see attached files below
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Notable Quotables: Why
Images Become Icons
THOMAS HINE
Thomas Hine writes about history, culture, and design. He has taught at the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University. From 1973—1996 Hine was the architecture and design critic for the Philadelphia Inquirer. He is a frequent contributor to.the Atlantic Monthly, Martha Stewart Living, and the New York Times. Among Hine’s many books are I Want That: How We All Become Shoppers (2002), The Rise and Fall of the American Teenager (1999/2000), and The Total Package: The Secret History and Hidden Meanings of Boxes, Bottles, Cases and Other Persuasive Containers (1997). His article “Notable Quotables: Why Images Become Icons” appeared in the New York Times. It deals with the ways in which “advertising, news and entertainment media have created and disseminated a stock of images whose potency transcends local boundaries.
Getting Started
When we think about the images that surround us through their use in advertising, news, and entertainment media, we usually do not think of high culture and images from art history classes, but that is exactly what Thomas Hines tells us are imitated, parodied, and alluded to all around us in our everyday lives. Where have you seen Leonardo’s Mona Lisa outside of a museum or art book? How about Edvard Munch’s The Scream or Auguste Rodin’s The
Thinker? What other works of art can you think of that have been
Notable Quotables: Why Images Become Icons 101
used to sell a product or idea? What images from more recent times form a common “universal” experience? Which images do you think will last through time to define this decade? this century?
ired of the same old telephone ring? Now you can purchase, I through a special television offer, a device that plays the first four portentous notes of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, complete with lyrics. “AN-swer the PHONE,” sings the electronic baritone. “AN-swer the PHONE!”
Not interested? Perhaps you would like a Mona Lisa liquidsoap dispenser. The plastic pump emerges from the top of her head. Or how about Michelangelo’s David as a refrigerator magnet set, available at many museum shops. You can dress him in a cowboy hat and blue jeans. Then, as the mood strikes, you can remove the hat—or the blue jeans.
There are countless examples: Piero della Francesca computer-mouse pads, roly-poly toys based on “The Scream” by Edvard Munch, software that turns out print like Miro’s handwriting. Bookstore ads feature a robot mimicking Rodin’s “Thinker.” The Shaker hymn “Simple Gifts” was adapted by Aaron Copland in “Appalachian Spring,” whose version became the theme for television’s “CBS Reports” and now is used to sell Oldsmobiles, probably not what the obsessively simplifying Shakers had in mind.
Using well-known images, snatches of music, movie scenes or news events isn’t simply the province of schlock merchants, advertisers and art directors. Individuals do it too. You’ll hear people sing the “dah-duh-dah-duh, dah-duh-dah-duh” theme of the television series “The Twilight Zone” to highlight a weird situation. Or, more than half a century after “Gone With the Wind, they’ll imitate Rhett Butler’s frank declaration that he doesn’t give a damn. By making the statement in someone else’s voice, the speaker usually hopes to evade some responsibility for what was said. What’s happening here? The unintended consequences of Art History 101, along with too much television? The inability of our culture to say anything new? Did Forrest Gump have something to do with it?
Mostly, the answer is that imitating images, sounds and ges- 5 tures is part of the way humans have always communicated. But this used to be local: a matter of copying the neighbor who sews well or parodying a cousin who walks funny. What’s special now is that the advertising, news and entertainment media have created
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and disseminated a stock of images whose potency transcends local boundaries, and computer technology has made it easier for people to use and manipulate them.
A few years ago, someone like Keith Haring could be writing on subway walls one moment, have his radiant babies and copulating crowds seen throughout the world soon after—and then see his work knocked off almost immediately. Now, someone with a low-end computer and no artistic skill can access and manipulate creations that range in time and medium from the cave paintings at Lascaux to last week’s “Seinfeld.”
Although we all use and understand this language of image, sound and gesture, few of us give it much conscious thought. Recently, I had to explore this dimension of our cultural literacy while working on a new CD-ROM version of Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations. I was responsible for finding examples of predominantly nonverbal expression that are regularly used, reused, parodied and appropriated. There are 23,000 literary quotations in this edition, not all of them familiar ones, so my fewer than 500 nonverbal expressions probably had to be a lot more familiar than those.
It was time to round up, for the first time, the usual suspects. Here was Botticelli’s Venus, surfing on her scallop. And Marilyn Monroe, skirt flying high, above a subway grate in “The Seven Year Itch.” (I categorized both under Women, Love and Sex and
Transportation.)
Here are Whistler’s Mother and Rembrandt’s “Syndics” fresh 10 from the cigar box. And Brahms’s Lullaby, Mendelssohn’s Wedding March, Chopin’s “Funeral March” and other music for all occasions.
Clearly, “high” Western culture is not dead. Quite the contrary. We’re swimming in it. We live our lives in a great sea of communication and manipulation, where fragments of high culture are constantly being repeated, combined, repackaged and adapted.
But this iconographic reservoir is also multicultural. It contains the many-armed Shiva, doing his cosmic dance, several different images of the Buddha in contemplation, and Hokusai’s wave breaking with Mount Fuji in the background.
Photographed from space, the blue-green Earth floated in the dark. Posed or not, Alfred Eisenstaedt’s couple kissed spontaneously in Times Square as World War Il ended. John Paul Filo’s Kent State picture of a grieving girl sums up one Vietnam-era tragedy, and the endlessly analyzed Zapruder film of Dallas in 1963 remains at least as enigmatic as the Mona Lisa.
It was quickly apparent that though my list included its share of masterpieces, it was far from the best that had been painted, sculptured, composed and photographed over time. It’s an unlikely mixture of high and low culture, of tragedy and banality, transcendence and kitsch. Stonehenge, a Cadillac tail fin, “Amazing Grace,” Monet’s waterlilies, Ansel Adams’s Yosemite—all these incomparables assume a sort of equality as popular icons.
Few of them have achieved this status for purely formal reasons. Van Gogh’s “Sunflowers” serves as an icon not merely of lonely, mad creativity but also of how much people are willing to pay for a picture.
Tchaikovsky’s Piano Concerto was made familiar by the star power of Van Cliburn, while Rossini’s “William Tell” Overture got a big assist from the Lone Ranger. For many, Wagner’s “Ride of the Valkyries” evokes the flight of helicopters in Francis Ford Coppola’s film “Apocalypse Now.” Others think of Elmer Fudd vowing to “kill the wabbit” in the cartoon short “What’s Opera, Doc?”
Nearly everyone I talked to mentioned Leonardo’s portrait first. And this nomination was frequently followed by the round, yellow smiley face. Is this perhaps a distillation of what people see in Leonardo’s painting? Moreover, the smiley face has had an unusually abrupt switch from being used sincerely to ironically. Part of the appeal of Mona Lisa may be that you don’t know which of these attitudes is behind her smile.
The touch of fingers between God and Adam on the Sistine Chapel ceiling was, likewise, often linked with what seems an intentional imitation, the touch of boy and alien in “E. T. the ExtraTerrestrial.” What people were remembering was not the film itself but the print advertisement, where the touch was superimposed on a full moon.
The current ubiquity of Munch’s “Scream,” painted in 1893, owes a lot to its mimickry by Macaulay Culkin in the advertising for “Home Alone.” While many people knew of the painting before the movie, it would not have been a familiar quotation 15 years ago. Now it is so popular that newspaper cartoonists feel as comfortable with it as Pinocchio’s growing and branching nose, indicating dishonesty, and the Titanic tilting rakishly into its iceberg, an emblem of complacency followed by disaster.
After the Oklahoma City bombing, Rob Rogers, a nationally syndicated cartoonist, grafted the face of Munch’s screamer to the body of the farm couple in Grant Wood’s “American Gothic” and threw in the Grim Reaper for good measure. This iconographic triple play spoke powerfully of terror in the heartland.
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Notable Quotables: Why Images Become Icons 103
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Since its enlistment to sell a comedy film, “The Scream” is reverting to its original meaning as an expression of fin de siecle angst, though more as a pop icon than as a work of art.
Which works become icons is, to some degree, accidental. With paintings and sculptures, those in large or much-visited cities clearly have an advantage, though inclusion in a standard textbook can overcome an obscure location. Use in a memorable context makes a big difference. The opening fanfare from Richard Strauss’s “Also Sprach Zarathustra,” for example, was both popularized and transformed by its use in the film “2001: A Space Odyssey.”
But these visual and aural quotations are not famous merely for being famous. They all say something, though not necessarily what the creator had in mind. What matters most is what those who quote a work find there.
Rodin’s “Thinker,” itself an allusion to Michelangelo, went through a complex evolution. And after seeing it mimicked by Sylvester Stallone on the cover of Vanity Fair, Dobie Gillis on Nick at Nite and a robot in a bookstore ad, we may have lost our ability to recognize the strangeness and originality Rodin’s contemporaries saw in it. Yet its fusion of contemplation ‘Aith potential energy still comes through. Its embodiment of muscular contemplation has helped shape the way we think about ourselves.
The famous wooden portrait head of Nefertiti is, for example, 25 one of the most familiar images to have come to us from ancient Egypt. But much of its appeal is that it departs from many of the conventions of Egyptian art and presents a woman •who is, in 20th-century terms, glamorous. She speaks across three and a half millenniums, if not as the woman next door, at least as a model in Vogue.
Rubens, by contrast, is commonly judged a great artist, but neither his fleshy figures nor the epic compositions of which they are a part mirror contemporary concerns. His images are sometimes quoted to demonstrate changing standards of beauty but little else.
The Parthenon, perhaps the most quoted building in the history of architecture, surely meant something different to the Athenians who built it about 2,400 years ago than to the Americans who, during the second quarter of the 19th century, turned it into banks, schools and state capitols. But the architects of the Greek revival were not simply recycling an interesting look. They thought it had meaning for a second-generation democracy.
Works that are little more than irritating—Merv Griffin’s theme for “Jeopardy,” for instance—can become quotations if
Notable Quotables: Why Images Become Icons 105
they fit the right situation. Because it is played on the program in the midst of a great thicket of commercials that precede the game’s denouement, the jingle has been used by ballpark organists to complain about pointless delay. There’s plenty of that in baseball games; the music provides an evocative analogue.
In a culture that uses up imagery incessantly, recycling is inevitable. Introductory art-history courses tend to consist of compendiums of familiar quotations. And even if you never took the course, the designers and art directors who are producing the imagery surely did.
Most designers keep illustrated source books of design his- 30 tory close at hand. One result is that a much-anthologized image like Herbert Matter’s 1935 Pontresina travel poster—with a closecropped, diagonally placed photograph of a skier in goggles—is frequently imitated in advertising and editorial layouts. The image itself is not really familiar to most people, but its evocation of a cold, modern sexiness has become so in countless variations.
Part of what’s involved in quotation and appropriation is just plain laziness. The images that get quoted are often not the best, merely the closest to hand. John Bartlett had it right more than 140 years ago when he said he saw his work demonstrating the “obligations our language owes to various authors for numerous phrases and familiar quotations which have become ‘household words.”‘ What familiarity breeds isn’t contempt. It’s reuse.
There are whole genres of quotations that constitute a kind of language of cliché. One important group consists of images that evoke specific locales, like the Eiffel Tower, the Manhattan skyline, Big Ben and the Houses of Parliament, the onion domes of St. Basil’s and the Hollywood sign. These were popularized largely by old movies, which would often use the same stock footage of a landmark to signal the intended locale of a film that had been shot on the back lot in Burbank or Culver City. Now people travel largely to see the places they’ve seen in pictures.
Some of these are more than mere scene setters. The shieldlike Beverly Hills sign speaks of great wealth defending itself against intruders. And John Ford transformed the dramatic rock formations of Monument Valley from a real place into an epic landscape where events assume a mythic scale. Today it’s a great spot to sell a Toyota.
Even people can be turned into quotations if they acquire strong associations. Albert Einstein, for instance, epitomizes pure braininess, often as a figure of ridicule. Che Guevara in his beret with the star on it is literally an icon, a quasi-religious depiction
106 Thomas Hine
of the romantic revolutionary. And Winston Churchill and Richard Nixon, with their distinctive V-for-victory hand gestures, offer contrasting visions of men trying to win.
While many of the most memorable news photos and docu- 35 mentary film segments are tied to a single, dramatic event, the ones that keep reappearing make universal statements. The scene of the lone protester confronting the tank in Tiananmen Square is indelibly associated with the 1989 uprising in China.
More than that, it was a striking image of the individual confronting power, and, at least momentarily, confusing it. Although the image has rarely been used outside its Chinese context, I included it on the CD-ROM because the situation is likely to be repeated over and over, though probably not in so visually powerful a way.
Likewise, I went out on a limb with the most recent image on the Bartlett’s disk: footage shot from a helicopter of a white Bronco on a Los Angeles freeway, complete with television reporters speculating on what would happen next. The televised car chase was itself a kind of quotation of the many thousands of chases that have filled the television screen during the last half century. Like Jack Ruby’s on-camera murder of Lee Harvey Oswald, it was a case in which something we’ve seen all our lives as fiction suddenly becomes real.
The O. J. Simpson case will not be the last media meltdown, but it does seem a definitive one. I included the car chase because it was as close as our society comes to a universal experience. When future generations talk about our time, the white Bronco will, I suspect, be one of the visuals.
Questions
I. Reread the article, underlining every cultural reference (art work, film, logo, piece of music, or news event) that Hine mentions. Identify them and discuss where they come from, what they look like, and where and how you have seen them used outside the context in which they were originally created.
2. Hine introduces the idea of a visual or aural quotation in this article. What is a visual quotation? What is an aural quotation? What examples of each does Hine provide?
3. Hine writes about images that evoke specific locales, like the Eiffel Tower, the Manhattan skyline, the Houses of Parliament, and the Hollywood sign, and suggests that people now travel largely to see the places that they have seen in pictures. Can you think of other visual quotations that become Speaking Brand 107
clichés representing a specific locale? Have you ever traveled to see a place that you have seen only in pictures? Did the location live up to the image of it? Which experience, the image or the actual place, remained as a more vivid memory to you? Why?
4. In the last two paragraphs, Hine describes an event that he thinks will become iconic as a cultural reference that will last through time. Do you think he was correct in his assessment about that particular image? Why or why not?
5. Write an essay in which you choose a visual quotation that “when future generations talk about our time . . . will . be one of the visuals” (paragraph 38). Think of an image that could be thought of as “a universal experience.” Describe the image and explain why you think this visual quotation will pass the test of time and to some degree define who we are today.
New Jersey Trying a New Way for
Witnesses to Pick Suspects
GINA KOLATA AND IVER PETERSON
Gina Kolata is a science writer for the New York Times. She has also written several books including Clone: The Road to Dolly and the Path Ahead (1998), Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It (1999),
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and Ultimate Fitness: The Quest for Truth about Exercise and Health (
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03). Iver Peterson is also a writer for the New York Times who frequently writes about New Jersey issues. In this article, they describe a simple change in the wav that witnesses view suspects that may reduce the number offalse identifications and help to find the real criminals.
Getting Started
Do you think a lineup is a fair way to narrow down the suspects in a crime? Why do you think this? What makes you think that eyewitness reports can or cannot be trusted? Do you think people can make mistakes in reporting what they have witnessed, even if they firmly believe in what they say? What examples of this do you know about? Have you seen the mug shots that victims search through to help identify the perpetrator of a crime? In what ways might these help or hinder law enforcement? Some people criticize the police drawings that are made from eyewitness reports by saying that racial and social biases can creep into those drawings. What do you think about that?
rompted by new insights into the psychology of eyewitnesses to crimes, New Jersey is changing the way it uses witnesses to identify suspects.
Starting in October, the state will become the first in the nation to give up the familiar books of mug shots and to adopt a simple new technique called a sequential photo lineup, said John J. Farmer Jr., New Jersey’s attorney general. Sequential viewing of photographs has been shown to cut down on the number of false identifications by eyewitnesses without reducing the number of correct ones.
The difference between the old and new systems is subtle but highly significant, according to researchers who have studied the psychology of witness identification. At present, eyewitnesses browse through photographs of suspects, comparing, contrasting and re-studying them at will.
Under the new system, victims and other eyewitnesses would be shown pictures one after the other. They would not be allowed to browse. If they wanted a second look, they would have to view all the photos a second time, in a new sequence. Also, the pictures
New Jersey Trying a New Way for Witnesses to Pick Suspects 67
would usually be shown by a person who would not know who the real suspect was.
“It’s just a reality that eyewitness identifications are made un- 5 der situations of incredible duress, when people are trying to recall what someone looked like, and they can be more or less accurate,” Mr. Farmer said. “So what we’re trying to do with these guidelines is to give law enforcement a way in which we think we can at least narrow the risk that a mistake will be made.’
The new rules also change the way physical lineups, called showups, will be done, although the use of suspects and standins is so rare in New Jersey these days that some prosecutors cannot remember the last time they were used. As in photo lineups, the new rules require that in showups, individuals must be presented to the witness one at a time, usually through a oneway mirror.
The New Jersey program, which is already being used in Camden and Hunterdon Counties, grows out of a quarter-century of psychological research and is supported by recommendations published two years ago by the United States Department of Justice for police forces nationally.
The federal recommendations followed a 1998 study by the National Institute of Justice, a research arm of the Justice Department, which asked police officials, defense lawyers, prosecutors and researchers to review 28 criminal convictions that had been overturned by DNA evidence. The study found that in most of the cases, the strongest evidence had been eyewitness identification.
The Justice Department published a guide titled “Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science” in 1999, summarizing its recommendations for change, saying, among other things, that sequential lineups were an acceptable option.
New Jersey, working with a pioneer in the field, Gary Wells, a 10 psychologist and researcher at Iowa State University, soon began drawing up its own guidelines.
New Jersey’s program was developed by Debra L. Stone, deputy director of operations and chief of staff in the state’s Division of Criminal Justice. Ms. Stone said that the plan elicited howls of protest when it was introduced to county prosecutors, and local police departments and prosecutors, who feared that the new procedures would make it harder to win convictions because fewer suspects would be identified. They also expressed concerns that the procedures would impose additional burdens on the short-handed police departments.
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“But we had a program for them where we had Professor Wells come in to tell them some of his horror stories about misidentifications, and about the way people’s memories work, and in the end they were very supportive,” Ms. Stone said.
Chief John Miliano of the Linden, N.J., Police Department said: “Every time you see something coming along that makes your job a little harder, you kind of cringe a little. It’s going to take extra time and personnel, but if it’s going to make a case a little more solid or if it’s going to eliminate a bad identification or a situation where an officer may try to influence an identification, then it’s beneficial.’
Mr. Farmer and Mr. Wells said they believed that New Jersey will be the first state in the nation to use the new lineup techniques.
Over the years, researchers like Mr. Wells, and Rod Lindsay, a psychology professor at Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario, have demonstrated that sequential lineups made a huge difference.
Professor Lindsay would stage a mock crime—like a pursesnatching—in front of a group of people who had agreed to participate in a study. He would then show the witnesses a traditional lineup of suspects, like a group of photographs or a number of people standing in a row, but he would not put the “pursesnatcher” in the lineup. About 20 percent to 40 percent of the witnesses mistakenly identified someone as the criminal.
When the same suspects were put in a sequential lineup, and the eyewitnesses were shown photographs one at a time, and only once, the rate of false identifications dropped to less than 10 percent.
Other experiments showed that witnesses who did remember the criminal were just as likely to pick that person out of sequential lineups as they were from traditional simultaneous lineups.
The reason that sequential lineups work is rather simple. In simultaneous lineups, Professor Lindsay said, witnesses are able to compare individuals, choosing one from the group who looks the most like the person they think they saw commit the crime. But a sequential lineup limits the ability to compare.
The psychologists think that the chance of misidentification is reduced the most by allowing witnesses to view photos only once. New Jersey, however, plans to let witnesses see photos more than once, although the sequence would be changed between viewings. And even if witnesses declare a decision in midsequence, they are required to view the sequence through to the end, to assure that each picture has been seen the same number of times.
Harold Kasselman, deputy first assistant prosecutor in Camden County, which has been using the new system since December, said, “Our feeling is that if they request it, we shuffle all eight photographs again and show them again in random order.” A witness
New Jersey Trying a New Way for Witnesses to Pick Suspects 69
who makes an identification is told to sign and date the chosen photo, and to initial the other seven. All eight photos become evidence in the case.
Another crucial innovation, the researchers found, was to be sure that a neutral third party conducted the lineup, in what is called a blind test. If the detective knows which person is the suspect, it could allow the detective, consciously or not, to guide the witness.
But even though the experts are confident that they have found a better way to conduct lineups, they have had a difficult time convincing law enforcement officials.
Attorney General Farmer said that New Jersey is unusual in that he has the power to order a change in lineup procedures statewide.
In New York’s less centralized law enforcement network, however, officials say that a change to sequential lineups would most likely need to be spearheaded by district attorneys, but in cooperation with the police and the attorney general. District attorneys said that while they were interested in whether sequential lineups might improve identifications, the matter needed far more study and debate before a shift could be made.
George A. Grasso, the New York City Police Department’s deputy commissioner in charge of legal affairs, said group lineups were based on long-established case law and could be particularly hard to change in New York’s sprawling system.
New Jersey’s new rules would allow an investigating officer to conduct the lineup in cases where no neutral officer is available because the police department is so small, or because it is so late at night.
Still, as Chief Miliano pointed out, detectives talk among themselves about their cases all the time, so even a fair-sized department
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“Let’s say you’re the detective and you’ve got your person in position three” in the group of photographs, Professor Wells said. “You show this spread to the witness and the witness says, ‘Well, No. 2.’ A natural reaction is to say, ‘Be sure you look at all the photos.’ On the other hand, if the first words to come out of the
witness’s mouth are, ‘No. 3,’ then it’s, ‘Tell me about No 3.'” “It’s just a natural human reaction,” he said.
The studies also showed that witnesses can be just as certain about a mistaken identification as a true one. And being told that a false identification is correct makes witnesses even more certain.
“It is one thing to detect lying in court, but how do you figure out that one person made a mistake in identifying a suspect and the other didn’t?” Professor Lindsay said. “Both are perfectly sincere in telling you the truth as they know it.”
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like his might have a hard time finding an officer with no knowledge of a given case to conduct the lineup.
But as Richard P. Rodbart, deputy first assistant prosecutor for Union County, said, police officials know that once the new guidelines have fully gone into effect, any other approach will become a liability that defense lawyers will pounce on.
“I don’t want an officer getting on a witness stand after he’s used the old way and being asked, ‘By the way, sir, are you familiar with the order from the attorney general that there has been a new way to do identifications?”‘ Mr. Rodbart said. “And then the officer says, ‘Yeah, I heard something about that.’ And then the defense attorney’s voice rises, ‘Did you follow that order?’ and bang, he’s on track to knock the case down.”
Questions
1. What was the original method for witnesses to view suspects for identification? What changes is the New Jersey Police Department making in how witnesses view lineups or groups of photographs? What is the role that psychology plays in making the new method more accurate than the previous method?
2. What is a sequential lineup? How do we see differently when we see something one at a time? Or in a group? What is a one-way mirror? How do you think that seeing someone through a one-way mirror is different from seeing them standing in front of you looking at you?
3. The authors write that “witnesses can be just as certain about a mistaken identification as a true one. And being told that a false identification is correct makes witnesses even more certain” (paragraph 25). How do you explain that? Have you ever made such a mistake in misidentifying someone? How did it happen? What does this suggest about vision, about how the external environment affects how we see and interpret what we see?
4. The article describes what happens when a mock crime is staged in front of a group of people participating in research. Witnesses often misidentified the person who actually did the crime. They even chose someone from a lineup or group of photographs when the actual criminal was not included in the group. Why do you think this might happen?
5. What does this article suggest about the attitude of law enforcement toward witnesses, suspects, and the judicial process itself? Why do you think there are cases of the wrong person being identified, convicted, and even jailed? How has DNA evidence been used in such cases? What is the difference between relying on DNA evidence and relying on human vision and recollection? If DNA evidence is so compelling, why are images still used?
Learning Log Questions #4 and #5 at the end of “New Jersey Trying a new Way for Witnesses to Pick Suspects”
Question #4 at the end of “Notable Quotables: Why Images Become Icons.”
Explanation of Learning Logs During the course you will be keeping a learning log in which you will answer a specified number of discussion questions from The World of the Image. This anthology includes a wide range of readings on the visual image in culture, from perspectives in science, anthropology, psychology, art, and the media. The anthology will help introduce you to the various disciplines you will study in the liberal studies major and give you practice in assessing arguments. These questions are designed to give you the opportunity to reflect on the readings and make connections between the disciplines represented in the anthology. You will submit this log to your instructor at the end of each Module during the term. As informal writing, the log will be graded based on whether you have entered a response to an assigned question and the clarity of your response. Although writing is relaxed for this assignment regarding cover pages, headings, and line spacing, you still must include information from your readings to meet level four on the grading rubric and clarify your response. Please make sure these reading conclusions are format compliant with in-text citations and with the reference at the end of the log entry
ISBN: 978-0-13-443199-4 Smoke, Trudy, and Alan Robbins. The World of the Image. New Jersey: Pearson/Longman, 2007. Print. ISBN-13: 978-0-321-38882-7