1. List 5 topics you might consider writing about with a sentence or two about what your thesis statement might be for each topic. To generate topics, you may use journal writing, freewriting, listing, or clustering to generate topics. Review Chapter 3 in your textbook.
2. Take 2 of the topics from the list and write 2 paragraphs about what you already know about the topic and why you considered it as a research paper.
3. Using the SQ3R method, read the paper, “Water Woes in Walkerton,” from Chapter 2, pages 26-29 of your textbook. Make a formal outline of the paper and copy it into the space provided.
(You are going to rewrite the paragraph using correct pronouns. You must use pronouns)
Nora Johnson is a Habitat for Humanity volunteer. ___ helped in the building of three houses. ___ job consisted of nailing trim work and painting window frames. ___ suggested that Valerie and Marla join ___ on one of the projects. ___ both decided it was a good idea, and volunteered too. ___ all believe that Habitat for Humanity is making a difference in ___ community. Nora encouraged a friend of ___ to join as well. Now ___ all volunteer. ___ are one big happy Habitat for Humanity family!
JOURNAL ENTRY:
Start a Journal for your writing. For your first entry, summarize the process you used to come up with the 5 topics you might write about. Comment on which ones may be the best fit for you to write about and why. Must be a minimum of 2 paragraphs and 5 sentences per paragraph.
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
2
“ Literacy is not a luxury, it is a right and a
responsibility. If our world is to meet the challenge
s
of the twenty-first century, we must harness the
energy and creativity of all our citizens.”
—Bill Clinton
PART
1
WRITE
wavebreakmedia ltd, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
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C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g – W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n
3
1
Understanding
the Reading-
Writing
Connection
When you write, you are sending a message into the
world. But here’s the thing: before you could write, you
needed to
. And your writing needs a reader, if it is to
be something more than static words on a page or a screen.
Whether it’s a poem or a novel, a tweet or an essay, a blog
or a lab report, reading and writing work symbiotically—in
a close relationship where one depends on the other.
In your college work (and even beyond), you’ll do plenty
of reading and writing, and COMP: Write aims to help you im-
prove both of these abilities in its attention to the writing process,
its presentation of student and professional essays, its instruction in
different forms of writing, its attention to research, and its focus on
grammar. However, this first chapter looks directly at the reading-
writing connection so that you can begin to strengthen those ties in
your own work.
Now more than ever, reading and writing involve not only words
but also visual images. For that reason, this chapter also asks you to
pull visuals into view as part of the reading-writing connection.
Learning Outcomes
1 Use the SQ3R reading strategy.
2 Read actively.
3 Respond to a text.
4 Summarize a text.
5 Effectively analyze images.
6 Think critically through writing.
C
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Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
4
Use the SQ3R
reading strategy.
Obviously, reading a novel, a textbook, and a Web
page are all different activities. Nevertheless, all col-
lege reading assignments can be approached system-
atically, especially when your goal is to absorb and
engage the text. One strategy for critical reading,
especially of information-rich texts, is called SQ3R:
Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. Here is
how SQ3R works.
Survey
The first step in SQ3R is to preview the material. Check
for clues to each part of the rhetorical situation:
Rhetorical Situation
1
■ Read any questions that accompany the
reading. Look at the end of the reading or in
a study guide.
■ Turn headings into questions. If a subhead
says, “The Study,” ask, “How was the study
conducted?”
■ Imagine test questions for major points. If
the reading draws conclusions about self-con-
trol, ask, “What conclusions does the author
draw about self-control?”
■ Ask the journalist’s questions: Ask who,
what, where, when, why, and how? Whose atti-
tudes are changing? What are their attitudes?
Where is the change strongest? When is it
occurring? Why is it happening? How?
Read about the author. Then read the title and the
opening and closing paragraphs to get a sense of the
main points. Glance at all other pages, noting head-
ings, topic sentences in paragraphs, boldface type, il-
lustrations, charts, maps, and other cues to the con-
tent and organization.
Benefits: Surveying helps you (1) focus on the writ-
er’s message, (2) identify its organization, and (3)
anticipate how the text will develop.
Benefits: Asking questions keeps you actively
thinking about what you are reading and helps you
absorb information.
Read
As you encounter facts and ideas, ask these questions:
What does this mean? How do the ideas relate to each
other and to what I know? What’s coming next?
Keep track of your answers by taking notes, anno-
tating the text, mapping, or outlining. (See pages 5–7
for more on these active-reading techniques.) Read
difficult parts slowly; reread them if necessary. Look
up unfamiliar words or ideas, and use your senses to
imagine the events, people, places, or things you are
Sender
(Creator)
Receiver
(Audience)
Message
(Subject + Purpose)
Medium
(Form)
Context
(Environment)
Question
As you survey, begin to ask questions that you hope to
answer as you read.
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2
T
S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g – W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n
5
■ Pace yourself. Read in stretches of thirty to
forty-five minutes, followed by short breaks.
■ Anticipate. When you break, think about
what is coming next and why.
■ Read difficult parts aloud. Or take turns
reading aloud with a partner.
■ Take thoughtful notes. Find a note-tak-
ing system that works for you. (See pages
347–348). This is especially true for research
projects.
■ Annotate the text. Mark up the text (if you
own it) or a photocopy. Underline or highlight
key points. Write a “?” beside puzzling parts.
Write key words in the margin and add per-
sonal observations.
■ Visualize the concepts in concrete ways.
Example: If a text discusses a study about
self-control, imagine a television panel dis-
cussing the
topic.
■ Draw diagrams or develop clusters.
Example: See the cluster on page 7.
■ Put the material in your own words.
Example: See the summary on page 9.
■ Teach it to someone.
Example: For a study about self-control,
explain the main points to a friend or rela-
tive—in person, on the phone, or by e-mail.
■ Use acronyms or rhymes.
Example: “i before e except after c.”
reading about. Imagine talking with the writer. Ex-
press agreement, lodge complaints, ask for proof—and
imagine the writer’s response or look for it in the text.
Benefits: Engaging actively with the text in this way
will draw you deeper into the world of the writing.
You’ll trigger memories and make surprising con-
nections.
Recite
After finishing a page, section, or chapter, recite the
key points aloud. Answering Who? What? When?
Where? Why? and How? questions is a quick way of
testing yourself on how well you understood what you
read. You can also recite the key points by listing them
or writing a summary (see pages 8–9).
Benefits: Reciting tests your comprehension, drives
the material deeper into your long-term memory,
and helps you connect the content with what you
already know.
Review
As soon as you finish reading the material, double-
check the questions you posed in the “question” stage
of SQ3R. Can you answer them? Glance over any notes
you made as well. But don’t stop there if the reading is
especially important. You will remember the material
much better by spacing out your reviews; spend a few
minutes reviewing each text over the next few days.
Consider the following helpful memory techniques:
Benefits: Research shows that reviewing within 24
hours helps considerably to move information from
your short-term memory to your long-term memo-
ry. You will also improve your memory if you create
a network of associations with the information you
want to remember, if you link the memory to two
or more senses, or if you reorganize the material
while still retaining the substance with accuracy.
Read actively.
Truly active reading is a kind of mental dialogue with
the writer. Use these strategies to read actively:
2
Read, annotate, and respond to a text.
The following article first appeared in June 2, 2010, in a
monthly column in the Fast Company newsletter. The
author, Dan Heath, is also coauthor (with his brother)
of the best-selling business books Made to Stick and
Switch. He is currently a consultant to the Policy Pro-
grams at the Aspen Institute. Read the following ar-
ticle, using SQ3R and active-reading strategies.
C
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Survey • Question • Read • Recite • Review
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6 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Why Change Is So Hard: Self-
Control Is Exhaustible
You hear something a lot about change: People
won’t change because they’re too lazy. Well, I’m here
to stick up for the lazy people. In fact, I want to argue
that what looks like laziness is actually exhaustion.
The proof comes from a psychology study that is ab-
solutely fascinating.
The Study
So picture this: Students come into a lab. It smells
amazing—someone has just baked chocolate-chip
cookies. On a table in front of them, there are two
bowls. One has the fresh-baked cookies. The other has
a bunch of radishes. Some of the students are asked to
eat some cookies but no radishes. Others are told to eat
radishes but no cookies, and while they sit there, nib-
bling on rabbit food, the researchers leave the room—
which is intended to tempt them and is frankly kind
of sadistic. But in the study none of the radish-eaters
slipped—they showed admirable self-control. And
meanwhile, it probably goes without saying that the
people gorging on cookies didn’t experience much
temptation.
Then, the two groups are asked to do a second,
seemingly unrelated task—basically a kind of logic
puzzle where they have to trace out a complicated
geometric pattern without raising their pencil. Unbe-
knownst to them, the puzzle can’t be solved. The sci-
entists are curious how long they’ll persist at a diffi-
cult task. So the cookie-eaters try again and again, for
an average of 19 minutes, before they give up. But the
radish-eaters—they only last an average of 8 minutes.
What gives?
The Results
The answer may surprise you: They ran out of
self-control. Psychologists have discovered that self-
control is an exhaustible resource. And I don’t mean
self-control only in the sense of turning down cook-
ies or alcohol; I mean a broader sense of self-supervi-
sion—any time you’re paying close attention to your
actions, like when you’re having a tough conversation
or trying to stay focused on a paper you’re writing.
This helps to explain why, after a long hard day at the
office, we’re more likely to snap at our spouses or have
one drink too many—we’ve depleted our self-control.
And here’s why this matters for change: In almost
all change situations, you’re substituting new, unfa-
miliar behaviors for old, comfortable ones, and that
burns self-control. Let’s say I present a new morning
routine to you that specifies how you’ll shower and
brush your teeth. You’ll understand it and you might
even agree with my process. But to pull it off, you’ll
have to supervise yourself very carefully. Every fiber
of your being will want to go back to the old way of
doing things. Inevitably, you’ll slip. And if I were un-
charitable, I’d see you going back to the old way and
I’d say, You’re so lazy. Why can’t you just change?
This brings us back to the point I promised I’d
make: That what looks like laziness is often exhaus-
tion. Change wears people out—even well-intentioned
people will simply run out of fuel.
1
2
3
4
5
6
C
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F
O
S
T
E
R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g – W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n
7
Note: Reading actively also involves evaluating texts.
For help, see pages 344–345, where you’ll find instruc-
tion on evaluating resources for research projects.
Map the text.
If you are visually oriented, you may understand a
text best by mapping out its important parts. One
way to do so is by “clustering.” Start by naming the
main topic in an oval at the center of the page. Then
branch out using lines and “balloons,” where each bal-
loon contains a word or phrase for one major subtopic.
Branch out in further layers of balloons to show even
more subpoints. If you wish, add graphics, arrows,
drawings—anything that helps you visualize the rela-
tionships among ideas.
reading for Better Writing
Working by yourself or with a group, answer
these questions:
1. In a single sentence, state the thesis of the
essay.
2. In a few sentences, tell how the findings of
the study help explain why change is diffi-
cult.
3. Compare your notes and annotations with
a partner. Which parts of your notes and
annotations are the same? Which parts are
different? How does discussing the content
of the essay reinforce or otherwise alter your
understanding of the essay?
4. Think about your own life. What sorts of
activities require you to exert a great deal of
self-control? What sort of activities do you
find too tempting to resist when you have
“run out” of self-control? How could this
information help you avoid temptation?
lazy?
lazy?
people who
won’t change
exhausted?
self-control
eat cookies—
no need for
self-control
stuck with tracing
for 19 mins
more self-control?
eat radishes (no
cookies) —need for
much self-control
stuck with
tracing 8 mins
mad about
cookies?
“ran out” of self-
control?
Outline the text.
Outlining is the traditional way of showing all the ma-
jor parts, points, and subpoints in a text. An outline
uses parallel structure to show main points and subor-
dinate points. See pages 46–48 for more on outlines.
Sample Outline for “Why Change Is So Hard: Self-
Control Is Exhaustible”
1. Introduction: Change is hard not because of
laziness but because of exhaustion.
2. A study tests self-control.
a. Some students must eat only cookies—
using little self-control.
b. Some students must eat only radishes—
using much self-control.
c. Both sets of students have to trace a
pattern without lifting the pencil—an
unsolvable puzzle.
■ Cookie-only students last an average of
19 minutes before quitting.
■ Radish-only students last an average of
8 minutes before quitting.
3. Results show that self-control is exhaustible.
a. Avoiding temptation and working in a
hard, focused way require self-control.
b. Change requires self-control.
c. Failure to change often results from ex-
haustion of self-control.
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
8
Respond to a text.
In a sense, when you read a text, you enter into a dia-
logue with it. Your response expresses your turn in the
dialogue. Such a response can take varied forms, from a
journal entry to a blog to a discussion-group posting.
Follow these guidelines for response
writing.
On the surface, responding to a text seems perfectly
natural—just let it happen. But it can be a bit more
complicated. A written response typically is not the
same as a private diary entry but is instead shared
with other readers, whether your instructor or a class.
You develop your response keeping in mind your in-
structor’s requirements and the response’s role in the
course. Therefore, follow these guidelines:
3
1. Be honest. Although you want to remain
sensitive to the context in which you will
share your response, be bold enough to be
honest about your reaction to the text—what
it makes you think, feel, and question. To
that end, a response usually allows you to
express yourself directly using the pronoun
“I.”
2. Be fluid. Let the f low of your thoughts guide
you in what you write. Don’t stop to worry
about grammar, punctuation, mechanics,
and spelling. These can be quickly cleaned
up before you share or submit your response.
3. Be reflective. Generally, the goal of a
response is to offer thoughtful ref lection as
opposed to knee-jerk reaction. Show, then,
that you are engaging the text’s ideas, relat-
ing them to your own experience, looking
both inward and outward. Avoid a shallow
reaction that comes from skimming the text
or misreading it.
4. Be selective. By nature, a response must
limit its focus; it cannot exhaust all your
reactions to the text. So zero in on one or
two elements of your response, and run with
those to see where they take you in your
dialogue with the text.
1. Skim first; then read closely. First, get a
sense of the whole, including the main idea
and strategies for support. Then read care-
fully, taking notes as you do.
2. Capture the text’s argument. Review your
notes and annotations, looking for main
points and clear connections. State these
Sample Response
Here is part of a student’s response to Dan Heath’s
“Why Change Is So Hard” on page 6. Note the infor-
mality and explanatory tone.
Summarize a text.
Writing a summary disciplines you by making you
pull only essentials from a reading—the main points,
the thread of the argument. By doing so, you create
a brief record of the text’s contents and exercise your
ability to comprehend, analyze, and synthesize.
Use these guidelines for summary
writing.
Writing a summary requires sifting out the least im-
portant points, sorting the essential ones to show their
relationships, and stating those points in your own
words. Follow these guidelines:
4
Heath’s report of the psychological
experiment is very vivid, referring to the smell
of chocolate-chip cookies and hungry students
“gorging” on them. He uses the term “sadistic” to
refer to making the radish-eaters sit and watch
this go on. I wonder if this mild torment plays into
the student’s readiness to give up on the later test.
If I’d been rewarded with cookies, I’d feel indebted
to the testers and would stick with it longer. If
I’d been punished with radishes, I might give up
sooner just to spite the testers.
Now that I think of it, the digestion of all that
sugar and fat in the cookies, as opposed to the
digestion of roughage from the radishes, might
also affect concentration and performance. Maybe
the sugar “high” gives students the focus to keep
going?
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g – W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 9
Sample
Summary
Below is a student’s summary of Dan Heath’s “Why
Change Is So Hard,” on page 6. Note how the summa-
ry writer includes only main points and phrases them
in her own words. She departs from the precise order
of details, but records them accurately.
In the article “Why Change Is So Hard,” Dan
Heath argues that people who have trouble
changing are not lazy, but have simply exhausted
their self-control. Heath refers to a study in which
one group of students was asked to eat cookies
and not radishes while another group in the same
room was asked to eat radishes and not cookies.
Afterward, both groups of students were asked
to trace an endless geometric design without
lifting their pencils. The cookie-only group traced
on average 19 minutes before giving up, but
the radish-only group traced on average only
8 minutes. They had already used up their self-
control. Heath says that any behavioral change
requires self-control, an exhaustible resource.
Reverting to old behavior is what happens due
not to laziness but to exhaustion.
Insight: Writing formal summaries—whether as part of
literature reviews or as abstracts—is an important skill,
especially in the social and natural sciences. For a sample
abstract, see page 390.
■ Survey the image. See it as a whole, but also
study the focal point, the background-fore-
ground relationship, left and right content,
and colors.
■ Inspect the image. Examine all the details
and the relationships between parts.
■ Question the image. Who created the image,
and why? What is the image’s subject and
message? Who is the intended viewer? In what
medium and context does the image appear
(e.g., magazine, academic report, Web page)?
■ Understand the purpose. What is this image
meant to do? Arouse curiosity? Entertain?
Inform? Illustrate a concept? Per
suade?
Actively interpret images.
Interpreting an image follows naturally from viewing
or “reading” the image. Interpreting means figuring
out what the image or design is meant to do, say, or
show. Interpreting requires you to think more deeply
about each element of the rhetorical situation, and
complications with each element.
brief ly and clearly, in your own words. In-
clude only what is essential, excluding most
examples and details. Don’t say simply that
the text talks about its subject; tell what it
says about that subject.
3. Test your summary. Aim to objectively
provide the heart of the text; avoid inter-
jecting your own opinions and presence as a
writer. Don’t confuse an objective summary
of a text with a response to it (shown on
the previous page). Check your summary
against the original text for accuracy and
consistency.
Effectively
analyze images.
Images communicate, just as words do. Most images
in everyday life are made to communicate quickly—
magazine covers, ads, signs, movie trailers, social-
media photos, and so on. Other images require con-
templation, such as the Mona Lisa. When you view an
image, analyze it effectively through careful viewing
and interpreting.
Actively view images.
When you look at an image, take it all in by doing the
following:
5
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
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L
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ay
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ca
nn
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du
pl
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ed
, i
n
w
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o
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in
p
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D
ue
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ic
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ig
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s
om
e
th
ir
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co
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en
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m
ay
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re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
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er
(s
).
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di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
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pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
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d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
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ig
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t
o
re
m
ov
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ad
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ti
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c
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te
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a
t
an
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ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
©
B
az
u
ki
M
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am
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EU
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S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s10
Insight: Like words, visuals can be cliches—trite, mis-
leading, or worn-out expressions of concepts or ideas.
For example, TV ads for weight-loss drugs commonly
picture scantily clad, fit young people, deceptively link-
ing use of the drug to beauty, youth, and sex.
Interpret an image.
■ Sender: Who created the image—a photog-
rapher, a painter, a Web designer? Why did
the person create it? What other people might
have been involved—editors, patrons?
Complications: The sender might be unknown
or a group.
■ Message: What is the subject of the image?
How is the subject portrayed? What is the
main purpose of the image—to entertain, to
inform, to persuade, to entice, to shock?
Complications: The message might be mixed,
implied, ironic, unwelcome, or distorted. The
subject might be vague, unfamiliar, complex,
or disturbing.
■ Medium: What is the image—a painting, a
cartoon panel, a photo? How might the image
have been modified over time? What visual
language has the sender used?
Complications: The medium might be unusu-
al, unfamiliar, or multiple. The visual languag-
es might be literal, stylized, numeric, symbolic,
and so on.
■ Receiver: Whom was the image made for?
Are you part of the intended audience? What
is your relationship with the sender? Do you
agree with the message? How comfortable are
you with the medium? What is your overall
response to the image?
Complications: You might be uninterested in,
unfamiliar with, or biased toward the mes-
sage.
Discussion
This color photograph shows a multireligious
commemoration of the 229,000 victims of the Indian
Ocean tsunami of December 26, 2004.
The symbolism is clearly rooted in the points of
light created by the candle balloons, where light it-
self is a cross-cultural symbol of hope, endurance,
the human spirit, and God’s presence. The skyward
angle of the photograph, with the clusters of candle
balloons f loating up and the people in the lower right
of the frame, creates this sense of vertical longing and
release, emphasizing perhaps humanity’s longing to
solve life’s mysteries, including death and disaster.
Sender
Receiver
Message Medium
Context
■ Context: What was the context in which the
image was first presented? What context sur-
rounds the image now? Does the image fit its
context or fight it?
Complications: The context might be discon-
nected, ironic, changing, or multilayered.
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
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R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
Sa
sh
ki
n
, 2
0
1
1
/
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.c
o
m
C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g – W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 11
Sender: Photographer Bazuki Muhammad;
authors of COMP: Write
Message: Thais release candle balloons during a
mass prayer for victims of the Indian
Ocean tsunami. The message is to
remember those who died, but move
forward with hope.
Medium: Digital color photograph
Receiver: The intended viewer was anyone
reading a newspaper, magazine, or
Web article. The current viewer is
likely a student or an instructor in a
composition course.
Context: This photograph was part of a series
provided by Reuters for global
newspapers. It now is part of a
composition text.
Think critically
through writing.
Reading, viewing, and writing can all be means of
critical thinking. In college, you often need to show
your ability to think critically about topics and issues
by analyzing complex processes, synthesizing con-
cepts, weighing the value of opposing perspectives,
and applying principles. To think critically through
your writing, practice the strategies that follow.
6
■ “Rhetorical” questions aren’t meant to be an-
swered. They’re asked for effect.
Example: Who would want to be caught in
an earthquake?
■ Closed questions seek a limited response and
can be answered with “yes,” “no,” or a simple
fact.
Example: Would I feel an earthquake mea-
suring 3.0 on the Richter scale?
■ Open questions invite brainstorming and
discussion.
Example: How might a major earthquake
affect this urban area?
■ Theoretical questions call for organization
and explanation of an entire field of knowledge.
Example: What might cause a sudden frac-
turing of Earth’s crust along fault lines?
To improve the critical thinking in your writing,
ask better questions. The strategies on the next page
will help you think freely, respond to reading, study
for a test, or collect your thoughts for an essay.
Although the large, just-released candle balloons are
most prominent, the viewer’s eyes are also drawn up-
ward, where clusters of far-off candles become con-
stellations of starlike lights. The mourners in the right
of the frame, forming a loose circle, are all gazing
skyward, like the viewer. Ordinary people in ordinary
clothes, they appear to be clapping and, for some, the
clapping shows their hands virtually in a posture of
prayer. In this way, the image both mourns the dead
and celebrates life.
Ask probing questions.
Every field uses questions to trigger critical thinking.
For example, scientific questions generate hypotheses,
sociological questions lead to studies, mathematical
questions call for proofs, and literary criticism ques-
tions call for interpretations. A good question opens
up a problem and guides you all the way to its solu-
tion. But not all questions are created equal. Consider
the differences:
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s12
starts with specific details or observations (as shown
at the base) and then moves “up” to broader ideas and
eventually to a concluding generalization. In contrast,
deduction starts with general principles at the top and
works down, applying the principles to explain par-
ticular instances.
Generalization/
Conclusion
Main Ideas
Specific
Details
In
d
u
ct
io
n
D
ed
u
ct
io
n
Example: Read through the paragraphs below from a
student essay, “If We Are What We Wear, What Are
We?” by Allison Young. The first paragraph works de-
ductively, the second paragraph inductively. Note how
each approach affects the message.
The American excuse for owning multiples is that
clothing styles change so rapidly. At the end of the
’80s, trends in high fashion changed every two and
a half months (During 95). Even for those of us who
don’t keep up with high fashion, styles change often
enough that our clothing itself lasts much longer than
the current trend. Perhaps this is one of the reasons
the average American spent 7 on clothing in 1996
(U.S. Department of Commerce).
While Americans are spending a thousand dollars
on clothing a year, people in Ethiopia make an aver-
age of only $96 a year, those in Bangladesh $280, and
the average Filipino worker makes $1,052 (United Na-
tions Statistics Division). I, on the other hand, made
over $5,000 last year, and that job was only part-time.
When an American college student can earn more
money at her part-time job than three billion people
each make for a living, it’s time to question our culture
and ask, as Alan During did, “How much is enough?”
Ask open questions. Closed questions some-
times choke off thinking. Use open questions to
trigger a f low of ideas.
Ask “educated” questions. Compare these
questions: (A) What’s wrong with television? (B)
Does the 16.3 percent rise in televised acts of vio-
lence during the past three years signal a rising
tolerance for violence in the viewing audience?
You have a better chance of expanding the “edu-
cated” question—question B—into an essay be-
cause the question is clearer and suggests debat-
able issues.
Keep a question journal. Divide a blank note-
book page or split a computer screen. On one side,
write down any questions that come to mind re-
garding the topic that you want to explore. On the
other side, write down answers and any thoughts
that f low from them.
Write Q & A drafts. To write a thoughtful first
draft, write quickly, then look it over. Turn the
main idea into a question and write again, an-
swering your question. For example, if your main
idea is that TV viewers watch far more violence
than they did ten years ago, ask Which viewers?
Why? and What’s the result? Go on that way until
you find a key idea to serve as the main point of
your next draft.
For more help with critical-thinking skills such
as making and supporting claims, recogniz-
ing logical fallacies, and dealing with opposition, see
“Strategies for Argumentation and Persuasion,” pages
176–187.
Practice inductive and deductive
logic.
Questions invite thinking; reasoning responds to that
challenge in an organized way. Will the organization
of your thoughts be inductive or deductive? Inductive
logic reasons from specific information toward gen-
eral conclusions. Deductive logic reasons from general
principles toward specific applications. Notice in the
diagram in the next column that inductive reasoning
(A) Deduction: generalization to specific details
(B) Induction: specific details to generalization
(A)
(B)
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C h a P t e r 1 : U n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e a d i n g – W r i t i n g C o n n e C t i o n 13
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
As directed by your instructor, complete the following
critical-thinking and writing activities.
1. Northrop Frye has argued that “[n]obody is ca-
pable of free speech unless he [or she] knows how
to use language, and such knowledge is not a gift:
It has to be learned and worked at.” How does
Frye’s claim relate to the discussions of reading,
viewing, and writing in this chapter?
2. In a newspaper or magazine (print or online),
find a brief article that discusses a recent scien-
tific study (similar to Dan Heath’s article on page
6). Read your selected article by practicing the
SQ3R method. Then do the following: map the
text, write a response to it, and summarize it. If
the article has visual content, view and interpret
any images. Finally, generate a list of probing
questions and speculative answers related to the
article’s topic.
3. In a print or digital publication, find an image
that is striking. Using the instruction on effec-
tively analyzing images, draft an interpretation
of the image.
4. Read three or four articles on a current issue that
interests you. Using what you’ve learned, draft
two paragraphs on the issue—one patterned
deductively and the other inductively.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes
Use the checklist below to assess how well you are
practicing the reading-writing connection.
I effectively use the SQ3R method for reading
texts.
I read texts actively through annotation, map-
ping, outlining, and evaluating.
I can write a meaningful response to a text.
I can effectively summarize a text so as to get
at the core argument.
I effectively analyze images through active
viewing and interpreting strategies.
I practice effective critical thinking through
writing that asks probing questions and that
works logically through induction and/or de-
duction.
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Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 26
Edit the writing
for correctness.
Angela reviewed her edited copy for punctuation,
agreement issues, and spelling. The first page of An-
gela’s proofread essay is shown below.
7
Water Woes in Walkerton
Warning: City tap water is polluted with animal waste. Using the water
for drinking, cooking, or bathing could
cause sickness or death.
According to the Seirra Club, run-off pollutants from farm cites
are steadily seeping into our streams, lakes, reservoirs, and wells.
Because much of our drinking water comes from these resources,
warnings like the one above are already posted in a number of
U.S. and Canadian communities, and many more postings might
be needed in the future (Sierra Club, 2005). As the Seirra Club
argues, the pollution and related warnings are serious, and failure
to take them seriously could be deadly. For example, a few years
ago the citizens of Walkerton Ontario learned that the water that
they believed to be clean was tragically poisoned.
The events in Walkerton began on May 12, 2000, when heavy
rains washed cattle manure into the town well. The manure
contained bacteria commonly called E coli. While E coli is harmless
to cattle, it can make people sick. Seven days after the heavy
rains, people began calling public health officials to complain of
nausea and diarrhea. It wasn’t until May 21 that the townspeople
were advised to boil their drinking water. The warning came too
late. Two people had already died, and more than 2,000 were ill
(Wickens, 2000).
Several factors contributed to the tragedy in Walkerton,
including human error. First, according to The Edmonton Journal,
a
flaw in the water treatment system allowed the infested water to
enter Walkerton’s well (Blackwell, 2001). Even after the manure
washed into the well, the chlorine should have .
. .
The writer corrects
errors that the spell
checker did not pick
up.
She adds a comma
between the city and
province.
She adds a word for
clarity.
She adds periods and
italicizes “E. coli” to
show that it is a scien-
tific term.
into Walkterton’s well
s
. .
, ,
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T
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C h a P t e r 2 : o n e W r i t e r ’ s P r o C e s s 27
Check for documentation
and page-design problems.
After proofreading and formatting her essay, Angela added a heading and
page numbers. She also added more documentation and a references page at
the end. As assigned, she omitted the title page and abstract.
Angela Franco
Professor Kim Van Es
English 101
October 18, 2011
Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business
Warning: City tap water is polluted with animal waste.
Using the water for drinking, cooking, or bathing could
cause sickness or death.
According to the Sierra Club, run-off pollutants from farm sites
are steadily seeping into our streams, lakes, reservoirs,
and wells. Because much of our drinking water comes from these
resources, warnings like the one above are already posted in
a number of U.S. and Canadian communities, and many more
postings might be needed in the future (Sierra Club, 2005). As the
Sierra Club argues, the pollution and related warnings are serious,
and failure to take them seriously could be deadly. For example, a
few years ago the citizens of Walkerton, Ontario, learned that the
water that they believed to be clean was tragically poisoned.
The events in Walkerton began on May 12, 2000, when heavy
rains washed cattle manure into the town well. The manure
contained the bacteria commonly called E. coli. While E. coli is
harmless to cattle, it can make people sick. Seven days after
the heavy rains, people began calling public health officials to
complain of nausea and diarrhea. It wasn’t until May 21 that
the townspeople were advised to boil their drinking water. The
warning came too late. Two people had already died, and more
than 2,000 were ill (Wickens, 2000).
The writer revises the
title.
The title is changed.
The warning is empha-
sized with red print.
An appropriate font
and type size are used.
8
Running Head: Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business 1
C
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Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 28
Several factors contributed to the tragedy in Walkerton,
including human error. First, according to the Edmonton Journal, a
flaw in the water treatment system allowed the infested water to
enter Walkerton’s well (Blackwell, 2001). Even after the manure
washed into Walkerton’s well, the chlorine should have killed the
deadly bacteria. In Walkerton, the Public Utilities Commission
was responsible for overseeing the testing and treating of the
town’s water, but it failed to monitor the procedure properly
(“Walkerton’s water-safety,” 2000). Apparently, shortcuts were
taken when tracking the water’s chlorine level, and as a result,
some of the water samples were mislabeled. There was also a
significant delay between the time that the contamination was
identified and the time it was reported.
Once Walkerton’s problem was identified, the government acted
quickly to help the community. In its December 7, 2000, edition,
the Edmonton Journal reported that a $100,000 emergency
fund was set up to help families with expenses. Local businesses
donated bottled water for drinking and containers of bleach for
basic sanitizing and cleaning. In addition, the Provincial
Clean Water Agency restored the main water and sewage systems
by flushing out all of the town’s pipes and wells. Seven months
after the water became contaminated, the ban on drinking
Walkerton’s water was finally lifted.
As the Sierra Club warns and the citizens of Walkerton
learned, water purity is a life-and-death issue. Fortunately, both
the United States and Canada have been addressing the problem.
For example, since 2001, more states and provinces have been
tightening their clean-water standards, more communities have
been monitoring their water quality, and more individuals have
been using water-filtration systems, bottled water, or boiled tap
water. However, a tragedy like that in Walkerton could happen
again. To avoid such horror, all of us must get involved by
demanding clean tap water in our communities and by promoting
the policies and procedures needed to achieve that goal.
Title and page number
are used on each page.
Each claim or support-
ing point is backed up
with reasoning and
evidence.
The writer continues to
give credit throughout
the essay.
The writer restates
her thesis in the last
sentence.
Running Head: Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business 2
C
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2
01
1
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t
o
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m
ov
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a
t
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ti
m
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if
s
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qu
en
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ri
gh
ts
r
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ti
on
s
re
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ir
e
it
.
F
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T
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R
,
C
E
D
R
I
C
1
6
9
2
T
S
C h a P t e r 2 : o n e W r i t e r ’ s P r o C e s s 29
References
Blackwell, T. (2001, January 9). Walkerton doctor defends
response. The Edmonton Journal. Retrieved September 22,
2010, from
Sierra Club. (2005) Water sentinels: Keeping it clean around the
U.S.A. Retrieved September 24, 2008, from org/watersentinels/>.
Walkerton’s water-safety tests falsified regularly, utility official
admits. (2000, December 7). The Edmonton Journal. Retrieved
April 2, 2005, from Wickens, B. (2000, June 5). Tragedy in Walkerton. Maclean’s,
113(23), 34–36.
Sources used are listed Each entry follows APA Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities experiments in making sense of things.” Does 2. Review Angela’s writing process. How does it 3. Review the peer-editing instructions in “Revis- Cross-Curricular Connections Checklist: Learning Outcomes situation.
I can research my topic, plan my writing, and gath- I can write a first draft with an engaging opening, I can revise my writing for strong ideas, logical or- I can use a peer response to complete a second re- I can edit for style (e.g., precise words and smooth I can proofread for correct spelling, mechanics, us- Running Head: Clean Water Is Everyone’s Business 3
C C 1 Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./CorbisPa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 30
“ I think I did pretty well, considering I started out —Steve Martin
PART 1 C C 1 C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 31
3 This chapter focuses on beginning that process. It pro- Learning Outcomes situation. 3 Understand the assignment. topic. 5 Collect information and track your C C 1 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 32
Discover your process. Consider the writing process. 1 Getting Started Planning
■ Forming a thesis Drafting
■ Opening your draft Revising
■ Improving ideas, organization,
and voice Editing and Proofreading Submitting
■ Preparing a paper for submis-
sion documentation
Adapt the process to your project. Writing tends not to follow a straight path. While Each assignment presents distinct challenges. A Writing can involve collaboration. From using your Each writer works differently. Some writers do ex- Good writing can’t be rushed. Although some Getting Planning Editing
Submitting C 1 C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 33
Different steps call for attention to different writ- focus on global issues: ideas, structure, voice, 2. During revising, fix big content problems by cut- 3. While editing and proofreading, pay attention Understand the Rhetorical Situation Sender Receiver Message Context Think of your role as the writer. Understand your subject. Writing with Sources: As you search for Understand your purpose. Writing with Sources: Think of the sources that Understand your audience. ■ Who are my readers: instructor? classmates? ■ What do they know about my topic, and what ■ How well do they understand the terminology ■ What are their attitudes toward the topic and C C 1 O xi B ev 0 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 34
■ How well do they read written English—or ■ How will they use my writing (as entertain- Note: Answers to such questions will help you de- Writing with Sources: Ask yourself what sources Understand the medium (form). Writing with Sources: Make sure you understand Think about the context. ■ Weight: Is this an everyday assignment, a ■ Assessment: Find out how the assignment will ■ Intent: Make certain that you understand the Note: If the writing you are doing is not in response Writing with Sources: If you are writing material Understand the Read the assignment. Key Words
3 Analyze: Break down a topic into Argue: Defend a claim with logical Classify: Divide a large group into Compare/contrast: Point out similarities and/or Define: Give a clear, thoughtful Describe: Show in detail what Evaluate: Weigh the truth, quality, or Explain: Give reasons, list steps, Interpret: Tell in your own words what C C 1 C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 35
Options: 1. You may choose any natural 2. You may focus on the past, 3. You may examine any kind of Restrictions: 1. You must reflect on a change in 2. The disaster must be natural. major.
Options and Restrictions — The assignment often Reflect on the way a natural disaster or Reflect: Share your well-considered Summarize: Restate someone else’s ideas Synthesize: Connect facts or ideas to ■ Expand your style? 3. How will this assignment contribute to your Relate the assignment to other Relate the assignment to your you? your chosen field? Reflect on the assignment. read the assignment? assignment like this? What’s a better way of tack- 3. Quality of performance: What would it take to 4. Benefits: What are the benefits to your educa- 5. Features: Ref lect further on four key features of Purpose: What is the overall purpose of the Audience: Should you address your instructor? Form: What are the requirements concerning Assessment: How will the assignment be evalu- Relate the assignment to the goals assignment? (The value is often expressed as a 2. What benefit does your instructor want you to suade? C 1 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 36
Select, limit, and ■ meet the requirements of the assignment. to research). Limit the subject area. 4 I read a really disturbing news story this 2. Search the Internet. Type in a keyword or phrase 3. Consult indexes, guides, and other library refer- 4. Discuss the assignment with your instructor or 5. Use one or more of the prewriting strategies Explore for possible topics. Journal Writing — Write in a journal on a regular General Subject Area: General Subject Area: Limited Topic: TV show
Limited Topic: Conduct your search. related to the assignment.
C C 1 zi o ic ss , 2 sh o ts 0 C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 37
Freewriting — Write nonstop for ten minutes or Popular culture. What does that include? Quick Guide: Freewriting Reminders down on paper. (Thoughts are constantly ■ Freewriting helps you develop and orga- ■ Freewriting helps you make sense out of ■ Freewriting may seem awkward at times, The Process comes into your mind. Follow your ■ If you have a particular topic or assign- ■ Don’t stop to judge, edit, or correct your ■ Keep writing even when you think you ■ Watch for a promising writing idea to The Result ideas you like. These ideas will often serve ■ Determine exactly what you need to ■ Listen to and read the freewriting of oth- C C 1 zi keellla, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com 38 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Listing — Freely list ideas as they come to mind, be- Aspect of popular culture: News reporting analysis
Focus on the negative Clustering — To begin the clustering process, write Sports
gambling lack of support women’s sports
role models
violence
recruiting cult of winning funding recent effects on After four or five minutes of listing or Collect information and 5 op ig 2 1 en ge ea in A R ht R er d. ay ot e pi , s nn , o du ic ed n ho o in ar D t el tr ic ig s, om th d rt co en m b su re ed ro t e oo an or C pt (s E to al ev w as ee ed ha an su ed on nt oe no m er ll af ct he ve ll ea in ex ri ce en re rv t ht o m e di on c a an ti e s se en ri ts es ic on re ir it F C 1 C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 39
you start collecting information. (Also see “Research ■ Determine what you already know about your ■ Consider listing questions you would like to ■ Identify and explore possible sources of infor- ■ Carry out your research following a logical Find out what you already know. focus your freewriting by (1) exploring your lim- 2. Clustering: Try clustering with your topic serv- 3. Five W’s of writing: Answer the five W’s—Who? 4. Directed writing: Write whatever comes to mind Describe it: What do you see, hear, feel, smell, Compare it: What is it similar to? What is it Associate it: What connections between this Analyze it: What parts does it have? How do Argue it: What do you like about the topic? Apply it: What can you do with it? How can Ask questions. Problems Policies Concepts
D cr tio What is the What is the What is the Fu tio Who or what What is Who has H to What is What brought When did it Va e What is its Is the policy What C C 1 Sh va , 2 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 40
Identify possible sources. of information may be time-consuming. Books 2. Be aware of the limits of your resources. Print 3. Use your existing resources to find additional 4. Ask for help. The specialists in your school 5. Bookmark useful Web sites. Include reference Explore different sources of information. — Of Reserve a special part of a notebook to question, Track sources. Track resources in a working bibliography. — Use a note-taking system that respects sourc- Distinguish summaries, paraphrases, and quo- Primary Sources Secondary Sources
Interviews Articles Carry out your research. — As you conduct your A summary pulls just the main points out of A paraphrase rewrites a passage point by point in A quotation records a passage from the source C C 1 C h a P t e r 3 : s ta r t i n g 41
Summary: Paraphrase: Quotation: Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities I am always struck at how magical and unex- 2. Reread one of your recent essays. Does the writ- Arts/music Environment Cross-Curricular Connections Checklist: Learning Outcomes I understand the writing process—getting started, I know how to analyze the rhetorical situation: persuade paper what they need of the project.
I know how to analyze an assignment, watching for I know how to select a subject and explore it I know how to collect information and track it Original: 3. Below is a list of general subject areas. Select one Summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting are C C 1 © Radius Images/CorbisPa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 42
“ Have a vision. Be demanding.” PART 1 C 1 C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 43
Some of us are meticulous planners. We organize our lives in In writing, author and instructor Ken Macrorie calls for Learning Outcomes 1 Revisit the rhetorical situation. 4 C C 1 Working with Sources: For projects that involve information and analysis that has shaped your 2. To achieve your purpose (to entertain, inform, 3. Given your audience, which resources will Se iy h lly 2 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 44
Specific General Alternative energy Limited Topic
Wind power
Wind power as Revisit the rhetorical Form your thesis State your thesis in a sentence that effectively ex- Find a focus. Rhetorical Checklist Am I interested in this topic? Subject
Does the topic fit with the subject Purpose Form Audience Context 1 C 1 +
Working with Sources: Sometimes your writing C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 45
an effective Wind power provides a specific focus Wind power as a viable energy limited topic wind power
State your thesis. Select a method Let your thesis guide you. Thesis (Focus) for a Personal Narrative From the first day Northwest hired me in Thesis for a Cause-and-Effect Essay While most of America’s corporations are still Thesis for an Essay of Comparison
Some comparisons treat one subject before the other To wear hijab—Islamic covering—is to invite 3 C 1 46
Thesis for an Essay of Classification There are four main perspectives, or approaches, Thesis for a Process Essay When a cell begins to function abnormally, it can Thesis for a Position Essay However, the risks of nuclear power far outweigh Thesis for an Essay of Definition
An essay of definition explores the denotation, con- Let me see if I can explain the original meaning and Thesis for an Essay Proposing a Solution Fatherlessness is the most harmful demographic Develop a plan Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s Quick List A brief listing of main points Topic Outline A more formal plan, including Sentence Outline A formal plan, including Writing Blueprints Basic organizational strategies Graphic Organizer An arrangement of main Quick Lists 4 C 1 Insight: The text-filled outlines on pages 48–49 all Insight: Planning is adaptable. Some writers prefer o rg 0 C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 47
lists the main points you will discuss, and a T Chart, Sample Basic List
Sample T Chart
Topic: Different ways to discuss literature
■ Focus on the text itself
■ Focus on the text and the reader
■ Focus on the author of the text
■ Focus on ideas outside of literature
Topic: Different ways to discuss literature Main Points Supporting Details
Text-centered Emphasizes Audience-centered Relationship Author-centered Emphasizes the Main Topic Topic Outline An effective topic outline is parallel in structure, Thesis: There are four main I. Text-centered approaches criticism text and rules of genre key literary elements
II. Audience-centered A. Also called rhetorical or B. Emphasis on interaction III. Author-centered approaches historical perspective between texts
IV. Ideological approaches text criticism Supporting Thesis
Main C C 1 Working with Sources: When your writing sources—interviews, surveys, analyses, obser- ■ Where and how should I bring in secondary Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s 48
Sentence Outline — A sentence outline is a more Sentence Outline
48 I. A text-centered approach A. This approach is often B. This method of criticism C. A formalist critic II. An audience-centered A. This approach is B. Each reader’s interaction III. An author-centered A. An author-centered critic B. This method of criticism C. Connections may be Supporting Writing Blueprints Classification Blueprint
Subgroup 1 Subgroup 3 Subgroup 2 Subgroup 4 Beginning
Ending
Main Approaches to Text- Audience- Author- Ideological
Summary C 1 Nick White/Photodisc/Getty Images 49C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 49
Comparison – Contrast Blueprint
Cause – Effect Blueprint
Problem-Solution Blueprint
Cause
Beginning Effect(s)
Ending Point A Subject 2
Point B Beginning Subject 1
Subject 2 Problem(s)
Solution(s)
Objection(s)
Rebuttal(s)
Beginning Effect
Effect Cause(s)
Point by Point
Cause-Focused Effect-Focused
Subject by Subject
Beginning Similarities
Differences
Ending Similarities-Differences
studies focuses on key explores and text focuses on puts text psychological, analysis Approaches to Conversing About Literature
text-centered
audience-centered author-centered
ideological
Thesis: There are four main perspectives, or Graphic Organizers — If you are a visual learner, ships between them. Here is a line diagram that was Line Diagram
C C 1 50 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s
Opinion
Reason
1 PersuasionProcess Analysis
Subject Steps (Chronological Order)
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Comparison/Contrast (Venn Diagram)
Subject A Subject B
Similarities Qualities Subject A Subject BGraphic Organizers: Cause-Effect
Subject (Object of Study)
Causes (Because of •
• Effects ( . . . these • C 1 C h a P t e r 4 : P l a n n i n g 51
Problem
Causes Problem Parts of the Future Possible Specific Topic
CategoryCategory Category
Details Details Concept Defined
HistoryRelated Quotations
Ne tiv De iti s (W t I sn P so al D in io s ic ar D s po nt ct an Fig es Synonym Antonym Classification
Definition Problem/Solution
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities ing is formed partly through plan and partly 2. A number of organizational patterns are discussed Cross-Curricular Connections the review. chronologically.
Checklist: Learning Outcomes I have taken stock of the rhetorical situation. collected so far. subject, purpose, and audience.
I have developed a focused thesis statement. idea I plan to develop. have gathered.
I have patterned my writing from my thesis. for my essay.
I have organized my research. outline, or a graphic organizer. main supporting points.
C C 1 Pa r t 1 : P r o C e s s Sinisa Botas, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
“First drafts are concerned with ideas, the piece of writing clear.” 52
PART 1 C 1 In 1978, Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield pooled $8,000 From a distance, it would seem that Cohen and Green- So what does this story have to tell you about your own research This chapter will help you initiate such meaningful research proj- C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 311
25 Learning Outcomes 1 Understand academic research. sites.
5 Understand sources.
joie de vivre C C 1 research paper Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 312
Understand academic Your instructors, peers, and the academic com- Some instructors encourage students to con- and “you.” But be careful to keep the focus where it Research involves many steps. change your mind about the topic or about the thesis A Research Flowchart
Getting Started List or cluster your Conduct prelimi- Talk with others • Evaluate and take notes • Summarize, paraphrase, and Conduct Take Careful Conduct Observe, interview, Reflect in your Check books, Analyze primary Create and add Search catalogs, Planning Your Research Conducting Research
Organizing and Drafting Initiate the process. Understand the assignment. 1 C 1 working thesis Checklist: Main Question
✔ Is the question too narrow, too broad, or ✔ Is the question too easy or too hard to ✔ Am I committed to answering this ✔ Will I be able to find enough information ✔ Will the question and answers interest the C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 313
notes about it; record key words, options, restrictions, Select a topic. Making It Manageable Build research questions. Needing to Know General Area of Manageable urban social the increase in homeless World War II the Marshall the Plan’s impact on alternative new generation hybrid-electric Main Question:
Should consumers embrace hybrid-electric Supporting Questions (Who? What? When? Who has developed hybrid-electric cars? Develop a working thesis. iofoto, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
C C 1 Library of Congress classification databases Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 314
Quick Guide: Working Thesis
Formula:
a limited topic + a tentative claim, statement, Samples:
Hybrid-electric cars offer consumers a The sharp increase in homeless families will The Marshall Plan benefited Europe and the Use the following checklist to evaluate Checklist: Working Thesis
✔ Does my working thesis focus on a single, ✔ Is it stated clearly and directly?
✔ Does it provide a preliminary answer to ✔ Do I have access to information that ✔ Does my working thesis meet the Remember that your working thesis is set in ferent sources may push you in new directions. Such Develop a Choose research methods. Background Research ■ Use the Library of Congress subject headings to ■ Conduct a preliminary search of the library ■ Use specialized reference works to find back- Primary Research ■ Use interviews (238–249) and surveys (pages 3 C 1 artifact C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 315
■ Conduct observations or experiments (pages ■ Analyze original documents or artifacts.
Library Research ■ Use scholarly books to get in-depth, reliable ma- ■ Refer to periodical articles (print or electronic) ■ Consider other resources, such as recorded in- Internet Research ■ Use tools, such as search engines and subject ■ Select reputable Web sites that librarians, in- ■ Test Web sites for reliability (pages 337–340). each phase of your work: getting started, conducting Consider possible clusively on information, substantial or not, from a Consider information resources. Type of Personal, primary Memories, diaries, journals, logs, Reference Dictionaries, thesauruses, encyclopedias, Books (print and Nonfiction, how-to, biographies, fiction, Periodicals and Print newspapers, magazines, and Audiovisual, Graphics (tables, graphs, charts, maps, Government Guides, programs, forms, legislation, Business and Correspondence, reports, newsletters, 4 C 1 Understand sources. The Sources Secondary sources present secondhand informa- Tertiary sources present thirdhand information on The next column lists possible primary and sec- Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 316
Consider information sites. Information People Experts (knowledge area, skill, Population segments or individuals (with Libraries General: public, college, online
Specialized: legal, medical, government, Computer Computers: software, CD-ROM’s
Networks: Internet and other online Mass media Radio (AM and FM), television Testing, training, Plants, facilities, field sites, laboratories, Municipal, state, Elected officials, representatives, offices Business and Computer databases, company files, primary sources secondary sources tertiary sources S1001, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
5 C 1 C h a P t e r 2 5 : P l a n n i n g y o U r r e s e a r C h P r o j e C t 317
Hybrid Car Technology – E-mail interview with automotive engineer Secondary Sources – Promotional literature for a specific hybrid car
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities past (e.g., in high school). What features of that 2. From the broad list of research subjects below, se- Subjects: museums, organic foods, department 3. Using what you have learned in this chapter, devel- Checklist: Learning Outcomes I understand the nature of academic research N em n y, 0 833379753, 2011 / Used under license C C 1 Pa r t 2 : F o r m s 318
“Basic research is what I am doing —Wernher von Braun
Yegor Korzh, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com
PART 2 C C 1 Sk in 2 30 Grammar is the study of the structure and and standards that are to be followed to pro- Learning Outcomes 1 Noun Noun Toni Morrison/author Lone Star/film
Renaissance/era UC-Davis/university
A Congress of Wonders/book
Classes of Nouns Proper Nouns — A proper noun, which is always Rembrandt, Bertrand Russell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . person
Stratford-upon-Avon, Tower of London . . . . . . . places
The Night Watch, Rosetta stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . things
New Deal, Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ideas
Common Nouns — A common noun is a general optimist, instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . person
cafeteria, park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . places
computer, chair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . things
freedom, love . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ideas
Collective Nouns — A collective noun names a family • audience • crowd • committee • team • class
Concrete Nouns — A concrete noun names a thing child • the White Stripes • gym • village • microwave 1 Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 398
PART 3 C C 1 C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 399
Abstract Nouns — An abstract noun names an beauty • Jungian psychology • anxiety • agoraphobia Forms of Nouns Number of Nouns — Number indicates whether a Singular: Plural: Gender of Nouns — Gender indicates whether a Masculine father • king • brother • men • Feminine mother • queen • sister • Neuter notebook • monitor • car • Indefinite professor • customer • children Case of Nouns — The case of a noun tells what role Nominative: A noun in the nominative case is used Dean Henning manages the College of Arts and Note: A noun is also in the nominative case when it is Ms. Yokum is the person to talk to about the Possessive: A noun in the possessive case shows pos- Our president’s willingness to discuss concerns with Objective: A noun in the objective case serves as an ob- To survive, institutions of higher learning sometimes (Learning is the object of the preposition of, pro- A Closer Look: Budget cutbacks reduced class choices. An indirect object is a noun (or pronoun) that Recent budget cuts have given students fewer ESL Note: Not every transitive verb is followed C C 1 555-7 Quick Guide: Classes of Pronouns
Personal I, me, my, mine / we, us, our, it, its
Reflexive and myself, yourself, himself, Relative who, whose, whom, which, Indefinite all, another, any, anybody, Interrogative who, whose, whom, which, Demonstrative this, that, these, those
Reciprocal each other, one another
Alexander Kalina, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com Classes of Pronouns Personal Pronouns — A personal pronoun refers Marge started her car; she drove the antique Reflexive Pronouns — A reflexive pronoun is Pronoun Sample Pronouns: Sample Antecedents: (Counselor is the antecedent of her; students is the Note: Each pronoun must agree with its antecedent 2 C 1 C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 401
Note: When an interrogative pronoun modifies a Demonstrative Pronouns — A demonstrative We advise this: Bring along as many maps and Those are useful tools. That is the solution.
Note: When a demonstrative pronoun modifies a Forms of Personal Pronouns Number of Pronouns — A personal pronoun is He should have a budget and stick to it. (singular)
We can help new students learn about budgeting. (plural)
Person of Pronouns — The person of a pronoun First person is used to name the speaker(s).
I know I need to handle my stress in a healthful way, (singular) We all decided to bike to the tennis court. Second person is used to name the person(s) spoken to.
Maria, you grab the rackets, okay? John and Tanya, can you find the water bottles? Charles loves himself. Charles gives himself A’s for fashion sense Charles smiles at himself in store windows. Charles can be himself anywhere. Intensive Pronouns — An intensive pronoun inten- Leo himself taught his children to invest their lives in The lesson was sometimes painful—but they learned Relative Pronouns — A relative pronoun relates Freshmen who believe they have a lot to learn are Just navigating this campus, which is huge, can be Indefinite Pronouns — An indefinite pronoun re- Everyone seemed amused when I was searching for (The antecedent of everyone is unnamed.)
Nothing is more unnerving than rushing at the last (The antecedent of nothing is unknown.)
Most indefinite pronouns are singular, so when they Interrogative Pronouns — An interrogative pro- So which will it be—highlighting and attaching a C C 1 Quick Guide: Number, Person, and Case of Personal Pronouns
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 402
Third person is used to name the person(s) or thing(s) Today’s students are interested in wellness issues. (plural) Maria practices yoga and feels she is calmer for her (singular) One of the advantages of regular exercise is that it (singular) Case of Pronouns — The case of each pronoun tells Nominative: A pronoun in the nominative case is He found an old map in the trunk.
My friend and I went biking. (not me)
A pronoun is also in the nominative case when it is It was he who discovered electricity. (not him)
Possessive: A pronoun in the possessive case shows That coat is hers. | This coat is mine. | Your coat is lost.
Objective: A pronoun in the objective case can be Professor Adler hired her. He showed Mary and me the language lab. He introduced the three of us—Mary, Shavonn, and (Us is the object of the preposition of; me is part of Gender of Pronouns — The gender of a pronoun Masculine he, him, his
Feminine she, her, hers
Neuter it, its Indefinite they, them, their
Nominative Case Possessive Case Objective Case
First Person Singular I my, mine me
Second Person Singular you your, yours you
Third Person Singular he, she, it his, her, hers, its him, her, it
First Person Plural we our, ours us
Second Person Plural you your, yours you C C 1 Z jk R o o 0 C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 403
Verb Harry honked the horn. (shows action)
Harry is impatient. (links words)
Harry was honking the truck’s horn. Classes of Verbs Action Verbs: Transitive and Intransitive — As its Rain splashed the windshield. (transitive verb)
Josie drove off the road. (intransitive verb)
Transitive: Transitive verbs have direct objects that The health-care industry employs more than 7 (Workers is the direct object of the action verb em- Intransitive: Intransitive verbs communicate action My new college roommate smiles and laughs a lot.
Note: Some verbs can be either transitive or intransi- Ms. Hull teaches physiology and microbiology. She teaches well. (intransitive)
3 Auxiliary Verbs were
be can shall must ESL Note: “Be” auxiliary verbs are always followed Linking (State of Being) Verbs — A linking verb The streets are flooded. (adjective)
The streets are rivers! (noun)
Common Linking Verbs be been is were Additional Linking Verbs look sound remain taste
Note: The verbs listed as “additional linking verbs” The sky looked ominous. (adjective)
My little brother grew frightened. (adjective)
Note: When these same words are used as action I looked carefully at him. (adverb)
My little brother grew corn for a science project. C C 1 Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 404
Forms of Verbs Number of a Verb — Number indicates whether My college enrolls high schoolers in summer Many colleges enroll high schoolers in summer Person of a Verb — Person indicates whether the Tense of a Verb — Tense indicates the time of an Present tense: This tense expresses action happen- In the United States, more than 75 percent of workers Present progressive tense: This tense also express- More women than ever before are working outside Present perfect tense: This tense expresses action ed or that continues up to the present time.
My sister has taken four years of swimming lessons.
Present perfect progressive tense: This tense also She has been taking them since she was six years old.
Past tense: This tense expresses action that was com- A hundred years ago, more than 75 percent of Past progressive tense: This tense expresses past ac- In 1900, my great-grandparents were farming.
Past perfect tense: This tense expresses an action in By the time we sat down for dinner, my cousins had Past perfect progressive tense: This tense express- They had been eating the olives all afternoon.
Future tense: This tense expresses action that will Next summer I will work as a lifeguard.
Future progressive tense: This tense expresses an I will be working for the park district at North Beach.
Future perfect tense: This tense expresses future ac- By 10:00 p.m., I will have completed my research 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Plural we think you think they think
C C 1 Quick Guide: Using Active Voice Passive: The winning goal was scored by Eva. Active: Eva scored the winning goal. Note: When you want to emphasize the receiver Le o Fe s o er 2 C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 405
Mood of a Verb — The mood of a verb indicates the Indicative mood: This mood is the most common, is Can any theme capture the essence of the complex Imperative mood: This mood is used to give a com- Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what Subjunctive mood: This mood is used to express a If I were rich, I would travel for the rest of my life. If each of your brain cells were one person, there (an impossibility)
The English Department requires that every student (a necessity)
Verbals — A verbal is a word that is made from a Gerund: A gerund ends in ing and is used as a noun.
Waking each morning is the first challenge. (subject)
I start moving at about seven o’clock. (direct object)
I work at jump-starting my weary system. As Woody Allen once said, “Eighty percent of life is Future perfect progressive tense: This tense also I will have been researching the project for three Voice of a Verb — Voice indicates whether the sub- Active voice: This voice indicates that the subject of People update their résumés on a regular basis. Passive voice: This voice indicates that the subject of Your résumé should be updated on a regular basis. C C 1 Quick Guide: Using Verbals Verbal: Diving is a popular Olympic sport. Diving gracefully, the Olympian hoped to (Diving is a participle modifying Verb: The next competitor was diving in the (Here, diving is a verb, not a verbal.)
Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 406
Irregular Verbs Common Irregular Verbs and Their Principal Parts
Present Past Past am, be was, were been
arise arose arisen
awake awoke, awoken,
awaked awaked
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten, bit
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
build built built
burn burnt, burnt,
burned burned
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
dig dug dug
dive dived, dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed, dreamed,
dreamt dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
Infinitive: An infinitive is to and the base form of the To succeed is not easy. (noun)
That is the most important thing to remember. Students are wise to work hard. (adverb)
ESL Note: It can be difficult to know whether a ger- Participle: A present participle ends in ing and func- The studying students were annoyed by the The students playing loud music were annoying. C C 1 Se as an ro er 0 C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 407
Present Past Past fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten,
forgot
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (execute) hanged hanged
hang (suspend) hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie (deceive) lied lied
lie (recline) lay lain
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
prove proved proved,
proven
put put put
read read read
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
Present Past Past rise rose risen
run ran run
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine (light) shone shone
shine (polish) shined shined
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
strike struck struck,
stricken
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
wake woke, woken,
waked waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wind wound wound
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
C C 1 matka_Wariatka, 2011 / Used under license from Shutterstock.com Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 408
Adjective Advertising is a big and powerful industry. Note: Many demonstrative, indefinite, and inter- Some advertisements are less than truthful. Many cause us to chuckle at their outrageous claims. Proper Adjectives — Proper adjectives are created English has been influenced by advertising slogans. The English language is constantly changing. Predicate Adjectives — A predicate adjective fol- At its best, advertising is useful; at its worst, deceptive. Forms of Adjectives — Adjectives have three forms: The positive form is the adjective in its regular form. Joysport walking shoes are 4 Air soles make Mile Eaters stronger and more The superlative form (-est, most, or least) compares My old Canvas Wonders are the strongest, most Adverb The temperature fell sharply. The temperature was quite low. The temperature dropped very quickly. Unfortunately, the temperature stayed cool. Types of Adverbs — Adverbs can be grouped in Time: These adverbs tell Place: These adverbs tell 5 today, yesterday here, there C C 1 Quick Guide: Regular and C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 409
Manner: These adverbs Degree: These adverbs Forms of Adverbs — Adverbs have three forms: The positive form is the adverb in its regular form. It With Joysport shoes, you’ll walk fast. They support The comparative form (-er, more, or less) compares Wear Jockos instead of Joysports, and you’ll walk The superlative form (-est, most, or least) compares Really, I walk fastest wearing my old Canvas Preposition Regarding your reasons for going to college, do they (In this sentence, reasons, going, college, getting, 6 substantially partly Prepositions down outside Regular Irregular
Positive fast well Comparative faster better Superlative fastest best C C 1 Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k 410
Experience is the worst teacher; it gives the test (The clause before it presents the lesson is depen- Note: Relative pronouns can also connect clauses. Conjunctions
Interjection Hey! Wait! Well, so much for catching the bus.
8 ESL Note: Prepositions often pair up with a verb and Prepositional Phrases — A prepositional phrase A broader knowledge of the world is one benefit of (The two phrases function as adjectives modifying He placed the flower in the window. Conjunction When we came back to Paris, it was clear and cold Coordinating Conjunctions — Coordinating con- Civilization is a race between education and Correlative Conjunctions — Correlative conjunc- There are two inadvisable ways to think: either Subordinating Conjunctions — Subordinating 7 and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
either, or; neither, nor; not after, although, as, as if, as Coordinating
Correlative
Subordinating
Noun — A noun is a word that names some- Toni Morrison/author Lone Star/film UC–Davis/university Renaissance/era
A Congress of Wonders/book A Closer Look: C C 1 © Tetra Images/Jupiter Images Pronoun — A pronoun is a word used in place of I my that themselves which
it ours they everybody you
Verb — A verb is a word that expresses action, links are break drag fly run sit was
bite catch eat is see tear were
Adjective — An adjective describes or modifies The carbonated drink went down easy on that Adverb — An adverb describes or modifies a verb, greatly precisely regularly there
here today partly quickly
slowly yesterday nearly loudly
Preposition — A preposition is a word (or group across for with out to of
Conjunction — A conjunction connects individu- and because but for or since so yet
Interjection — An interjection is a word that com- Stop! No! What, am I invisible?
C C 1
correctly, in alphabeti-
cal order.
rules for content, for-
mat, and punctuation.
Complete these activities by yourself or with class-
mates.
1. Scott Russell Sanders suggests that “essays are
Sanders’ statement ring true? What makes such
experiments f lop or succeed? What kinds of
“sense” do essays create?
compare with your own writing process on a
recent assignment?
ing Collaboratively” (pages 77–78). Then reread
the reviewer’s comments in the margins of
Angela’s second revision (pages 23–24). Do the
comments ref lect the instructions? Explain.
Angela used APA style, which is standard for the so-
cial sciences: psychology, sociology, political science,
and education. MLA style is standard for English and
humanities. Make sure to find out what documenta-
tion style your instructor requires.
I can analyze an assignment, select a topic, and as-
sess my rhetorical
er/organize information.
an informative middle, and a unifying closing.
ganization, and an informed voice.
vision.
sentences).
age, and grammar.
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6
9
2
T
S
with nothing but a bunch of blank paper.”
WRITE
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F
O
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T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
Starting
The blank page or screen can be daunting for any writer. That’s
because writing doesn’t go from nothing to a masterpiece in
one step. Writing is a process, much like painting.
vides numerous concrete strategies for understanding
writing assignments, deciding on a topic, and exploring
it. The very act of writing generates ideas and creates new
connections that will make it easy to fill the blank page.
1 Discover your process.
2 Understand the rhetorical
4 Select, limit, and explore your
sources.
op
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F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
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9
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It’s easy to feel overwhelmed by a writing project—es-
pecially if the form of writing is new to you, the topic
is complex, or the paper must be long. However, using
the writing process will relieve some of that pressure
by breaking down the task into manageable steps. An
overview of those steps is shown below, and key prin-
ciples are addressed in the right column and on the
next page.
The following f lowchart maps out the basic steps in
the writing process. As you work on your writing proj-
ect, periodically review this diagram to keep yourself
on task.
■ Understanding the assignment
■ Selecting a subject
■ Collecting information
■ Using methods of development
■ Developing a plan or an outline
■ Developing the middle
■ Ending your draft
■ Revising collaboratively
■ Editing for style
■ Proofreading for correctness
■ Checking for page design and
The writing process shown in the previous column is
f lexible, not rigid. As a writer, you need to adapt the
process to your situation and assignment. To do so,
consider these essential principles.
writing begins with an assignment or a need and ends
with a reader, the journey in between is often indirect.
The steps in the writing process are recursive, mean-
ing you will sometimes move back and forth between
them. For example, during the revision phase, you
may discover that you need to draft a new paragraph
or do more research.
personal essay may develop best through clustering
or freewriting; a literary analysis through close read-
ing of a story; a lab report through the experimen-
tal method; and a position paper through reading of
books and journal articles, as well as through careful
and balanced reasoning.
roommate as a sounding board for your topic choice
to working with a group to produce a major report,
college writing is not solitary writing. In fact, many
colleges have a writing center to help you refine your
writing assignments. (See page 79 for more.)
tensive prewriting before drafting, while others do
not. You might develop a detailed outline, whereas
someone else might draft a brief list of topics. Experi-
ment with the strategies introduced in chapters 2–7,
adopting those that help you.
students regard pulling an all-nighter as a badge of
honor, good writing takes time. A steady, disciplined
approach will generally produce the best results. For
example, by brainstorming or reading early in a proj-
ect, you stimulate your subconscious mind to mull
over issues, identify problems, and project solutions—
even while your conscious mind is working on other
things. Similarly, completing a first draft early enough
gives you time to revise objectively.
Started
Drafting
Revising
C
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F
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T
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R
,
E
D
R
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ing issues. As you use the writing process, at each
stage keep your focus where it belongs:
1. While getting started, planning, and drafting,
format, and design.
ting, adding, and thoroughly reworking material.
(Our experience is that students benefit the most
from revising—but spend the least time doing it!)
to small, local issues—word choice, sentence
smoothness, and grammatical correctness. Wor-
rying about these issues early in the writing pro-
cess interrupts the f low of drafting and wastes
time on material that later is deleted.
rhetorical situation.
Rhetoric is the art of using language effectively. As
Aristotle, Quintilian, and others have explained, your
language is effective when all aspects of your message
fit the rhetorical situation:
2
(Creator)
(Audience)
(Subject + Purpose)
Medium
(Form)
(Environment)
Are you writing as a concerned citizen, as a student in
a class, as a friend relating a story, as a reporter pro-
viding news, as a blogger giving an opinion? Your role
in writing and otherwise communicating affects the
level of language you use, the voice you use, the types
of details you include, and so on.
To truly understand your subject, you need to gather
and assimilate all relevant details about it, including
its history, makeup, function, and impact on people
and culture. Knowing those details will help you nar-
row your focus to a specific thesis and support it well.
information, think about which types of sources
are recommended or expected for the assignment.
Which should be avoided?
Key words in an assignment—such as analyze, ex-
plain, defend, or describe—tell you what the purpose
of the writing is supposed to be. Understanding why
you are writing helps you choose an organizational
strategy, such as classification, definition, or process.
(See pages 34–35.)
will most help you with your purpose, whether to
entertain, compare, inspire, enlighten, and so on.
For any writing task, you must understand your au-
dience in order to develop writing that meets their
needs. To assess your audience, answer questions like
these:
Web users?
do they need to know?
involved?
toward me?
op
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le
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visuals such as graphs and charts?
ment or to complete a task)?
velop meaningful sentences (pages 82–87), choose
appropriate words (pages 87–90), and select relevant
visuals.
your reader will best understand and most respect.
What sources will add to your credibility and
authority?
Many communication options are available for every
message. Academic forms include essays, analyses, re-
ports, proposals, research papers, reviews, and so on.
It is important to understand the form of the assign-
ment. What works well in a narrative about a past ex-
perience would not work as well in a lab report. Also,
each of these forms can contain multiple media: writ-
ten elements, graphics, photos, drawings, videos, au-
dios, links, and so on. Understanding the overall me-
dium and the media within it will help you succeed.
the way that sources are to be cited in the form
of communication you are using. (See 270–297 for
MLA and APA styles.)
Think about how this assignment relates to others in
the course. Consider these issues:
weekly or biweekly one, or the big one?
be graded. What rubric will be used?
goals of the assignment and understand what
your instructor wants you to get out of it.
to an assignment, think about the environment in
which the message will be read. What is the history
of this issue? What is the current climate like? What
might the future be?
that will be reviewed and debated by others in
your field, think about what sources you would
most want your writing to appear in. Make certain
you understand the submission guidelines for the
source.
assignment.
Each college instructor has a way of personalizing a
writing assignment, but most assignments will spell
out (1) the objective, (2) the task, (3) the formal re-
quirements, and (4) suggested approaches and topics.
Your first step, therefore, is to read the assignment
carefully, noting the options and restrictions that are
part of it. The suggestions below will help you do that.
(Also see pages 14–29 for one writer’s approach.)
Certain words in the assignment explain what main
action you must perform. Here are some words that
signal what you are to do:
subparts, showing how those
parts relate.
arguments.
well-defined subgroups.
differences.
definition or meaning of
something.
something is like.
usefulness of something.
or discuss the causes of
something.
something means.
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F
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disaster or historical event.
present, or future.
alteration.
your understanding.
3. The historical event must be
gives you some choice of your topic or approach but
may restrict your options to suit the instructor’s pur-
pose. Note the options and restrictions in the follow-
ing short sample assignment:
major historical event has altered your
understanding of the past, the present, or
the future.
thoughts about a subject.
very briefly in your own
words.
create something new.
■ Increase your creativity?
overall performance in the course? What course
goals (often listed in the syllabus) does it address?
assignments.
1. Does it build on previous assignments?
2. Does it prepare you for the next assignment?
own interests.
1. Does it connect with a topic that already interests
2. Does it connect with work in your other courses?
3. Does it connect with the work you may do in
4. Does it connect with life outside school?
1. First impulses: How did you feel when you first
2. Approaches: What’s the usual approach for an
ling it?
produce an excellent piece of writing?
tion? to you personally? to the class? to society?
any writing assignment.
assignment—to inform, to explain, to analyze, to
entertain? What is the desired outcome?
your classmates? a general reader? How much
does the reader already know about the topic?
What type of language should you use?
length, format, and due date?
ated? How can you be sure that you are complet-
ing the assignment correctly?
of the course.
1. How much value does the instructor give the
percentage of the course grade.)
receive?
■ Strengthen your comprehension?
■ Improve your research skills?
■ Deepen your ability to explain, prove, or per-
C
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2
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F
O
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T
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R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
explore your topic.
For some assignments, finding a suitable subject (or
topic) may require little thinking on your part. If an
instructor asks you to summarize an article in a profes-
sional journal, you know what you will write about—
the article in question. But suppose the instructor asks
you to analyze a feature of popular culture in terms
of its impact on society. You won’t be sure of a spe-
cific writing topic until you explore the possibilities.
Keep the following points in mind when you conduct
a topic search. Your topic must . . .
■ be limited in scope.
■ seem reasonable (that is, be within your means
■ genuinely interest you.
Many of your writing assignments may relate to gen-
eral subject areas you are currently studying. Your
task, then, is to select a specific topic related to the
general area of study—a topic limited enough that you
can treat it with some depth in the length allowed for
the assignment. The following examples show the dif-
ference between general subjects and limited topics:
morning. I’ve been thinking about it all day. In
California a little girl was killed when she was
struck by a car driven by a man distracted by
a billboard ad for lingerie featuring a scantily
clothed woman. Not only is it a horrifying
thing to happen, but it also seems to me all
too symbolic of the way that sexually charged
images in the media are putting children, and
especially girls, in danger. That reminds me
of another news story I read this week about
preteen girls wanting to wear the kinds of
revealing outfits that they see in music videos,
TV shows, and magazines aimed at teenagers.
Too many of today’s media images give young
people the impression that sexuality should
begin at an early age. This is definitely a
dangerous message.
(the general subject stated in the assignment)
and see what you can find. You could also follow
a subject tree to narrow a subject. (See pages
332–334.)
ences. The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Litera-
ture, for example, lists current articles published
on specific topics and where to find them. (See
page 327.)
an information specialist.
described on the following pages to generate pos-
sible writing ideas.
You can generate possible writing ideas by using the
following strategies. These same strategies can be
used when you’ve chosen a topic and want to develop
it further.
basis. Ref lect on your personal feelings, develop your
thoughts, and record the happenings of each day. Pe-
riodically go back and underline ideas that you would
like to explore in writing assignments. In the follow-
ing journal-writing sample, the writer came up with
an idea for a writing assignment about the societal im-
pacts of popular culture.
Popular culture
Energy sources
The Simpsons
Using wind power
Finding a writing idea that meets the requirements of
the assignment should not be difficult, if you know
how and where to look. Follow these steps:
1. Check your class notes and handouts for ideas
op
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2
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longer to discover possible writing ideas. Use a key
concept related to the assignment as a starting point.
You’ll soon discover potential writing ideas that might
otherwise have never entered your mind. Note in the
following example that the writer doesn’t stop writing
even when he can’t think of anything to say. Note also
that he doesn’t stop to correct typos and other mis-
takes.
Television obviously but that’s a pretty boring
subject. What else? Movies, pop music, video
games. Is there a connection between playing
violent video games and acting out violent
behavior? Most video players I know would say
no but sometimes news reports suggest a
connection. Is this something I’d want to write
about? Not really. What then? Maybe I could
think about this a different way and focus on
the positive effects of playing video games.
They release tension for one thing and they
can really be challenging. Other benefits? They
help to kill time, that’s for sure, but maybe
that’s not such a good thing. I would definitely
read more if it weren’t for video games, tv,
etc. Maybe I could write about how all the
electronic entertainment that surrounds us
today is creating a generation of nonreaders.
Or maybe I could focus on whether people
aren’t getting much physical exercise because
of the time they spend with electronic media.
Maybe both. At least I have some possibilities
to work with.
Freewriting is the writing you do without having a
specific outcome in mind. You simply write down
whatever pops into your head as you explore your
topic. Freewriting can serve as a starting point for
your writing, or it can be combined with any of the
other prewriting strategies to help you select, ex-
plore, focus, or organize your writing. If you get
stuck at any point during the composing process,
you can return to freewriting as a way of generat-
ing new ideas.
■ Freewriting helps you get your thoughts
passing through your mind.)
nize these thoughts.
things that you may be studying or re-
searching.
but just stick with it.
■ Write nonstop and record whatever
thoughts instead of trying to direct them.
ment to complete, use it as a starting
point. Otherwise, begin with anything that
comes to mind.
writing; that will come later.
have exhausted all of your ideas. Switch
to another angle or voice, but keep writing.
emerge. Learn to recognize the begin-
nings of a good idea, and then expand that
idea by recording as many specific details
as possible.
■ Review your writing and underline the
as the basis for future writings.
write about. Once you’ve figured out what
you are required to do, you may then de-
cide to do a second freewriting exercise.
ers; learn from your peers.
op
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2
01
1
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6
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ginning with a key concept related to the assignment.
(Brainstorming—listing ideas in conjunction with
members of a group—is often an effective way to ex-
tend your lists.) The following is an example of a stu-
dent’s list of ideas for possible topics on the subject of
news reporting:
Sensationalism
Sound bites rather than in-depth
Shock radio
Shouting matches pretending to be
debates
Press leaks that damage national
security, etc.
Lack of observation of people’s privacy
Bias
Contradictory health news confusing
to readers
Little focus on “unappealing” issues
like poverty
Celebration of “celebrity”
a key word or phrase related to the assignment in the
center of your paper. Circle it, and then cluster ideas
around it. Circle each idea as you record it, and draw
a line connecting it to the closest related idea. Keep
going until you run out of ideas and connections.
The following is a student’s cluster on the subject of
sports:
players’ salaries
professional sports
abuses
college sports
questions
advances
children’s
sports
clustering, scan your work for an idea to
explore in a freewriting. A writing idea
should begin to emerge during this
freewriting session. (See page 37.)
track your sources.
Writer and instructor Donald Murray said that “writ-
ers write with information. If there is no information,
there will be no effective writing.” How true! Before
you can develop a thoughtful piece of writing, you
must gain a thorough understanding of your topic;
to do so, you must carry out the necessary reading,
ref lecting, and researching. Writing becomes a satis-
fying experience once you can speak with authority
about your topic. Use the following guidelines when
C
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O
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6
9
2
T
S
and Writing” in this book.)
topic. (Use the strategies below this bulleted
list.)
answer during your research.
mation. (See page 40.)
plan. (See pages 40–41.)
Use one or more of the following strategies to deter-
mine what you already know about a writing topic.
1. Focused freewriting: At this point, you can
ited topic from different angles or (2) approach-
ing your freewriting as if it were a quick draft
of the actual paper. A quick version will tell you
how much you know about your topic and what
you need to find out.
ing as the nucleus word. Your clustering should
focus on what you already know. (See page 38.)
What? When? Where? and Why?—to identify
basic information on your subject. Add How? to
the list for better coverage.
about your topic, using one of the modes listed
below. (Repeat the process as often as you need
to, selecting a different mode each time.)
and taste?
different from?
topic and others come to mind?
they work together?
What do you not like about it? What
are its strengths and weaknesses?
you use it?
To guide your collecting and researching, you may
find it helpful to list questions about your topic that
you would like to answer. Alternatively, you can refer
to the questions below. These questions address prob-
lems, policies, and concepts. Most topics will fall un-
der one of these categories. Use those questions that
seem helpful as a guide to your research.
es
ip
n
problem?
What type of
problem is it?
What are its
parts?
What are the
signs of the
problem?
policy?
How broad
is it?
What are its
parts?
What are
its most
important
features?
concept?
What are its
parts?
What is its
main feature?
Whom or
what is it
related to?
nc
n
is affected
by it?
What new
problems
might it
cause in the
future?
the policy
designed to
do?
What is
needed to
make it work?
What are or
will be its
effects?
been
influenced by
this concept?
Why is it
important?
How does it
work?
is
ry
the current
status of the
problem?
What or who
caused it?
What or who
contributed
to it?
about this
policy?
What are the
alternatives?
originate?
How has it
changed over
the years?
How might it
change in the
future?
lu
significance?
Why?
Why is it
more (or less)
important
than other
problems?
What does it
symbolize or
illustrate?
workable?
What are its
advantages
and
disadvantages?
Is it practical?
Is it a good
policy? Why or
why not?
practical
value does it
have?
Why is it
superior
(or inferior)
to similar
concepts?
What is its
social worth?
op
yr
ig
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2
01
1
C
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).
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it
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Finding meaningful sources is one of the most im-
portant steps you will take as you prepare to write.
Listed below are tips that will help you identify good
sources:
1. Give yourself enough time. Finding good sources
and periodicals you need may be checked out, your
computer service may be down, and so on.
material may be out-of-date. Online information
may be more current, but it may not always be
reliable. (See pages 337–340 for ways to help you
evaluate information.)
sources of information. Pay attention to books,
articles, and individuals mentioned in reliable
initial sources of information.
library can help you find information that is
reliable and relevant. These people are trained to
find information; don’t hesitate to ask for their
help. (See page 324.)
works and academic resources related to your
major.
course, books and Web sites are not the only possible
sources of information. Primary sources such as in-
terviews, observations, and surveys may lead you to
a more thorough and meaningful understanding of a
topic. (See pages 337–340.)
evaluate, and ref lect on your research as it develops.
The record of your thoughts and actions created dur-
ing this process will mean a great deal to you—as much
as or more than the actual information you uncover.
Ref lection helps you make sense of new ideas, refocus
your thinking, and evaluate your progress.
Follow these strategies for tracking sources and taking
notes.
Once you find a useful book, journal article, news
story, or Web page, record identifying information for
the source. For more help, see page 346.
es. — Essentially, your note-taking system should
help you keep an accurate record of useful informa-
tion and ideas from sources while also allowing you
to engage those sources with your own thinking. For a
discussion of possible systems, see pages 347–348.
tations. — As you read sources, you will find mate-
rial that answers your questions and helps you achieve
your writing purpose. At that point, decide whether to
summarize, paraphrase, or quote the material:
Observations Reference book entries
Participation Books
Surveys Web sites
research, try to use a variety of reliable sources. It’s also
a good idea to choose an efficient note-taking method
before you start. You will want to take good notes on
the information you find and record all the publishing
information necessary for citing your sources. (See
pages 347–348.)
a passage and puts them in your own words:
Summarize source material when it contains
relevant ideas and information that you can boil
down.
your own words: Paraphrase source material when
all the information is important but the actual
phrasing isn’t especially important or memorable.
word for word: Quote when the source states
something crucial and says it well. Note: In your
notes, always identify quoted material by putting
quotation marks around it.
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
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R
es
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, s
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, o
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pl
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, i
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t
o
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tr
on
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s,
s
om
e
th
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rt
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co
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en
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m
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f
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oo
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(s
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di
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ie
w
h
as
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m
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t
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on
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s
no
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af
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o
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. C
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ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
Munro’s fiction moves readers from recognizable
reality into a hidden world.
Reading Munro’s fiction gives readers the
enjoyment of experiencing a double world:
day-to-day reality and on top of that a more
mysterious, fantastic world, with the result that
readers move smoothly between the worlds in a
seamless, ordinary way.
Munro’s fiction takes us into “the shadowy map
of another imaginary or secret world laid over the
real one.”
As directed by your instructor, complete the following
critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or
with classmates.
1. Writer Ralph Fletcher shares, “When I write,
pected the process turns out to be.” Would you
describe the writing process you follow as “magi-
cal” and “unexpected”? Why or why not?
ing show that you thoroughly understood your
subject, met the needs of your audience, and
achieved your purpose?
Health/medicine Work/occupation
Different academic disciplines require different meth-
ods of research note taking. Investigate the styles of
research note taking used in your discipline.
Use this checklist as a guide to help you plan your
writing.
planning, drafting, revising, editing and proofread-
ing, and submitting—and I adapt it to fit each proj-
ect and my own individual style.
■ My role—my position and my goals
■ The subject—the general area of inquiry
■ The purpose—to inform, explain, analyze,
■ The form—essay, narrative, editorial, research
■ The audience—who they are, what they know,
■ The context—weight, assessment, positioning
options and restrictions.
through journal writing, freewriting, listing, clus-
tering, and dialogue. I know how to focus the topic
to fit the assignment and my interests.
through note-taking and research strategies.
“To read Munro’s stories is to discover the
delights of seeing two worlds at once: an
ordinary everyday world and the shadowy
map of another imaginary or secret world
laid over the real one, so that in reading
we slip from one world into the other in an
unassuming domestic sort of way.”
that interests you and do the following: Using the
strategies on pages 36–38, brainstorm possible
topics and select one. Then use the strategies on
pages 38–41 to explore what you know about that
topic and what you need to learn.
treated more fully on pages 349–351. Here is a brief ex-
ample, with the original passage coming from Coral
Ann Howells’ Alice Munro, published in 1998 by Man-
chester University Press as part of its Contemporary
World Writers series.
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
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es
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, s
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at
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, i
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o
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ig
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s,
s
om
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en
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m
ay
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e
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oo
k
an
d/
or
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C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
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di
to
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al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
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c
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s
no
t
m
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ia
ll
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af
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ct
t
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o
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ll
l
ea
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in
g
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pe
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. C
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ig
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t
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s
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it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
—Colin Powell
WRITE
C
op
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ig
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2
01
1
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L
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A
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M
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ig
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s
om
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ay
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f
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e
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or
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C
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(s
).
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ev
ie
w
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as
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ee
m
ed
t
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t
an
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ed
c
on
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d
oe
s
no
t
m
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ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
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in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
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ge
L
ea
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in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
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r
ig
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t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
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c
on
te
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a
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an
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ti
m
e
if
s
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ts
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es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
advance and formulate strategies for completing every task.
Others of us live more in the moment, believing that what-
ever needs to get done will get done, with or without a
plan.
a blend of these two approaches: “Good writing,” says Mac-
rorie, “is formed partly through plan and partly through ac-
cident.” In other words, too much early planning can get in
the way of the discovery aspect of writing, while not enough
planning can harm the focus and coherence of your writ-
ing.
2 Form your thesis statement.
3 Select a method of development.
4 Develop a plan or an outline.
Planning
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
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rn
in
g.
A
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ig
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es
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M
ay
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at
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s,
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om
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nt
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m
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ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
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re
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oe
s
no
t
m
at
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ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
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ra
ll
l
ea
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in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
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r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
research, consider how the rhetorical situation can
guide your use of sources:
1. For your subject, which sources offer reliable
thinking and pointed toward a working the-
sis?
analyze, and/or persuade), which resources/
sources should be featured in your writing?
help you create credibility with the audience
and clarify the topic for them?
rh
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Focus
Subject
sources
a viable energy
source in certain
settings.
situation.
Use the following planning checklist to help you de-
cide whether to move ahead with your planning or
reconsider your topic.
statement.
As you gain knowledge about your topic, you should
concurrently develop a more focused interest in it. If
all goes well, this narrowed focus will bring to mind a
thesis. A thesis statement identifies the central idea for
your writing. It usually highlights a special condition
or feature of the topic, expresses a specific claim about
it, or takes a stand.
presses what you want to explore or explain in your
essay. Sometimes a thesis statement develops early and
easily; at other times, the true focus of your writing
will emerge only after you’ve done some initial writ-
ing.
A general subject area is typically built into your writ-
ing assignments. Your task, then, is to find a limited
writing topic and examine it from a particular angle
or perspective. (You will use this focus to form your
thesis statement.)
Writer
How much do I know about this topic, and
how much do I need to learn?
requirements of the assignment?
Is the topic the right size—not too general or
too specific—for the assignment?
What sources can I use to find out more about
this topic?
What are the specific goals of the assignment?
Am I writing to entertain, inform, explain,
analyze, persuade, reflect?
What form should I create: essay, proposal,
report, review?
Will my readers be interested in this topic?
How can I interest them?
What do they know and need to know about
it? What opinions do they have?
What weight does this assignment have in
terms of my grade?
How will the assignment be assessed?
2
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
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co
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ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
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at
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, i
n
w
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in
p
ar
t.
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o
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tr
on
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ig
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s,
s
om
e
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ir
d
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t
m
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ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
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e
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oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
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er
(s
).
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di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
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t
an
y
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on
te
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s
no
t
m
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ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
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he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
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pe
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. C
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L
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g
re
se
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es
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ig
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t
o
re
m
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on
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te
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a
t
an
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ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
can take direction specifically from your sources.
You may consider making your thesis a response
to a specific source. For example, if one source is
especially strong or especially contrary to your
own thinking, you could shape your thesis as an
affirmation of the strong source’s authority or as a
rebuttal to the contrary source’s claims.
thesis statement
viable energy source in the
plains states.
source in certain settings.
You can use the following formula to write a thesis
statement for your essay. A thesis statement sets the
tone and direction for your writing. Keep in mind
that at this point you’re writing a working thesis state-
ment—a statement in progress, so to speak. You may
change it as your thinking on the topic evolves.
of development.
In his classic book On Writing Well, William Zins-
ser identifies “striving for order” as one of the keys to
effective writing. For some assignments, this is not a
problem because an organizing pattern is built right
into the assignment. For example, you might be asked
to develop a process paper, which you would organize
chronologically. When a pattern is not apparent, one
might still evolve naturally as you gather information.
If this doesn’t happen, examine your thesis statement
to see what method of development it suggests.
An effective thesis will often suggest an organizing
pattern. Notice how the thesis statements below direct
and shape the writing to follow. (Also see page 46.)
Writers of personal narratives do not always state a
thesis directly, but they will generally have in mind
an implied theme or main idea that governs the way
they develop their writing. The thesis below focuses
the reader’s attention on a less-than-perfect day in the
life of a perfect flight attendant. (See pages 105–106.)
Minneapolis in 1969, I tried to be a model flight
attendant, to develop the qualities my operations
manual demanded: poise, good judgment,
initiative, adaptability and a spotless appearance.
But one time I slipped up: I fell asleep.
A cause-and-effect essay usually begins with one or
more causes followed by an explanation of the effects,
or with a primary effect followed by an explanation of
the causes. In the thesis below, the writer credits team
sports with helping to advance women into leadership
roles in major corporations. (See pages 162–175.)
commanded by male chief executives, women are
gaining ground, winning vice-presidential and top
management slots and, in a few cases, the highest
leadership roles. Many of these young female
executives say playing team sports helped them
get ahead.
(subject by subject), others discuss the subjects point
by point, and some treat similarities and then differ-
ences. The writer of the thesis below introduces her
comparison and contrast of two different views of
Islamic dress—both of which she holds. (See pages
155–156.)
contradiction. Sometimes I hate it. Sometimes I
value it.
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
An essay of classification identifies the main parts or
categories of a topic and then examines each one. In
the thesis below, the writer identifies four ways to dis-
cuss literature, and he examines each one in turn. (See
pages 134–135.)
that readers can use to converse about literature.
Process essays are organized chronologically. As indi-
cated in the thesis below, the writer of this essay will
explain how cancer cells multiply and affect the body.
(See pages 141–142.)
initiate a process that results in cancer.
A position paper first introduces a topic and then
states a position in its thesis. The thesis statement
below defines the writer’s position on nuclear energy.
(See pages 194–196.)
its benefits, making fossil fuels the safer and more
environmentally responsible option.
notation, and history of a term. In the following the-
sis statement, the writer names the two words he will
explore—deft and daft—and provides an overview of
the definition essay. (See page 118.)
also how daft and deft came to part company.
A problem-solution essay usually begins with a discus-
sion of the problem and its causes and then examines
possible solutions. In the following thesis statement,
the writer points to a problem in the supposedly gen-
der-equal society of the United States. After explain-
ing the problem, she offers and argues for a specific
solution. (See pages 229–232.)
trend of this generation. Yet, despite its scale and
social consequences, fatherlessness is a problem
that is frequently ignored or denied.
or an outline.
After writing a working thesis and reviewing the
methods of development (pages 45–46), you should be
ready to organize the information you have collected.
Remember, organizing your research and background
information before you start writing can make the
drafting stage less of a hassle. Here are five strategies
for effective organizing, starting with the basic list.
(See below.)
main points and essential
details (See page 47.)
main points and essential
details, written as complete
sentences (See page 48.)
preferred for different forms
of writing (See pages 48–49.)
points and essential details
in an appropriate chart or
diagram (See pages 50–51.)
Though listing is the simplest of all the methods of
organization, it can help you take stock of your main
ideas and get a sense of what further research or plan-
ning needs to be done. There is no right or wrong way
to go about listing. The key is to come up with a system
that works best for you. Here are two examples that
you may consider: the basic bulleted list, which briefly
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
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ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
display the organization of “Four Ways to Talk About
Literature,” (pages 132–133).
to generate an outline before they begin writing,
while others prefer to make a more detailed outline
after having written a draft. In the latter strategy, an
outline can serve as a tool for evaluating the logic
and completeness of the paper’s organization.
lli
, 2
1
1
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o
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.c
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m
which lists the main points on one side and a support-
ing detail on the other side.
approach
structure and rules
approach
between reader and
text
approach
writer’s life
Points
Topic
If you have a good deal of information to sort and ar-
range, you may want to use a topic outline for your
planning. In a topic outline, you state each main point
and essential detail as a word or phrase. Before you
start constructing your outline, write your working
thesis statement at the top of your paper to help keep
you focused on the subject. (Do not attempt to outline
your opening and closing paragraphs unless you are
specifically asked to do so.)
meaning the main points (I, II, III) and essential de-
tails (A, B, C) are stated in the same way. Notice how
the sample outline below uses a parallel structure,
making it easy to follow.
perspectives, or approaches, that
readers can use to converse about
literature.
A. Also called formalist
B. Emphasis on structure of
C. Importance placed on
approaches
reader-response criticism
between reader and text
A. Emphasis on writer’s life
B. Importance placed on
C. Connections made
A. Psychological analysis of
B. Myth or archetype
C. Moral criticism
Details
Point
op
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ig
ht
2
01
1
C
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rn
in
g.
A
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ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
project involves sources, the planning phase will
include a great deal of sorting through material.
Outlining can help you organize your primary
and secondary sources to best support your thesis.
As you organize your research in your outline, ask
these questions:
■ Where and how should I work with primary
vations, experiments, and other data I have col-
lected?
sources—scholarly books, journal articles, and
the like?
formal method of arrangement in which you state each
main point and essential detail as a sentence. Writing
a sentence outline helps you determine how you will
express your ideas in the actual writing. Here is an ex-
ample.
Thesis: There are four main
perspectives, or approaches, that
readers can use to converse about
literature.
focuses on the literary piece
itself.
called formalist criticism.
examines text structure
and the genre’s rules.
determines how key
literary elements
reinforce meaning.
approach focuses on the
“transaction” between text
and reader.
often called rhetorical
or reader-response
criticism.
with a text is unique.
approach focuses on the
origin of a text.
examines the writer’s
life.
may include a historical
look at a text.
made between the text
and related works.
Details
The writing blueprints on this page and the next lay
out basic organizational strategies for different forms
of writing. The blueprints may help you arrange the
details of your essay or even find holes in your re-
search.
Point 1 Point 2
Point 1 Point 2
Point 1 Point 2
Point 1 Point 2
Points
Conversing About
Literature (Topic)
Centered
Centered
Centered
Thesis
Main
Point
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
Cause
Cause
Subject 1
Subject 1 Subject 2
Ending
Beginning
Ending
Effect
Ending
structure
of a text
literary elements
reader
interaction
writer’s life
in historical
perspective covers moral,
and sociological
approaches, that readers can use to converse about
literature.
you may prefer using a graphic organizer to arrange
your ideas for writing. A graphic organizer allows
you to arrange main points and essential details in an
appropriate chart or diagram. Graphic organizers can
help you map out your ideas and illustrate relation-
used to organize some of the same ideas that were
outlined previously.
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
Reason
2
Reason
3
Differences
Comparison
Quick Guide
The following graphic organizers relate to the meth-
ods of development discussed on pages 45–46. Each
one will help you collect and organize information for
expository or persuasive writing. Adapt the organiz-
ers as necessary to fit your particular needs or per-
sonal style.
. . . )
•
•
conditions resulted)
•
•
•
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
of the
Problem
Implications
Solutions
Details
Details
Details
Details
to Be
Words
ga
e
fin
on
ha
t I
’t)
er
n
ef
it
n
D
ti
o
n
y
ef
in
it
io
n
Im
rta
Fa
s
d
ur
s or
s
As directed by your instructor, complete the following
activities.
1. Author Ken Macrorie claims that “good writ-
through accident.” Do you agree? Why or why
not? Relate Macrorie’s idea to your own writing
experiences. How carefully do you plan? How
much do you leave to accident?
on pages 45–46. Choose one of these patterns and
select a model essay from chapters 9–18 that fol-
lows the pattern. Read the essay, note the thesis,
and explain how the writer develops it.
In most disciplines, it is common practice early in the
paper to “survey the literature” on the topic. In a lit-
erary analysis, you might survey common interpreta-
tions of a key concept before you relay your view.
1. Identify the studies that should be included in
2. Categorize studies by approach or arrange them
Use this checklist as a guide to help you plan your
writing.
■ I have reviewed the information I have
■ My planning and research fully address my
■ My thesis statement reflects a limited topic.
■ My thesis statement clearly states the specific
■ The thesis is supported by the information I
■ The thesis suggests a pattern of organization
■ I have organized my support in a list, an
■ I have arranged my source material under my
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
with getting the direction and concept of
—Toby Fulwiler
WRITE
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
of their own money and borrowed another $4,000 to
open a small ice-cream shop in Burlington, Vermont.
From that small start, Ben and Jerry’s Ice Cream has
grown into a highly profitable multinational business
known for its innovations and social conscience. (In
2000, Unilever, an Anglo-Dutch corporation, bought Ben
and Jerry’s for $326 million dollars.)
field have approached this “project” with a joie de vivre that
should be the envy of everyone. They’ve developed an irresistible
line of ice cream, created a wonderful work environment, commit-
ted millions to good causes, and on and on. What’s not to like about
Ben and Jerry’s?
projects? (1) Start with topics that truly interest you; this is the only
way you can do meaningful work. (2) Learn as much as you can about
each topic. You can’t guess in a research paper; you have to know what
you’re talking about. (3) Take a few risks by approaching each topic in
a new or unusual way. (4) And give yourself plenty of time. Quality
research can’t be rushed.
ects, beginning with understanding the nature of college-level research.
Planning Your
Research
Project
2 Initiate the process.
3 Develop a research plan.
4 Consider possible resources and
French for “joy of life,” a quality in people who live
life to its fullest
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
a fairly long essay (5–15 pages), complete with thesis
statement, supporting evidence, integrated sources, and careful
documentation
research.
Take ownership of each research project by exploring
a topic or an angle that truly interests you and com-
pels you to get started. Your main goal is to become
thoroughly knowledgeable about your topic and share
your findings in a thoughtful way. The traditional re-
search paper is a fairly long essay (5 to 15 pages), com-
plete with a thesis statement, supporting evidence,
integrated sources, and documentation. Research can
also be presented in a field report, on a Web site, or in
a multimedia presentation.
munity in general will be your main audience. How-
ever, you may also have a more specific audience in
mind—smokers, Floridians, fellow immigrants, and
so on. The expected voice in most research projects
is formal or semiformal. Always try to maintain a
thoughtful, confident tone throughout your writing.
Generally, you should avoid the pronouns “I” and
“you” in an effort to remain objective and academic.
Unfortunately though, avoiding “I” and “you” can re-
sult in the overuse of the pronoun “one,” so watch for
that problem as well.
nect research with personal experience, mean-
ing that you can, at times, use the pronouns “I”
belongs—on the topic. The best research writing al-
ways centers on compelling ideas and information
about the topic.
The research process involves getting started, plan-
ning, conducting research, and developing the re-
sults. While research generally follows these steps,
you should understand that the process is dynamic
and recursive, meaning that it can be full of twists
and turns, detours and side trips. For example, during
your research, you may discover information that will
statement you developed earlier. The flowchart below
shows you the different tasks related to research.
• Review the assignment.
• Consider your resources.
• Choose a subject.
current ideas and
opinions.
nary research in
reference works.
to learn opposing
opinions.
from sources.
quote.
Primary
Research
Notes
Secondary
Research
survey, or
experiment.
research journal.
articles, and Web
sites.
documents and
artifacts.
to a working
bibliography.
indexes, databases,
and the Internet.
Narrow the topic, form a research question or working thesis,
develop a research plan, and select keyword searching terms.
• Answer your research question or refine your thesis.
• Develop an outline.
• Write the research paper, integrating and documenting sources.
To get started, you need to do four things: (1) under-
stand the assignment, (2) select a topic, (3) build re-
search questions, and (4) develop a working thesis.
Your research project will only be as good as the plan-
ning that you put into it, so attend to each step with
care.
The first important step in a research project is to
thoroughly review the assignment. Take some initial
2
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
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es
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a preliminary answer to
your main research question, the focus of your research
just about right for a research paper?
answer?
question? Does it interest me?
about it within a reasonable amount of time?
reader?
and requirements. Finally, write down any questions
you still have about the project, find answers, and
proceed.
Author Joyce Carol Oates says, “As soon as you con-
nect with your true subject, you will write.” Your goal
at the outset of a research project is to find your “true
subject,” an appropriate topic you sincerely want to
explore and write about.
In most cases, your instructor will establish a general
subject area to get you started. Your job is to select a
specific, manageable topic related to that subject. A
topic is “manageable” when you can learn about it in
a reasonable amount of time. (You may have to carry
out some cursory research in order to select a topic.)
Generating research questions helps you find mean-
ingful information and ideas about your topic. These
questions sharpen your research goal, and the answers
become the focus of your writing. Create questions by
following the guidelines below.
List questions about your topic—both simple and
complex—to discover what you need to know about it.
Keep listing until you land on the main question you
want to answer—the main issue you need to address.
Then brainstorm supporting questions that you must
research in order to adequately answer the main ques-
tion.
Subject
Interest
Topic
problems
homeless
families
legislation &
initiatives
Plan
the new world order
energy
of vehicles
vehicles
vehicles?
Where? Why? How?):
What is a hybrid-electric car?
When were they developed?
Where are they currently in use?
Why are hybrids is use?
How do they work?
A working thesis offers a preliminary answer to your
main research question. An effective working thesis
keeps you focused during your research, helping you
decide whether to read a particular book or just skim
it, fully explore a Web site or quickly surf
through it. When forming your working
thesis, don’t settle for a simple statement
of fact about your topic; instead, form a
statement that demands to be proved or
that requires thoughtful explanation. The
quick guide on the next page includes
a formula for
writing this
statement.
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6
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a system of classification used in most academic and research
libraries
a collection of data
or hypothesis = a working thesis
reasonable alternative to gas-only cars.
force city planners to rethink their social
service policies.
United States in three significant ways.
your working thesis.
limited topic?
my main research question?
supports it?
requirements of the assignment?
sand, not stone. Your thinking on it might
change as you research the topic because dif-
changes show that you are truly engaged in your re-
search. For more help with developing and refining a
thesis, see page 44.
research plan.
As you develop your research plan, consider what you
already know about your topic. You can find this out
by freewriting, clustering, or talking about your topic.
(See pages 37–38.) Push yourself to gather as many of
your own thoughts and feelings about the topic as you
can before you conduct any “outside” research. Once
you determine what you already know, then you can
decide what you still need to find out. You should also
figure out what resources can help you develop your
research questions and working thesis.
Do you need more background information? Is prima-
ry research a possibility? What other types of research
are you interested in? The following information will
answer your questions about planning your research.
Take these steps to find information about central
concepts and key terms related to your topic.
find keywords for searching the library catalog,
periodical databases, and the Internet (page
320).
catalog, journal databases, and the Internet to
confirm that strong resources on your topic ex-
ist.
ground information, definitions, facts, and sta-
tistics (page 327).
If at all possible, conduct primary research about your
topic. Primary research is firsthand research in which
you carry out interviews, observe the topic in action,
and so on in order to develop your distinctive ap-
proach to the topic.
323–324) to get key information from experts
and others.
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any object made or modified by a human culture and later
discovered
250–261) to obtain hard data.
With the help of a librarian or research specialist,
search for important library resources. As you prob-
ably know, the library contains a wide variety of use-
ful materials.
terial (pages 326–327).
to get current, reliable information (pages 328–
329). Select from news sources, popular maga-
zines, scholarly journals, and trade journals.
terviews, pamphlets, marketing studies, or vari-
ous government publications.
The Internet serves as an incredible resource that you
can access at your fingertips. Use the following infor-
mation to help you plan effective Internet searches.
guides, that will lead you to quality resources
(pages 331–337).
structors, or other experts recommend (page
332).
Sketch out tentative deadlines for completing
research, drafting, and so on. Generally, you should
spend about half your time on research and planning
and half on writing. For some projects, you may have
to formalize your planning in the form of a proposal,
which shows your instructor that your plan is work-
able within the constraints of the assignment.
resources and sites.
When researching your topic, be sure to use a wide
range of quality resources, as opposed to relying ex-
few Web sites. (Your instructor may establish guide-
lines for the number and type of resources you should
consult.) As you review your researching options,
consider which resources will give you the best infor-
mation about your topic. A sociology paper on air-
port behavior may require personal, direct research; a
business paper on the evolution of subprime mortgage
loans may best be researched in business publications,
government reports, journals, newspapers, and so on.
The sources of information available to you are almost
unlimited, from interviewing someone to referring
to bibliographies, from reviewing journal articles to
studying graphics. Listed here are the common sourc-
es of information.
Resource Examples
resources
experiments, tests, observations,
interviews, surveys
works (print and
electronic)
almanacs, yearbooks, atlases, directories,
guides, handbooks, indexes, abstracts,
catalogs, bibliographies
electronic)
trade books, scholarly and scientific
studies
news sources
journals; broadcast news and news
magazines; online magazines, news
sources, and discussion groups
digital, and
multimedia
resources
drawings, photos), audiotapes, CD’s,
videos, DVD’s, Web pages, online
databases
publications
regulations, reports, records, statistics
nonprofit
publications
pamphlets, brochures, ads, catalogs,
instructions, handbooks, manuals,
policies and procedures, seminar and
training materials
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Information sources can be primary, secondary, or
tertiary. Depending on your assignment, you may be
required to use primary and/or secondary sources,
but rarely tertiary.
Primary sources are original sources, which means they
give firsthand information on a topic. These sources
(such as diaries, people, or events) inform you directly
about the topic, rather than through other people’s
explanations or interpretations. The most common
forms of primary research are observations, inter-
views, surveys, experiments, and analyses of original
documents and artifacts.
tion on your topic—information at least once removed
from the original. This information has been compiled,
summarized, analyzed, synthesized, interpreted, or
evaluated by someone studying primary sources.
Journal articles, documentaries, and nonfiction books
are typical examples of such secondary sources.
your topic. They are essentially reports of reports of
research and, therefore, are distant from the original
information. Examples of tertiary sources would in-
clude some articles in popular magazines and entries
in Wikipedia. Aside from giving you ideas for focus-
ing your topic and for conducting further research,
tertiary sources should generally not be used in col-
lege research projects and should not appear in works-
cited or reference lists.
ondary sources for a research project exploring hy-
brid car technology and its viability. Note: Whether a
source is primary or secondary depends on what you
are studying. For example, if you were studying U.S.
attitudes toward hybrid cars, a newspaper editorial
or a TV roundtable discussion would be
a primary source. However,
if you were studying hybrid
technology itself, the same
newspaper editorial or TV
roundtable would be a sec-
ondary source.
Where do you go to find the resources that you need?
Consider the information sites listed below, remem-
bering that many resources may be available in differ-
ent forms in different locations. For example, a journal
article may be available in a library or in an electronic
database.
Location Specific Sites
occupation)
representative or unusual experiences)
business
resources
services (e-mail, limited-access
databases, discussion groups, MUDs,
chat rooms, Web sites, blogs, YouTube,
image banks, wikis); intranets
(network, public, cable, satellite), print
(newspapers, magazines, journals)
meeting, and
observation sites
research centers, universities, think tanks,
conventions, conferences, seminars,
museums, galleries, historical sites
and federal
government
offices
and agencies, Government Printing
Office, and Web sites (GPO, www.
gpoaccess.gov)
nonprofit
publications
desktop reference materials, bulletin
boards (physical and electronic),
company and department Web sites,
departments and offices, associations,
professional organizations, consulting,
training, and business information
services
original sources that give firsthand information about a topic
sources that are at least once removed from the original; sources
that provide secondhand information
sources that provide thirdhand information, such as wikis;
discouraged for college research projects
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Primary Sources
– Fuel-efficiency legislation
– Test-drive of a car at a dealership– Published statistics about hybrid car sales
– Journal article discussing the devel-opment of hybrid car technology– Newspaper editorial on fossil fuels– TV news roundtable discussion of hybrid car advantages and disadvan-tages
As directed by your instructor, complete the following
critical-thinking and writing activities by yourself or
with classmates.
1. Examine a research paper that you wrote in the
paper are consistent with a college-level approach
to research writing? What would you have to
change to improve the thinking, level, and ap-
proach of the paper?
lect one and (a) brainstorm a list of related topics,
(b) select and refine a topic, (c) list key research
questions, (d) formulate a working thesis, and (e)
develop a list of possible resources (primary, sec-
ondary, and tertiary) for the topic.
stores, the entertainment industry, third-world
struggles, comedy, wealth, mental illness, forests
op a research plan that identifies a topic of interest
to you, clarifies the value of the research, zeros in
on specific research questions and a working the-
sis, maps out research methods, and establishes a
workable schedule.
Use the checklist below to assess what you have learned
about planning a research project, as well as to mea-
sure what you have done to plan a specific project.
in terms of its purpose, audience, and context.
I understand the research process and have
initiated the process through analyzing the
assignment, developing a manageable topic,
brainstorming research questions, and articu-
lating a working thesis.
I have developed a research plan that includes
consideration of background research, pri-
mary research, library research, and Internet
research.
As part of my planning, I have considered the
range of information resources available as
well as sites where resources can be found.
I understand differences between primary, sec-
ondary, and tertiary sources, and I know which
types make sense for my project.
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o
ke
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when I don’t know what I am doing.”
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Grammar
features of the language, consisting of rules
duce acceptable writing and speaking. Parts of
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that indicate how words are used in the Eng-
lish language—as nouns, pronouns, verbs, ad-
jectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, or
interjections.
2 Pronoun
3 Verb
4 Adjective
5 Adverb
6 Preposition
7 Conjunction
8 Interjection
A noun is a word that names something: a person, a
place, a thing, or an idea.
All nouns are either proper nouns or common nouns.
Nouns may also be classified as individual or collec-
tive, or concrete or abstract.
capitalized, names a specific person, place, thing, or
idea.
name for a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Com-
mon nouns are not capitalized.
group or a unit.
that is tangible (can be seen, touched, heard, smelled,
or tasted).
oven • pizza
WRITE
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
idea, a condition, or a feeling—in other words, some-
thing that cannot be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or
tasted.
• trust
Nouns are grouped according to their number, gender,
and case.
noun is singular or plural. A singular noun refers to
one person, place, thing, or idea. A plural noun refers
to more than one person, place, thing, or idea.
student • laboratory • lecture • note • grade result
students • laboratories • lectures • notes • grade
results
noun is masculine, feminine, neuter, or indefinite.
colt • rooster
women • filly • hen
(without
gender)
printer
(masculine
or feminine)
• doctor • people
the noun plays in a sentence. There are three cases:
nominative, possessive, and objective.
as a subject. The subject of a sentence tells who or what
the sentence is about.
Communication.
used as a predicate noun (or predicate nominative). A
predicate noun follows a linking verb, usually a form
of the be verb (such as am, is, are, was, were, be, being,
been), and repeats or renames the subject.
college’s impact in our community.
session or ownership. In this form, it acts as an adjec-
tive.
students has boosted campus morale.
ject of the preposition, a direct object, an indirect ob-
ject, or an object complement.
cut budgets in spite of protests from students and
instructors.
tests is the object of the preposition in spite of,
budgets is the direct object of the verb cut, and
students and instructors are the objects of the
preposition from.)
Direct and Indirect Objects
A direct object is a noun (or pronoun) that iden-
tifies what or who receives the action of the verb.
(Choices is the direct object of the active verb
reduced.)
identifies the person to whom or for whom some-
thing is done, or the thing to which or for which
something is done. An indirect object is always
accompanied by a direct object.
class choices. (Choices is the direct object of
have given; students is the indirect object.)
by both a direct object and an indirect object.
Both can, however, follow give, send, show, tell,
teach, find, sell, ask, offer, pay, pass, and hand.
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
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ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
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oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
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ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
514
ours / you, your, yours / they,
them, their, theirs / he, him, his,
she, her, hers,
Intensive
herself, itself, ourselves, your-
selves, themselves
that
anyone, anything, both, each,
each one, either, everybody,
everyone, everything, few,
many, most, much, neither,
nobody, none, no one, noth-
ing, one, other, several, some,
somebody, someone, some-
thing, such
what
© Graffizone/iStockphoto.com400 Pa r t 3 : h a n d B o o k
There are several classes of pronouns: personal, ref lex-
ive and intensive, relative, indefinite, interrogative, de-
monstrative, and reciprocal.
to a specific person or thing.
convertible to Monterey, where she hoped to sell it at
an auction.
formed by adding -self or -selves to a personal pro-
noun. A ref lexive pronoun can act as a direct object or
an indirect object of a verb, an object of a preposition,
or a predicate nominative.
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.
Most pronouns have an antecedent. An antecedent is
the noun or pronoun that the pronoun refers to or re-
places. Most pronouns have antecedents, but not all
do. (See “Indefinite Pronouns” on page 401.)
Roger was the most interesting 10-year-old I ever
taught. He was a good thinker and thus a good
writer. I remember his paragraph about the cowboy
hat he received from his grandparents. It was “too
new looking.” The brim was not rolled properly.
But the hat’s imperfections were not the main idea
in Roger’s writing. No, the main idea was how he
was fixing the hat himself by wearing it when he
showered.
As the wellness counselor checked her chart, several
students who were waiting their turns shifted
uncomfortably.
antecedent of who and their.)
in number, person, and gender. (See page 421.)
C
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
noun, it functions as an adjective.
pronoun points out people, places, or things.
schedules as you need.
noun, it functions as an adjective.
The form of a personal pronoun indicates its number
(singular or plural), its person (first, second, or third),
its case (nominative, possessive, or objective), and its
gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, or indefinite).
either singular (I, you, he, she, it) or plural (we, you,
they).
indicates whether the person is speaking (first per-
son), is spoken to (second person), or is spoken about
(third person).
especially during exam week; my usual chips-and-
doughnuts binge isn’t helping.
(plural)
(singular)
(plural)
direct object of loves
indirect object of gives
object of preposition at
predicate nominative
sifies, or emphasizes, the noun or pronoun it refers to.
others.
it themselves.
an adjective dependent (relative) clause to the noun or
pronoun it modifies. (The noun is italicized in each
example below; the relative pronoun is in bold.)
absolutely right.
challenging.
fers to unnamed or unknown people, places, or things.
my classroom in the student center.
minute into the wrong room for the wrong class.
are used as subjects, they should have singular verbs.
(See pages 418–420.)
noun asks a question.
campus map to the inside of your backpack, or being
lost and late for the first two weeks?
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
spoken about.
They are concerned about their health, fitness, and
nutrition.
choice.
raises one’s energy level.
what role it plays in a sentence. There are three cases:
nominative, possessive, and objective.
used as a subject. The following are nominative forms:
I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
used as a predicate nominative, following a linking
verb (am, is, are, was, were, seems) and renaming the
subject.
possession or ownership: my, mine, our, ours, his, her,
hers, their, theirs, its, your, yours. A possessive pronoun
before a noun acts as an adjective: your coat.
used as the direct object, indirect object, object of a
preposition, or object complement: me, you, him, her,
it, us, them.
(Her is the direct object of the verb hired.)
(Me is the indirect object of the verb showed.)
me—to the faculty.
the appositive renaming us.)
indicates whether the pronoun is masculine, femi-
nine, neuter, or indefinite.
(without gender)
(masculine or feminine)
Third Person Plural they their, theirs them
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
el
o
ad
jk
, 2
1
1
/
U
se
d
u
n
d
er
li
ce
n
se
fr
o
m
S
h
u
tt
er
st
o
ck
.c
o
m
A verb shows action (pondered, grins), links words (is,
seemed), or accompanies another action verb as an
auxiliary or helping verb (can, does).
(accompanies the verb honking)
Verbs are classified as action, auxiliary (helping), or
linking (state of being).
name implies, an action verb shows action. Some action
verbs are transitive; others are intransitive. (The term
action does not always refer to a physical activity.)
receive the action.
million workers in the United States.
ploys.)
that is complete in itself. They do not need an object
to receive the action.
tive.
(transitive)
Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs — Auxiliary verbs (help-
ing verbs) help to form some of the tenses, the mood,
and the voice of the main verb. (See pages 404–405.)
is
am
are
was
being
been
could
will
would
should
may
might
have
has
did
by either a verb ending in ing or a past participle.
is a special form of intransitive verb that links the sub-
ject of a sentence to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective
in the predicate.
am
are
become
being
was
appear
feel
seem
grow
smell
above function as linking verbs when they do not
show actual action. An adjective usually follows these
linking verbs.
verbs, an adverb or a direct object may follow them.
(direct object)
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
A verb’s form differs depending on its number (sin-
gular, plural), person (first, second, third), tense (pres-
ent, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, future
perfect), voice (active, passive), and mood (indicative,
imperative, subjunctive).
a verb is singular or plural. The verb and its subject
both must be singular, or they both must be plural.
(See “Subject-Verb Agreement,” pages 418–420.)
programs. (singular)
courses. (plural)
subject of the verb is first, second, or third person. The
verb and its subject must be in the same person. Verbs
usually have a different form only in third person sin-
gular of the present tense.
action or state of being. There are three basic tenses
(past, present, and future) and three verbal aspects
(progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive).
ing at the present time or regularly.
hold service jobs.
es action that is happening continually, in an ongoing
fashion at the present time, but it is formed by com-
bining am, are, or is and the present participle (ending
in ing) of the main verb.
the home.
that began in the past and has recently been complet-
expresses an action that began in the past but stresses
the continuing nature of the action. Like the present
progressive tense, it is formed by combining auxiliary
verbs (have been or has been) and present participles.
pleted at a particular time in the past.
laborers worked in agriculture.
tion that continued over time. It is formed by combining
was or were with the present participle of the main verb.
the past that was completed at a specific time before
another past action occurred.
eaten all the olives.
es a past action but stresses the continuing nature of
the action. It is formed by using had been along with
the present participle.
take place in the future.
action that will be continuous in the future.
tion that will be completed by a specific time.
project.
Singular I think you think he/she/it thinks
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
Generally, use active voice rather than passive voice
for more direct, energetic writing. To change your
passive sentences to active ones, do the following:
First, find the noun that is doing the action and
make it the subject. Then find the word that had
been the subject and use it as the direct object.
(The subject, goal, is not acting.)
(The subject, Eva, is acting.)
more than the doer—or when the doer is un-
known—use the passive voice. (Much technical
and scientific writing regularly
uses the passive voice.)
D
, 2
0
1
1
/
U
se
d
u
n
d
er
li
ce
n
se
fr
o
m
S
h
u
tt
er
st
o
ck
.c
o
m
su
R
b
t,
0
1
1
/
U
se
d
u
n
d
er
li
ce
n
se
fr
o
m
S
h
u
tt
er
st
o
ck
.c
o
m
tone or attitude with which a statement is made.
used to state a fact or to ask a question.
1960s culture? President John F. Kennedy’s directive
[to the right] represents one ideal popular during
that decade.
mand. (The subject of an imperative sentence is you,
which is usually understood and not stated in the sen-
tence.)
you can do for your country. —John F. Kennedy
wish, an impossibility or unlikely condition, or a ne-
cessity. The subjunctive mood is often used with if or
that. The verb forms below create an atypical subject-
verb agreement, forming the subjunctive mood.
(a wish)
would be enough people to populate 25 planets.
pass a proficiency test.
verb, but it functions as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. There are three types of verbals: gerunds, in-
finitives, and participles.
(object of the preposition)
showing up.” (predicate nominative)
expresses future action that will be completed by a
specific time but (as with other perfect progressive
tenses) stresses the action’s continuous nature. It is
formed using will have been along with the present
participle.
weeks by the time it’s due.
ject is acting or being acted upon.
the verb is performing the action.
(The subject, people, is acting; résumés is the di-
rect object.)
the verb is being acted upon or is receiving the action.
A passive verb is formed by combining a be verb with
a past participle.
(The subject, résumé, is receiving the action.)
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
Make sure that you use verbals correctly; look care-
fully at the examples below.
(Diving is a gerund used as a subject.)
get high marks.
Olympian.)
practice pool.
Irregular verbs can often be confusing. That’s because
the past tense and past participle of irregular verbs
are formed by changing the word itself, not merely by
adding d or ed. The following list contains the most
troublesome irregular verbs.
Tense Tense Participle
verb. The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjec-
tive, or an adverb.
(adjective)
und or an infinitive should follow a verb. It’s helpful
to become familiar with lists of specific verbs that can
be followed by one but not the other.
tions as an adjective. A past participle ends in ed (or
another past tense form) and also functions as an ad-
jective.
partying ones.
(These participles function as adjectives: studying,
partying, playing, and annoying students. Notice,
however, that playing has a direct object: music.
All three types of verbals may have direct objects.
See “Verbal Phrase” on page 414.)
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
b
ti
C
ck
, 2
1
1
/
U
se
d
u
n
d
er
li
ce
n
se
fr
o
m
S
h
u
tt
er
st
o
ck
.c
o
m
Tense Tense Participle
Tense Tense Participle
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.
The articles a, an, and the are adjectives.
(A, big, and powerful modify the noun industry.)
rogative forms may be used as either adjectives or
pronouns (that, these, many, some, whose, and so on).
These words are adjectives if they come before a noun
and modify it; they are pronouns if they stand alone.
(Some modifies advertisements and is an adjec-
tive.)
(Many stands alone; it is a pronoun and replaces
the noun advertisements.)
from proper nouns and are capitalized.
(proper noun)
(proper adjective)
lows a form of the be verb (or other linking verb) and
describes the subject. (See “Linking (State of Being)
Verbs” on page 403.)
(Useful and deceptive modify the noun advertis-
ing.)
positive, comparative, and superlative.
It describes a noun or a pronoun without comparing
it to anyone or anything else.
strong and comfortable.
The comparative form (-er, more, or less) compares
two things. (More and less are used generally with ad-
jectives of two or more syllables.)
comfortable than Joysports.
three or more things. (Most and least are used most
often with adjectives of two or more syllables.)
comfortable shoes of all!
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective,
another adverb, or a whole sentence. An adverb an-
swers questions such as how, when, where, why, how
often, or how much.
(Sharply modifies the verb fell.)
(Quite modifies the adjective low.)
(Very modifies the adverb quickly, which modifies
the verb dropped.)
(Unfortunately modifies the whole sentence.)
four ways: time, place, manner, and degree.
when, how often, and
how long.
where, to where, and
from where.
daily, weekly
briefly, eternally
nearby, beyond
backward, forward
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
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E
R
,
E
D
R
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6
9
2
T
S
Irregular Adverbs
often end in ly and
tell how something
is done.
tell how much or
how little.
positive, comparative, and superlative.
describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb with-
out comparing it to anyone or anything else.
your feet well.
two things. (More and less are used generally with ad-
verbs of two or more syllables.)
faster. Jockos’ special soles support your feet better
than the Joysports do.
three or more things. (Most and least are used most
often with adverbs of two or more syllables.)
Wonders. They seem to support my feet, my knees,
and my pocketbook best of all.
A preposition is a word (or group of words) that shows
the relationship between its object (a noun or pronoun
following the preposition) and another word in the
sentence.
all hinge on getting a good job after graduation?
and graduation are objects of their preceding
prepositions regarding, for, to, on, and after.)
precisely
regularly
regally
well
greatly
entirely
too
aboard
about
above
according to
across
across from
after
against
along
alongside
alongside of
along with
amid
among
apart from
around
as far as
aside from
at
away from
back of
because of
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
by means of
concerning
considering
despite
down from
during
except
except for
excepting
for
from
from among
from between
from under
in
in addition to
in behalf of
in front of
in place of
in regard to
inside
inside of
in spite of
instead of
into
like
near
near to
notwithstanding
of
off
on
on account of
on behalf of
onto
on top of
opposite
out
out of
outside of
over
over to
owing to
past
prior to
regarding
round
save
since
subsequent to
through
throughout
till
to
together with
toward
under
underneath
until
unto
up
upon
up to
with
within
without
effectively
badly
more effectively
worse
most effectively
worst
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
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E
D
R
I
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6
9
2
T
S
before it presents the lesson.
dent. It connects to the independent clause it gives
the test.)
(See “Relative Pronouns” on page 401.)
An interjection communicates strong emotion or sur-
prise (oh, ouch, hey, and so on). Punctuation (often a
comma or an exclamation point) is used to set off an
interjection.
become part of an idiom, a slang expression, or a two-
word verb.
includes the preposition, the object of the preposition,
and the modifiers of the object. A prepositional phrase
may function as an adverb or an adjective.
higher education.
the nouns knowledge and benefit respectively.)
(The phrase functions as an adverb modifying the
verb placed.)
A conjunction connects individual words or groups of
words.
and lovely. —Ernest Hemingway
junctions usually connect a word to a word, a phrase
to a phrase, or a clause to a clause. The words, phrases,
or clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction are
equal in importance or are of the same type.
catastrophe. —H. G. Wells
tions are a type of coordinating conjunction used in
pairs.
believe everything or doubt everything.
conjunctions connect two clauses that are not equally
important. A subordinating conjunction connects a
dependent clause to an independent clause. The con-
junction is part of the dependent clause.
only, but (but also); both, and;
whether, or
long as, because, before,
even though, if, in order that,
provided that, since, so that,
than, that, though, unless, until,
when, whenever, where, while
thing: a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
Parts of Speech
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
ss
ed
f
ro
m
t
he
e
B
oo
k
an
d/
or
e
C
ha
pt
er
(s
).
E
di
to
ri
al
r
ev
ie
w
h
as
d
ee
m
ed
t
ha
t
an
y
su
pp
re
ss
ed
c
on
te
nt
d
oe
s
no
t
m
at
er
ia
ll
y
af
fe
ct
t
he
o
ve
ra
ll
l
ea
rn
in
g
ex
pe
ri
en
ce
. C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g
re
se
rv
es
t
he
r
ig
ht
t
o
re
m
ov
e
ad
di
ti
on
al
c
on
te
nt
a
t
an
y
ti
m
e
if
s
ub
se
qu
en
t
ri
gh
ts
r
es
tr
ic
ti
on
s
re
qu
ir
e
it
.
F
O
S
T
E
R
,
E
D
R
I
C
6
9
2
T
S
C h a P t e r 3 0 : g r a m m a r 411
a noun.
words, or acts as an auxiliary verb to the main verb.
a noun or pronoun. (The articles a, an, and the are
adjectives.)
hot, dry day. (The and carbonated modify drink;
that, hot, and dry modify day.)
an adjective, another adverb, or a whole sentence.
An adverb generally answers questions such as how,
when, where, how often, or how much.
of words) that shows the relationship between its ob-
ject (a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition)
and another word in the sentence. Prepositions in-
troduce prepositional phrases, which are modifiers.
al words or groups of words.
municates strong emotion or surprise. Punctuation
(often a comma or an exclamation point) is used to
set off an interjection from the rest of the sentence.
op
yr
ig
ht
2
01
1
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g.
A
ll
R
ig
ht
s
R
es
er
ve
d.
M
ay
n
ot
b
e
co
pi
ed
, s
ca
nn
ed
, o
r
du
pl
ic
at
ed
, i
n
w
ho
le
o
r
in
p
ar
t.
D
ue
t
o
el
ec
tr
on
ic
r
ig
ht
s,
s
om
e
th
ir
d
pa
rt
y
co
nt
en
t
m
ay
b
e
su
pp
re
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Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch01
PART 1: WRITE
Chapter 1: Understanding the Reading-Writing Connection�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Use the SQ3R reading strategy.
Read actively.
Respond to a text.
Summarize a text.
Effectively analyze images.
Think critically through writing.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
read
Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch03
Chapter 3: Starting�������������������������������������������������������������������������
Discover your process.
Understand the rhetorical situation.
Understand the assignment.
Select, limit, and explore your topic.
Collect information and track your sources.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch04
Chapter 4: Planning�������������������������������������������������������������������������
Revisit the rhetorical situation.
Form your thesis statement.
Select a method of development.
Develop a plan or an outline.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch25
Chapter 25: Planning Your Research Project����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Understand academic research.
Initiate the process.
Develop a research plan.
Consider possible resources and sites.
Understand sources.
Critical-Thinking and Writing Activities
Condensed_comp_vandermey_ch30
PART 3: WRITE
Chapter 30: Grammar�������������������������������������������������������������������������
Noun
Pronoun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection
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Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
