- Describe the intent of Operation CARTE BLANCHE.
- After the Battle of the Philippine Sea (also referred to as the “Great Marianas Turkey Shoot”) eliminated Japanese naval aviation capabilities in World War II, which battle destroyed the remainder of the Japanese fleet?
- According to the textbook, what event was considered a “turning curve” of the conflict in Vietnam?
- What two acts, signed into law by the Wilson administration in 1917 and 1918, were implemented at the beginning of the U.S. involvement in World War I with the intention of protecting U.S. personnel during the mobilization, but also crushed dissent of the war?
- Broadly define President Wilson’s stipulations for joining World War I on the side of the Allies.
- What major new developments did the U.S Navy employ to mitigate the effect of Germany’s U-boats during World War I, and how were they used?
- At the beginning of the 20th century, what was considered “the cornerstone of American military policy?”
- What “three major tasks” were given to the United (FEAF) during the Korean War?
- What were some of the significant reasons for the failure of World War II’s Operation MARKET-GARDEN?
- What event in 1940 prompted President Roosevelt to shift away from hemispheric defense and towards policies that assisted Great Britain (and all of Europe)?
- Why were U.S. military operations in the early 20th century not preparing the soldiers and leaders to fight in a conflict like World War I? What were they doing instead?
- What were the three tenets Wilson stuck to after the failure of his “14 Points?”
- Prior to entering World War II, the United States agreed on a broad strategy with Allied powers for how to conduct the war (“the centerpiece of Allied strategy”). What was this strategy?
- As described in the textbook, what were the “three negative effects” of the incursion into Cambodia during the Vietnam conflict?
- What are the three parts of the nuclear triad?
- Who did the US Navy see as its two primary adversaries following World War I? Why?
- Which battle ended the threat of major German resistance in Europe during World War II?
- What was seen as the most important capability of an “air force?”
- What two naval battles marked the turning point of the Pacific theater during World War II?
- National Security Council Memorandum 68 (NSC 68) was developed to assist in determining foreign policy strategies following World War II after determining “that the Soviet Union presented a long-term threat to the United States and world peace.” What were the “four choices” laid out in this memorandum for future policy?
- What were the three phases of General Westmoreland’s “Concept of Operations” for victory in Vietnam?
- Why was the Gulf War not a total success? What outcome remained a problem after the withdrawal of all Allied troops?
- Define the “Reagan Doctrine.”
- Why did the START negotiations break down and end in 1986 with no agreement made?
Part 2
- Why was there a “blind spot” in U.S. intelligence and defense efforts in which Al Qaeda could plan, prepare, and execute a major terrorist attack on U.S. soil?
- The 2003 invasion of Iraq was largely based on two false pretenses. What were they?
- How did the plan for the 2003 invasion differ from the plan for the 1991 invasion (DESERT STORM)?
- Discuss the intent and the real-world effects of “The Surge.”
- What is one of the reasons (a planning failure) that allowed the Taliban to gain back lost territory and the war in Afghanistan to be protracted for so long?
World War II:
The Sleeping Giant Awakens
Source: https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/gallery/world-war-ii-maps
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pacific_Area_-_Imperial_Powers_1939_-_Map.svg
America’s Slow Entrance
• FDR worked very hard to keep America out of DIRECT warfare for as long as he could
• He found ways to help the Allies with equipment and money, but did not want to
commit fighting forces (American support for war wasn’t there)
• War planners built contingency plans for hemispheric defense (in line with Wilson’s
ideas)
• FDR’s opinion was that the U.S. couldn’t afford to fight a war, and that any war against
the rising Nazi threat could be decided in Europe by European powers
• Invasion of Poland changed U.S. public opinion on war, but only somewhat
• Fall of France in June 1940 prompted increased involvement (but still no troop
commitment)
• FDR’s intent was to facilitate Allied victory in Europe using European troops, still
• Attempts to deter Japanese aggression were futile, and Pearl Harbor was
(unintentionally) set up as a target
American Strategy
• Japanese march across the Pacific in December 1941, attacking Pearl Harbor, Midway, and
Shanghai, and invade Singapore, Thailand, Guam, the Philippines, Burma (Malaysia), Hong
Kong, and Wake Island
• MacArthur evacuates his headquarters from Manila to Bataan (and to Australia in 1942),
promising to return
• American strategy in much of 1942 was predicated on defense, but plans began being put in
motion for counter-offensives
• Battles of Coral Sea and Midway changed the Pacific war, checked Japanese expansion
• Battle of Guadalcanal began counter-offensive that would redefine the war
• “Germany-First” strategy defined initial planning for European war, but was seen as untenable
in 1942
• Planners decided to focus on offensives in Africa and the Mediterranean.
• Battle of the Atlantic delayed any European operations by months
• Allied command structure worked very well to allay any fears of American dominance in
operation, or British dominance in planning
Setting the Stage
• Nazi invasion of Soviet Union in Summer 1941 bolstered Allied hopes of victory
• Operation TORCH opened a new major theater for the Allies, occupied German forces in North
Africa
• Soviet forces pinned down German forces at Stalingrad, allowing planning of European
invasion to continue
• British victories in North Africa ended German threat, allowed diversion of forces to Operation
HUSKY
• Sicilian invasion was important for a few reasons:
• Took Italy (Italian government, at least) out of the war
• Forced Germany to commit forces in southern Europe
• Facilitated invasion of Italy
• Invasion of Italy (American Operation AVALANCHE) further occupied German forces
• Hard fighting characterized the Mediterranean operations, with many leaders abandoning
doctrine in attempts to sway outcomes
• Allies set the stage for invasion of France
World War II, 1942-1945:
The U.S. Military Comes of Age
The Shift to the Offensive
• Offensive operations became the emphasis with the Battle of Guadalcanal
• As more operations were conducted, an understanding of needs and techniques
influenced changes
• U.S. operations in Pacific and European theaters were unprecedented
• Understanding of victory was apparent, just a matter of “when”
• Operations in the Pacific and Europe looked very different, obviously
• Both shared a few characteristics:
• Complexity
• Combined arms
• Cost
• Leaders began looking at expedient ways to win the war, emphasis became
bombing
• Very different approaches to bombing campaigns between theaters (racism?)
European Theater
• The need to invade Northern France became apparent as the war continued
• “Second Front” demanded by the Soviets needed to be cemented
• Invasion of Southern France was dismissed at first, too many logistics needed (logistics runs
operations)
• Invasion through Central Europe was also dismissed, for similar (and political) reasons
• Major objective became Germany’s war-making capabilities (difference between USAAF and
RAF)
• Normandy became primary focus of invasion, due to proximity to Cherbourg peninsula
• Arguably biggest success of OVERLORD was the misinformation campaign
• Effectiveness of Allied operations was in understanding how to combine assets to affect enemy
• After success in France and the capture of Rome, Allies held a continuous front
• MARKET-GARDEN was a mistake – too quickly planned, too ambitious, not enough logistical
support
• Battle of the Bulge sealed Germany’s fate – perhaps same mistakes as MARKET-GARDEN
• Race to Berlin against the Soviets – Cold War already starting
Operation OVERLORD
Operation MARKET-GARDEN
Pacific Theater
• Emphasis in the theater became capturing islands that could act as staging grounds for
invasion
• Airstrips, anchorage, proximity to Japanese home islands
• Japanese navy was decisively defeated, put more importance on ground operations
• Japanese tactics changed (kamikaze, cave/bunker fighting)
• These changes necessitated a change in American tactics (bombing, scorched earth
campaigns)
• Every victory was hard-fought
• Planned invasion of Japanese home islands became planning priority
• As the weight of the Allied military power shifted to the Pacific, President Truman weighed his
options
• Decided to drop bombs for two main reasons:
• Knew the invasion would cost too many lives
• Wanted to limit Soviet influence in Asia
• Did his decision help bring peace, or did it kick off the Cold War?
Push to the Home Islands
Okinawa
The Vietnam Conflict, 1950-1975
Origins of the Conflict
• Vietnam was a consideration as far back as Roosevelt, as a concern of Soviet influence
and French colonization – FDR’s view was that France couldn’t manage Vietnam, but
America could, but it would be better to stay out of it
• Truman’s approach was far more confrontational, and far more impactful
• The main concerns for Truman were Communist influence in Asia, his adherence to the
Truman Doctrine (wrongfully viewed in this case), and French stability in Europe
• The Soviet and Chinese (newly Communist) decision to open formal diplomatic relations
with Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh was the decision point for Truman
• Eisenhower reinforced Truman’s stance, increased aid to France to combat Viet Minh,
but refused to deploy troops
• The treaty reached in 1954 divided Vietnam into Communist North Vietnam, and
“democratic” (pro-U.S.) South Vietnam
• Another part of the treaty guaranteed a fair election in 1956, but understanding that
the Communists would win and unify Vietnam, and being unable to tolerate that,
Eisenhower made sure they didn’t happen
• The reaction to this decision set the stage for American involvement
Road to “War”
• Ho Chi Minh’s understanding of the conflict (and his objectives) made him a potent adversary
• One of the biggest themes for American involvement throughout the conflict is a lack of a
unifying set of objectives
• South Vietnam’s president, Ngo Dinh Diem, was the best bad option (similar to South Korea)
• Ho Chi Minh had much more popular support than Diem, and understood his influence
• When the insurrection in South Vietnam began (1959), Ho had massive base of support in
South Vietnam
• This conflict should not be seen as a war between a Communist North and a “democratic”
South. It was a civil war in which we got involved
• There were those in the South that supported some sort of democracy, but a lot of them
supported it for corrupt reasons
• Had the transition from French colony to sovereign state been managed well, the conflict
would have been avoided
• As it happened, the U.S. played the role of antagonist (of sorts)
• That’s not to say that Ho Chi Minh was a benevolent leader – he wasn’t
• The greater impact of the conflict was felt by many more people because of how it went
Kennedy’s Role
• Eisenhower’s stance was very much concentrated on financial and material
assistance to South Vietnam
• Kennedy’s actions escalated the conflict in a trajectory that would lead to mass
deployments
• “Advisors” sent by the Kennedy administration were meant to train South Vietnam
leaders and military forces, but when they were not met with any sort of success,
they took on increasingly front-line roles
• Strategic Hamlet Program’s failure emphasized nature of the conflict as more
complicated than what the U.S. wanted it to seem
• The idea that Diem represented stability in Vietnam was antithetical to what the
goal should have been – maintain a preferable alternative to Communist North
Vietnam
• Recognizing the deteriorating situation in South Vietnam, the Kennedy
administration was complicit in a coup that replaced Diem with a series of leaders
that were no more effective
• Stability was never reached, and Ho Chi Minh’s forces in the South capitalized on
this
• The Viet Minh (Viet Cong) established a presence in the South that would remain
for the duration of the conflict
• Kennedy’s assassination further complicated the situation – did he intend on
disengaging? If so, he never let Johnson know of his plan
Johnson’s Escalation
• Johnson’s stance on the conflict was heavily influenced by his domestic policies
– he did not want the Vietnam conflict to overshadow his domestic policy plans
• This stance drove him to make many decisions that would be extremely
detrimental to the outcome of the conflict
• Johnson’s main aim was to deter Northern aggression for long enough to the
South Vietnamese government to stabilize itself
• However, he knew he couldn’t escalate without cause, and needed an act of
aggression to do so
• He got what he wanted with the Gulf of Tonkin incident
• His response was the bombing operations, most notably Operation ROLLING
THUNDER
• Targets were restricted (officially), and the list of what was allowable constantly
changed
• After the attack on Camp Holloway near Pleiku, targets in North Vietnam were
permissible
• Deployment of the first ground troops followed soon after, with little UN
support
The Ground War, 1965-1969
• American ground troops began conducting operations (quasioffensive, stability) immediately upon arrival
• Relative success in a few battles validated GEN Westmoreland’s
strategy for success in the war
• Problem is, the strategy was built to defeat one type of enemy, and
Ho Chi Minh understood this
• U.S. strategy centered on Westmoreland’s concept, with the bulk of
the fighting being conducted in “search and destroy” missions
• The intent was to reach the “crossover point,” at which the NLF
would be sustaining more losses than they could replace
• NLF strategy focused on controlling villages, avoiding general
engagements
• This strategy was very effective, allowed them to gain and maintain
positions and protected their forces from U.S. firepower
• General Offensive (Tet Offensive) was a major departure from this
strategy, the result was costly
• Attacks throughout Vietnam pressed South Vietnamese and U.S.
forces, most notably at Khe Sanh, Hue, and Saigon
• Attack was a military failure for the NLF, but a political success
The Politics of the Conflict
• The conflict was seen as a political tool by each president that oversaw its escalation and
progress
• Kennedy understood that his reelection in 1964 hinged upon him not losing South Vietnam to
the Communists, but that escalation would be equally unpopular, which resulted in his push for
advisors, as well as the ambiguity of his future plans
• Johnson saw the war as more of a nuisance; no one saw Vietnam as strategically important, but
understanding its role in the Cold War influenced his decisions to escalate
• It was a balancing act for Johnson – win the conflict with as little as possible, in order to focus
on domestic issues that were seen as more important
• Johnson’s lack of understanding with how the war would be perceived after each major
decision led to a compounding of problems during his presidency
• The idea of focusing on only the positive outcomes of the war continued disenfranchising those
that were bearing the burden – lower-class, non-white Americans
• The “Success Offensive” of 1967 was an attempt to shore up support for the war in the lead-up
to the 1968 presidential campaign
• The Tet Offensive uncovered his lies, and support for the conflict completely turned against him
The Politics of the Conflict
• The conflict was seen as a political tool by each president that oversaw its escalation and
progress
• Kennedy understood that his reelection in 1964 hinged upon him not losing South Vietnam to
the Communists, but that escalation would be equally unpopular, which resulted in his push for
advisors, as well as the ambiguity of his future plans
• Johnson saw the war as more of a nuisance; no one saw Vietnam as strategically important, but
understanding its role in the Cold War influenced his decisions to escalate
• It was a balancing act for Johnson – win the conflict with as little as possible, in order to focus
on domestic issues that were seen as more important
• Johnson’s lack of understanding with how the war would be perceived after each major
decision led to a compounding of problems during his presidency
• The idea of focusing on only the positive outcomes of the war continued disenfranchising those
that were bearing the burden – lower-class, non-white Americans
• The “Success Offensive” of 1967 was an attempt to shore up support for the war in the lead-up
to the 1968 presidential campaign
• The Tet Offensive uncovered his lies, and support for the conflict completely turned against him
Anti-War Movements
• One of the most influential aspects of the Vietnam Conflict was the fact that it is one of the most photographed
wars of all time
• Additionally, it occurred at a time when American culture was shifting in favor of the television, as opposed to the
radio
• Communication between the front and the homefront was the quickest it had ever been
• These facts led to a very informed public (more informed than the government preferred), and swung public
opinion heavily against the conflict
• While early support for escalation was strong (the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed the House unanimously, and
with a 88-2 vote in favor in the Senate), but the support eroded quickly as the results from the battlefield began
pouring in
• Anti-war protesters focused on the classism present in the draft, the heavy burden placed on the lower-class and
non-white Americans, and the nature of the conflict (America’s impact on Vietnam), and the atrocities committed
by the U.S. forces (most notably the My Lai massacre)
• Anti-war sentiment was concentrated at first in universities, but the movement quickly spread
• The American government continued to try to paint the protesters as hippies, communists, drug users, etc.
• The anti-war sentiment spread throughout the military as well, impacting discipline and morale throughout the
military, leading to drug abuse, atrocities, and fratricide
• Johnson’s presidency was ruined by the war and the fallout from his attempts to spin it, but Nixon showed little
sympathy for the anti-war movement’s goals, other than how it would impact him politically
Nixon’s Role
• Nixon’s focus became the “Vietnamization” of the war, but the things that stood
out from his leadership during the war are the controversial operational decisions
• Understanding that the war was unpopular in the U.S. Nixon aimed to limit
American involvement in combat operations, to put that responsibility on the
South Vietnamese military
• Nixon also emphasized “linkage” in his foreign policy, to encourage the Soviet
Union to support some sort of negotiated settlement (“peace with honor”)
• Operation DUCK HOOK and Nixon’s “madman theory” defined his operational
decisions
• The Laos and Cambodia campaigns emphasize his terrible decision-making, and
his inability to understand the conflict’s current situation – he wanted a quick win
• The NLF’s military defeat during the Tet Offensive left them unable to conduct
offensive operations, which allowed the South Vietnamese government to build
up its military – another key component of Nixon’s Vietnamization
Endgame
• Nixon began to understand the war was not winnable, so the new emphasis was to
negotiate a settlement favorable to the U.S.
• He used diplomacy along with military force to try and strong-arm North Vietnam into a
position where the treaty could be seen as a success in the U.S.
• Problem is, North Vietnam continued finding victory on the battlefield after 1971,
which took any incentive for a settlement away
• Kissinger and Nixon therefore emphasized a treaty that would provide a suitable
interval between U.S. troop withdrawal and the fall of South Vietnam
• South Vietnam’s government recognized this for what it was, and fought against it until
1973
• Saigon fell to North Vietnamese forces in 1975
• The conflict accomplished nothing – Soviet influence was not negated or checked,
Communism did not spread throughout Southeast Asia, negotiations between the U.S.
and the U.S.S.R. were negligible, and the U.S. lost much ground as a world leader
• The fallout also included massive cuts to defense and military spending, which led to a
limitation in capabilities
Military Operations, 1991-2001: The
Post-Soviet World
The U.S. Military in the Post-Soviet World
• The threat of a war with the Soviet Union had influenced U.S. military spending,
strategy, development, evolution, and structure for 45 years
• The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 changed many things about the U.S. military
• Driven by the need to maintain a massive, advanced fighting force, defense spending
had (with few exceptions) remained above 5% of GDP
• However, the loss of America’s chief enemy prompted a massive cut in defense
spending
• President Bush’s aim was to offload international defense spending from the U.S., as
well as responsibility for intervention (he failed)
• The emphasis on new defense spending measures moved away from nuclear
capabilities for the first time, and the emphasis became multinational conventional
capabilities
• The overhaul of U.S. defense spending also meant a drawdown of forces, but not like
before
• The first wave of base realignment and closures (BRAC) happened at this time, as well
as forced retirements
U.S. Operations Overseas – Somalia
• Presidents Bush and Clinton believed it was not the job of the U.S. to maintain order and freedom globally, and
took directions from the UN and NATO
• Their hesitation to act unilaterally took the burden off of U.S. servicemembers, but also limited UN and NATO
capabilities to intervene before situations escalated
• The focus was put on modernization, not maintaining large forces
• The effect of this choice was that the U.S. military had more capabilities, but could not take on the majority of
fighting responsibilities
• Operation RESTORE HOPE was launched in Somalia by the UN in 1992, and the U.S. inherited leadership of the
operation
• President Clinton inherited the operation from Bush, and made the focus humanitarian aid, not military
intervention
• The lack of preparation for a military operation doomed the humanitarian mission to failure, and plans became
reactionary rather than proactive
• Special Operations units were deployed to conduct limited missions on an as-needed basis
• On October 3, 1993, a mission was launched to capture multiple lieutenants of Mohammad Farrah Aideed
• The capture mission was a success, but extraction was complicated when two UH-60 “Blackhawk” helicopters
were shot down, prompting a rescue mission
• The operation prompted Clinton to bring the Special Operations units home, ending the operation in failure
• Other forces around the world were watching, and learning how to defeat American forces
U.S. Operations Overseas – Bosnia/Serbia
• After Yugoslavia dissolved int multiple warring countries, the Clinton administration was pressured into
intervening in another international crisis
• As the situation deteriorated from bad to worse, UN-NATO members moved towards intervention
• The limited commitment of U.S. forces in the intervention limited UN-NATO options, serving the Serbian
government time to reinforce and continue their genocidal campaign
• Clinton reluctantly agreed to support air operations, first focusing on transport of humanitarian relief then shifting
to combat operations; a significant ground presence was out of the question
• However, as Serbian atrocities continued, Clinton finally agreed that NATO needed U.S. forces to stop the war
• Operation DELIBERATE FORCE was launched, a massive bombing campaign led by USAF and USN forces, forced
Serbian leaders into accepting the terms of a cease-fire
• U.S. ground forces were deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatian, and to other European bases as a stabilization
force
• Serbian leaders then shifted to Kosovo, which was technically within Serbia
• NATO leaders were reluctant to confront the Serbian army within its own borders, as Serbian leaders were using
civilians as hostages to stave off invasion
• The air campaign against the Serbs in Kosovo was not as successful, prompting other NATO forces to send in
ground troops
• The force suffered from a lack of U.S. involvement, protracting the operations and costing more lives in Kosovo
The Rise of the Islamic Extremist Threat
• Following the Soviet-Afghan War and the Gulf War, fundamentalist Islamic groups consolidated
power in various Middle Eastern Countries
• The lack of follow-up after the Soviet retreat from Afghanistan led to the rise of a group of
warlords known as the Northern Alliance, as well as the Taliban
• The Taliban controlled much of Afghanistan, imposing fundamentalist law across their territory
• The Clinton administration did not pick sides, leading to the Taliban consolidating power and
both the Northern Alliance and the Taliban entrenching themselves against one another
• Saddam Hussein remained in power, undeterred by Western opponents
• Hussein’s military hold on Iraqi citizens was absolute, murdering dissidents and conducting
“ethnic cleansing” operations (genocide)
• His other main focus was on the development of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)
• Hussein had already used chemical weapons against the Kurds in the north, but his goal was to
build a massive force of weapons
• Clinton’s responses to Iraqi aggression were limited and focused, with the intent being
destroying Hussein’s ability to conduct such operations
The Rise of the Islamic Extremist Threat
• This period also marks the rise of Al Qaeda (“the base”) as a major terrorist organization
• Their leader, Osama bin Laden, received training and support from the mujahideen forces that
the U.S. armed during the Soviet-Afghan war
• He was, along with others, radicalized at this time, turning the focus to the destruction of the
West, using a vast network of followers that he could organize into splinter cells to conduct
operations against targets in the West
• Al Qaeda achieved a worldwide reach, and bin Laden sponsored and/or facilitated attacks
across the globe
• The threat posed by groups such as Al Qaeda identified weaknesses in American security that
they would exploit
• U.S. security was lax, the motivation to eliminate him as a threat was non-existent, and
responses to the attacks were lackluster
• The seeds of what would become the plans for U.S. operations in Afghanistan were planted,
but none were seriously pursued until after 9/11
• The Bush administration, taking office in 2001, was not overly worried about Al Qaeda, instead
focusing on Iraq and Hussein, with the intention of finishing the war that H. W. Bush began
• The threat to targets in the U.S. was known, but the warnings were not heeded in time
The Rise of the Islamic Extremist Threat
• This period also marks the rise of Al Qaeda (“the base”) as a major terrorist organization
• Their leader, Osama bin Laden, received training and support from the mujahideen forces that
the U.S. armed during the Soviet-Afghan war
• He was, along with others, radicalized at this time, turning the focus to the destruction of the
West, using a vast network of followers that he could organize into splinter cells to conduct
operations against targets in the West
• Al Qaeda achieved a worldwide reach, and bin Laden sponsored and/or facilitated attacks
across the globe
• The threat posed by groups such as Al Qaeda identified weaknesses in American security that
they would exploit
• U.S. security was lax, the motivation to eliminate him as a threat was non-existent, and
responses to the attacks were lackluster
• The seeds of what would become the plans for U.S. operations in Afghanistan were planted,
but none were seriously pursued until after 9/11
• The Bush administration, taking office in 2001, was not overly worried about Al Qaeda, instead
focusing on Iraq and Hussein, with the intention of finishing the war that H. W. Bush began
• The threat to targets in the U.S. was known, but the warnings were not heeded in time
The Korean War
1950-1953
Larger Context
• Korea divided at the 38th parallel between U.S. and Soviet forces as part of
disarmament of Japan
• Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnamese independence from France in 1945, begins
First Indochina War in 1946
• East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary
become Soviet satellite states between 1946 and 1949
• Civil war in Korea, 1948-1950
• Mao Zedong defeated Chiang Kai-shek in 1949, founding Communist China
• USSR and China signed mutual security treaty in February 1950
Setting the Stage for War
• Kim Il-sung was named the de-facto leader of North Korea by Soviet officials
• While there was no unified government in South Korea, the U.S. forces focused on
deterring Communist influence in the area
• War of 1948-1950 allowed Kim to declare North Korea as a Communist state
• American troops fully withdrew from Korea by June 1949
• While the Soviet Union did not fully support Kim’s aims, it did provide weapons, tanks,
and training
• Kim’s last hurdle to earning full Soviet support was the destruction of the Republic of
Korea (ROK) Army
• The invasion was launched in June 1950
• Inexperienced, underequipped, undermanned ROK Army retreated in disarray all the
way to Pusan (140-mile perimeter)
• The Pusan perimeter was established and held against North Korean attacks by ROK
forces reinforced by U.S. forces, mostly from Japan
Truman’s Framing of the War
• American foreign advisors were fully influenced by the Truman Doctrine (deter
communism at all costs), but did not see Korea as strategically viable
• The only reasons to defend Korea were:
• Its proximity to Japan
• As a test of United Nations Command (UNC) military response
• The formation of the People’s Republic of China forced Truman’s hand
• The U.S. military was not prepared to react to such aggression, and therefore
must rearm (again)
• Army, Marines had shrunk from 8.3 million, 470,000 in 1945 to 593,000, 74,000
in 1950
• Truman saw this as an opportunity to permanently increase the size of the
military
• MacArthur assumed command of UN forces (thereby earning rank of 5-Star
General), and developed counteroffensive plan
American Response
• After reinforcement/rearmament (mostly American),
MacArthur launched counteroffensive
• The U.S. Eighth Army launched first UN offensive of the
war from the Pusan perimeter
• Operation CHROMITE was developed personally by
MacArthur, relied on questionable intelligence and his
extensive experience with amphibious operations from
World War II
• Both operations were successful, due in no small part to
the overextension and fatigue of North Korean People’s
Army (NKPA) forces
• By October 1950, all NKPA forces had been pushed back
beyond the 38th parallel
• MacArthur requested permission to continue pushing
NKPA forces north towards China
• Goal of the war went from defense of South Korea to
reunification of Korea under South Korean leadership
China Enters the War
• UN forces pushed NKPA forces almost to the Yalu River
• Fortunes changed again when China entered the war in
support of North Korea in response to UN actions
• Chinese offensive began in late October 1950, but it
was disregarded by MacArthur, who was confident he
could defeat any Chinese threat
• MacArthur initiated the “Home by Christmas
Offensive,” with the objective being the Yalu River itself
• However, Chinese offensives pushed UN forces back to
the 38th parallel, where the war stabilized into a
stalemate that would last for two years
• Battle of Chosin Reservoir:
• Truman removed MacArthur after the general
challenged the president’s strategy
America’s Permanent Rearmament
• Truman used the Defense Budget of 1951 to build the U.S. military in ways that would
be permanent
• The goal was to rearm the military for two wars:
• The war in Korea
• The possible war against the USSR
• Truman and General Marshall recommended universal military training, but that was
too much for Congress (and Americans) to stomach
• Other major changes were made in how American manpower was built for wars
• The Selective Service System was overhauled to give more power to the local boards to
determine deferments
• The obligation for draftees (and enlistees) was changed, with a mandatory period of
Reserve time
• These individuals would serve as an emergency reserve after four years, in the event
the president declared an “emergency”
• The defense bill also implemented the one-year individual rotational deployment that
would define Vietnam, as well
Plans for the Wider War
• While much of the Defense Bill of 1951 was aimed at winning the Korean War,
much was also aimed at defeating the USSR in the event war broke out
• Plans were drafted for conventional defense, as well as (initial) nuclear strikes
• NATO became a centerpiece for deterrence in Europe
• Truman and his most senior advisors had five goals for NATO:
• Appoint an American as supreme military commander in Europe and allow him to develop
plans for integrated NATO forces
• Send more American forces to Europe
• Accelerate military assistance to the NATO nations
• Develop a forward strategy for defense at the borders of divided Germany
• Create within NATO a West German army of twelve divisions
• Focus on NATO alliances also influenced Truman’s decisions to support France in
Vietnam
Stalemate and Armistice
• The Chinese advance was checked in South Korea at the Battles of
Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni
• Fortifications were erected around the DMZ, and the war settled
into a World War I-style trench warfare stalemate
• UN air power proved vital to the success of the UN forces
• While they were restricted to targets in North Korea, they ruled
the skies above the DMZ, and conducted air superiority,
interdiction, and close air support missions
• UN forces determined they could no longer repel Chinese forces
from North Korea
• Eisenhower was inaugurated in 1953, and threatened to widen
the war against China if they did not withdraw
• The death of Stalin in 1953, as well as developments in Vietnam,
forced China to reconsider its wider commitment in Korea
• The armistice was reached on June 27, 1953; but little changed
along the DMZ
• Truman’s efforts in Korea did not gain Korean reunification, but it
was a major turning point for the U.S. military, NATO, and the Cold
War
Global War on Terror, 2001-2011:
Occupation and Insurgency
The Bush Administration
• The wars that have come to define the beginning of the 21st century were
arguably products of earlier times
• However, much of the events of the “Global War on Terror” (GWOT) were
initiated by the Bush administration
• The two key players of the Bush administration, Dick Cheney and Donald
Rumsfeld, served previous presidents that had unresolved agendas
• They used their positions to influence decision-making (and public opinion) into
favoring the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq
• Rumsfeld focused on transforming the military into a lighter, faster, more precise
force, while Cheney focused on Iraq
• The emphasis on Iraq as the primary adversary and manufacturer of WMDs left a
blind spot in which Al Qaeda planned the 9/11 attacks
• There was evidence that Al Qaeda was planning such an attack, but with so much
intelligence effort being wasted on Iraq, the dots were not connected in time
Afghanistan
• Al Qaeda (led by Osama bin Laden, Mohammed Atef, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed) had been
preparing for a major attack on U.S. soil for years
• The Taliban regime in Afghanistan offered Osama bin Laden and his associates safe haven in
the Hindu Kush mountains during and after the attacks
• The attacks changed the course of American history in profound ways
• The passing of the Authorization for Use of Military Force, the creation of the Department of
Homeland Security, and the passing of the Patriot Act shaped American response
• The first American troops arrived in Afghanistan in early October, meeting with the leaders of
the Northern Alliance in order to plan the removal of the Taliban from power
• The war in Afghanistan was an ideal time to test the newly organized and modernized military,
which focused on precision and technological advantages to achieve victory
• U.S. and Allied special operations units were heavily involved in the initial military operations
against the Taliban (and Al Qaeda and its allies)
• While the American public initially approved of Bush’s actions in Afghanistan, the public
support wavered quickly as the war settled into an occupation and conflict against a heavily
entrenched enemy
• After the fall of the Taliban and the installation of Hamid Karzai as the first president, the effort
turned to nation-building, a task in which the U.S. military has a mixed record
Iraq
• Al Qaeda’s attacks diverted the focus of American military power, but not for long
• Bush, Cheney, and Rumsfeld all had prior history with Iraq, and all were determined to finish
the job
• After the war in Afghanistan passed into the stabilization phase, planning for military action
against Saddam Hussein resumed
• The Bush administration focused on how to frame the war in Iraq as a preventive war as a part
of the GWOT
• The two main points that the administration used to gain Congressional approval were the
alleged existence of WMDs and Iraqi support of Al Qaeda (neither were true)
• Bush and Cheney built international support around the actions before the invasion, with an
emphasis on Britain
• Another vote in Congress cemented Bush’s ability to carry out the conflict as he saw fit
• The plan called for a coordinated air-ground assault into Iraq to seize Baghdad, Basra, and Irbil
• Understanding the fighting state of the Iraqi forces, Rumsfeld and GEN Tommy Franks looked to
complete the operation with the smallest number of ground forces possible
• When Bush announced “mission accomplished” on May 1, 2003, the actual fight was barely
beginning
Iraqi Insurgency
• After Saddam Hussein and his lieutenants were pushed out of power by U.S. forces (and
Hussein himself was captured by Delta operators and elements of 1-22 Infantry Battalion), the
remaining Ba’ath loyalists organized an insurgency
• The lack of organization following Saddam’s fall allowed rivals to vie for power in the country
• Rumsfeld and other political leaders that designed the action in Iraq were seemingly happy to
let the violence continue on, as long as U.S. interests were not threatened
• After it was confirmed that there were never any WMDs present, Bush tried to deflect blame
for the situation onto others
• There were multiple efforts to gain control of the situation in Iraq, but none were very effective
until 2007
• The Surge facilitated the organization of the Iraqi army and police, which would provide some
semblance of stability
• The action required a high cost (it was the deadliest year of the war), but it broke the backs of
many insurgency groups in the country
• As time went on, pressure mounted on the U.S. government to withdraw all troops from Iraq,
which was done in 2011
• The “vacuum” the departure created arguably led to the ascendancy of the Islamic State in Iraq
and Syria (ISIS)
Afghanistan: The Forever War
• After the initiation of Operation IRAQI FREEDOM, operations in Afghanistan took a back seat
• The actual effect was to allow bin Laden to rest easy and assist in organizing, planning, and funding
terror attacks across the globe
• The voluntary split of combat power (and the two very different styles of warfare) between Afghanistan
and Iraq created two very different situations, that had to be handled very differently
• The Taliban enjoyed a resurgence following the Iraqi invasion, and they regained much of the ground
they lost after 2001
• The approach taken in Iraq was attempted in Afghanistan
• A surge of U.S. troops provided some semblance of stability, but the Afghan National Security Forces
(ANSF, split between Army and Police) never gained the hold on the country that the Iraqis did
• Much of the fighting in Afghanistan happened in the rougher terrain, where engagements happened
over large distances, or positions were attacked in force
• The ambushes and IED attacks of Iraq were adapted for Afghanistan, where the attacks often happened
in remote locations far from support
• Osama bin Laden was killed in May 2011, but his death did not stop the war, and it didn’t stop terror
attacks from happening around the world
• The withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan mirrors closely (on a far more truncated timeline) the
events in Vietnam, but the outcome remains to be seen
The Inter-War Years,
1919-1941
Fallout From the Great War
• Strategic focus shifted from Europe to Imperial Japan (and Britain?)
• Isolationist tendencies kicked back in, and America departed the European
stage after Wilson’s failure to dictate the peace terms (did this lead to Nazi
Germany?)
• National Defense strategy shifted back to the Navy
• U.S. government once again demonstrated its fear of a standing army,
troop strength went from just under 4,000,000 (late 1918) to just
under 200,000 (early 1919)
• Plan became to maintain “skeleton divisions,” led by World War I
veterans (didn’t always work out)
Sea Power
• While General Mitchell proved the efficacy of air power against a
navy, traditional navy thinkers were reluctant to focus on aviation
• America’s first two aircraft carriers were very technologically
advanced, but no one knew how to use them
• War Plan ORANGE dictated the potential need for amphibious
assaults, so the Marines were given a massive task to develop an
amphibious assault doctrine
• Naval advancements were dictated by treatise, and while the U.S.
stuck to the terms, it shifted assets around to focus on what was
thought to be most important (heavy cruisers)
The Army
• The army was, once again, forced to downsize drastically
• The idea of having a wide variety of units but having them minimally
manned and equipped led to a loss of planning focus
• One of the most important lessons learned was that mobilizing an
army could only happen as fast as they could be equipped
• Priority was given to maintaining personnel over new weapons
• Air Corps was developed in response to aviation’s impact during WWI
• Main function of air power was seen as bombardment, all other
functions of Air Corps supported that
Building Towards War
• The U.S. military began seriously rearming in 1933
Event
U.S. Army
manpower
U.S. Marines
manpower
Bombers (approx.)
Armored Vehicles (all
types)
Heavy Cruisers
Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931)
140,516
16,782
0
0
16
Nazis take complete control of Germany (1933)
136,547
16,068
17
0
19
Germany begins rearmament (1935)
139,486
17,260
120
0
23
Germany reoccupies the Rhineland (1936)
167.816
17,248
200
0
24
Full-scale Japanese invasion of China (1937)
179,968
18,223
250
150
27
Germany invades Poland (1939)
189,839
19,432
300
267
35
• Japan dropped out of the Five-Power Treaty in 1936
• Germany produced 3,502 tanks (of all kinds) by 1939
America’s New Military Policy
Foreign Policy Post-WWII
• The beginnings of the Cold War
coincided with the end of World
War Two – Truman took many
actions to check Soviet influence in
Europe and Asia (Truman Doctrine,
1947)
• Efforts to rebuild Europe were
underway as soon as the Paris
Peace Treaties were signed
• General George C. Marshall (as
Secretary of State) led efforts to
revitalize industry in Europe (The
Marshall Plan)
• Soviets pushed to control all of Berlin, and therefore all of Germany, but West Berlin was saved via the Berlin
Airlift
• General Douglas MacArthur was the de facto leader of Japan during reconstruction there
• The emphases at this time were to:
• Rebuild Western Europe and Japan
• Deter Soviet expansion and influence
• First Indochina War complicated plans for Soviet deterrence
Multinational Cooperation
• While the U.S. government pivoted towards nuclear proliferation as deterrence,
the need for a conventional force was understood
• However, World Wars One and Two taught that major military efforts must be
multinational (at least in part)
• The United Nations (UN) was formed immediately after World War Two, with the
mission of ensuring global peace and security through collective action
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed in April 1949 to ensure
unified response to Soviet aggression (collective defense)
• First test of UN response came with invasion of South Korea by North Korea
The Cold War, 1953-1965:
Global Military Strategies
Nuclear Deterrence
• Planning for the next battle had become a thing of the past – any foreign policy
must be suited for longevity
• “Nuclear weapons remained at the heart of American strategy.”
• The idea was to deter Soviet aggression (of any kind) by making it too costly – if
you attack us, we will annihilate you
• Nuclear weapon development became focused on making weapons that could be
positioned as close to the enemy as possible
• Arms control was used as a weapon against nuclear weapons – their solution to a
problem they created
• Arms development was obsessed with trying to “nuclearize” everything – bombs,
depth charges, artillery shells, mines, rockets – if you can explode it, we can
nuclearize it
Political Deterrence
• Another aspect of Cold War strategy was foreign policy
• U.S. leaders realized they couldn’t be in every place at once, and that conventional
forces would still be needed
• The solution was to obligate regional partners to participate in the fighting – like NATO
• Another aspect of political deterrence was ensuring that Communism didn’t take hold
everywhere
• The birth of the CIA in 1947 heralded the beginning of foreign government
interventions
• Countries that installed Communist leaders (or indicated Communist support) were
infiltrated by CIA operatives, and a “democratic” government was installed – the results
were often disastrous
• The government wanted to avoid full-scale intervention, but understood they would
have to influence global events constantly to check Soviet efforts to do the same
• Operations to topple Communist governments often led to further escalation and
conventional military deployment – not what they wanted to do
Military Deterrence
• The emphasis was on nuclear weapons, but conventional forces were maintained
• The main objective of conventional forces at this time was to be staged in the
event of Soviet aggression – anywhere in the world
• One major shortfall of the time was reconnaissance – we couldn’t tell what the
USSR was doing, until it was too late
• Tactical needs pushed innovation, the U2 aircraft was developed to meet this
need
• Forces were positioned in locations that would allow rapid deployment to conflict
zones – Germany, Korea, Japan
• Regional treaties played into this, as well – working with allies was emphasized
• Operation CARTE BLANCHE that while conventional forces could be used to some
effect, the reliance on nuclear weapons would ensure destruction of all
Military Deterrence, Eisenhower to Kennedy
• Eisenhower believed in strong centralized leadership in military policy and leadership – makes
sense, given his background
• He wanted to consolidate as much of the power as he could in his office, so he reorganized the
Joint Chiefs of Staff and took away much of their decision-making powers
• He limited Congress’s ability to interfere with foreign policy, giving more power to the Secretary
of Defense
• Interservice rivalries were a big part of the modernization of the military at this time – military
industrial complex
• Kennedy aimed to overhaul the foreign policy structures of Eisenhower, allowing more
flexibility to conflict responses
• Kennedy also wanted to diminish interservice rivalries that he saw as detrimental to military
readiness, but still modernize the force
• Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara focused on “assured destruction” – how many nuclear
weapons need to be launched to ensure the target is destroyed
• Nuclear modernization also focused on delivery methods – nuclear triad (air, missile, sea
delivery)
Effects of Nuclear Arms Race
• U.S. and U.S.S.R. nuclear arms race ensured the proliferation of nuclear weapons
• The U.S. in particular is responsible for the nuclearization of many allied countries
• Innovation in the form of “improved” bombs simply increased the threat
• Cuban Missile Crisis almost started nuclear World War III
• The outcome of the crisis was the first substantial disarmament talks between
the powers
• However, as the Cold War continued, conventional warfare continued globally
• U.S. government continued trying to intervene in other nations’ affairs
• Diplomacy was centered around ensuring the U.S. could maintain nuclear
weapons where they thought they were necessary
Transformation, 1975-1991:
Intervention and Adaptability
Continuing Containment
• Following the Vietnam conflict, U.S. military leaders focused on adaptability – the
ability to conduct more sorts of operations with fewer resources
• The Vietnam conflict doomed three presidents – Johnson, Nixon, and Ford
• President Carter sought to remake the American military into a smaller, more
mobile, more “effective” force, and put the burden of defense on allies
• Most decisions were predicated on limiting military spending (a fairly popular
idea following Vietnam) and negotiations with the Soviet Union
• Conflicts in which the U.S. government became involved came about mostly
because the U.S. and Soviets meddled in other countries’ affairs; most operations
were downplayed by the U.S. government, or outright covered up
• The focus was still the containment of Communism, even at the cost of
supporting worse leaders (a troubling trend)
Nuclear Disarmament and Proliferation
• President Carter sought to remake the U.S.-Soviet relationship, centered on nuclear
arms limitation and conventional deterrence
• These aims did not correlate with his promise to limit defense spending
• Nuclear limitation negotiations were also contrary to the nuclear arms development
• Carter led the negotiations for the second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II), but
talks broke down due to both parties’ lack of real action
• Under Reagan, nuclear weapon research continued, but a new focus became the
“Strategic Defense Initiative” (SDI), which eventually became another point of
contention between the U.S. and Soviets
• Reagan’s treaty focus was the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START)
• Each country focused on the reduction of an asset their adversary possessed that they
did non – U.S. sought to limit Soviet rail-based missile systems, while the Soviets aimed
to limit U.S. SDI systems
• These demands prompted both parties to reject proposals, and the talks went nowhere,
leading to further nuclear proliferation in the name of deterrence
Age of Regional Conflicts
• Presidents Carter and Reagan led the U.S. through multiple conflicts throughout
the world, nearly all of which had to do with spreading political ideologies
Involvement in Israeli defense
against Islamic fundamentalist
governments, the rise of
Hezbollah
Lebanese Civil War (1982-1984)
Soviet-backed coup in Afghanistan
(1977), invasion (1979) U.S.
support of Mujahideen (precursor
to Al Qaeda)
U.S. support of Nicaraguan
contras against the Sandinista
Government (1980)
Iranian hostage crisis as part of
the Iranian Revolution (1979)
Operation Just Cause in
Panama, operation
against Noriega regime
(1989)
Operation Urgent Fury, invasion of
Grenada (1983), led to the passing
of the Goldwater-Flint Act, which
restructured military leadership
Iran-Contra affair and the U.S.
actions and influence during the
Iran-Iraq War (1985-1987)
The World Turns Towards Democracy
• From 1989-1991, numerous countries moved towards democracy (or some
semblance of it), moving away from Soviet influence
Poland
(1990)
East
Germany
(1990)
Latvia
(1991)
Czechoslovakia
(1990)
Haiti
(1990
Estonia
(1991)
South Korea
(1987)
Lithuania
(1990)
Hungary
(1989)
Philippines
(1986)
Romania
(1989)
Chile
(1989)
South Africa
(1990-1994)
Crisis in the Middle East
• The Middle East became a crisis zone in
the mid-1980s, many conflicts due to
Israeli defense, Soviet influence, regional
supremacy, and defense of U.S. interests
• During Iran-Iraq war, U.S. support went to
both Iran (to fight Iraqi fundamentalists)
and Iraq (following Iranian Revolution)
• U.S. became benefactors to Saudi Arabia
and Pakistan in new realignment of
powers in the region
• The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990
started the U.S. on the road to its next war
Operation DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM
Image credit: Jeff Dahl