1Literature Review Outline
Joran Straub
DePaul University
Prof. Lewis-Elligan
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Literature Review Outline
Thematic-Methods
I.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Introduction
What
Why
How
Aim & Research Questions
How does a child’s upbringing affect a late adolescent life achievements and
success?
Success is a very subjective topic, but it is often measured by educational attainment,
career paths, and wealth attainment. The potential for success can be tied to a child’s
parental figures and the guidance and mentorship that is provided in the home. The
relationship between the sociological factors in a child’s upbringing and the behaviors
through late adolescence or age 25.
Factors/Variables:During the development of a child many sociological factors
influence how a child will turn out and up to and beyond their late adolescence stage
in life. Some of those factors include a family’s socioeconomic status, household size,
parental educational attainment, parental career choices, emotional environment,
and parental criminal history.
Question/Aim Many studies and research have been conducted to explore the
relationships between these independent sociological factors and late adolescence
successes of children. I believe that it is important to investigate the connection of all
these factors combined to get a better understanding of how they work together and the
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impacts they have. That is what I plan to do in this literature review. This literature review will
aim to answer the question; How does a child’s upbringing impact their late adolescent
successes or failures? The review of different pieces of literature related to these sociological
factors will enable us to draw an educated conclusion of the collective impact these factors may
have.
II.
Body (Here will be the background and then all the factors/variables you will
investigate. Each section will have its own heading eg. factor/variable will be a
heading)
A. Background Literature: Start with trends, household and family
characteristics related to SES, Class, Opportunity Structures- include
demographic
How a parent’s educational attainment, career path, socio-economic status
influences a child. Does a child follow parents career path? Does a child go to the
same college as the parents? Does a child pursuit similar degree as a parent? Does
a child achieve similar socio-economic status as parents, or do they aspire to
achieve similar status?
B. SES, Class & Inequality Literature: Use Annette Lareau’s Unequal Childhoods;
Shamus Khan’s Privilege; Ann Ferguson’s Bad Boys (these are ethnographies that
get at how class and family SES shapes youth outcomes. You will then come to
see how Bourdieu’s habitus and capital is related to youth outcomes.
C. Parenting Styles & Youth Outcomes Literature (gets at parent education &
SES)
How does the emotional environment of a home affect late adolescence behavioral
outcomes? Are children from emotionally stable homes have a better future? Are
there too many children in the home and a child feels that they are not getting
enough attention? Do children with single parent homes provide enough emotional
support? Are children in emotionally unstable homes more prone to under
achievement? Is there abuse in the home or abuse being inflicted on the child,
either physically or emotionally? Is there access to treatment?
D. Social learning Theory
E. Violence, Crime & Youth Outcomes Literature
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III.
Are the children exposed to criminal behaviors by the parents or other adults in the
household? Has the child already been involved in juvenile delinquency? Do the
parents have a criminal history? Has a rationale choice been made to be civil or
criminal?
Conclusion
A. I will review literature pertaining to all these topics and explore the relationship
amongst them. I will attempt to combine the results of studies and research
conducted on those topics independently and synthesize the information to get a
more total picture of how these sociological factors impact a child and affects their
late adolescence successes and failures.
You are on your way. Just organize and flesh out.
1)Please review the following ethnographies to understand how SES and class shape youth
outcomes. Three important ones Lareau’s Unequal Childhoods, Khan’s Privilege, Ferguson’s
Bad Boys (these should be available as ebooks at our library). Also you tube Lareau and Khan
talking about their work).
2) Pay attention to how they use Bourdieu’s capital habitus to explain youth outcomes.
3) Peruse journals- Family Relations, Journal of Family Theory & Review, and Journal of
Marriage and Family (These are leading journals from National Council on Family Relations
ncfr.org- the leading research & scholarly org on family). use keyword searches parenting
styles, youth outcomes, etc.
4) Get your literature organized
5) Write!
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Literature review
Introduction
The parenting method and techniques used in up bring a child has great contributions to
their later outcomes and how the adolescent stage occurs. This means that parenting styles have
great contributions to the success and outcomes of the children in their later years. In addition to
the parenting styles, other factors such as family background, socioeconomic status, parent
education, and career choices have great contributions to the well-being of the children. The
literature review explores the various factors that affect the development of a child and how their
adolescent life is also affected. The literature review researches various factors that influence the
upbringing of a child as important factors that also affect adolescent outcomes and success. Of
importance in the literature review include the influence of career path, educational attainment,
and socio-economic status of the parents and how they influence the upbringing of the children.
Also, the literature review assesses the contribution of the emotional environment in the home
set up to the child’s outcome. This involves how the environment affects the behavioral
development of a child. The research aims to understand how children from emotionally stable
families turn out to be, the effect of single mother up brings on the child, and the effects of abuse
at home on the wellbeing of the child.
Research attributes most of the children’s success to the contributions of their parents’
whim they emulate. Most children look to their parents as role models whom they would emulate
and follow. Thus the behavioral aspect, environment, and educational attainment among parents
play an important role in shaping the success and future of the children, both in adolescent and
career life. Education plays an important role for the children, which must also be influenced by
their parents. Literate parents support their children in most of the educational activities, such as
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homework and other activities that also contribute to the success of their education.
Socioeconomic status is another important factor that determines the success of the children in
one way or the other. Most children from socioeconomically stable families are assured of a
successful future, given that they may get proper educational support. Also, they are shielded
from the criminal environments that would affect their young and career future.
Family Structure
Family structure is one of the major issues that affect the education level as well as the
educational development of many children. Studies have shown there is a direct relationship
between family framework and children’s educational outcomes. Children brought up in a
particular family framework will most likely get more psychological, cultural, and social support
than kids raised in different settings. One aspect of family structure is the marital status of the
parents, whether married or single/ divorced. Fundamentally, several studies have indicated the
problems faced by single parents and the difficulties of their children compared to children
brought up in two-parent families. Even though some research has been inconclusive, a
significant number of studies have shown that children from single-parent (SP) households score
poorly on tests and get lower GPAs compared to kids raised in two-parent (TP) households
(Barajas, 2011; Ginther & Pollak, 2004).
Family size also impacts children’s educational outcomes. Essentially, the link between
family size and ensuing educational achievement can be caused by limitations of parental
resources. For instance, when parents have many children with limited resources, they tend to
invest less in their children compared to parents with many children. This thus results in a
negative link between family size and educational achievement. Also, larger families tend to
have less involvement in their children’s education than smaller families. Specifically, parents
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with many children tend to be less involved in their children’s educational activities and parents
with few children are more involved in their kids’ educational programs and activities (Bryant,
Peisner-Feinberg, & Miller-Johnson, 2000; De Haan, M. (2010).
Alderfer, (2004) supports Bryant, Peisner-Feinberg, & Miller-Johnson, (2000) and De
Haan, (2010) assertions regarding the effect of parental support on the educational outcomes of
their children. He argues that a family is regularly changing regarding the external and internal
demands of the ever-changing social landscape. According to Alderfer, if parents are in charge of
their families and there exists a framework of feedback between the parents and the children,
then it is possible for the development of flexible and adaptive boundaries that foster educational
achievement.
Socio-economic Status (SES)
Studies have established that children and teenagers from lower socioeconomic
households are at a higher risk of exhibiting negative mental health outcomes and reduced
mental wellbeing. Unlike teenagers from higher and mid-SES, teenagers from low SES depict
increased rates of mental health disorders like depression and anxiety and higher rates of
externalizing behaviors like exhibiting antisocial behaviors. Also, there is significant evidence
backing a connection between higher socioeconomic status and positive outcomes like increased
literacy, graduation, and completion of homework. Devenish, Hooley & Mellor (2017) found
that individual-level pathways are elements that facilitate the impacts of SES at the teenager or
child level. For instance, gender facilitated the impacts of shifting from a high poverty area to a
low poverty area among ethnic minority teenagers. Although male teenagers demonstrated
considerable academic attainment after the shift, the same cannot be said about females. Also,
teenagers’ response to stress is a major factor that impacts their academic outcomes. These
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researchers established that insights of increased economic stress were linked to decreased
academic involvement and outcomes through mental health conditions. It was found that parental
style is a facilitating element for the link between SES and adolescents’ outcomes. Specifically,
secure attachment increased the link between SES and crime (Chan, Miller, & Chen, 2016;
Devenish, Hooley & Mellor, 2017).
Family Stability
Studies have determined that children who are subjected to several transitions in family
structure do not fare well developmentally compared to children raised in stable homes with both
parents. Children tend to be impacted by interruption and changes in a family framework as
much as the form of family frameworks they experience. For instance, children fare worse
developmentally and educational-wise when their parents separate or divorce. Specifically,
studies regarding the consequences of parental separation and/or divorce for children’s welfare
have indicated that children of separated parents fare worse than children living with both
parents. The implications of separation on educational achievement may be of significance as
having a poor education may result in other social, economic, and health-related challenges
(Bernardi, & Radl, 2014; Fomby, & Cherlin, 2007). Furthermore, conventional families with two
married parents are likely to produce the best outcomes for their kids than families with single or
unmarried parents. The major aspects that underlie the relationship between family framework
and child wellbeing include parental relationship quality, parental resources, parenting quality,
parental mental wellbeing, and parental involvement (Waldfogel, Craigie, & Brooks-Gunn,
2010).
Parental behaviors also have an impact on children’s educational and behavioral
outcomes. According to Trang, & Yates (2020), (In) congruent opinions regarding parental
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hostility were linked to child-reported law-breaking behaviors. Essentially, congruent views of
significant parental hostility projected the increased possibility of child-reported law-breaking
actions while incongruent opinions of high parent-reported and low child-reported parental
hostility projected declined rates of child-reported law-breaking behaviors.
Researchers have also examined the implications of removing children from their homes
and placing them in the foster system. According to studies, children placed in foster care are
likely to develop and/or exhibit delinquency behaviors, have a lower income, and have high teen
birth rates compared to children who are raised in their homes. Specifically, there is a
relationship between foster care and reduced rates of school completion. In some cases, children
placed in the foster care system are maltreated by their foster parents and this reduces their
likelihood of completing their education. Studies have indicated that maltreatment is related to
several negative implications such as poor academic attainments, development of mental health
problems, underemployment, juvenile delinquency, teen pregnancy, and drug and substance
abuse (Cage, 2018; Doyle Jr, 2007).
Parental Substance Abuse
Some studies have been conducted to ascertain how the behaviors and conduct of parents
impact children’s outcomes. Research shows that children with incarcerated parents tend to be
negatively affected in the future. Specifically, studies have established the negative implications
of incarcerated parents to children and include academic underachievement, drug abuse,
financial constraints, and future involvement in criminal activities. It should be noted that
incarcerated individuals are affected as well as their families and this is likely to cause family
instability. Children whose parents are in prison tend to exhibit internalizing behaviors like
depression and anxiety, externalizing behaviors such as aggression and hyperactivity, as well as
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prosocial behaviors such as empathy and task completion (Haskins, Amorim & Mingo, 2018;
Hyppolite, 2017).
Parental alcohol consumption significantly affects children’s outcomes. According to
Mahedy, et al. 2018, parental behavior and the overall family influence are crucial in impacting
how adolescents consume alcohol and whether or not they experience some of the negative
effects of alcohol use. The researcher found that young people whose parents take alcohol are
more likely to take alcohol than those teenagers with parents who do not consume alcohol. This
link seems to be caused by an earlier alcohol consumption initiation and increased prevalence of
these teenagers interacting with deviant peers. Moreover, Assari, et al. (2019) investigated the
impacts of parental education on their children’s educational attainment. According to him,
parental educational achievement is proven to be protective against health issues. Nonetheless,
based on the minorities’ diminished returns theory, the protective impacts on ethnic minorities
are smaller compared to their white counterparts.
Parolin, et al. (2016) established that parental substance abuse is a key risk element for
child development, increasing the susceptibility of drug abuse in teenagers and adults, and
exposing their children to various forms of traumatic experiences. Fundamentally, the frequency
of substance use disorders (SUDs) linked to alcohol and other substances depicts a methodical
age-linked pattern: usually, the beginning occurs during the teenage years and rates increased
when they reach adulthood. Adolescence/teenage years is a time of particular susceptibility
because of neuro-developmental naivety and the continuing growth of inhibitory capability.
Environmental as well as postnatal elements cause intergenerational transmission of substance
use disorders and in some cases initiate and worsen a preexisting susceptibility. In terms of early
childrearing settings, mothers who abuse drugs and alcohol utilize inadequate and mostly
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deferred prenatal care and they exhibit limited knowledge regarding the development needs of
their children. This form of parenting is known as inadequate style (Parolin, et al. 2016).
In addition to substance-abusing mothers, the same form of inadequate parental style is
seen in substance-abusing fathers. Specifically, an inadequate style of caretaking has been
depicted in fathers who abuse alcohol and/or drugs, particularly during the early developmental
stages of their children and teenagers. Since most of these parents struggle with social loneliness,
unemployment, and mental health issues, they face challenges trying to attend to their children’s
health needs and ensure basic needs and financial support are provided and are adequate. In
addition to meeting the physical needs of their children, substance-abusing parents also fail to
meet the emotional needs of their kids. As a result, these children face several early traumatic
and negative experiences like violence, physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, parental
incarceration, and/or other forms of abuse and neglect. Research studies have established a direct
relationship between the figures of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and the possibility of
developing early substance issues. In other words, children with ACEs are likely to abuse drugs
and alcohol (Parolin, et al. 2016; Kuppens, et al. 2020).
Kuppens, et al. (2020) examine the long-term impacts of parental substance use disorders
on the well-being of their children. Fundamentally, the impacts of psychoactive SUDs are not
restricted only to the users but extend to other family members and society. Studies cite that
children of SUDs parents are at risk, especially for their wellbeing and health. These children are
also more likely to abuse drugs, alcohol, and other substances compared to children who are born
and raised by non-substance abusing parents. A significant number of children are likely to be
impacted by parental SUDs with statistics showing that at least 12% of children below the age of
17 in the United States live in a household with at least one parent with substance use disorder.
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Research findings have established that children whose parents abuse alcohol and drugs are
probable to develop several forms of behavioral, emotional, cognitive, physical, social, and
academic problems in the near future and in the long run. For instance, tobacco exposure causes
health problems in children and teenagers and increases the likelihood of these children using
and depending on tobacco (Kuppens, et al. 2020).
Researchers have linked parental substance abuse with a decline in the ability of which
parents to observe and monitor their kids, which undercuts their capability to offer a safe and
cultivation environment (Parolin, et al. 2016; Kuppens, et al. 2020). Moreover, instability
regarding family framework, employment, childcare, housing, and general household finances
has been proven to arise with parental SUDs, with implications that go beyond the family setting
to impact children’s social operations. Researchers, healthcare professionals, and policymakers
agree that parental SUDs negatively impact the well-being of children. Nonetheless, the level
and nature of this link are unknown because results from literature differ significantly in scale
and studies have essentially addressed the subcategory of child wellbeing outcomes.
Parental Incarceration
Parental incarceration considerably affects children’s upbringing which subsequently
impacts their late adolescent life achievement and success. Statistics show that 52% and 63% of
state and federal inmates respectively are parents to minors (children below 18 years). These
children constitute 2% of children in the United States. Statistics also show that millions of other
children in the US have had at least one parent imprisoned at some point in their life. This trend
raises the issue that mass incarceration unintentionally causes significant social problems to
children and adolescents. Studies have highlighted the social, psychological, and financial
adverse effects of parental incarceration on their kids citing that these effects might be long-
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lasting. The likelihood of possible long-lasting effects raises concerns regarding the social
development of children. Since the basics for successful adult lives are determined at a young
age, parental incarceration is likely to have unsettling impacts on children when they reach
adulthood.
The implications of incarceration go beyond the incarcerated individuals and extend to
their children and other family members. Specifically, the negative effects of parental
incarceration extend to children below the age of 17. According to Mears & Siennick (2016)
“collateral consequences “may be especially consequential for children of imprisoned parents
who are already at risk of growing up and coming of age in disadvantaged communities.” In
other words, when parents are incarcerated, their children are likely to grow up alone and engage
in deviant behaviors that will negatively affect their education and future life achievements.
Moreover, socialization, strain, and stigmatization modes have been utilized to project and
describe how parental incarceration may negatively impact the behaviors and growth, and
development of children. Life-course models provide a complementary standpoint regarding how
the imprisonment of parents has negative implications for children because it focuses on the way
development develops (Mears & Siennick, 2016).
Firm family support essentially offers a crucial basis in which children attain
developmental goals and psychosocial development. Effective transitions to adulthood entail
partly being competent enough to engage in prosocial activities, developing interpersonal skills,
and being able to self-govern in a manner in which self-worth is achieved and personal
objectives are attained. Life-course models define turning points as “an alteration or deflection in
a long-term pathway or trajectory that was initiated at an earlier point in time” (Mears &
Siennick, 2016). A criminal justice system is a form of a turning point because it causes
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significant changes in situations and closes off prospects for social networks, attainment of goals,
and relationships. It intensifies the economic and social marginalization of families and leads to
collateral implications on prospects for meaningful relationships with families and access to
comfortable lives. In other words, from the life-course model, parental incarceration entails a
turning point for kids because it causes interruptions in their emotional and social development
as they grow into adulthood (Mears & Siennick, 2016).
Parental Educational Attainment
Sutin, et al. (2019) investigate the impact parental educational attainment has on the
personality of the children. Behavioral genetics literature shows that approximately 50% of
personality changes are accredited to genetics. These works of literature also found that the
remaining 50% of the personality is accredited to the environment. This means that both genetics
and the environment contribute equally to the personality of an individual. In most cases, parents
are a crucial element of the environment from birth to adolescence. Studies cite that parental
traits may impact the child’s environment in several ways. Regarding the subject of parental
educational attainment and personality, educational attainment makes people live healthier and
more fulfilled lives. Specifically, people who have attained their educational goals tend to live
longer and are not susceptible to depression and other forms of mental illnesses. The benefit of
educational attainment extends beyond the person that achieves it to his children (offspring).
Parents who have achieved a higher level of education have children who have even achieved
more educational levels. In other words, parents with a high level of education have adequate
resources and high prospects thus prompting their children to achieve more (Sutin, et al. 2019;
Delaney, Harmon, & Redmond, 2011).
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There is a direct link between education and personality. Openness, one of the personality
traits, is often associated with higher educational attainment. In other words, people who have a
high score in openness are likely to stay longer in school than those with a low score. This link
may partially depict the overlap between aspects of openness and traits that are connected to
higher education. For instance, people who are intellectually inquisitive and love exploring
ideologies may be inspired by higher education to meet these needs. Furthermore, in addition to
the resources provided to children by parents with a higher level of educational attainment,
another reason why there is a link between parental educational attainment and that of his/her
children is the environment. Specifically, parents with higher education levels likely have stable
employment that can result in a steady and favorable environment. This environment may
enhance the growth of a mature personality trait. Parental education is also linked with the
growth of children’s cognitive skills (Sutin, et al. 2019).
Gaps in educational outcomes between socioeconomic and ethnic communities continue
in America and parental engagement is usually described as a crucial aspect of enhancing
outcomes among teenagers from diverse ethnicities. For instance, a 2006 report showed that 64%
of white full-time college students tend to graduate in 6 years. This is in contrast with 41% and
54% of African American students and Latino students respectively. These disparities among
other factors that promote inequality in the educational outcomes continue to prompt
conversations among experts and policymakers on components that may reduce these gaps.
Studies have determined that parental educational involvement is an essential facet for improving
academic attainment and educational achievement among children and adolescents (Day &
Dotterer, 2018).
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According to Ludeke et al. (2020), parental education has great contributions to the
upbringing of a child as the child’s education outcomes are heavily dependent on the parent’s
level of education. The research paper notes that social and economic factors affect most
generations, and education is the pathway through which the families can redeem themselves.
Parental educational attainment affects the overall child development, which also determines the
child’s success and adolescent outcomes. Educated parents are more likely to influence the
generational transition among the children. For instance, educated families use rich vocabularies,
assist their children in doing homework, and even encourage the children to pursue advanced
education (Ludeke et al., 2020). The authors note that educational attainment, whether influenced
by the environment or genetically influenced, contributes a lot to the success of the children in
the attainment of their education. Ludeke et al. (2020) note that high school completion is based
on the influence of parental educational background as they also encourage their children to
work hard and complete their education. The influence also influences adopted children as they
are in the same environment. This means that educational attainment among parents has a great
role in promoting the educational development of the child.
Parental education is an important factor that affects a child’s academic success and
achievement. Educated parents are more likely to pay attention to their child’s academics by
selecting high-quality local schools, participating in parent-teacher meetings, and motivating
them to study more. They will also help their children to learn by reading to them and will likely
transfer their advanced language skills during communication, prompting broader vocabulary.
Furthermore, well-educated parents will also utilize their social capital for the development of
their children. Social networking promotes the transmission of certain behaviors such as cultural
references and speech patterns that characterize well-learned individuals. Lastly, the children of
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such parents are more likely to stay in school for more years than the uneducated ones (Dubow et
al., 2009). Furthermore, well-educated parents will also utilize their social capital for the
development of their children. It influences the behaviors among the parents and how children
are also expected to behave.
According to Dubow et al. (2009), despite the widespread perception that a career is a
personal decision, research shows that several factors are likely to impact one’s final career
choice. Parents have a significant influence on their children’s professional choices, according to
research. Many parents are unaware of the various ways in which their children’s professional
choices may be influenced by them. Family values, work ethic, and gender stereotypes all may
have a bigger impact than previously considered. Dubow et al. (2009) debunk the misconception
that children and teenagers disrespect their parents’ values and expectations when it comes to
professional choices based on her research. According to the study, parental beliefs and
expectations, the parent-child relationship, and gender socialization are among the key parental
factors that influence children’s career choices. The success of the parents in their career choice
is a major contribution to the success of the career path chosen by children. Hence, the
behavioral characteristics, success, and achievements.
Occupation of the parents is another important factor that influences education
attainment, both among the parents and the children. According to Lawson (2018), the
underlying mechanisms that affect the income levels among parents have important contributions
to the attainment of education among children. Parents with stable income sources have a greater
advantage in educating their children in all the best schools, ensuring that the children attain the
best education. This has also influenced the career path chosen by the children as an important
factor that ensures the children are successful in their chosen careers. Parental genetics are also
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considered an important factor that influences the occupational choice among the children, and
this affects how they also choose their career paths (Lawson, 2018). The shared genetics among
the parents and the children shows that a high chance of both sharing the same occupation is
high.
The educational or occupational influence of the parents on their children is also evident
in the adolescent outcomes among the children, where they are more likely to emulate their
parents. Genetic factors also influence the educational and behavioral outcomes among children
who are likely to achieve higher educational levels and hence avoid most common adolescent
factors, including the use of drugs and other factors. Children usually emulate their parents;
hence are more likely to do what their parents do. As such, genetics shared among the children
and parents have what it takes to influence the behaviors and occupations. Lawson (2018) notes
that children reinforce their behaviors based on behaviors learned from their parent’s background
and parenting practices. Children always emulate their parents, which also influences how they
are likely to behave in their adolescent stages and how their future occupation is influenced.
Although the genetic aspect of the influence of the education in the children is limited, especially
given that the children only share half of the genetics of their parents, it is among the main
contributors to children’s success and how they are likely to behave and choose their occupations
(Lawson, 2018).
Parental aspiration
Parental aspiration is another important aspect discussed in which Spera, Wentzel &
Matto (2008) look into the contributions of the parents to the educational attainment and
performance of the children. The study considers the educational attainment of the children
based on the ethnicity and racial background of the parent, noting that the aspiration has great
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contributions to the achievement of better academic performances among the children. Parents
have a great role to play in promoting the well-being and success of the children, given that they
look into the successful nature of their parents, which also informs their academic performances.
Parenting style is also an important part of the discussion in which the authors identify the
relationship between parental belief with social and educational development. Parental aspiration
is, therefore, an important factor in the developmental stage of the children that dictates how they
may turn out to be. A researcher holds that parental aspiration for the children plays a significant
role in the developmental process of the children, which also informs their level of education and
the career paths they choose to follow. The family ethic and racial background also contribute to
the success or failure of the child in the education setup. Children in minority communities may
not access affordable education, especially due to financial and poverty constraints. However,
the parental aspiration among the black parents contributes to the success identified in the
children among the blacks. Parents who believe in their children contribute to better educational
performance and better career paths among the children.
The income of a parent or the family would directly impact the child’s academic
achievements and outcomes. Research affirms that families with a greater financial capability
would have the opportunity to choose communities with higher quality institutions than lowincome ones (Desimone, 1999). High-income families will choose higher-quality schools that are
found in more expensive neighborhoods. The schools provide better education quality because
they have more resources than the school levels of expenditure, well-paid tutors, and an excellent
environment that promotes learning. Moreover, these schools have a wide range of opportunities,
both academic and extracurricular hence children are more likely to succeed. On the other hand,
low-income families struggle to maintain their children at school (Ferguson et al., 2007). Such
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parents do not have time to check homework, organize school trips, or even assist in college
planning (Lawson, 2018). They have to work multiple shifts and have no time to invest in
learning activities to promote brain development, such as reading to toddlers.
Ferguson et al. (2007) indicate that parents from high incomes are likely to take children
to the best school. This means that children will have the best education and hence the outcome
of the children is dependent heavily on the ability of the parents to support the educational
attainment of the children. Most importantly is the lessons learned from the parent. The children
can emulate behaviors from their children and use them in determining their success and how
they are likely to behave in their adolescent age. Studies have determined that children who are
subjected to several transitions in family structure do not fare well developmentally compared to
children raised in stable homes with both parents. Children tend to be impacted by interruption
and changes in a family framework as much as the form of family frameworks they experience
(Ferguson et al., 2007). For instance, children fare worse developmentally and educational-wise
when their parents separate or divorce. Specifically, studies regarding the consequences of
parental separation and/or divorce for children’s welfare have indicated that children of separated
parents fare worse than children living with both parents. The implications of separation on
educational achievement may be of significance as having a poor education may result in other
social, economic, and health-related challenges (Bernardi, & Radl, 2014; Fomby & Cherlin,
2007). Furthermore, conventional families with two married parents are likely to produce the
best outcomes for their kids than families with single or unmarried parents. The major aspects
that underlie the relationship between family framework and child wellbeing include parental
relationship quality, parental resources, parenting quality, parental mental wellbeing, and
parental involvement (Waldfogel, Craigie, & Brooks-Gunn, 2010).
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The income level influences the family setup and living stands of the family. The
educated family is likely to live in a well-developed society, free from behaviors such as drug
and alcohol abuse, criminal activities, and other undesired activities likely to affect the growth
and development of the children. The income levels among the parents dictate the educational
level also attained by parents. This proves to be one of the most important factors that contribute
to the success of children. Dubow, Boxer & Huesmann (2009) note that the educational level of
the parents and their occupational status have contributed a lot to the success and career
development of the children. This is important in the young development age where children
learn from their parents. The socioeconomic status of the family also influences the IQ
development of the children as they are subjected to important learning materials that challenge
their thinking. As such, income is one of the main contributing factors to the educational
attainment that also influences the learning of the children.
According to Dubow, Boxer & Huesmann (2009), family contextual influences have a
great contribution to how the children are likely to develop in their middle childhood, affecting
the adolescent age and success as well. The socioeconomic factor is among the most important
factor that affects the outcomes of the children. Dubow, Boxer & Huesmann (2009) says that
poverty and low socioeconomic status among the parents have great contributions to positive or
negative outcomes among the children, including educational attainment, achievement, and IQ
development. Parental education is used as an important index in measuring the socioeconomic
status of the parents. It also determines the behavioral outcomes of the children. Income levels
show that parents are likely to live in the best estates that prevent exposure to bad behaviors that
would also influence educational attainment among the children.
19
According to Desimone (1999), the family socioeconomic status or income is an aspect
of family background that influences the career development of youth, especially for girls
(Desimone, 1999). This is because families with limited economic resources tend to direct them
first to the males of the family, giving less hope and encouragement for further education to the
daughters in the family. Parents whose socio-economic status is low may hold values that place
girls in the homemaker role and reflect less emphasis on occupational career preparation. Given
this disposition, it is understandable that the self-efficacy of girls concerning career opportunities
is linked to the economic support they can expect to receive from their parents (Lankard, 1995).
For low-income families, a large family will make the parents spend less money to aid the older
children in
Dubow, Boxer & Huesmann (2009) also attribute children’s success to parental
educational achievements. The research associates children’s intellectual capabilities with the
educational attainment of parents. Particularly, educated parents are at a better chance of being
employed in high-income positions that also influence how their children are supported. High
income among the parents is among the most important factors that ensure children are taken
through the best educational support, influencing adolescent outcomes and the success of the
children. Most children emulate their parents during the growth and development stages, which
also influences how their future will be. Hence, educational achievement among the parents
influences the success of the children in various ways. Children from low-income parents are at a
disadvantaged level as they may not afford the best education. Dubow, Boxer & Huesmann
(2009) hold that most children from poverty and low-income families are likely to engage in
criminal activities at their adolescent age as they are not successful. Also, children raised in
poverty-stricken backgrounds have poor educational performance. They are not supported by the
20
best schools and are constantly exposed to violence. Their success is therefore limited as the
parents are not also educated to support their children. This indicates the importance of financial
stability in determining the success of the children.
The education of the parents also influences the career path of the children (Dubow,
Boxer & Huesmann, 2009). Children always consider their parents as role models while
developing, which means that they are more likely to pursue the same career as their parents. The
educational attainment among the parents dictates the choice of career they are likely to pursue,
with gender-specific careers also influencing their children’s outcomes. For instance, children
whose parents are nurses will be compelled to follow the career path as well. This is due to the
desires of the children to achieve similar success. Ludeke et al. (2020) note that children follow
their parents in most of their activities and hence are more likely to emulate them in their
educational development and career choices.
By the time children are in their adolescent stage, their career choices are among the
major important considerations that would determine their future and success. They tend to look
to their parents for support, whom they consider as their role models, and often use their advice
in their career choices. William (2016) notes that parental career forms the basis through which
the children determine their career choices and are likely to follow what their parents do to
achieve success, especially if it gives them a comfortable lifestyle and satisfaction. Children see
this comfort early enough during their developmental stages, which forms the basis of their
career development process as they grow and choose their career paths. On the other hand,
parents who always complain about their job or have challenges raising their family due to
income constraints also determine the career paths chosen by the children. Most of the children
21
are likely likely to follow a different career path that seems more fulfilling and with higher
income levels.
Educational attainment among parents also contributes to the attainment of body mass
index among the white and black youths, according to Assari et al. (2019). The educational
development of a parent is associated with the children’s health outcomes both in blacks and
whites. Body mass index is a determinant of the health outcomes among the children, which is
also attributed to the educational attainment of the parents. The research by Assari indicates that
race and education are among the important factors that dictate the health outcomes of children,
including chronic illness and mortality rates. Educational achievement among the parents are
important aspects that dictate the socioeconomic status of the family, also affecting the health of
the children. Educated parents are assured of employment opportunities hence able to take care
of their children, ensuring that they have the best educational outcomes leading to the success of
the children. Also, the health choices among the parents are dependent on the successful careers
of the children in which the parents develop a healthy diet for their children to maintain a
balanced weight (Assari et al., 2018). In the research article, the author notes that race, economic
status, and ethnicity influence the health of the children, both the whites and the blacks. The
disparities in the healthcare where the blacks are discriminated against are also a factor that may
contribute to obesity and poor health outcomes. However, of importance is the educational
attainment among the parents, which also influences the BMI of the children under the protective
effect of parental educational background.
The environment
The environment in which a child is brought up influences the well-being of the child.
According to Hyppolite (2017), the development and success outcomes of a child is dependent
22
on multiple risk models of the parents. Of importance is the incarceration of the parents, which
may also contribute to other factors is discussed as a leading contributor to the success of the
children. The most important risk factors that determine the success of the children include
parental substance abuse, poverty, and parental mental illness. The research by Hyppolite (2017)
notes that children raised in families with incarcerated parents form a major part of most of the
population today. The incarceration of parents has negative effects on the children as they
develop and continue to grow as it contributes to behavioral development, academic
achievement, substance abuse, poverty, and future criminal outcomes of the children (Hyppolite,
2017). According to the research, notes that incarcerated parents also have children whom they
live behind while serving prison time. The effects are highly felt by their children as they have to
depend on their own making important decisions that also affect their success in life. There are
fears that the children may follow the footsteps of their parents, which also contributes to the
criminal activities among the children as well. Children raised in such families are likely to face
shame and stigma in their society which also affects their development and how their adolescent
life turns out to be.
The removal of a parent from the children’s life affects their developmental processes,
creating unique challenges that may go unnoticed most of the time. The removal of parents may
be considered the removal of important role models in the children’s lives as they lack someone
to emulate from. Children raised in families whose parents are drug addicts and incarcerated due
to such crimes are also likely to turn out as addicts in their adolescent stages, a factor that also
influences the general wellbeing of the children. Hyppolite (2017) notes that by the time of
incarceration, the families are subjected to financial constraints, especially when the family
members are major financial supporters in the family. By virtue, fathers are considered the main
23
breadwinners in the family, and therefore, their incarceration affects the financial support in the
family setup. When incarcerated, the role is taken away from the family, which affects the
normal development of the children as they grow as well. This is the same case for the
incarcerated mothers who also serve as family breadwinners and support their children.
Hyppolite (2017) says that most of the children are raised by single mothers, and when taken
away, the children are left behind with most challenges, including financial and educational
development challenges. The challenge is exacerbated by the socioeconomic burdens that affect
the children in normal development. These children may end up engaging in criminal activities
as well, hence limiting their achievements in life.
Hyppolite, 2017 also assesses the role of poverty in the family and the behavioral
development among children. Parental behaviors that contribute to the incarceration of the
children also contribute to the poverty levels among the family, which determines the success of
the children as they are left to depend on their own. Emotional development is another factor
associated with the incarceration of the parents. The development of young children is highly
dependent on the financial status of the family before and after incarceration. Generally,
incarceration contributes to additional factors such as malnutrition that also impact the
development of the children. The children’s health is at risk as they are not supported adequately.
Moreover, Hyppolite, 2017 holds that a lack of resources brings an end to the educational
attainment of the children. There are no financial resources to support the children as they grow,
a situation that prevents their future and career choices.
Parenthood is also dependent on the normal mental status of the family. Generally,
parents with mental challenges have challenges bringing up and raising their children as their
behaviors are also affected. Mentally ill parents are not effective in the operation process, which
24
contributes to the negative outcomes for the children. The children have no one to guide them
during the development stages, or support their educational and career development stages;
hence are not likely to have a successful adolescent and productive life. Mahedy et al. (2018)
also discuss the effects of alcoholism among children and how this also contributes to effects on
the development of the children. Children emulate their parental behaviors, meaning that they are
likely to be alcoholics as they emulate their parents as well. The behaviors seen among parents
dictate the future outcomes of children. Mahedy et al. (2018) argue that parental and family
influence are critical in determining the success of the children as they grow up. The relationship
between alcoholism and child up brings how the parents are likely to influence the adolescent
outcomes among their children. Mahedy et al., 2018 shows that most children are severely
affected by the alcoholic nature of their parent and may even end up emulating the same
characters as they grow, a situation experienced during the adulthood stages up to t 18 years old.
The effect is also seen among children in the education development stage as they may not be in
a position to pursue their academic excellence effectively. Mahedy et al., 2018 concludes that
alcoholism among the parent also influences the alcohol intake among children. This means that
the environment to which the children are exposed determines how they are likely to behave in
their adult age. The child may also fail to pursue successful career paths as they grow up in an
environment whose parents are alcoholics.
Children raised in a toxic environment are also at risk of poor adolescent outcomes. Cage
(2018) notes that foster care and maltreatment of children in the adolescent stage influence
educational completion abilities. Maltreatment of the children as they grow up affects children in
various ways as they cannot concentrate on the education development processes. In the research
paper, Cage (2018) tries to understand various aspects that affect the student’s educational
25
completion probabilities. This has significant effects on the children’s future success and how
their adulthood is shaped. The success of the children depends on their achievement in the
education sector, especially in terms of job employment. Those who fail to complete their studies
are not likely to access employment opportunities. Hence, the children are likely to end up in
poverty and low socioeconomic status at a later age. Maltreated children in their adolescent
stages are not likely to complete the high school education and college education as well, a
situation that affects them significantly. Cage (2018) notes that maltreatment is major social
welfare affecting children in the United States, which contributes to a wide range of negative
outcomes among the children. Poor academic achievement is a major issue associated with
maltreatment. Most of the children subjected to maltreatment are also affected psychologically,
which also limits their educational development process and completion.
Cage (2018) states that children maltreated at the adolescent age have additional
challenges, including low health-related lifestyle, high possibilities of criminal activities,
probability of substance abuse, and teen pregnancy, among others. The life of the children
exposed to maltreatment while growing up is severely affected as they turn to alcohol and
substance abuse, limiting them from achieving their desired career. Also, maltreated children
under foster care may have challenges completing their education. Also, the maltreatment of the
children shows that they react differently at an early age, affecting their educational outcomes as
well. Children raised in supportive foster families influence their educational outcomes among
the children. They are subjected to a new environment different from what they are used to,
which may promote the welfare of the children leading to their success of the children (Cage,
2018). However, there are incidences where children’s educational achievement is affected by
placing them under foster care. This affects educational attainment, with some failing to
26
complete their studies. The study is a clear indication of the influence of the developmental
environment on the educational success of the children. The completion rate of education among
youths is therefore attributed to the maltreatment experienced by children in their development
stages. The educational attainment of the caregiver under which the student is placed dictates the
success of the children as they are also likely to consider the caregivers as role models.
Generally, the environment in which the children grow is a major factor in determining the
success factor of a child. Experiences during the up brings affect the educational attainment and
success of the children when growing up.
Conclusion
The failure or success of a child in their late adolescence stage is affected by many
sociological, environmental, and economic factors. As noted in the review of different kinds of
literature, it confirms the fact that the success of a child is influenced by factors such as parental
education, parental socioeconomic aspects, family structure, family stability, and parental
behaviors. A child raised in an economically disfranchised family is likely to realize challenges
while growing up and this might affect his/her success during late adolescence. According to
studies, children placed in foster care for example are likely to develop and/or exhibit
delinquency behaviors, have a lower income, and have high teen birth rates compared to children
who are raised in their homes. Specifically, there is a relationship between foster care and
reduced rates of school completion. In some cases, children placed in the foster care system are
maltreated by their foster parents and this reduces their likelihood of completing their education.
On the same note, children brought up in a family setting that is characterized by parental drug
abuse are more likely to engage in drugs during their early or late adolescence period. Parents’
educational attainment and parental career choices often serve as very strong influences on
27
children. The social learning theory details the observance and modeling of behaviors. This
observance and modeling encourage similar actions and behaviors of late adolescents.
28
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