Describe how the evolution of American society and its global role were interconnected during the Cold War from 1946–1960. To support your view, explain the impacts of at least one specific domestic and one international strategy to expand freedom, including to what extent goals were achieved by 1960.
UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE
Post-World War and Korea
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
4. Explain the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on America’s societal infrastructure.
4.1 Explain the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on American policy during the Cold War era to
1960.
4.2 Identify key individuals and events in the Civil Rights Movement during the Cold War era to
1960.
6. Explain the United States’ evolving role as a superpower.
6.1 Describe the new responsibilities of the United States as a superpower in the Cold War era to
1960.
7. Describe the modern challenges and opportunities concerning the United States around the globe.
7.1 Identify key individuals associated with the Cold War era.
7.2 Recognize notable innovations in the post-World War II world.
7.3 Identify political ideals related to the Cold War era.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
4.1
4.2
6.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
Learning Activity
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Required Unit Resources
In order to access the following resource, click the link below.
Throughout this course, you will be provided with sections of text from the online resource U.S. History. You
may be tested on your knowledge and understanding of the material listed below as well as the information
presented in the unit lesson. This unit’s chapter title and sections are provided below:
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960, Sections 28.1, 28.2, 28.3, 28.4, and 28.5
HIS 1302, American History II
1
Unit Lesson
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Berlin, the capital of Germany and the opposition’s seat of power during the previous world war, was also
divided between the two sides. To enforce this border, the Soviets constructed a wall, which, over time, would
become more than just a symbol of the differences between geographic rivals but, rather, become a form of
political validation. The Western powers were not going to repeat the mistake of abandoning the rebuilding
process, which could again lead to further hostilities, but Stalin demanded that German suffe ring stand as
payment for Soviet losses and casualties as well as a symbol of the strength of Eastern Europe and of his
own ruthless nature.
Expansion and Containment
Communism, in its purest form, was popular in poorer
nations because it publicly guaranteed
equal treatment and promised to provide what
was necessary to live. Its failures, in practice, were
ultimately due to corrupt management and limited
incentive, which was the hallmark of the free
market economy.
East German construction workers building the Berlin
Wall, November 20, 1961
(National Archives, 1961)
In the fallout of World War II (WWII), the Soviet
Union would be influential in the spread of
Communism throughout its sphere of control or
influence, which now spread all the way into Western
Europe, having been invited by some and bullying
their way into others. With the efforts of other aspiring
dictators, such as China’s Mao Zedong (Tse Tung),
other war-weary and struggling nations, including
Vietnam and Korea, would also soon face strong
communist pressure.
In the United States, communism was a source of constant headlines. Senator Joseph McCarthy’s Red Scare
was effective at swaying social consciousness against anything communist. The Soviet growth across
Eastern Europe and Asia provided his campaign with a continuous source of propaganda.
This period of tension would be dubbed the Cold War in reference to the absence of violence between the
powers. However, all the while, there was a lingering threat that only supported furthe r political action,
including espionage on both sides and relentless speculation of who was an enemy and who could be trusted.
In the aftermath of previous wars, the United States would instinctively renew its isolationist policy, retreating
back to its natural borders and leaving Europe to address its own problems. With the quick and ominous
threat that communism brought, however, this was no longer an option. As the only world power with the
potential to rival the strength of the Soviets, the United States found itself in the middle of a political firestorm
and in a state of constant alert.
In 1950, the dominos started to fall, and the first real conflict emerged from this situation. The Republic of
Korea (ROK), more commonly known as South Korea, was invaded by the Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea (DPRK), also known as North Korea. Once united under the control of Japan, th ese two neighbors
were, like Germany, divided at the mutually agreed upon 38th parallel. As a part of negotiations following
WWII, the North fell under the control of the Soviets, and the South fell under the united Western control.
Following the pattern of their Soviet brothers, the North Koreans became communist and desired a
reunification of the Korean peninsula. South Korea, supported in their rebuilding, had become quite
westernized in the years since the war and no longer shared many cultural, social, economic, or political traits
with their neighbors to the north (Corbett et al., 2014).
For the Western powers, this was a situation in need of containment. United Nations (UN) forces would be
brought into the region to enforce the Truman Doctrine and ensure that South Korea would not sustain losses
due to the invasion. Things did not entirely go as planned for the heavily U.S.-backed UN. Early losses would
HIS 1302, American History II
2
lead to moderate success and momentum, but conflicting leadership would lead
to China
stepping
in t o
UNIT
x STUDY
GUIDE
support their communist allies.
Title
The United States was not ready for this conflict. Despite this, Truman would not be seen as afraid or unable
to back up his promises, and 1.8 million Americans would be deployed to Korea. The first success would not
come until General Douglas MacArthur successfully retook Inchon, Seoul, and, finally, the original border.
Truman wanted to reunite Korea, rather than simply reinforce the border from 5 years prior, but he knew the
risk of threatening the Chinese border. MacArthur, as brilliant and charismatic as he was, did not see eye-toeye with this strategy. Since his experience in the Pacific padded his confidence in U.S. strength, he decided
to ignore his Commander in Chief, and China did indeed enter the fray with an in itial force of 300,000 soldiers
to aid the northern cause (Corbett et al., 2014).
After a disagreement about a bombing strategy, MacArthur and Truman would have a very loud and public
falling out because of this decision. MacArthur, like many Americans, did not discount the United States and
saw the situation at the time as an opportunity to strike against the communists. Truman, frustrated and
angered by MacArthur’s blatant refusal to follow orders, removed the WWII hero from his post as Commander
of the Pacific in 1951, whereupon the first round of peace negotiations began (Corbett et al., 2014).
Finally, in 1953, with North Korea battered from continuous air raids and South Korea unable to match
Chinese forces on the ground, an armistice was signed at Panmunjom. In addition to ceasing hostilities, this
agreement instilled a 2.5-mile mutually shared buffer zone, called the demilitarized zone, surrounding the new
border (Corbett et al., 2014). The last impact of this conflict was the fear of future problems. It was decided
that the military was not up to the standard of a superpower, and with that, the federal budget would allot
approximately 70% of the 1952 budget to restocking the military in case of later aggression. This controversial
and secret decision would be known as NSC 68.
Truman would not recover from Korea, and he would not even attempt to challenge as the incumbent in the
1952 presidential election. The Republicans would take the White House, with Dwight D. Eisenhower at the
helm; he chose California Senator Richard Milhous Nixon as his running mate.
The Middle Way at Home
Eisenhower knew the nation was war-weary and chose to be
a moderate during his term of service as president. He
proposed a plan that most Americans would see as
beneficial but was essentially the opposite in terms of the
flash of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s (FDR) New Deal.
Eisenhower’s Middle Way sought to reinforce the liberties and
rights of the American people. Eisenhower saw benefit in
public works, such as the New Deal, but he did not think that
the government needed to interfere with every aspect of
personal life.
The Cold War was a time of high alert. It is perhaps because
of Eisenhower’s style of modern Republicanism—which was
focused on public works (e.g., the Interstate Highway and
Defense System Act of 1956) and jobs, instead of constant
threats and overbearing government interference—that he
was popular (Corbett et al., 2014).
Dwight D. Eisenhower
(White House, 1956)
HIS 1302, American History II
On the other end of the scale, the active muscle behind the
Red Scare, Senator Joseph McCarthy, would finally step too
far by accusing persons of the military of communist
association without any proof to validate his claims. He then
experienced a very public falling out, and almost overnight,
the public scare was over, though the threat was still very
real. Today, the term McCarthyism is linked to false, or
unproven, accusations. His model is common to popular
3
media and literature, such as Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, which uses the backdrop
the Salem
Witch Trials
UNIT xofSTUDY
GUIDE
of the 1690s as a comparison to the panic and fear of McCarthy’s time in the public
Title limelight.
Adapting to Changes
With progress, there are often losses—some expected and others not. Such is the case with the success of
Eisenhower’s interstate system. For the second time in American history, agreements between the federal
government and Native American tribes would be broken over issues such as land rights and the assumption
that the Native Americans wanted to become “more American” and “less Native” (Corbett et al., 2014).
By the end of the Eisenhower Administration, there were plans for the forced removal of tribes from granted
lands in exchange for compensation or replacement lands. Much of this was related to a Truman-era belief
that the Native Americans needed federal aid to survive and that many Native Americans acted out their
desires to be more American by undertaking roles with other Americans during the war years, such as
enlistment working in factories. However, the final outcomes would begin during Eisenhower’s time.
Similar to the Jackson Administration in the 19th century, not all went according to plan with the removals.
Prices given for lands were often unfair to the tribes, and federal funding ceased with the closing of federal
care and aid facilities (as this became a state matter). Lastly, many Native Americans were sent to cities
where they were promised everything they would need for a prosperous opportunity, but they found
themselves on the receiving end of much of the same racism and bigotry that was seen by immigrants in the
1850s.
There would also be a great migration in the 1950s resulting from the popularization and advertisement of the
suburbs. Families who could quickly make their way out of the city and into the neighborhood did so in large
numbers. This was a part of the American dream and the finding of one’s piece of paradise, just as depicted
in popular television programs such as Leave it to Beaver and Father Knows Best. In reality, what changed
was the nature of work (Corbett et al., 2014).
Technology was replacing the unskilled worker in industry. Also, many of the backbreaking farming tasks,
which had required a large family in previous generations, were now almost fully automated. Unions grew
stronger as work opportunities were at a premium; many of the lower classes would move into the city to
discover there were still few opportunities to be had.
Thanks to the growth of the electrical grid and air conditioning, the greatest rate of population growth occurred
in the Southeast and Southwest, which traditionally had much smaller populations and few major cities. With
this influx of citizens, however, there came an effort to oust competition, starting with im migrants (Corbett et
al., 2014). Due to its location, the group who would face the harshest criticism would be Mexicans.
HIS 1302, American History II
4
Civil Rights: Challenging Segregation by Race andUNIT
Gender
x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Women did see their opportunities to work trend
upward, but they were not considered equal to men in
either wages or status in most companies. Women
also became more common on university campuses,
though starting a family would often trump educational
ambition. Perhaps the largest change for women
would be a new group of reform-minded activists, such
as Betty Friedan and Edith Stern, who argued against
the homemaker expectation. They would advocate for
women to not accept society’s right to judge their
capability based on gender but to challenge
themselves to find personal fulfillment, which might be
outside of the home.
Equality was also a goal for African Americans, who
still contended with many of the Jim Crow attitudes
Miss Main Honour, a math major at Auburn
confronted by their fathers and grandfathers. In 1948,
University and the first woman accepted into
Truman issued Executive Order 9981 to desegregate
Redstone Arsenal’s Cooperative Training Program.
the U.S. Armed Forces over Pentagon objections. The
(U.S. Army, 1956)
1950s would provide some steps forward but at the
expense of a renewed wave of racism and hostility.
Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1896 that legalized segregation. It had
reinforced and supported racist attitudes and actions in America, which inherently also limited th e
opportunities for advancement of African American communities.
Brown v. Board of Education of 1956 would address this limitation by overturning the Plessy decision
(Corbett et al., 2014). In short, multiple lawsuits were presented, which showed that, due to issues related to
geography, facility, or funding, separate institutions of learning were not equal. This pattern of hostility was
not unique to one region, population, or economic class; it had simply been overlooked or excused for such
a long time that generations continued to grow in its shadow. Even with the Brown decision, there was little
to no enforcement in many cases. The American South, however, was still a hotbed of activity, and a
young activist named Rosa Parks would become the face of one such event: the Montgomery, Alabama,
bus boycott.
Even with these tense times, the 1950s were the backdrop to many cases of peaceful refusal to abide by Jim
Crow laws. If those who resisted were arrested, it was okay, and attempts at public humiliation p rovided even
greater exposure. Finally, with the aid of leaders, such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference, this unequal treatment was becoming national news. Eisenhower would
make some small strides to advance equality, but in general, he focused on issues with which he was more
comfortable, most notably, military and international affairs.
The Space Race
Internationally, Eisenhower would face many struggles, starting with the premiere of a new Soviet leader:
Nikita Khrushchev. Both Eisenhower and Khrushchev feared what continued hostilities could mean, up to and
including the potential for nuclear war if the threat escalated. Under the leadership of these two men, the
competition between the two superpowers would take a turn in a new direction—the race for space.
HIS 1302, American History II
5
Though there are numerous
the
UNIT xnations
STUDYwith
GUIDE
technology and meansTitle
for a space program today,
this was more of a show of technological progress
and ability than a public spectacle. For example, if
one power could launch a rocket powerful enough to
exit the atmosphere, what could that mean for their
military might? This is exactly the question that was
on the minds of many when Sputnik, an unmanned
satellite, was launched into space by the Soviet Union
(Corbett et al., 2014). The United States was quick to
respond, but the damage had been done. The United
States still had the edge in nuclear technology, but
this was the first time since the Great War that the
U.S. public was not absolutely sure if it could protect
itself from a rival force.
To calm the public, the government made public
service advertisements, which, in hindsight, probably
had about the same chance of success as a placebo.
For example, schools taught students to crawl under
their desks if they heard an air raid siren, as well as
other such drills that supposedly would protect them during nuclear conditions. The United States and Soviet
nations would continue their uneasy peace through the 1950s. Any exchanges between the two would
generally be related to espionage more than imminent catastrophe. This inspired a refocus on science and
mathematics in the American education system.
A replica of Sputnik, which is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration
[NASA], 2004)
Many of the remaining international issues that Eisenhower would face would largely be related to
containment, the same policy that had ultimately plunged the United States into the Korean conflict.
Eisenhower, like Truman, saw the threat of not acting on the containment strategy.
Eisenhower’s perspective, though, was a bit different. He was more concerned about his domino theory and
argued that failure to act on, or successfully prevent, one non-communist nation from being assimilated into
the communist bloc would result in others following. Just as Truman had feared not acting with Greece,
Turkey, and finally Korea, Eisenhower had his hands full with Latin America (Guate mala and Cuba), the
Middle East (Iran and Egypt), and Vietnam.
This time the threat of communism was arising on a more global scale, but the epicenter of U.S. interest
would be a Southeast Asian target: Vietnam. Following France’s defeat by Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh forces in
1954, Vietnam was separated into communist north and independent south at the 17th parallel, just as Korea
had been divided at the 38th parallel after WWII (Corbett et al., 2014). The north, led by Ho Chi Minh, would
become an increasingly desperate threat to Eisenhower’s policy. Despite the many comparisons, Vietnam
would not be as clear a separation as Korea had been, the difference being that the Viet Minh, those who
supported the communist regime, were prevalent in both nations. Defense of the south would mean that the
United States would very likely need to fight against some of the same people they were sent to protect if they
were to stop the spread of communism.
Truman and Eisenhower together set a tone for the early Cold War era, which heavily emphasized the need
for the United States to serve as an international power, even at the expense of some national programs. The
United States embraced its position as a superpower and stayed true to its promise to help rebuild the world it
had helped destroy. This was not a shared goal with the Soviets; however, and the Cold War would soon
again escalate with both highs and lows for the United States.
HIS 1302, American History II
6
References
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Corbett, P. S., Janssen, V., Lund, J. M., Pfannestiel, T., Waskiewicz, S., & Vickery, P. (2014). U.S. history.
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/1-introduction
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2004). Sputnik [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sputnik_asm.jpg
National Archives. (1961). Berlin Wall 1961-11-20. [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg
U.S. Army. (1956). Main Honour [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Main_honour.jpg
White House. (1956, July). Eisenhower official [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eisenhower_official.jpg
Suggested Unit Resources
In order to access the following resources, click the links below.
Listen to the oral histories of Civil Rights Movement participants gathered by the United States Library of
Congress, Southern Oral History Project. Each interview is substantial, but students can review the transcripts
to select specific topics. Some students may find some content difficult due to memories recounted of violent
situations and encounters.
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Collection: Civil rights history project. https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-rightshistory-project/about-this-collection/
The Library of Congress also hosts an online collection of editorial cartoons about the Red Scare.
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Pointing their pens: Herblock and fellow cartoonists confront the issues.
https://loc.gov/exhibits/pointing-their-pens-editorial-cartoons/red-scare.html
HIS 1302, American History II
7
UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE
Post-World War and Korea
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
4. Explain the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on America’s societal infrastructure.
4.1 Explain the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on American policy during the Cold War era to
1960.
4.2 Identify key individuals and events in the Civil Rights Movement during the Cold War era to
1960.
6. Explain the United States’ evolving role as a superpower.
6.1 Describe the new responsibilities of the United States as a superpower in the Cold War era to
1960.
7. Describe the modern challenges and opportunities concerning the United States around the globe.
7.1 Identify key individuals associated with the Cold War era.
7.2 Recognize notable innovations in the post-World War II world.
7.3 Identify political ideals related to the Cold War era.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
4.1
4.2
6.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
Learning Activity
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Unit Lesson
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 (5 sections)
Unit VI Assessment
Required Unit Resources
In order to access the following resource, click the link below.
Throughout this course, you will be provided with sections of text from the online resource U.S. History. You
may be tested on your knowledge and understanding of the material listed below as well as the information
presented in the unit lesson. This unit’s chapter title and sections are provided below:
Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960, Sections 28.1, 28.2, 28.3, 28.4, and 28.5
HIS 1302, American History II
1
Unit Lesson
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Berlin, the capital of Germany and the opposition’s seat of power during the previous world war, was also
divided between the two sides. To enforce this border, the Soviets constructed a wall, which, over time, would
become more than just a symbol of the differences between geographic rivals but, rather, become a form of
political validation. The Western powers were not going to repeat the mistake of abandoning the rebuilding
process, which could again lead to further hostilities, but Stalin demanded that German suffe ring stand as
payment for Soviet losses and casualties as well as a symbol of the strength of Eastern Europe and of his
own ruthless nature.
Expansion and Containment
Communism, in its purest form, was popular in poorer
nations because it publicly guaranteed
equal treatment and promised to provide what
was necessary to live. Its failures, in practice, were
ultimately due to corrupt management and limited
incentive, which was the hallmark of the free
market economy.
East German construction workers building the Berlin
Wall, November 20, 1961
(National Archives, 1961)
In the fallout of World War II (WWII), the Soviet
Union would be influential in the spread of
Communism throughout its sphere of control or
influence, which now spread all the way into Western
Europe, having been invited by some and bullying
their way into others. With the efforts of other aspiring
dictators, such as China’s Mao Zedong (Tse Tung),
other war-weary and struggling nations, including
Vietnam and Korea, would also soon face strong
communist pressure.
In the United States, communism was a source of constant headlines. Senator Joseph McCarthy’s Red Scare
was effective at swaying social consciousness against anything communist. The Soviet growth across
Eastern Europe and Asia provided his campaign with a continuous source of propaganda.
This period of tension would be dubbed the Cold War in reference to the absence of violence between the
powers. However, all the while, there was a lingering threat that only supported furthe r political action,
including espionage on both sides and relentless speculation of who was an enemy and who could be trusted.
In the aftermath of previous wars, the United States would instinctively renew its isolationist policy, retreating
back to its natural borders and leaving Europe to address its own problems. With the quick and ominous
threat that communism brought, however, this was no longer an option. As the only world power with the
potential to rival the strength of the Soviets, the United States found itself in the middle of a political firestorm
and in a state of constant alert.
In 1950, the dominos started to fall, and the first real conflict emerged from this situation. The Republic of
Korea (ROK), more commonly known as South Korea, was invaded by the Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea (DPRK), also known as North Korea. Once united under the control of Japan, th ese two neighbors
were, like Germany, divided at the mutually agreed upon 38th parallel. As a part of negotiations following
WWII, the North fell under the control of the Soviets, and the South fell under the united Western control.
Following the pattern of their Soviet brothers, the North Koreans became communist and desired a
reunification of the Korean peninsula. South Korea, supported in their rebuilding, had become quite
westernized in the years since the war and no longer shared many cultural, social, economic, or political traits
with their neighbors to the north (Corbett et al., 2014).
For the Western powers, this was a situation in need of containment. United Nations (UN) forces would be
brought into the region to enforce the Truman Doctrine and ensure that South Korea would not sustain losses
due to the invasion. Things did not entirely go as planned for the heavily U.S.-backed UN. Early losses would
HIS 1302, American History II
2
lead to moderate success and momentum, but conflicting leadership would lead
to China
stepping
in t o
UNIT
x STUDY
GUIDE
support their communist allies.
Title
The United States was not ready for this conflict. Despite this, Truman would not be seen as afraid or unable
to back up his promises, and 1.8 million Americans would be deployed to Korea. The first success would not
come until General Douglas MacArthur successfully retook Inchon, Seoul, and, finally, the original border.
Truman wanted to reunite Korea, rather than simply reinforce the border from 5 years prior, but he knew the
risk of threatening the Chinese border. MacArthur, as brilliant and charismatic as he was, did not see eye-toeye with this strategy. Since his experience in the Pacific padded his confidence in U.S. strength, he decided
to ignore his Commander in Chief, and China did indeed enter the fray with an in itial force of 300,000 soldiers
to aid the northern cause (Corbett et al., 2014).
After a disagreement about a bombing strategy, MacArthur and Truman would have a very loud and public
falling out because of this decision. MacArthur, like many Americans, did not discount the United States and
saw the situation at the time as an opportunity to strike against the communists. Truman, frustrated and
angered by MacArthur’s blatant refusal to follow orders, removed the WWII hero from his post as Commander
of the Pacific in 1951, whereupon the first round of peace negotiations began (Corbett et al., 2014).
Finally, in 1953, with North Korea battered from continuous air raids and South Korea unable to match
Chinese forces on the ground, an armistice was signed at Panmunjom. In addition to ceasing hostilities, this
agreement instilled a 2.5-mile mutually shared buffer zone, called the demilitarized zone, surrounding the new
border (Corbett et al., 2014). The last impact of this conflict was the fear of future problems. It was decided
that the military was not up to the standard of a superpower, and with that, the federal budget would allot
approximately 70% of the 1952 budget to restocking the military in case of later aggression. This controversial
and secret decision would be known as NSC 68.
Truman would not recover from Korea, and he would not even attempt to challenge as the incumbent in the
1952 presidential election. The Republicans would take the White House, with Dwight D. Eisenhower at the
helm; he chose California Senator Richard Milhous Nixon as his running mate.
The Middle Way at Home
Eisenhower knew the nation was war-weary and chose to be
a moderate during his term of service as president. He
proposed a plan that most Americans would see as
beneficial but was essentially the opposite in terms of the
flash of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s (FDR) New Deal.
Eisenhower’s Middle Way sought to reinforce the liberties and
rights of the American people. Eisenhower saw benefit in
public works, such as the New Deal, but he did not think that
the government needed to interfere with every aspect of
personal life.
The Cold War was a time of high alert. It is perhaps because
of Eisenhower’s style of modern Republicanism—which was
focused on public works (e.g., the Interstate Highway and
Defense System Act of 1956) and jobs, instead of constant
threats and overbearing government interference—that he
was popular (Corbett et al., 2014).
Dwight D. Eisenhower
(White House, 1956)
HIS 1302, American History II
On the other end of the scale, the active muscle behind the
Red Scare, Senator Joseph McCarthy, would finally step too
far by accusing persons of the military of communist
association without any proof to validate his claims. He then
experienced a very public falling out, and almost overnight,
the public scare was over, though the threat was still very
real. Today, the term McCarthyism is linked to false, or
unproven, accusations. His model is common to popular
3
media and literature, such as Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, which uses the backdrop
the Salem
Witch Trials
UNIT xofSTUDY
GUIDE
of the 1690s as a comparison to the panic and fear of McCarthy’s time in the public
Title limelight.
Adapting to Changes
With progress, there are often losses—some expected and others not. Such is the case with the success of
Eisenhower’s interstate system. For the second time in American history, agreements between the federal
government and Native American tribes would be broken over issues such as land rights and the assumption
that the Native Americans wanted to become “more American” and “less Native” (Corbett et al., 2014).
By the end of the Eisenhower Administration, there were plans for the forced removal of tribes from granted
lands in exchange for compensation or replacement lands. Much of this was related to a Truman-era belief
that the Native Americans needed federal aid to survive and that many Native Americans acted out their
desires to be more American by undertaking roles with other Americans during the war years, such as
enlistment working in factories. However, the final outcomes would begin during Eisenhower’s time.
Similar to the Jackson Administration in the 19th century, not all went according to plan with the removals.
Prices given for lands were often unfair to the tribes, and federal funding ceased with the closing of federal
care and aid facilities (as this became a state matter). Lastly, many Native Americans were sent to cities
where they were promised everything they would need for a prosperous opportunity, but they found
themselves on the receiving end of much of the same racism and bigotry that was seen by immigrants in the
1850s.
There would also be a great migration in the 1950s resulting from the popularization and advertisement of the
suburbs. Families who could quickly make their way out of the city and into the neighborhood did so in large
numbers. This was a part of the American dream and the finding of one’s piece of paradise, just as depicted
in popular television programs such as Leave it to Beaver and Father Knows Best. In reality, what changed
was the nature of work (Corbett et al., 2014).
Technology was replacing the unskilled worker in industry. Also, many of the backbreaking farming tasks,
which had required a large family in previous generations, were now almost fully automated. Unions grew
stronger as work opportunities were at a premium; many of the lower classes would move into the city to
discover there were still few opportunities to be had.
Thanks to the growth of the electrical grid and air conditioning, the greatest rate of population growth occurred
in the Southeast and Southwest, which traditionally had much smaller populations and few major cities. With
this influx of citizens, however, there came an effort to oust competition, starting with im migrants (Corbett et
al., 2014). Due to its location, the group who would face the harshest criticism would be Mexicans.
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Civil Rights: Challenging Segregation by Race andUNIT
Gender
x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Women did see their opportunities to work trend
upward, but they were not considered equal to men in
either wages or status in most companies. Women
also became more common on university campuses,
though starting a family would often trump educational
ambition. Perhaps the largest change for women
would be a new group of reform-minded activists, such
as Betty Friedan and Edith Stern, who argued against
the homemaker expectation. They would advocate for
women to not accept society’s right to judge their
capability based on gender but to challenge
themselves to find personal fulfillment, which might be
outside of the home.
Equality was also a goal for African Americans, who
still contended with many of the Jim Crow attitudes
Miss Main Honour, a math major at Auburn
confronted by their fathers and grandfathers. In 1948,
University and the first woman accepted into
Truman issued Executive Order 9981 to desegregate
Redstone Arsenal’s Cooperative Training Program.
the U.S. Armed Forces over Pentagon objections. The
(U.S. Army, 1956)
1950s would provide some steps forward but at the
expense of a renewed wave of racism and hostility.
Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1896 that legalized segregation. It had
reinforced and supported racist attitudes and actions in America, which inherently also limited th e
opportunities for advancement of African American communities.
Brown v. Board of Education of 1956 would address this limitation by overturning the Plessy decision
(Corbett et al., 2014). In short, multiple lawsuits were presented, which showed that, due to issues related to
geography, facility, or funding, separate institutions of learning were not equal. This pattern of hostility was
not unique to one region, population, or economic class; it had simply been overlooked or excused for such
a long time that generations continued to grow in its shadow. Even with the Brown decision, there was little
to no enforcement in many cases. The American South, however, was still a hotbed of activity, and a
young activist named Rosa Parks would become the face of one such event: the Montgomery, Alabama,
bus boycott.
Even with these tense times, the 1950s were the backdrop to many cases of peaceful refusal to abide by Jim
Crow laws. If those who resisted were arrested, it was okay, and attempts at public humiliation p rovided even
greater exposure. Finally, with the aid of leaders, such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference, this unequal treatment was becoming national news. Eisenhower would
make some small strides to advance equality, but in general, he focused on issues with which he was more
comfortable, most notably, military and international affairs.
The Space Race
Internationally, Eisenhower would face many struggles, starting with the premiere of a new Soviet leader:
Nikita Khrushchev. Both Eisenhower and Khrushchev feared what continued hostilities could mean, up to and
including the potential for nuclear war if the threat escalated. Under the leadership of these two men, the
competition between the two superpowers would take a turn in a new direction—the race for space.
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Though there are numerous
the
UNIT xnations
STUDYwith
GUIDE
technology and meansTitle
for a space program today,
this was more of a show of technological progress
and ability than a public spectacle. For example, if
one power could launch a rocket powerful enough to
exit the atmosphere, what could that mean for their
military might? This is exactly the question that was
on the minds of many when Sputnik, an unmanned
satellite, was launched into space by the Soviet Union
(Corbett et al., 2014). The United States was quick to
respond, but the damage had been done. The United
States still had the edge in nuclear technology, but
this was the first time since the Great War that the
U.S. public was not absolutely sure if it could protect
itself from a rival force.
To calm the public, the government made public
service advertisements, which, in hindsight, probably
had about the same chance of success as a placebo.
For example, schools taught students to crawl under
their desks if they heard an air raid siren, as well as
other such drills that supposedly would protect them during nuclear conditions. The United States and Soviet
nations would continue their uneasy peace through the 1950s. Any exchanges between the two would
generally be related to espionage more than imminent catastrophe. This inspired a refocus on science and
mathematics in the American education system.
A replica of Sputnik, which is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration
[NASA], 2004)
Many of the remaining international issues that Eisenhower would face would largely be related to
containment, the same policy that had ultimately plunged the United States into the Korean conflict.
Eisenhower, like Truman, saw the threat of not acting on the containment strategy.
Eisenhower’s perspective, though, was a bit different. He was more concerned about his domino theory and
argued that failure to act on, or successfully prevent, one non-communist nation from being assimilated into
the communist bloc would result in others following. Just as Truman had feared not acting with Greece,
Turkey, and finally Korea, Eisenhower had his hands full with Latin America (Guate mala and Cuba), the
Middle East (Iran and Egypt), and Vietnam.
This time the threat of communism was arising on a more global scale, but the epicenter of U.S. interest
would be a Southeast Asian target: Vietnam. Following France’s defeat by Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh forces in
1954, Vietnam was separated into communist north and independent south at the 17th parallel, just as Korea
had been divided at the 38th parallel after WWII (Corbett et al., 2014). The north, led by Ho Chi Minh, would
become an increasingly desperate threat to Eisenhower’s policy. Despite the many comparisons, Vietnam
would not be as clear a separation as Korea had been, the difference being that the Viet Minh, those who
supported the communist regime, were prevalent in both nations. Defense of the south would mean that the
United States would very likely need to fight against some of the same people they were sent to protect if they
were to stop the spread of communism.
Truman and Eisenhower together set a tone for the early Cold War era, which heavily emphasized the need
for the United States to serve as an international power, even at the expense of some national programs. The
United States embraced its position as a superpower and stayed true to its promise to help rebuild the world it
had helped destroy. This was not a shared goal with the Soviets; however, and the Cold War would soon
again escalate with both highs and lows for the United States.
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References
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Corbett, P. S., Janssen, V., Lund, J. M., Pfannestiel, T., Waskiewicz, S., & Vickery, P. (2014). U.S. history.
OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/1-introduction
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2004). Sputnik [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sputnik_asm.jpg
National Archives. (1961). Berlin Wall 1961-11-20. [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg
U.S. Army. (1956). Main Honour [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Main_honour.jpg
White House. (1956, July). Eisenhower official [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eisenhower_official.jpg
Suggested Unit Resources
In order to access the following resources, click the links below.
Listen to the oral histories of Civil Rights Movement participants gathered by the United States Library of
Congress, Southern Oral History Project. Each interview is substantial, but students can review the transcripts
to select specific topics. Some students may find some content difficult due to memories recounted of violent
situations and encounters.
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Collection: Civil rights history project. https://www.loc.gov/collections/civil-rightshistory-project/about-this-collection/
The Library of Congress also hosts an online collection of editorial cartoons about the Red Scare.
Library of Congress. (n.d.). Pointing their pens: Herblock and fellow cartoonists confront the issues.
https://loc.gov/exhibits/pointing-their-pens-editorial-cartoons/red-scare.html
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