1) View the attached PDF file of two images of contemporary art. You are asked to compare the works of contemporary art to two pieces of art in Chapters 19 and 20. Please be sure to review the information in the lecture and in the book on the artwork in Chapters 19 and 20 for a full understanding of the piece.
2) Before looking up any information about the contemporary artworks, please respond to them. What do you think the artists are trying to say in their works? How are they responding to the historical artwork in Chapters 19 and 20? I am looking for context and meaning here. I’m not grading you on whether or not you interpret the art the way the artists think you should, so please take your best shot at interpretation.
3) Do a little bit of research. Please look up the contemporary artworks and artists. Did your interpretation align with what they said was their goal/statement about the work they created? If not, tell me how his statement about the work was different than yours
PABLO PICASSO, Las Meninas, 1957
Contemporary Chat Image
Please compare to: Figure 19-31 DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, Las Meniñas (The Maids of Honor), 1656.
Oil on canvas, approx. 10’ 5” x 9’. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Figure 25-30 AUDREY FLACK, Marilyn, 1977. Oil over acrylic on canvas, 8’ x 8’
Contemporary Chat Image
Please compare to: Figure 20-21 PIETER CLAESZ, Vanitas Still Life, 1630s.
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Flanders and Holland: Flemish and Dutch artists painted pictures that illuminate the emerging forces of capitalism, technology, and middle class political democracy which revealed the modern sense of individualism Flemish and Dutch artists made portraits, still-lifes, landscapes and genre scenes (scenes of everyday life); these kinds of paintings were sold to individuals on an open market at shops, studios, and fairs Use of the microscope was pioneered by the Dutch – they were the best lens makers of Europe; this kind of minute observation led to the creation of the camera obscura
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Rubens was born in Antwerp in 1577 to Protestant parents, but his father fled to Germany from Spanish persecution (Flanders was controlled by Catholic Spain). When his father died, Rubens was 10, he was raised as a devout Catholic in Flanders. He was trained by local painters, became a master in 1598, then moved to Italy in 1600 where he spent 8 years. He went back to Antwerp and became a Spanish court painter. This commission was his first major altarpiece done after his return from Italy: done in a traditionally Flemish manner paying close attention to natural landscape elements while his figures are muscular and dynamic, something he picked up from Italy. There is a pyramidal structure which draws the viewer into the action.
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Rubens was a favorite among aristocrats, especially Marie de’Medici. She was a widow of Henry IV (and a member of the famous Florentine family), she commissioned Rubens to paint 21 paintings glorifying her career. This shows her arriving from a sea voyage from Italy, she is welcomed by her ladies in waiting and allegorical (an allegory is the physical embodiment of an idea or an ideal) figures including the personification of France and the sky and sea rejoice at her arrival. Please note how the mythological female sea creatures at the bottom of the painting are full figured. They look very different than the elite women pictured above. Rubens used the idealized form for a woman meant to symbolize fertility and fecundity.
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An important pioneer in the field of still-life painting, Clara Peeters is the only Flemish woman known to have specialized in such pictures as early as the first decade of the 17th century. While definite details concerning her life are scarce, records indicate that Peeters was baptized in Antwerp in 1594 and married there in 1639. There is no indication that Peeters ever joined the Antwerp painters’ guild, but the records for many relevant years are missing. Peeters’s earliest dated oil paintings, from 1607 and 1608, are small-scale, detailed images representing food and beverages. The skill with which this 17-year-old artist executed such pictures indicates that she must have been trained by a master painter. Although there is no documentary evidence of her artistic education, scholars believe that Peeters was a student of Osias Beert, a noted still-life painter from Antwerp. By 1612 the 18-year-old artist was producing large numbers of painstakingly rendered still lifes, typically displaying a group of valuable objects (elaborately decorated metal goblets, gold coins, exotic flowers) on a narrow ledge, as seen from a low vantage point, against a dark background.
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Although the artist was tremendously affected by Caravaggio’s painting of the same scene, he gets rid of the tenebrism of Caravaggio and instead uses a palette of soft colors and works much more with light. He also crams his figures into a much smaller space which gives the painting an immediacy to it. Because Caravaggio is known for that kind of immediacy, I usually say that Brugghen out-Caravaggios Caravaggio.
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Honthorst set a precedent for similar scenes done in the 1620s in Utrecht where artists favored the erotic and ascetic side of Baroque art. The artist used multiple hidden light sources to heighten the dramatic contrast of lights and darks. The large dark figure in the foreground makes the other characters behind him recede into space creating depth. This is a scene of upper class individuals. It’s not their clothing, jewelry, instruments, or table full of food that tells us this, but, rather, we know this because oil lamps and candles were expensive. Most people went to bed at sundown, but these people are up late eating and laughing the night away.
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As a leading painter in Haarlem, portraits were his specialty. Hals excelled at group portraits especially. These men were a group of Dutch civic militia groups who claimed credit for liberating the Dutch Republic from Spain. Here they have met for a feast celebrating their patron saint, Hadrian. Since most of these feast could last for days to a week, Hals was able to portray everyone in a variety of manners and poses which makes the painting much more naturalistic and less rigid. Hals was a fan of the looser brushstroke which enlivens the surface of the painting. You may recall that Diego Velázquez also used looser brushwork in Las Meniñas . Some people liked this technique, while others thought it was sloppy.
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My favorite portrait by Hals, but not found in your book. His single portraits gave an individuality to the sitter. Malle Babbe was supposedly half witch (aka healer/, half village idiot, Hals captures the essence of this figure as she yells and laughs at other guests in a tavern. She’s drinking that stein of ale in her hand, not serving it! What I love so much about this portrait is that she would never be able to afford a portrait painted by the esteemed artist. Hals saw something in her that was interesting and decided to paint her. The looseness of the brushwork is genius. You really get a sense of her personality.
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These women are widows (you can tell by the black dresses they wear) who supervise a charitable organization, a home for the aged – they also were supervisors for orphanages, hospitals, and prisons. They are characterized as being stern, composed, and puritanical, living out their lives in the service of the less fortunate. They took their jobs very seriously. These well-educated women were often found populating the work force, but often they dedicated their time to being regents when their finances afforded them to do that. Even though this is a group portrait, you get a sense of their individual personalities. Hals focuses on their faces and hands. Their body language tells us a lot about what kinds of roles they might play in the old men’s home.
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Leyster was a follower of Hals; we can see this in the way she uses a loose brushstroke throughout the painting. Her career was partially cut short because of motherhood as women often couldn’t sustain a career as an artist and be a wife and mother. Like Artemesia Gentileschi, Leyster portrays herself first and foremost as an artist, but unlike Gentileschi’s self-portrait, the artist pauses a moment to look at us while she is painting someone else’s portrait. If you haven’t noticed already, almost all of the self-portraits done by women artists are of them at work. This was so that male artists and patrons would take them seriously. Leyster ran a studio where she taught students. Frans Hals stole one of her students and Leyster sued him for lost income and won. This demonstrates the competitive nature of artists striving to make a living in a Protestant nation. There are no more church patrons since the Protestants believed images were idolatrous. Private patronage or selling works in the open market was how artists made money. Many of them, like Leyster and Hals, also taught to make money, not much different than today.
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This is another work to see Leyster’s skill as a genre painter. The light is really quite stunning and is similar to that of Velázquez and to the next artist, Jan Vermeer.
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A landscape of his native town, Vermeer’s work fuses the objective perspective of the lens (a camera obscura* ) with the creative perspective of the human eye. He only painted 2 or 3 paintings a year and wasn’t interested in selling his work. By the early 1660s he focused on two enduring and personal themes: the portrayal of light and of women in meditatively quiet interiors. Vermeer was Catholic and lived with his wife and many children in a Catholic neighborhood in Delft. Holland was quite religiously tolerant. Because Vermeer painted maybe 40-45 works of art in his entire career, he was forgotten until rediscovered in the 19th century. *The camera obscura aided artists by projecting images through a hole onto a glass plate; the kind used by the 17th century Dutch used a mirror to re-invert the image to the right side up, like a camera without film; it performs two important skills: 1) it reduced the size of an image to a convenient scale and 2) it framed a two-dimensional image on the glass viewing plate making it easy for the artist to study or trace images
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Because Vermeer was Catholic, he often added symbolic references in his work, including the painting of the Last Judgment behind the woman. It’s a painting he painted and used as a prop. The woman seems to be doing an ordinary task, figuring out the value of her jewels. Notice, though, that the balance (or scales) she holds can be symbolic of the scales found in the Last Judgment scene, weight the souls of the saved and the damned. She may be pondering more than just the value of her worldly goods. Vermeer was not highly regarded in his time because the emotion in his works was buried too deeply; it was not surface enough for the Baroque public. Indeed it is very different than the work of Rembrandt or Caravaggio.
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Most likely Vermeer’s daughter, this painting has been the centerpiece for a popular work of fiction that was made into the film of the same name starring Scarlett Johanssen. Optional – please watch the making of The Girl with the Pearl Earring : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OTw_0uuvens
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Rembrandt is generally regarded as one of the greatest painters and printmakers in history (6000 paintings, 300 etchings and 2000 drawings). He had early success, a bumpy mid-life and poor later life. This is Rembrandt’s first group portrait. It is of the physician Nicolaes Tulp and seven surgeons. It is one of a series of group portraits that were made for the board room of the Guild of Surgeons. Dr. Tulp demonstrates how the muscles of the arm are attached. The bodies used for these public autopsies were criminals. The names of the men portrayed in the picture are listed on the piece of paper held by the man in the back. What is remarkable about this painting is the way Rembrandt uses light. The light on the cadaver is odd since we can’t really tell where it’s coming from, it almost seems to be coming from the body itself. Perhaps this is representing the idea of the light of science. During Leonardo’s time, these kind of scientific inquiries were illegal. Now, in the 17th century in a Protestant country, these kinds of activities were a part of everyday society.
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One of his most famous works, it is an untraditional group portrait in which each member of this military group paid to have his portrait painted. Rembrandt plays with chiaroscuro and movement, thus obscuring some of the “sitters” faces. However, the work was not originally this dark, the varnish that Rembrandt used has darkened over time, thus the nickname “the Night Watch” was given to the painting. Please watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/holland/v/rembrandt-nightwatch And for fun: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1ys2UCROU0
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Rembrandt made a very steady income in selling prints. This was such a popular work that Rembrandt had to pay 100 guilders (150 gold pieces) for a copy of his own print. It is a depiction of the Gospel Matthew chapter 19. Christ is preaching to the blind, lame, and young. Peter tries to stop a few women who want to have their children blessed but Jesus gestures that they should come closer: “Suffer the little children, and forbid them not, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” while Jewish Pharisees (symbolizing “the law”, while Jesus symbolizes “the spirit”) on the left are discussing issues among themselves, trying to “trip” Jesus’s theology up. It is dramatically lit and reverent. The young man sitting next to Peter has just been told that unless he gives up his worldly riches to the poor, he will not get into heaven: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of the needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” Quick side note: “the eye of the needle” does not refer to the eye in a sewing needle, but instead refers to the entry gate into a walled city. All cities had fortified walls for protection and the entry gates were nicknamed “the eye of the needle.” If you had a camel with too much stuff on its back, it couldn’t pass through the eye of the needle or the entry gate. Notice the camel in the right part of the print. This entire work is of a Protestant message that it is not through obedience to the law or good works, but by faith that one shall be saved.
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This is the image for SmartHistory HW #7.
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Claesz produced many still life images. They distilled a richness and mystery that captured the light of everyday objects. This also shows the passing of time that became to be known as vanitas : reminders of the transience of temporal or mortal life. It is often symbolized by watches, half eaten food, dying plants, burned down candles, half-empty glasses, skulls, etc.
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Floral painting was a very popular form of still-life art. Ruysch was leading practitioner of this genre. She gained knowledge of flowers and insects from her father who was a professor of botany and anatomy. Her flowers are positioned in a way that they create a diagonal from bottom left to upper right, opposite of the diagonal of the table they rest upon. Ruysch was supported by her parents to pursue a career as an artist. Compositions such as these were completely made up from her imagination as these flowers all bloomed at different times of year. Notice how they are in different stages of bloom and decay. She places bees, butterflies, and shells in the composition to illustrate the passage of time.
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There was a renewed interest in the classical especially after 1640. Poussin was the greatest French painter in the 17th century and the earliest French painter to receive international fame, although he spent most of his career in Rome. He is a precursor to Neo-Classicism of the 18th century, painting in what is called the “Grand Manner.” Figures are derived from Hellenistic sculpture (in the sense of movement especially). Poussin believed in idealizing nature to make it perfect. This image depicts three shepherds and a monumental, statue-like woman grouped around a large stone tomb. The idyllic natural setting, the antique robes and sandals of the figures, and, of course, the painting’s title all situate this in the mythical realm of Arcadia. Arcadia was a real region in Greece: isolated, surrounded by mountains, and sparsely populated by shepherds, already in antiquity the region was romanticized as a kind of terrestrial paradise, a place of unspoiled nature whose inhabitants still lived in the blissful harmony (and ignorance) of the Golden Age. The myth of Arcadia has inspired poets and artists alike through the millennia, notably the Roman poet Virgil, whose Eclogues (a series of poems which take place in Arcadia) were one of the major inspirations for this painting. In the midst of this paradise, however, these shepherds look somewhat concerned. What is it that they are examining with such perplexed intensity? A tomb, with the phrase Et in Arcadia Ego inscribed in the center. This Latin phrase roughly translates into English as “Even in Arcadia I exist,” referring to the contents of the tomb: death. These shepherds are thus discovering their own mortality. Poussin’s painting can be qualified as a memento mori , or reminder of death. The subject of The Arcadian Shepherds as such was rare and esoteric, but at least one important painting preceded Poussin’s masterpiece. These shepherds are no longer happily frolicking in their Golden Age of bliss, but instead gaze at the tomb, broken-hearted, the knowledge of their mortality weighing heavily upon their shoulders.
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There are no morals or dramatic stories to be told here like in Poussin’s work. His painting seems to have been done just to celebrate landscape as it is. Lorrain loved hazy atmosphere and soft and glowing scenes. It is an ideal world where the figures on the right chat away in an animated fashion, the cattle on the left rest or lazily munch grass. The artist studied the changing qualities of light and its affect on atmosphere and landscape.
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Callot was one of the first artists to practice the graphic arts (printmaking) exclusively. His innovative series of prints documenting the horrors of war greatly influenced the socially conscious artist of the 19th and 20th centuries. This print depicts that under King Louis XIII, the Dukedom of Lorraine was invaded and its capital, Nancy was attacked. This was part of the process of securing an absolute monarchy by the King of France, a consolidation of power continued by Louis XIV. The countryside was overrun, pillaged and burned by marauding French soldiers and this work shows the fate of some of those who had tried to defend their land. The inscription beneath it reads: “finally these infamous and abandoned thieves hanging from this tree like wretched fruit show that crime (horrible and black species) is itself the instrument of shame and vengeance and that is the fate of corrupt men to experience the justice of heaven sooner or later.” Callot is commenting on the effects of the invasion and the violence; the soldiers are depicted as either ruthless perpetrators, or themselves victims.
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La Tour’s early training is still a matter for speculation, but in the province of Lorraine he encountered the artist Jean Le Clerc, a follower of the Italian painter Caravaggio. From this source likely came La Tour’s concern with simplicity, realism, and essential detail. La Tour followed in the footsteps of Caravaggio in his lighting, but chooses much quieter, contemplative scenes. Notice like Gerrit Van Honthorst, he uses a hidden light source to add drama. It is intimate and quiet, a moment for the viewer to also adore the newborn Christ.
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Date to remember : Royal Academy in France was founded in 1648. Charles Lebrun, the court painter (Louis XIV’s artistic supervisor) became the director in 1663: he established a rigid curriculum of instruction in practice and theory, based on a system of rules; this set the pattern for all later academies, including today’s art schools. This is a very suitable portrait of the 63-year-old “Sun King” (called this for parallels between him and the Greek god, Apollo). Louis XIV had the longest reign in European history and still holds that record today. Everything about this portrait exudes class and what it means to be royal. Louis is showing off his legs as he felt it was his best feature – he was a ballet dancer as well. Louis XIV was a very eccentric man. He wears the ermine fur cape complete with the symbol of the French aristocracy, the fleur-de-lis, holds a scepter in his hand, crown on the footstool (let’s face it, who would want to give that perfectly coiffed wig hat hair?!), and sword at his side (even though he’d never see battle). The curtain is drawn back to reveal the grand hall beyond. This is definitely my favorite portrait of a monarch.
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About 20 miles from Paris, this is the palace of Louis XIV. Louis was more interested in how the interior would suit his elaborate tastes than how the palace looked from the outside (see next slide). He turned to Lebrun, a painter who became supervisor of all the king’s artistic projects. It was started by Louis Le Vau, but he died within the first year of building, then the project fell under Jules Hardouin-Mansart’s direction. Versailles has the largest formal gardens ever created.
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This illustrates the extravagance of Louis XIV’s style, taste, and wealth. There are 357 mirrors total. This hall faces the gardens so all the natural light bounces off the Venetian mirrors on the other side. On one side of the hallway there is a salon (a sitting or living room) of war, the other side, a salon of peace. The gilding, parquet floors, crystal, painting, marble – all so extravagant! The upkeep and maintenance has been estimated to have cost 6-25% of the total income of France (the GDP [gross domestic product]). The palace itself is worth as little as $2 billion in today’s dollars, possibly $13 billion dollars in today’s money (depends on a discrepancy in the money used during the 17th century). Is there any question as to why the French revolted against the aristocracy?
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Versailles wasn’t the only architectural project being constructed during Louis XIV’s reign. This church is attached to the veteran’s hospital Louis XIV built for the disabled soldiers of his many wars. The exterior of the church is idealized to give significance to the dome. The façade is low and narrow in relation to the vast drum and dome. The overpowering dome is itself expressive of the Italian Baroque love of dramatic magnitude.
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Wren was a Renaissance man of the Baroque/Rococo period as he studied anatomy, physics, mathematics, and astronomy; he was highly regarded by Isaac Newton. There was a great fire in 1666 in London that destroyed the Gothic St. Paul’s and Wren was appointed to the royal commission for rebuilding the city. Up until this point, England had not participated in the architectural styles popular during the Renaissance and the Baroque, instead sticking with a native Tudor style. There are many classical elements, influence of St. Peter’s in Rome (dome, esp.) and the two clock towers really contain Baroque elements in their shape and decoration.
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Northern Europe 1600-1700
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Figure 20-2 PETER PAUL RUBENS, Elevation of the Cross, Antwerp Cathedral, Antwerp, Belgium, 1610. Oil on panel, 15’ 1 7/8” x 11’ 1 1/2” (center panel), 15′ 1 7/8″ x 4′ 11″ (each wing).
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‹#› Figure 20-4 PETER PAUL RUBENS, Arrival of Marie de’ Medici at Marseilles, 1622–1625. Oil on canvas, approx. 5’ 1” x 3’ 9 1/2”. Louvre, Paris.
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Figure 20-6 CLARA PEETERS. Still Life with Flowers, Goblet, Dried Fruit, and Pretzels, 1611. Oil on panel, 1’ 7 3/4” x 2’ 1 1/4”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
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Figure 20-7 HENDRICK TER BRUGGHEN, Calling of Saint Matthew, 1621. Oil on canvas, 3’ 4” x 4’ 6”. Centraal Museum, Utrecht (acquired with the aid of the Rembrandt Society).
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Figure 20-8 GERRIT VAN HONTHORST, Supper Party, 1620. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ x 4’ 8”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
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Figure 20-10 FRANS HALS, Archers of Saint Hadrian, ca. 1633. Oil on canvas, approx. 6’ 9” x 11’. Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem.
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‹#› FRANS HALS, Malle Babbe, ca. 1650
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Figure 20-9 FRANS HALS, The Women Regents of the Old Men’s Home at Haarlem, 1664. Oil on canvas, 5’ 7” x 8’ 2”. Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem.
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Figure 20-11 JUDITH LEYSTER, Self-Portrait, ca. 1630. Oil on canvas, 2’ 5 3/8” x 2’ 1 5/8”. National Gallery of Art, Washington.
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‹#› JUDITH LEYSTER, Boy Playing a Flute, 1630-35
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Figure 20-18B JAN VERMEER, View of Delft, ca.1661
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Camera obscura : Latin, “dark room”. An ancestor of the modern camera in which a tiny pinhole, acting as a lens, projects an image on a screen, the wall of a room, or the ground-glass wall of a box.
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‹#› Figure 20-19 JAN VERMEER, Woman Holding a Balance, ca.1664. Oil on canvas, 1’ 3 5/8” x 1’ 2”. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
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JAN VERMEER, Girl with the Pearl Earring, ca. 1665
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Figure 20-12 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, 1632. Oil on canvas, 5’ 3 3/4” x 7’ 1 1/4”. Mauritshuis, The Hague.
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Figure 20-13 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (Night Watch), 1642. Oil on canvas, 11’ 11” x 14’ 4”. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
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Figure 20-16 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, Christ with the Sick around Him, Receiving the Children (Hundred Guilder Print), ca. 1649. Etching, approx. 11” x 1’ 3 1/4”. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.
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Etching : A kind of engraving in which the design is incised in a layer of wax or varnish on a metal plate. The parts of the plate left exposed are then etched (slightly eaten away) by the acid in which the plate is immersed after incising.
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‹#› Figure 20-15 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, Self-Portrait, ca. 1659–1660. Oil on canvas, approx. 3’ 8 3/4” x 3’ 1”. The Iveagh Bequest, Kenwood House, London.
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Figure 20-21 PIETER CLAESZ, Vanitas Still Life, 1630s. Oil on panel, 1’ 2” x 1’ 11 1/2”. Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg.
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Vanitas : Latin, “vanity”. A term describing paintings (particularly 17th century Dutch still lifes) that include a reference to death.
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‹#› Figure 20-23 RACHEL RUYSCH, Flower Still Life, after 1700. Oil on canvas, 2’ 6” x 2’. The Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio.
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Figure 20-31 NICOLAS POUSSIN, Et in Arcadia Ego, ca. 1655. Oil on canvas, approx. 2’ 10” x 4’. Louvre, Paris.
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Figure 20-33 CLAUDE LORRAIN, Landscape with Cattle and Peasants, 1629. Oil on canvas, 3’ 6” x 4’ 10 1/2”. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.
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Figure 20-35 JACQUES CALLOT, Hanging Tree, from the Large Miseries of War series, 1633. Etching, 3 3/4” x 7 1/4”. Bibiliothèque Nationale, Paris.
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Figure 20-36 GEORGES DE LA TOUR, Adoration of the Shepherds, 1645-1650. Oil on canvas, 3’6” x 4’ 6”. Louvre, Paris.
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‹#› Figure 20-24 HYACINTHE RIGAUD, Louis XIV, 1701. Oil on canvas, approx. 9’ 2” x 6’ 3”. Louvre, Paris.
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Figure 20-26 Aerial view of palace and gardens, Versailles, France, begun 1669.
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Figure 20-27 JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART and CHARLES LE BRUN, Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, ca. 1680.
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‹#› Figure 20-30 JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART, Église de Dôme, Church of the Invalides, Paris, France, 1676–1706.
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Figure 20-38 SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN, Saint Paul’s Cathedral, London, England, 1675–1710.
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The Baroque was as used as a derogatory term meaning ornate, extravagant, grandiose, but since has been used in a positive way – it accepts the dramatic exploration of light ( chiaroscuro : extreme light and dark), space, composition and human emotion Humans stayed at the center of 17th and 18th century art; artists created a new sense of artistic space – they made perspective move and take on a dynamic new relationship with the viewer Europe became more divided; the dream of uniting Europe as a single Christian power gave way to the realities of fragmented and separate secular governments Catholic Counter-Reformation was still a prominent part of Christian lives; the belief that imagery was very important in making a connection between God and the believer Scientific boundaries were being crossed and new horizons discovered: Galileo drew a perspective pen and ink drawing of the moon as seen through a telescope in 1610
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Because of earlier architectural success, Maderno was named architect of Saint Peter’s Basilica in 1605 by Pope Paul V, where he completed the nave and constructed the great façade. Maderno began his work on the unfinished façade of St. Peter’s in 1606 as well as the nave extension. The façade is often cited as the least satisfactory part of the design of St. Peter’s. The reasons for this, are that it was not given enough consideration by the Pope and committee because of the desire to get the building completed quickly, coupled with the fact that Maderno was hesitant to deviate from the pattern set by Michelangelo at the other end of the building. Some scholars think the façade as being too broad for its height, too cramped in its details, and too heavy in the attic story. The breadth is caused by modifying the plan to have towers on either side. These towers were never executed above the line of the facade because it was discovered that the ground was not sufficiently stable to bear the weight. One effect of the façade and lengthened nave is to screen the view of the dome, so that the building, from the front, has no vertical feature, except from a distance.
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In this plan, we can see that Maderno has a different idea for the church, rejecting the central plan that was part of Bramante and Michelangelo’s plans. 17th century clergy rejected the central plan as it reminded them of pagan temples such as the Pantheon. Three nave bays were added to elongate the church as well as separate the laity from the clergy in a more symbolic way. Unfortunately, this longer nave makes Michelangelo’s dome almost disappear from close up.
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Bernini designed the wings of the colonnade (a covered walkway supported by columns) to converge toward the viewer, making the front of the church appear closer to the approaching individual. It is often referred to during the Catholic Counter-Reformation as the welcoming arms of the church. The piazza itself contained a couple of structures that Bernini had to incorporate: the obelisk and a fountain designed by Maderno, so instead of a square or circle, the piazza is an oval.
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Bernini was 22 years old when he began this papal commission (Pope Urban VIII, Maffeo Barberini). Bronze was pilfered from the Pantheon and the Barberini family symbols (bees, sun, and laurel) are decorative elements over the columns. This structure sits over the high altar which sits over the tomb of St. Peter.
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Some photos from St. Peter’s. Top left moving clockwise: The front of the church looking up towards the balcony the Pope comes out to greet people in St. Peter’s piazza. This photo is to give you a sense of scale of the church. It is truly enormous! Looking up into an aisle dome. Looking up into Michelangelo’s dome. A close up photo of the top of the baldacchino.
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Bernini depicts movement in a way not previously attempted in stone. The biblical youth is taut and poised to rocket his projectile. The famous Davids sculpted by Bernini’s Florentine predecessors had portrayed the static moment before and after the event. Michelangelo portrayed David prior to his battle with Goliath, to intimate the psychological fortitude necessary for attempting such a gargantuan task. The contemplative intensity of Michelangelo’s “David” or the haughty effeteness of Donatello’s and Verrocchio’s Davids are all, nonetheless, portraying moments of stasis. The twisted torso, furrowed forehead, and granite grimace of Bernini’s David epitomize Baroque fixation with dynamic movement and emotion over High Renaissance stasis and classical severity. Michelangelo expressed David’s psychological fortitude, preparing for battle; Bernini captures the moment when he becomes a hero.
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Differing views of Bernini’s David .
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Detailed views
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This sculpture is inspired by a tale from book I of Ovid’s Metamorphosis, which recounts how one day Apollo (God of Light and Poetry) teased an arrow-wielding Cupid, calling him too young a boy to be fit to handle such dangerous weapons. Out of spite, Cupid then pricked him with one of his amour-inducing arrows, causing the god to fall madly in love with the passing-by river nymph Daphne. However, Daphne was devoted to the goddess Diana, and had resolved never to marry and to remain a virgin for her entire life. When Apollo pursued her, driven by his lust, she ran away in panic, calling to her father the river God to help her. He heeded her prayer by transforming her into a laurel tree. Apollo declared that if she would never be his wife, she would at least be his tree, and it is for this reason that he imbued the tree with eternal youth and adopted the crown of laurel leaves, which subsequently became the symbol of Olympic victories and Roman emperors. Cardinal Scipione Borghese commissioned Apollo and Daphne from Bernini in 1622 to replace the Hades and Persephone that he had given to Cardinal Ludovisi. Although it has since been moved into the center of the room, originally the sculpture was located near the wall, such that the viewer would first approach it from behind. In order to instill the pagan-inspired artwork with a proper Christian morality, the base was engraved with a Latin couplet composed by Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (the soon-to-be Pope Urban VIII), reading: “Those who love to pursue fleeing forms of pleasure, In the end find only leaves and bitter berries in their hands.”
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Details of Apollo and Daphne from the Borghese Gallery in Rome. Bernini was a master of carving in marble. If you look at the upper left photo, you can see how the light of the gallery comes through the marble itself! Bernini was able transform a material that is solid into something ethereal and able to transform light. Students ask me all the time about who my favorite artists are and Bernini is definitely one of them. His work is just spectacular.
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This is not in your textbook, but I wanted to further demonstrate Bernini’s genius as a sculptor. In Greek mythology, Persephone (also known as Proserpina) was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter (goddess of agriculture) and was queen of the Underworld. One day while the young maiden was picking flowers, Hades, god of the underworld, kidnapped Persephone and carried her back to the underworld to be his wife. Demeter begged Zeus to command the release of her daughter, and Persephone was told that she would be released from the underworld, as long as she didn’t consume any food while she was there. But when she thought no one was looking, Persephone went into the garden and ate six pomegranate seeds. She was thus doomed to spend six months of the year with Hades, while for the other six months she could return to Earth to see her mother. The myth holds that the months Persephone spends in the underworld leave the earth cold, dark, and wintry, but when she returns, spring and summer accompany her. Cardinal Scipione Borghese commissioned Hades and Persephone from the 23-year-old Bernini in 1621, giving it to Cardinal Ludovisi in 1622. In 1908, the Italian state purchased the work and relocated it to the Galleria Borghese. Bernini chooses to depict the most dramatic, “pregnant” moment in the story; the scene is filled with heart-rending emotion. Bernini is famous for portraying the most poignant moment in a story and for communicating that event in the most dramatic way possible, by means of exuberant movement, emotive facial expressions, and feats of technical mastery. In Hades and Persephone the figures twist and strain in opposing directions, testifying to a Mannerist influence; their tense struggle is imbued with an explosive dynamism.
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This is a man who turns stone into almost literal flesh. Just amazing.
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Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family. The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel. They are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies. As in an opera house, the Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint. The viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.
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The artist portrays the story of Theresa of Avila, one of the great saints of the Counter-Reformation who described how an angel pierced her heart with a flaming golden arrow: “The pain was so great that I screamed aloud; but at the same time I felt such infinite sweetness that I wished the pain to last forever. It was not physical but psychic pain, although it affected the body as well to some degree. It was the sweetest caressing of the soul by God.” Bernini makes this story come alive capturing the sensual and sensationalism of the saint’s story.
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This architect is quite the opposite from Bernini in that he disregards the classical tradition we see in St. Peter’s colonnade and piazza; in fact, Borromini was Bernini’s greatest rival in architecture. This was his first major project. The surfaces move in and out, they look elastic. This church established his local and international fame and was said that nothing similar was built like this church in all of Europe.
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The plan looks like a pinched oval, nothing like the traditional cross designs of most churches. The plan is like a cross between a Greek cross (central plan) and an oval. The walls undulate and columns project out into the space.
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An oval dome seems to float above the heads of parishioners below. It is a pristine looking church. It is small and incredibly intimate – my favorite church in Rome. Please watch this video for more information: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/baroque-italy/v/francesco-borromini-san-carlo-1638-1646
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Details, top left clockwise: another view into the dome the altar sculptural detail – very much related to the kinds of sculptural detail of ancient Roman architecture a view of the outside of the dome from the church’s courtyard
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Carracci was from Bologna and studied and emulated the Renaissance masters carefully. He creates an ideal landscape for this story by pictorially representing nature ordered by divine law and human reason. What’s more important here? Story or landscape? Where does this idea originate in Italy during the Renaissance? Roots for this kind of painting are Venetian Renaissance painting. Clear and clean and peaceful, the figures are a part of their landscape rather than separate and apart. This is one style of painting that was popular in Italy at this time.
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Caravaggio was the most famous of Italian Baroque artists during his lifetime – after his death, he was largely forgotten until the 20th century. He had a disdain for classical masters and was often referred to as the Antichrist of painting by some. Not only is his work realistic, but naturalistic as well especially in his dramatic use of chiaroscuro called tenebrism . Trained in Milan under a master who had himself trained under Titian, Caravaggio moved to Rome in his early 20s. Huge new churches and palazzi were being built in Rome in the decades of the late 16th and early 17th Centuries, and paintings were needed to fill them. The Counter-Reformation Church searched for authentic religious art with which to counter the threat of Protestantism, and for this task the artificial conventions of Mannerism, which had ruled art for almost a century, no longer seemed adequate. Caravaggio’s novelty was a radical naturalism, which combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of tenebrism , the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value. He burst upon the Rome art scene in 1600 with the success of his first public commissions. Thereafter he never lacked for commissions or patrons, yet he handled his success atrociously. An early published notice on him, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle three years previously, tells how “after a fortnight’s work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him.” In 1606 he killed a young man in a brawl and fled from Rome with a price on his head. In Malta in 1608 he was involved in another brawl, and yet another in Naples in 1609, possibly a deliberate attempt on his life by unidentified enemies. By the next year, after a relatively brief career, he was dead. This painting was done for a private family chapel. It is interesting because Christ is not the center of our attention, Matthew is. Matthew is the figure who is pointing at himself with the black hat. Caravaggio uses lighting to direct our attention to him as well as the sword at the side of the figure whose back is turned towards us. Jesus and St. Peter are on the right hand side of the painting, entering into the room. Look closely at Jesus’s hand: it is a direct copy of the hand of God in Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam . Matthew looks directly at Christ seemingly to ask, “Who? Me?” Matthew was named Levi at that point and was a tax collector. The other figures at the table are his colleagues and they are counting the money they have collected. They are all dressed in 17th century clothing, which is different from the Roman robes Jesus and Peter wear. Why would Caravaggio make that distinction? What purpose does that serve the viewer of the artwork?
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In 1600, soon after he had completed the first two canvases for the Contarelli Chapel, Caravaggio signed a contract to paint two pictures for the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo. The church has a special interest because of the works it contains by four of the finest artists ever to work in Rome: Raphael, Carracci, Caravaggio and Bernini. It is probable that by the time Caravaggio began to paint for one of its chapels, The Assumption by Annibale Carracci was in place above the altar. Caravaggio’s depictions of key events in the lives of the founders of the Roman See have little in common with the brilliant colors and stylized attitudes of Annibale, and Caravaggio seems by far the more modern artist. Of the two pictures in the chapel the more remarkable is the representation of the moment of St. Paul’s conversion. According to the Acts of the Apostles, on the way to Damascus Saul the Pharisee (soon to be Paul the Apostle) fell to the ground when he heard the voice of Christ saying to him, “Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?” and temporarily lost his sight. It was reasonable to assume that Saul had fallen from a horse. Caravaggio is close to the Bible. The horse is there and, to hold him, a groom, but the drama is internalized within the mind of Saul. He lies on the ground stunned, his eyes closed as if dazzled by the brightness of God’s light that streams down the white part of the skewbald horse, but that the light is heavenly is clear only to the believer, for Saul has no halo. In the spirit of Luke, who was at the time considered the author of Acts, Caravaggio makes religious experience look natural.
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In this work Caravaggio uses a below center vanishing point. We are placed below the scene and we watch the awkward attempt to remove the body of Christ for burial. It captures a moment in the story – not a posed kind of picture. He uses ordinary people in ordinary clothing: that decreases the psychological distance between the special space of the painting and the private space of the individual viewer.
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This is a most gruesome look of the demise of Goliath (and my favorite Caravaggio work). It is far removed from the idealism we saw in Donatello’s and Michelangelo’s Davids. David is portrayed as a young, but not weak boy by the proof of the great giant’s head. Caravaggio painted his self-portrait in the head of Goliath. It was one of the last paintings he completed before his death.
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Gentileschi was a daughter of a painter named Orazio Gentileschi. She came into painting naturally and her subjects often depict women in dangerous situations. Here she painted the Old Testament story of Judith beheading an Assyrian general in order to save her people. It is very dramatic as she is in the action of cutting off Holofernes’s head. Please read more here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/baroque-italy/a/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes
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Gentileschi’s work is on the left, Caravaggio’s work is on the right. Note the similarities and differences. Which one looks more real?
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Seems like this company needs an art historian on its staff! What an odd choice for an image on a jar of pasta sauce. The sauce looks like the same color as the blood in Caravaggio’s painting – ha!
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This is the image for SmartHistory HW #6.
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Fra Andrea Pozzo created the ceiling fresco for Sant’ Ignazio Church in Rome: gives the illusion that the church’s architecture continues up into the space of the heavens. The painter transforms an image of infinite space into a personal vision for the viewer. Saint Ignatius was a hero of the Catholic Counter-Reformation who devised a technique of meditation based on visualizing mental pictures of Gospel scenes that ultimately place the individual in the scene with Christ.
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The Baroque in Spain: Spanish empire declines in the 17th century; Thirty Years War, economic strain, tax increases, revolts and civil war plague Spain; however both Philip III and Philip IV were great art patrons; scenes of death and martyrdom were popular to gain believers devotion and piety A martyr who is bearing his torture with fear of death and desperation, Bartholomew was a apostle and preacher who was flayed and murdered by an Armenian king’s brother (Bartholomew converted the king to Christianity). There is no idealization. It is raw with complicated emotion. Ribera was active in Naples, Italy and a follower of Caravaggio. The Italians called him “Lo Spagnoletto” which means the Little Spaniard.
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Zurbarán painted mostly saints and religious subjects. This particular painting was done for the Mercedarian monastery to represent self-sacrifice. The small note displays the saint’s name and the small shield represents the Crusade he was part of. Serapion was a 13th century martyr; he was beaten, tortured and his head was partially severed. The artist depicts a man who sacrificed himself for the greater good and handles it in a very gentle way (not gory).
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Second of the great triumvirate of Spanish painters (El Greco being the first, Francisco Goya [18th-19th century artist] is the third), Velázquez came from a minor noble family. He worked as an apprentice to a Mannerist painter who later became is father-in-law. The artist was inspired by Flemish and Italian realism (like that of Caravaggio). He was 20-years-old when he worked on this piece. There is an incredible sense of light and shadow and direct observation of nature. This kind of work will become known as genre painting for its depiction of everyday life.
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Velázquez became the most popular painter in the royal court of Philip IV. In this portrait, the artist does several things to make the monarch more attractive. As Philip was from the Austrian Hapsburg family, they were known for large lower jaws and terrific underbites, not an attractive trait. The artist uses subtle shading on the jawline and focuses our attention on the intricate silver embroidery of his clothing.
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As a court painter of Spain, he is most interested in painting genre scenes and still life than religious scenes. This is seen in this work of the child princess being attended by her maids. It is not only a group portrait, but is a genre scene and a self-portrait as well. Like the Dutch artist, Jan Vermeer (in chapter 20), he is interested in light and how it moves and its effects on form and color – for Velazquez, light creates the visible world. Please watch this video: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/spain/v/vel-zquez-las-meninas-c-1656
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‹#› Italy and Spain 1600-1700
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Figure 19-3 CARLO MADERNO, facade of Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1606–1612.
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Façade : Usually the front of a building; also, the other sides when they are emphasized architecturally.
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CARLO MADERNO, plan of Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, with adjoining piazza designed by GIANLORENZO BERNINI.
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Figure 19-4 Aerial view of Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy. Piazza designed by GIANLORENZO BERNINI, 1656–1667.
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‹#› Figure 19-5 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, baldacchino, Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1624–1633. Gilded bronze, approx. 100’ high.
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Baldacchino : A canopy on columns, frequently built over an altar.
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Figure 19-6 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, David, 1623. Marble, approx. 5’ 7” high. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
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Figure 19-6A GIANLORENZO BERNINI, Apollo and Daphne, 1623-1624. Marble. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
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GIANLORENZO BERNINI, Hades and Persephone, 1621-1622. Marble. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
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Figure 19-7 GIANLORENZO BERNINI. Interior of the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, Itlay, 1645-1652
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‹#› Figure 19-8 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, Italy, 1645–1652. Marble, height of group 11’ 6”.
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Figure 19-9 FRANCESCO BORROMINI, facade of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, Italy, 1665–1676.
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‹#› Figure 19-11 FRANCESCO BORROMINI, plan of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, Italy, 1638–1641.
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Figure 19-11 FRANCESCO BORROMINI. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (view into dome), Rome, Italy, 1638-1641
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Figure 19-15 ANNIBALE CARRACCI, Flight into Egypt, 1603–1604. Oil on canvas, approx. 4’ x 7’ 6”. Galleria Doria Pamphili, Rome.
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Figure 19-18 CARAVAGGIO, Calling of Saint Matthew, Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome, Italy, ca. 1597–1601. Oil on canvas, 11’ 1” x 11’ 5”.
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Chiaroscuro : In drawing and painting, the treatment and use of light and dark, especially the gradations of light that produce the effect of modeling. Tenebrism : Painting in the “shadowy manner,” using violent contrasts of light and dark, as in the work of Caravaggio. The term derives from tenebroso.
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‹#› Figure 19-18A CARAVAGGIO, Conversion of Saint Paul, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy, ca. 1601. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ 6” x 5’ 9”.
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‹#› Figure 19-18B CARAVAGGIO, Entombment, from the chapel of Pietro Vittrice, Santa Maria in Vallicella, Rome, Italy, ca. 1603. Oil on canvas, 9’ 10 1/8” x 6’ 7 15/16”. Musei Vaticani, Pinacoteca, Rome.
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‹#› CARAVAGGIO, David with the Head of Goliath, 1610
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‹#› Figure 19-19 ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI, Judith Slaying Holofernes, ca. 1614–1620. Oil on canvas, 6’ 6 1/3” x 5’ 4”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
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Compare and contrast
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‹#› Figure 19-20 ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI, Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting, ca. 1638-1639. Oil on canvas, 3’ 2 7/8” x 2’ 5 5/8”. Royal Collection, Kensington Palace, London.
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Figure 19-24 FRA ANDREA POZZO, Glorification of Saint Ignatius, ceiling fresco in the nave of Sant’Ignazio, Rome, Italy, 1691–1694.
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Figure 19-26 JOSÉ DE RIBERA, Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew, ca. 1639. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ 8” x 7’ 8”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
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‹#› Figure 19-27 FRANCISCO DE ZURBARÁN, Saint Serapion, 1628. Oil on canvas, 3’ 11 1/2” x 3’ 4 3/4”. Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford.
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‹#› Figure 19-29 DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, Water Carrier of Seville, ca. 1619. Oil on canvas, 3’ 5 1/2” x 2’ 7 1/2”. Wellington Museum, London.
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‹#› Figure 19-30A DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, King Philip IV of Spain (Fraga Philip), 1644. Oil on canvas, 4’ 3 1/8” x 3’ 3 1/8”. The Frick Collection, New York.
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‹#› Figure 19-31 DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, Las Meniñas (The Maids of Honor), 1656. Oil on canvas, approx. 10’ 5” x 9’. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
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