Note the flatness of the following draft
arguing for the value of multicultural studies in a university core curriculum:
FIRST DRAFT
Another advantage of a multicultural education is that it will help us see our
own culture in a broader perspective. If all we know is our own heritage, we might
not be inclined to see anything bad about this heritage because we won’ t know
anything else. But if we study other heritages, we can see the costs and benefits of
our own heritage.
Now note the increase in presence and emotional resonance when the writer adds
a specific example:
SECOND DRAFT (EXAMPLE ADDED)
Another advantage of multicultural education is that it raises questions about
traditional Western values. For example, owning private property (such as buying
your own home) is part of the American dream. However, in studying the beliefs
of American Indians, students are confronted with a very different view of private
property. When the U.S. government sought to buy land in the Pacific Northwest
from Chief Sealth, he is alleged to have replied:
Moving Your Audience 73
The president in Washington sends words that he wishes to buy our land.
But h ow can you buy or sell the sky? The land? The idea is strange to us.
If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how
can you buy them? [ … ] We are part of the earth and it is part of us. [ … ]
This we know: The earth d oes not belong to man, man belongs to the earth.
Our class was shocked by the contrast between traditional Western views of
property and Chief Sealth’s views. One of our b est class discussions was initi-
ated by th is quotation from Chief Sealth. Had we not been exposed to a view
from anoth er culture, we would have never been led to question the “rightness”
of Western values.
Th e writer begins his revision by evoking a traditional Western v iew of p ri-
vate proper ty, which h e then questions by shifting to Chief Sealth ‘ s vision of
land as op en, endless, and unob tainable as the sk y. Th rough the use of a specific
example, the writer brings to life his previously abstract point about the benefit
of multicultural education.
Use Narratives
A par ticularly powerful way to evoke pathos is to tell a st ory tha t either leads
into your claim or emb odies it implicitly and that appeals to your readers’
feelin gs and imagination. Brief narratives wheth er true or hypothetical are
particularly effective as opening attention grabber s for an argument. To illus-
trate h ow an introductory narrative (either a story or a brief scene) can create
appeals to pathos, consider the following fi rst paragraph to an argumen t oppos-
ing jet skis:
I d ove off the dock into the lake, and as I approached the surface I could see the
sun shining through the water. As my head popped out, I located my cousin a few
feet away in a rowboat waiting to escort me as I, a twelve-year-old girl, attemp ted
to swim across the mile-wide, pristine lake and back to our dock. I made it, and that
glorious summer day is one of my most precious memories. Today, however, no
one would dare attempt that swim. Jet skis have taken over this small lake where
I sp ent many summers with my grand parents. Dozens of whining jet skis criss-
cross the lake, ruining it for swimming, fishing, canoeing, rowboating, and even
water-skiing. More stringent state laws are needed to control jet skiing because it
interferes with other uses of lakes and is currently very d angerous.
This narrative makes a case for a particular point of view toward jet skis by win-
ning our identification w ith the writer’s experience. She invites us to relive that
experience with her while she also taps into our own treasured memories of sum-
mer experien ces th at have been destroyed by change.
Op ening n arratives to evoke pathos can be p owerfully effective, but they are
also risky. If they are too private, too self-indulgent, too sentimental, or even too
dramatic and fo rceful, they can backfire. If you have doubts about an op ening
narrative, read it to a sample audience before using it in your fina l draft.
74 Chapter 5
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies
with Appropriate Connotations
Another way of appealing to pathos is to select words, metaphors, or analo-
gies with connotations that match your aim. We have already described this
strategy in our discussion of the “framing” of evidence in Chapter 4. By using
words with particular connotations, a writer guides readers to see th e issue
through the writer’s angle of vision. Thus, if you want to create positive feelings
about a recent city council decision, you can call it “bold and decisive”; if you
want to create negative feelings, you can call it “short-sighted and autocratic.”
Similarly, writers can use favorable or unfavorable metaphors and analogies to
evoke different imaginative or emotional responses. A tax bill m ight be viewed
as a “potentially fatal poison pill” or as “unpleasant but necessary economic
medicine.” In each of these cases, the words create an emotional as well as intel-
lectual response.
For Writing and Discussion
Incorporating Appeals to Pathos
Outside class, rew rite the introd uct ion to one of you r previous papers (or a current draft) to include more
appeals to pathos. Use any of t he strateg ies for g iving your argument presence: concrete language, specific
examples, narrat ives, metaphors, analog ies, and connotative wo rds. Bring both you r orig inal and your
rewritten introduct ions to c lass. In pairs or in groups, d iscuss the comparat ive effectiveness of these int ro-
d uctions in trying to reac h your intended audience.
Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness
of Arguments
5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the ”timeliness” of your argument.
To increase your argument’s effectiveness, you need to consider not only its
appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos, but also its kairos that is, its timing, its appro-
priateness for the occasion. Kairos is one of those wonderful words adopted from
another language (in this case, ancient Greek) that is impossible to define, yet
powerful in w hat it represents. In Greek, kairos means “right time,” “season,” or
“opportunity.” It differs subtly from the ordinary Greek word for time, chronos,
the root of our words “chronology” and “chronometer.” You can measure chronos
by looking at your watch, but you measure kairos by sensing the opportune time
through psychological attentiveness to situation and meaning. To think kairoti-
cally is to be attuned to the total context of a situation in order to act in the right
way at the right moment. By analogy, consider a skilled base runner who senses
the right moment to steal second, a wise teacher who senses the right moment to
praise or critique a student’s performance, or a successful psychotherapist who
senses the right moment to talk rather than listen in a counseling session. Kairos
reminds us that a rhetorical situation is not stable and fixed, but evolves as events
Moving Your Audience 75
unfold or as audiences experience the psychological ebbs and flows of attention
and care. Here are some examples that illustrate the range of insights contained
by the term kairos:
• If you write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or post a response to a blog,
you usually have a one- or two-day window before a current event becomes
“old news” and is no longer interesting. An out-of-date response will go
unread, not because it is poorly written or argued but because it misses its
kairotic moment. (Similar instances of lost timeliness occur in class discus-
sions: On how many occasions have you wanted to contribute an idea to class
discussion, but the professor doesn’t acknowledge your raised hand? When
you finally are called on, the kairotic moment has passed.)
• Bobbi Buchanan’s “Don’t Hang Up, That’s My Mom Calling,” which we used
earlier in this chapter to illustrate pathos, could have been written only dur-
ing a brief historical period when telemarketing was being publicly debated.
Moreover, it could have been written only late in that period, after numerous
writers had attacked telemarketers. The piece was published in The New York
Times because the editor received it at the right kairotic moment.
• A sociology major is writing a senior capstone paper as a graduation require-
ment. The due date for the paper is fixed, so the timing of the paper isn’t
at issue. But kairos is still relevant. It urges the student to consider what is
appropriate for such a paper. What is the “right way” to produce a sociology
paper at this moment in the history of the discipline? Currently, what are
leading-edge versus trailing-edge questions in sociology? What theorists are
now in vogue? What research methods would most impress a judging com-
mittee? How would a good capstone paper written in 2019 differ from one
written a decade earlier?
As you can see from these examples, kairos concerns a whole range of questions
connected to the timing, fitness, appropriateness, and proportions of a message
within an evolving rhetorical context. There are no rules to help you determine
the kairotic moment for your argument, but being attuned to kairos will help you
“read” your audience and rhetorical situation in a dynamic way.
Often you can establish the kairos of your argument in the opening sentences
of your introduction. An introduction might mention a recent news event, politi-
cal speech, legislative bill, or current societal problem that the audience may have
experienced, thereby using awareness of kairos to connect with the audience’s
interests, knowledge, and experience. Elsewhere in your argument, attention to
kairos can infuse currency and immediacy by establishing the stakes in the argu-
ment and enlisting the audience’s concern. For example, if you are going to argue
that your university’s policy on laptops in the classroom is too restrictive, you
might enhance your argument by mentioning several recent editorials in your
campus newspaper on this subject. If you are going to argue for increased urban
gardening in your city, you might cite a recent TED talk on successful experi-
ments with urban gardening. If you are creating a text that includes images,
you might also establish kairos through a photograph or cartoon that signals
appropriate currency. Thinking about kairos helps you focus on the public con-
versation your argument is joining and on your audience’s interests, knowledge,
and values.
76 Chapter 5
For Writing and Discussion
Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos, Pathos,
and Kairos
Your instructor w ill select an argument for analysis. Working in small groups or as a class, analyze the assigned
argument first from the perspective of kairos and then from the perspectives of logos, ethos, and pathos.
1. As you analyze the argument from the perspective of kairos, consider the fol lowing questions:
a. What is the motivating occasion for this argument? That is, what causes this writer to put pen to
paper or fingers to keyboard?
b. What conversation is the writer joining? Who are the other voices in this conversation? What are
these voices saying that compels the writer to add his or her own voice? How was the stage set to
create the kairotic moment for this argument?
c. Who is the writer’s intended aud ience and why?
d. What is the writer’s purpose? Toward what view or action is the writer trying to persuade his or
her audience?
e. To what extent can various features of the argument be explained by your understanding of its
kairotic moment?
2. Now analyze the same argument for its appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos. How successful is this
argument in achieving its writer’s purpose?
Using Images to Appeal to Logos,
Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
5.5 Explain how images make visual appeals to logos, ethos, pathos,
and kairos.
One of the most powerful ways to move your audience is to use photos or other
images that can appeal to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos in one glance. (Chapter 9
focuses exclusively on visual rhetoric the persuasive power of images.) Although
many written arguments do not lend themselves to visual illustrations, we suggest
that when you construct arguments you consider the potential of visual support.
Imagine that your argument is to be delivered as a PowerPoint presentation or
appear in a newspaper, in a magazine, or on a website where space will be pro-
vided for one or two visuals. What photographs or drawings might help persuade
your audience toward your perspective?
When images work well, they make particularly powerful appeals to pathos
analogous to the verbal strategies of concrete language, specific illustrations, nar-
ratives, and connotative words. The challenge in using visuals is to find material
that is straightforward enough to be understood without elaborate explanations,
that is timely and relevant, and that clearly adds impact to a specific part of your
argument. As an example, suppose you are writing an argument supporting fund-
raising efforts to help a developing country that has recently experienced a natural
catastrophe. To add a powerful appeal to pathos, you might consider incorporating
into your argument the photograph shown in Figure 5.1 of the devastation and
personal loss caused by Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in 2013. A photograph
such as this one can evoke a strong emotional and imaginative response as well
as make viewers think.
For Writing and Discussion
Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos
Individual task:
Use the following questions to analyze the photo in Figure 5.1.
Moving Your Audience 77
1. How would you describe the emotional/ imag inative impact of Figure 5.1? What specific detai ls of the
photo create its appeal to pathos?
2. Many disaster-rel ief photos seek to convey the magn itude of the destruction and suffering, sometimes
shockingly, by depicting destroyed buildings, mangled bod ies, and images of human misery. How is
your response to Figure 5.1 similar to or d ifferent from your response to commonly encountered close-
up photographs of grief-stricken victims or to d istance shots of widespread destruction? To what extent
is Figure 5.1 ‘s story-told from the perspective of a child -different from the more typical photographs
of destroyed build ings or angu ished faces?
3. After searching the web for other photos taken after Typhoon Haiyan, write a rationale for why you
wou ld, or would not, choose this photo to accompany a proposal argument appealing for support for
people in this region of the Ph ilippines.
Group task:
Share your individual analysis and rationale with others in your class.
Figure 5.1 Photo after Typhoon Haiyan in the Ph ilippines
78 Chapter 5
Examining Visual Arguments
Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Efforts to combat sexual assault and date rape on college campuses have figured prominently in public con-
versation recently, with discussions booming on the websites of newly formed organizations and stories of
ral lies on university campuses appearing on news sites. As this advocacy poster shows, the need to bolster
bystander intervention is a critical piece in addressing this problem.
How does this advocacy poster attempt to move its audience? Analyze the poster’s visual and verbal
appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos.
Moving Your Audience 79
How Audience-Based Reasons
Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos,
and Kairos
5.6 Explain how audience-based reasons appeal to logos, ethos,
pathos, and kairos.
We conclude this ch apter b y returning to the con cept of audience-based reason s
that we introduced in Chapter 3. Audience-based reasons enhance logos becau se
they build on underlying assumptions (warrants) that the audien ce is likely to
accept. But they also enhan ce ethos, pathos, and kairos b y helping the audien ce
identify w ith the w riter, by appealing to shared beliefs and valu es, and by con vey-
ing a shared sense of an issue’s timeliness. To consider the need s of your audience,
you can ask yourself the questions in Table 5.1.
To see h ow a con cern for audien ce-based reason s can enhan ce ethos and
pathos, we ask you to role p lay a student in the following h yp othetical scenario.
Interested in a career in public h ealth, you are a nursing m ajor w h o h as d on e
Table 5.1 Questions for Analyzing Your Aud ience
1. Who is your audience?
2 . How much does your
audience know or care
about your issue?
3 . What is your audience ‘s
current attitude toward
your issue?
4 . What will be your
audience’s likely objections
to your argument?
5 . What values, beliefs, or
assumptions about the
world do you and your
audience share?
Your answer wil l help you thin k about audience-based reasons.
• Are you writing to a single person , a committee, or the general readership of a newspaper,
magazine, blog, and so forth?
• Are your readers academics, professionals, other students, general citizens, or people with
specialized background and interests?
• Can you expect your audience to be politically and culturally liberal , middle of the road ,
conservative, or a mixture of these groups?
• What are the rel igious views of your audience?
• How do you picture your audience in terms of social class, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, gender identity, age, and cultural identity?
• To what extent does your audience share your own interests and cultural position? Are you
writing to insiders or to outsiders with regard to you r own values and beliefs?
Your answer can especially affect your introduction and conclusion.
• Do your readers need background on your issue, or are they already in the conversation?
• If you are writing to specific decision makers, are they currently aware of the problem you are
addressing? If not , how can you get their attention?
• Does your audience care about your issue? If not , how can you get them to care?
Your answer wil l help you decide the structure and tone of your argument.
• Are your readers already supportive of your position? Undecided? Skeptical? Strongly opposed?
• What points of view other than your own will your audience be weighi ng?
Your answer wil l help determine the content of your argument and wi ll alert you to extra research
you may need to conduct.
• What weaknesses will audience members find in your argument?
• What aspects of your position will be most threatening to your audience and why?
Your answer wil l help you find common ground with you r audience.
• How are your basic assumptions, values, or beliefs different from your audience’s?
• Despite different points of view on th is issue, where can you find common ground with
you r audience?
• How might you use common ground to build bridges to your audience?
80 Chapter 5
research on the obesity crisis in the United States. You have also researched the
role of sugary soda and energy drinks in promoting heart disease and diabetes.
Recently health advocates in your city have teamed with preschool education
advocates to persuade the city council to propose a soda tax. Revenue from the tax
would be used to improve the city’s preschool programs. Your city council points
to nationwide precedents for soda taxes, citing Philadelphia; Berkeley, California;
and Cook County, Illinois, which includes Chicago. Other cities, such as Seattle,
are on the verge of creating such a tax. The tax being proposed in your city would
raise the price of a twelve-pack of soda by four dollars; the p rice of a large foun-
tain soda at a fast-food restaurant would go up 35 cents.
As you can expect, the proposed tax is controversial. Opponents include the
beverage industry, grocery store owners, fast-food restaurants, truck drivers (who
deliver soda to the stores), and citizens who oppose the government’s telling
private citizens what they should or should not buy. Proponents include health
advocates and education advocates. Medical and nursing associations point to the
long-range health benefits of reducing consumption of sugary drinks. Meanwhile,
education advocates point to the value of improved and extended preschool pro-
grams made possible by revenue from the soda tax.
Your school ‘s student nurse association is scheduling a meeting next week
to produce an advocacy piece in favor of the soda tax. Here is your dilemma:
You are opposed to the soda tax, not from the perspective of business owners but
from the perspective of d isproportionate costs to lower-income city residents.
What bothers you is the fact that the soda tax is regressive, meaning that it will hit
low-income consumers harder than wealthier consumers. Will you have enough
courage to sp eak out at the nursing association meeting? After all, your anti-tax
stance will be unpopular among other nursing students, even though it m igh t be
applauded by business owners, truck drivers, and the beverage industry.
As you think about your upcoming speech, you formulate your audience-
based problem like this:
Problem: How can I create an argument rooted in shared values with my fel-
low nursing students? How can I reduce my audience’s fear that I am becom-
ing an advocate for the beverage industry? How can I make the case th at I
share my audience’s goals of reducing sugar consumption and improving
preschool education? How can I show that these goals might be accomplished
in a fairer way?
Possible bridge-building strategies:
• Show th at I support the health goals of our nursing association to figh t
obesity-related d iseases by reducing consump tion of sugary drinks.
• Show that I support the educational goals made reachable by revenue from
the tax. This revenue w ill make improved preschool education available for
all children in the city.
• Stress that both my audience and I share a concern for the welfare of the poor-
est citizens, who will be hit hardest by the tax.
• Make the case th at the tax will eat up a higher proportion of poor people’s
income than wealthier people’s income. Research shows that poorer people
buy more soda than wealthy people. Paying an extra four dollars for a 12-pack
of soda p uts a substantial strain on a p oor family’s budget. (Wealth y p eople
Moving Your Audience 81
often choose diet soda or get their sugar fix from syrups in their espresso
coffee drinks). The cost of improving the city’s preschools will thus be borne
disproportionately by the poor.
• Show that the values underlying the tax are incoherent: If the tax truly reduces
consumption of soda (the goal of health advocates), then it will not generate
enough revenue to achieve the goals of the education advocates. In sum, the
goals of one set of tax proponents are in conflict with the goals of the other
set of proponents.
• Show that the goal of reducing sugar consumption might be better achieved
through an aggressive educational campaign. Putting a “sin tax” on soda
won’t be as effective in the long run as raising public awareness about healthy
diets and the danger of wasted calories.
• Show that the goal of improving preschool education can be achieved by
establishing a fairer tax that puts a higher burden on wealthier people who
can afford it.
These thinking notes allow you to develop the following p lan for your argument:
Our nursing association should take a courageous stand against the
soda tax
• because a soda tax places a disproportionate burden on low-income
consumers. (WARRANT: Taxes that primarily burden low-income consumers are
unfair.)
• because preschool revenue can be raised by a more equitable tax that burdens
the wealthy more than the poor. (WARRANT: It is fair for wealthier people to pay
a greater proportion of their income on taxes than the poor.)
• because an educational campaign may be more effective than a soda tax in
changing long-range diet behaviors. (WARRANT: If alternative solutions can be
applied to a problem, the one promoting long-range change is better.)
As this p lan shows, your strategy is to seek reasons whose warrants your audi-
ence will accept. Even though you oppose the soda tax, your argument differs
significantly from the pro-business arguments mounted by the beverage industry.
Whereas their arguments are aimed at undecided voters, your argument is aimed
specifically at supporters of the tax. You can hope to persuade them only if you can
build bridges to them with audience-based reasons and appeals to shared values.
For Writing and Discussion
Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy
Individual task:
1. Choose one of the following cases and plan an audience-based argumentative strategy. Follow the t hink-
ing process used by the writer of the anti-soda tax argument: (1) state several problems t hat the writer
must solve to reach t he audience, and (2) develop possible solutions to those problems.
a. An argument for the right of software companies t o continue making and sell ing v iolent v ideo
games: Aim the argument at parent s who oppose their ch ildren playing these games.
(continued)
82 Chapter 5
b. An argument to reverse grade inflation by limiting the number of As and Bs a professor can give in
a course: A im the argument at students who fear getting lower grades.
c. An argument supporting the legalization of cocaine: Aim the argument at readers of Reader’s Digest,
a conservative magazine that supports the current war on drugs.
Group task:
Share your plann ing notes with other members of your c lass, and d iscuss how your sketched argument
would make appeals to ethos and pathos as well as to logos.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we explored ways that writers can strengthen the persuasiveness of
their arguments by creating appeals to ethos and pathos, by being attentive to kairos,
by thinking visually, and by building bridges to their readers through audience-
based reasons. Arguments are more persuasive if readers trust the writer’s cred-
ibility and if the argument appeals to readers’ hearts and imaginations as well as to
their intellects. Attentiveness to kairos keeps the writer attuned to the dynamics of a
rhetorical situation in order to create the right message at the right time. Sometimes
images such as drawings or photographs may reinforce the argument by evoking
strong emotional responses, thus enhancing pathos. Finally, all these appeals come
together when the writer explicitly focuses on finding audience-based reasons.
Writing Assignment
Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons
Part 1:
Choose an argument that you have previously written or that you are currently drafting. Revise the argument
with explicit focus on increasing its appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos via audience-based reasons
and other strategies. Consider especially how you might improve ethos by building bridges to the audience
or improve pathos through concrete language, specific examples, metaphors, or connotations of words.
Finally, consider the extent to which your reasons are audience-based.
Or
Create a multimodal argument by adding effective photographs or images to an argument that you have pre-
v iously written or are currently drafting that could be enhanced with effective photographs or images. Revise
your argument to include these images, perhaps creating a desktop-publ ished document that wraps text
around visuals chosen to enhance pathos. Other multimodal possibilities include transforming your argu-
ment into a speech supported by PowerPoint images (see Chapter 15, into a poster argument (see Chapter
9), or even into a podcast that includes music.
Part 2:
Attach to your revision or transformed project a reflective letter explain ing the choices you made in revising
your original argument or in transform ing it using a mu ltimodal approach. Describe for your instructor the
changes or transformations you made, and explain how or why your new version enhances your argument’s
effectiveness at moving its audience.
- Part One Principles of Argument
2 The Core of an Argument:A Claim with Reasons
3 The Logical Structure of Arguments:logos
5 Moving Your Audience:Ethos,Pathos,and Kairos