Here are my PPT from different chapters. I need 750 words of my part.
If theres any questions, let me know. Keep in contact. Thanks.
Oh! Read the case!!!!! I knew its a lots, but have to read it clearfully before you write
This is a huge group case study project, the course name is Organizational Behavior. Its a part of the Marketing.
Requires, this case study must apply what i have learned of this course. (use course content to solve the case.) I will send you the PPT from class by the end.
cause this is a group projectm, so i only needs to do a part of it.
its made by problem statement+3 Alternatives + Recommendation and implementtation plan. My part is the 2 Alternatives. Just in case, you have to include the pros and cons of each alternative and their specific links to this course’s concepts. I will show it as a screenshot
This screenshot is also the rubric, REMEMBER, use the specific links to course concepts. Pro and Cons parts weighted a lots
Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications
Eighth Canadian Edition
Chapter 1
What Is Organizational Behaviour?
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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1
Chapter Outline (1 of 4)
The Importance of Interpersonal Skills
Using OB to create great places to work
Succeeding in the workplace takes people skills
Defining Organizational Behaviour
What Do We Mean by Organization?
OB Is for Everyone
The Importance of Interpersonal skills
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
2
Chapter Outline (2 of 4)
Intuition with Systematic Study
Big Data
Disciplines That Contribute to the OB Field
The Building Blocks of OB
The Rigour of OB
OB has few Absolutes
OB Takes a Contingency Approach
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
3
Chapter Outline (3 of 4)
Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace
Responding to Economic Pressures
Responding to Globalization
Understanding Workforce Diversity
Improving Customer Service
Improving People Skills
Working in Networked Organizations
Enhancing Employee Well-Being at Work
Creating a Positive Work Environment
Improving Ethical Behaviour
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
4
Chapter Outline (4 of 4)
Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model
An Overview
Inputs
Processes
Outcomes
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
5
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)
Demonstrate the importance of interpersonal skills in the workplace.
Define organizational behaviour (OB).
Understand the value of systematic study to OB.
Identify the major behavioural science disciplines that contribute to OB.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
6
Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)
Demonstrate why few absolutes apply to OB.
Identify workplace challenges that provide opportunities to apply OB concepts.
Describe the three levels of analysis in this book’s OB model.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
7
The Importance of Interpersonal Skills
Recognition of the importance of developing interpersonal skills is closely tied to the need for organizations to get and keep high-performing employees.
Creating a pleasant workplace makes good economic sense.
Wages and benefits are not the main reasons people like their jobs or stay with an employer. Social relationships among co-workers and supervisors are strongly related to overall job satisfaction.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Demonstrating the importance of OB.”
A recent survey of hundreds of workplaces, and over 200 000 respondents, showed that the social relationships among co-workers and supervisors were strongly related to overall job satisfaction. Positive social relationships also were associated with lower stress at work and lower intentions to quit. So, having managers with good interpersonal skills is likely to make the workplace more pleasant, which in turn makes it easier to hire and keep qualified people.
8
Defining Organizational Behaviour
A field of study that looks at the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within organizations
Its aim is to apply such knowledge toward improving organizational effectiveness
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Defining Organizational Behaviour.”
9
What Do We Mean by Organization?
A consciously coordinated social unit:
composed of a group of people
functioning on a relatively continuous basis
to achieve a common goal or set of goals
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Defining Organizational Behaviour.”
An organization is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of a group of people that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.
Manufacturing and service firms are organizations, and so are schools, hospitals, churches, military units, retail stores, police departments, volunteer organizations, start-ups, and local, state and federal government agencies. There are a variety of organizations that comprise the Canadian workplace.
The instructor might want to remind students that organizations can be located in the public sector or the private sector, they can be unionized or not, they can be publicly traded or they can be privately held. If they are publicly traded, senior managers typically are responsible to a board of directors, which may or may not take an active role in how the firm is run. The managers themselves may or may not own shares of the firm. If the firm is privately held, it may be run by the owners, or by managers who report to the owners. Firms can also operate in the for-profit or the non-profit sector. All of these facts, taken as a whole, should suggest that when one thinks of an organization, the likelihood that it is a “typical” organization is small.
10
OB Is for Everyone
Organizational Behaviour (OB) is relevant anywhere:
people come together and share experiences,
work on goals,
or meet to solve problems.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Defining Organizational Behaviour.”
11
Intuition and Systematic Study (1 of 2)
Systematic study
Looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence
Behaviour is generally predictable.
There are differences between individuals.
There are fundamental consistencies.
There are rules (written and unwritten) in almost every setting.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “OB: Making Sense of Behaviour in Organizations.”
12
Intuition and Systematic Study (2 of 2)
Evidence-based management (EBM)
Complements systematic study
Bases managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence
Vast majority of management decisions are still made “on the fly,” with little or no systematic study of available evidence
Many managers hold “common sense” opinions regarding effective management that have been flatly refuted by empirical evidence
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “OB: Making Sense of Behaviour in Organizations.”
13
The Building Blocks of OB
Psychology
Social Psychology
Sociology
Anthropology
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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LO4; Note: Exhibit 1-1 is on the next slide. You may wish to use this slide just to introduce the discipline areas, and use the next slide (the visual representation) to discuss in more detail.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “OB: Making Sense of Behaviour in Organizations.”
Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals.
Social psychology is an area within psychology, but it blends concepts from psychology and sociology. It focuses on the influence of people on one another. One of the major areas receiving considerable investigation from social psychologists has been change–how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance.
Sociology: Whereas psychologists focus on the individual, sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies people in relation to other human beings.
Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. Anthropologists’ work on cultures and environments has helped us understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different countries and within different organizations.
14
Towards an OB Discipline
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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LO4; This Exhibits provides a visual representation of the contributions of various behavioural science disciplines on the study of OB. Use as speaking notes to provide a macro level view of the OB discipline.
15
The Rigour of OB
OB Looks at Consistencies
What is common about behaviour, and helps predictability?
OB Looks Beyond Common Sense
Systematic study, based on scientific evidence
OB Has Few Absolutes
Few, if any, simple and universal principles that explain OB
Evidence -based management (EBM)
OB Takes a Contingency Approach
Considers behaviour in context
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO2-LO5; Overview Slide – Please note that there are separate slides coming next as more detailed speaking notes for each of the areas listed on this slide.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Understanding the Value of Systematic Study of OB.”
This would be a good place to get students’ views on questions such as: (1) Are happy workers always productive workers? (2) Are individuals always more productive when their boss is a real “people person?” (3) Does everyone want a challenging job?
16
OB Looks at Consistencies
What is common about behaviour, and helps predictability?
Certainly there are differences among individuals.
Placed in similar situations, all people don’t act exactly alike.
However, there are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behaviour of all individuals.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “OB: Making Sense of Behaviour in Organizations.”
17
OB Has Few Absolutes
There are few simple and universal principles that explain organizational behaviour.
Human beings are very complex.
Humans are not alike, which limits the ability to make simple, accurate, and sweeping generalizations.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “OB has few absolutes.”
18
OB Takes a Contingency Approach
Contingency approach: Considers behaviour within the context in which it occurs.
Depends on the situation
People are complex and complicated, so theories developed to explain their actions must also consider the context or situation
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found “OB has few absolutes.”
OB concepts must reflect situational or contingency conditions, and hence predictions about human behaviour are at best probabilistic, not absolute. That is, X is likely to lead to Y, but only under conditions specified in Z (the contingency variables).
19
Challenges and Opportunities
Dramatic changes in organizations
Understanding OB has never been more important for managers
Change has resulted in new employment options being offered or requested by employees
May depend on career timing or preferences
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
20
Responding to Economic Pressures (1 of 2)
OB approaches may differ between good and bad times
In good times, focus is on rewards, satisfaction, and retention of employees
In bad times, issues such as stress, decision making and coping are important
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
21
Responding to Economic Pressures (2 of 2)
When the US Economy entered into a recession in 2008, most other economies worldwide followed
When times are bad, managers are on the front lines with employees who
may be terminated
may be asked to make do with less
worry about their future
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
22
Continuing Globalizaton
In recent years, Canadian businesses have faced tough competition from the United States, Europe, Japan, and China, as well as from other companies within our borders.
To survive, they have had to reduce costs, increase productivity, and improve quality.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
23
Continuing to Globalizaton (1 of 2)
Some employers have outsourced jobs to other countries where labour costs are lower to remain profitable.
National borders no longer protect most firms from foreign competitive pressures.
Trading blocks (e.g., NAFTA and EU) reduce tariffs and barriers to trade
Internet has also enabled companies to become more globally connected
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
24
Continuing to Globalizaton (2 of 2)
Managers and employees must become capable of working with people from different cultures:
Multinational corporations are developing operations worldwide.
Companies are developing joint ventures with foreign partners.
Workers are pursuing job opportunities across national borders.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
25
Understanding Workforce Diversity (1 of 2)
Workforce Diversity – recognizes the heterogeneous nature of employees in the workplace
Women and men
Many racial and ethnic groups
Individuals with a variety of physical or psychological abilities
People who differ in age, sexual orientation, and demographic characteristics
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
26
Understanding Workforce Diversity (2 of 2)
Diversity Challenge – mix of generations such as Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennial groups
Due to different life experiences, bring different values and expectations to the workplace
Employees don’t set aside their cultural values and lifestyle preferences when they go to work
Need to accommodate diverse groups of people by addressing their different lifestyles, family needs, and work styles
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
27
Customer Service
Majority of employees in developed countries work in service jobs (78 percent in Canada)
Substantial interaction with customers
OB can increase the success of these interactions by showing how employee attitudes and behaviour influence customer satisfaction
Management needs to create a customer-responsive culture
OB can provide guidance to help managers create such cultures – where employees are friendly, accessible , knowledgeable, and responsive, to please the customer
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
28
People Skills
OB provides many concepts and theories to help you explain and predict the behaviour of people at work
Goal is to gain insights into people skills that you can use on the job
Design motivating jobs
Improve your listening skills
Create more effective teams
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
29
Enhancing Employee Well-Being at Work
Employees are increasingly complaining that the lines between work and private life have blurred.
has led to more personal conflicts and stress.
Why?
Creation of global organizations; the world never sleeps
Communication technology; people bring work home
Organizations are asking employees to work longer hours
Organizations must help employees strike a balance or risk losing key employees and future candidates.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
30
Social Media
Organizations struggle with employee use of social media
Employees have been fired for inappropriate tweeting
Recruitment practices can be influenced by social media
Access to social media throughout the day can influence employee mood and thus performance
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
31
Working in Networked Organizations
Allow people to communicate and work together even though they may be located elsewhere
Manager’s job is different in these organizations
Motivating and leading people, making collaborative decisions online requires different techniques
Managers and employees need to develop new skills
OB can provide insights to help with honing those skills
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
32
Creating a Positive Work Environment
Positive Organizational Scholarship
An area of OB research that focuses on how organizations develop human strength, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential.
This approach challenges researchers and companies to look at OB through a new lens.
Focus is placed on how to exploit employee strengths rather than dwelling on their limitations.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
33
Improving Ethical Behaviour
Ethical Dilemmas and Ethical Choices
Required to identify right and wrong conduct
Pressured to cut corners, break rules, engage in other questionable practices
Ethics
The study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour
Inform us whether actions are right or wrong
Help us “do the right thing”
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
34
Employment Options
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
35
Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model
Overview
A model is a simplified representation of a real-world phenomenon
Proposes three types of variables (individual, group, organizational)
Proceeds from left to right
Inputs leading to processes; processes leading to outcomes
Outcomes can also influence inputs in the future
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Challenges and Opportunities in the Canadian Workplace.”
36
A Basic OB Model (1 of 3)
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model”
37
A Basic OB Model (2 of 3)
Inputs are variables such as personality, group structure, and organizational culture that lead to processes
Often determined in advance of the employment relationship
Processes are actions that individuals, groups, and organizations engage in as a result of inputs that lead to certain outcomes
Individual level – emotions and moods, motivation, perception, decision making
Group level – communication, leadership, power and politics, conflict and negotiation
Organizational level – change practices
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model”
38
A Basic OB Model (3 of 3)
Outcomes are key variables that you want to explain or predict
Individual level – attitudes and stress, task performance, organizational citizenship behaviour, and withdrawal behaviour
Group level – group cohesion and functioning
Organizational level – overall productivity, profitability, and survival
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Coming Attractions: Developing an OB Model”
39
Summary
OB investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and organizational structure have on behaviour within an organization.
OB applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively.
OB focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism, turnover, and deviant workplace behaviour, and increase organizational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
40
OB at Work: For Review
What is organizational behaviour (OB)?
What is the importance of interpersonal skills in the workplace?
What are the major behavioural science disciplines that contribute to OB?
Why is systematic study of value to OB?
Why do few absolutes apply to OB?
What workplace challenges provide opportunities to apply OB concepts?
What are the three levels of analysis in this book’s OB model?
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
Isn’t organizational behaviour common sense? Or just like psychology?
OB is built on contributions from a number of behavioural disciplines, including psychology, sociology, social psychology, and anthropology. It goes beyond “common sense.”
41
OB at Work: For Managers
Resist the inclination to rely on generalizations; some provide valid insights into human behaviour, but many are erroneous.
Use metrics and situational variables rather than “hunches” to explain cause-and-effect relationships.
Work on your interpersonal skills to increase your leadership potential.
Improve your technical skills and conceptual skills through training and staying current with organizational behaviour trends such as big data.
OB can improve your employees’ work quality and productivity by showing you how to empower your employees, design and implement change programs, improve customer service, and help your employees balance work-life conflicts.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
42
Breakout Group Exercises
Form small groups to discuss the following topics:
Consider a group situation in which you have worked. To what extent did the group rely on the technical skills of the group members vs. their interpersonal skills? Which skills seemed most important in helping the group function well?
Identify some examples of “worst jobs.” What conditions of these jobs made them unpleasant? To what extent were these conditions related to behaviours of individuals?
Develop a list of “organizational puzzles,” that is, behaviour you’ve observed in organizations that seemed to make little sense. As the term progresses, see if you can begin to explain these puzzles, using your knowledge of OB.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
43
From Concept to Skills
This exercise asks you to consider the skills outlined in the “Competing Values Framework” on pages 32–35 to develop an understanding of managerial expertise. Steps 1–4 can be completed in 15–20 minutes.
Using the skills listed in the Competing Values Framework, identify the 4 skills that you think all managers should have.
Identify the 4 skills that you think are least important for managers to have.
In groups of 5–7, reach a consensus on the most-needed and least-needed skills identified in “Reinforcing Steps” on page 35, Steps 1 and 2.
Using Exhibit 1-7, determine whether your “ideal” managers would have trouble managing in some dimensions of organizational demands.
Your instructor will lead a general discussion of your results.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
44
Competing Values Framework (1 of 2)
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
45
Competing Values Framework (2 of 2)
Internal-External Dimension
Inwardly, toward employee needs and concerns and/or production processes and internal systems – or –
Outwardly, toward such factors as the marketplace, government regulations, and the changing social, environmental, and technological conditions of the future
Flexibility-Control Dimension
Flexible and dynamic, allowing more teamwork and participation; seeking new opportunities for products and services – or –
Controlling or stable, maintaining the status quo, and exhibiting less change
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
This material is found at the end of the chapter.
46
Skills for Mastery in the New Workplace
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
1 – ‹#›
47
Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications
Eighth Canadian Edition
Chapter 2
Perception, Personality, and Emotions
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
If this PowerPoint presentation contains mathematical equations, you may need to check that your computer has the following installed:
1) MathType Plugin
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1
Chapter Outline (1 of 2)
Perception
Factors That Influence Perception
Perceptual Errors
Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?
Personality
What Is Personality?
Measuring Personality
Personality Determinants
Personality Traits
The Dark Triad
Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
2
Chapter Outline (2 of 2)
Emotions
What Are Emotions and Moods?
Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour
Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
3
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)
Define perception, and explain the factors that influence it.
Explain attribution theory, and list the three determinants of attribution.
Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it.
Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and its strengths and weaknesses.
Identify the key traits in the Big Five Personality Model.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
4
Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)
Demonstrate how the Big Five personality traits predict behaviour at work.
Differentiate between emotions and moods.
Show the impact of emotional labour on employees.
Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence.
Identify strategies for emotion regulation and their likely effects.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
5
Perception
What is perception?
The process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions to give meaning to their environment.
Why is it important?
Because behaviour is based on perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
L01; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perception.”
Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. Understanding perception is important because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not reality itself.
6
Why We Study Perception
To better understand how people make attributions about events.
We don’t see reality. We interpret what we see and call it reality.
The attribution process guides our behaviour, regardless of the truth of the attribution.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO1; An extra slide to help motivate the lecture.
7
Factors Influencing Perception
The Perceiver
The Target
The Situation
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
Lo1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Factors That Influence Perception.”
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception.
The Perceiver who is affected by personal characteristics such as attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.
The Target who is affected by “what we see,” attractive or unattractive individuals, novelty, motion, sounds, size, and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it
The Situation which is the context in which we see objects or events. The situation is important as elements in the surrounding environment influence our perceptions. The time at which we see an object or event can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors.
8
Factors That Influence Perception
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO1; This is a visual representation of factors that influence perception. Use this as speaking notes to fill out the discussion of the three main factors of perception: the situation, the perceiver, and the target.
9
Perceptual Errors (1 of 3)
Attribution Theory
Selective Perception
Halo Effect
Contrast Effects
Projection
Stereotyping
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.” Go through this slide rather quickly, as the next slides provide speaking note details for each of the perceptual errors listed in this slide.
10
Attribution Theory (1 of 2)
When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.
Distinctiveness
Does the individual act the same way in other situations?
Consensus
Does the individual act the same as others in the same situation?
Consistency
Does the individual act the same way over time?
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”
Attribution Theory says we judge people differently depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour.
We attempt to determine whether the behaviour was internally or externally caused.
External causes of behaviour refer to the environment, while internal causes of behaviour are those events that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual.
For example, if a student is late for class, the instructor might attribute his lateness to partying into the wee hours of the morning and then oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. But if the instructor assumes a major automobile accident tied up traffic on the student’s regular route to school, that is making an external attribution.
Our determination of internally- or externally-caused behaviour depends on three factors:
Distinctiveness: Does the individual display different behaviour in different situations?
Consensus: If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behaviour shows consensus.
Consistency: Is the person’s actions consistent over time?
11
Attribution Theory (2 of 2)
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”
12
How Attributions Get Distorted
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors when making judgments about others’ behaviour.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”
13
Percentage of Individuals Rating Themselves Above Average on Each Attribute
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
2 – ‹#›
LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”
14
Perceptual Errors (2 of 3)
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, likeability, or appearance.
Contrast Effects
A person’s evaluation is affected by comparisons with other individuals recently encountered.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”
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Perceptual Errors (3 of 3)
Projection
Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of your perception of the group to which that person belongs.
Prejudice
An unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”
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Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? (1 of 2)
Most obvious applications of judgment shortcuts in the workplace:
Employment interviews
Performance expectations
Performance evaluations
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?”
Employment Interviews
It’s fair to say that few people are hired without undergoing an interview. But interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate and draw early impressions that quickly become entrenched. Research shows we form impressions of others within a tenth of a second, based on our first glance.
Performance Expectations
If a manager expects big things from her people, they are not likely to let her down. Similarly, if she expects only minimal performance, they will likely meet those low expectations. Expectations become reality.
Performance Evaluations
Performance evaluations very much depend on the perceptual process. An employee’s future is closely tied to the appraisal—promotion, pay raises, and continuation of employment are among the most obvious outcomes. Although the appraisal can be objective (for example, a salesperson is appraised on how many dollars of sales he generates in his territory), many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective evaluations, though often necessary, are problematic because all the errors we have discussed thus far—selective perception, contrast effects, halo effect, and so on—affect them. Ironically, sometimes performance ratings say as much about the evaluator as they do about the employee!
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Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? (2 of 2)
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
A concept that proposes a person will behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?”
Self-fulfilling prophecy is under the subheading “Performance Expectations.”
If a manager expects big things from her people, they are not likely to let her down. Similarly, if she expects only minimal performance, they will likely meet those low expectations. Expectations become reality.
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Personality (1 of 4)
What is Personality?
The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts and interacts with others.
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality.”
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Personality (2 of 4)
Measuring Personality
Research indicates that personality tests are useful in hiring decisions.
Scores on personality tests help managers forecast who is the best fit for a job.
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Measuring Personality.”
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Personality (3 of 4)
Means of measuring personality
Self-report surveys
Individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors
Observer ratings
Provide an independent assessment of personality.
Tend to be more accurate predictors of success on the job.
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Measuring Personality.”
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Personality (4 of 4)
Personality Determinants
Heredity
Environmental factors
Situational conditions
Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The Big Five Personality Model
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Determinants.” Don’t go into too much detail on MBTI and the Big Five Model here, as the next slides discuss these in detail.
Personality Determinants
(1) Heredity: An approach that argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. The most persuasive research on this comes from studying monozygotic twins who were separated at birth and raised in very different environments. Different research studies with these kinds of twins have determined that genetics accounts for about half of the personality differences in people.
(2) Environment: The culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, and social groups, and other influences that we experience play a critical role in shaping our personalities.
(3) Situation: The situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. Personality can be subdued in some situations. A person will be different in a job interview as compared to being at dinner with friends. We cannot look at personality patterns in isolation.
Personality Traits
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality-assessment instrument in the world. It’s a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. On the basis of their answers, individuals are classified as extraverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P).
The Big Five Personality Model supports the notion that five basic personality dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality. The Big Five personality factors are: Extraversion; Agreeableness; Conscientiousness; Emotional stability; and Openness to experience.
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
MBTI:
Personality test to determine how people usually act or feel in particular situations.
Classifications:
Extroverted (E) or Introverted (I)
Sensing (S) or Intuitive (N)
Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
Perceiving (P) or Judging (J)
Combined to form 16 personality types:
Three examples:
INTJ
ESTJ
ENTP
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
Some examples of types:
INTJs are visionaries.
Usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes.
Characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and stubborn.
ESTJs are organizers.
Are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics.
Like to organize and run activities.
ENTP types are conceptualizers.
Innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas.
Resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.
There is no hard evidence that the MBTI is a valid measure of personality.
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The Big Five Model
Five basic personality dimensions:
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Openness to experience
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
Extraversion: One’s comfort level with relationships. Extroverts (high in extraversion) tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships. Introverts tend to be reserved and to have fewer relationships, and they are more comfortable with solitude than most people are.
Agreeableness: An individual’s propensity to defer to others. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting of others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than on the needs of others.
Conscientiousness: The number of goals on which a person focuses. A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals, in a purposeful way, and tends to be responsible, persistent, dependable, and achievement-oriented. Those who score low tend to be more easily distracted, pursuing many goals, and more hedonistic.
Emotional stability: A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure.
Openness to experience: The final dimension addresses one’s range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovation. They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
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Big Five Personality Traits
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
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How the Big Five Traits Influence OB
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
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The Dark Triad
The Dark Triad – a group of negative personality traits
Machiavellianism
Narcissism
Psychopathy
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
While the Big Five personality traits are what we call socially desirable (glad to score high on those traits), the Dark Triad refers to three socially undesirable traits – Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy. Further slides discuss these.
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Machiavellianism
Degree to which an individual is:
pragmatic
maintains emotional distance
believes that the ends can justify the means
High Machs vs. Low Machs
manipulate more
win more
are persuaded less
persuade others more
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
Machiavellianism (Mach) — The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. This personality attribute is named after Niccolò Machiavelli, the sixteenth century author of The Prince. A self-assessment for Machiavellianism is found at the end of the chapter.
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Narcissism
The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
Narcissists tend to think that they are better leaders than their colleagues; but their supervisors tend to rate them as worse.
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LO6: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
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Psychopathy
The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when one’s actions cause harm.
Related to the use of hard influence tactics (threats, manipulation) and bullying work behaviour (physical or verbal threatening).
They may be cunning, which helps them gain power in an organization, but they do not use that power toward healthy ends for themselves or their organization.
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LO6: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”
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Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB
Additional Personality Attributes relevant to OB:
Core Self-Evaluation
Self-Monitoring
Proactive Personality
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Core Self-Evaluation
People differ in the degree to which they:
Like or dislike themselves
See themselves as effective, capable, and in control of their environment
People with positive core self-evaluations perform better because they:
Set more ambitious goals
Are more committed to their goals
Persist longer at attempting to reach those goals
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”
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Self-Monitoring
An individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors.
High self-monitors tend to:
Pay closer attention to the behaviour of others
Be more capable of conforming than low self-monitors
Be more mobile in their careers
Receive more promotions
Be more likely to occupy central positions in an organization
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”
Self-monitoring: A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors. A self-assessment for self-monitoring is found at the end of the chapter.
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Proactive Personality
A person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs.
People with a proactive personality will have:
Higher levels of job performance
Career success
Actions may be positive or negative depending on the organization and situation.
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”
Ask students if they’ve ever noticed that some people actively take the initiative to improve their current circumstances or create new ones while others sit by, passively reacting to situations. This can help them think about proactive personality and why some people are proactive and others are not.
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What Are Emotions and Moods?
Affect
Generic term that covers a broad range of feelings people experience, including emotions and moods.
Emotions
Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.
Moods
Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Emotions.”
Employees bring an emotional component with them to work every day, and no study of OB could be comprehensive without considering the role of emotions in workplace behaviour.
Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Emotions are reactions to an object, not a trait. They’re object-specific. Research has identified six universal emotions: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise.
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Affect, Emotions, and Moods
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What are Emotions and Moods?”
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Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour
Emotional labour: When an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.
Emotional dissonance
Felt emotions
Displayed emotions
Surface acting
Deep acting
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour.”
Emotional dissonance: inconsistencies between felt and displayed emotions.
Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.
In contrast, displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given situation. For instance, most of us know that we’re expected to act sad at funerals, regardless of whether we consider the person’s death to be a loss; and to pretend to be happy at weddings, even if we don’t feel like celebrating. The key point here is that felt and displayed emotions are often different.
Examples of emotional labour:
Effective managers have learned to be serious when giving an employee a negative performance evaluation and to cover up their anger when they’ve been passed over for promotion.
The salesperson who hasn’t learned to smile and appear friendly, but instead reveals his or her true feelings at the moment, isn’t typically going to last long in most sales jobs.
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Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?
Emotions provide important information about how we understand the world around us.
People who know their own emotions and are good at reading others’ emotions may be more effective in their jobs.
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
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Emotional Intelligence (1 of 2)
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
refers to an individual’s ability to:
Perceive emotions in self and others
Understand the meaning of these emotions
Regulate one’s emotions accordingly in a cascading model
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
The next slide, Exhibit 2-9 is the cascading model discussed here.
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A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
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Emotional Intelligence (2 of 2)
The Case for EI
Intuitive appeal
EI predicts criteria that matter
EI is biologically based
The Case Against EI
EI researchers do not agree on definitions
EI cannot be measured
The validity of EI is suspect
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
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Negative Workplace Emotions
Negative emotions can lead to negative workplace behaviours called employee deviance:
Production (leaving early, intentionally working slowly)
Property (stealing, sabotage)
Political (gossiping, blaming co-workers)
Personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse)
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviours. Anyone who has spent much time in an organization realizes that people often engage in voluntary actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization, its members, or both.
These actions are called employee deviance: voluntary actions that violate established norms and that threaten the organization, its members, or both.
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Emotion Regulation (1 of 2)
To identify and modify the emotions you feel
Emotion management ability is a strong predictor of task performance and organizational citizenship behaviours
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
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Emotion Regulation (2 of 2)
Common strategies employed to change emotions include:
Surface acting
Deep acting
Acknowledging rather than suppressing emotional responses
Venting
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”
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Global Implications (1 of 2)
Potential global differences in the four areas from the chapter:
Perception
Studies suggest that perceptual differences in culture affect what we focus on and what we remember.
Attribution
Most studies suggest that there are differences across cultures in the attributions people make.
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”
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Global Implications (2 of 2)
Personality
The five personality factors identified in the Big Five model appear in almost all cross-cultural studies.
Emotions
Studies suggest some cultures value and experience certain emotions more than others. Intensity also varies to some degree.
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”
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Summary
People act on the basis of their perception of reality.
Personality attributes provide a framework for predicting behaviour.
People who are good at reading the emotions of others are generally more effective in the workplace.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Review (1 of 2)
What is perception? What factors influence our perception?
What is attribution theory? What are the three determinants of attribution? What are the implications of attribution theory for explaining organizational behaviour?
What is personality? How do we typically measure it? What factors determine personality?
What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Review (2 of 2)
What are traits are in the Big Five Personality model?
How do the Big Five personality traits predict behaviour at work?
What is the difference between emotions and moods?
What impact does emotional labour have on employees?
What is the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence?
What are some strategies for emotion regulation and their likely effects?
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2 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Managers (1 of 2)
Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness—as well as the other Big Five personality traits, depending on the criteria your organization finds most important. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant in certain situations.
Although the MBTI has been widely criticized, it may have a place in organizations. You may consider the results helpful for training and development; the results can also help employees better understand themselves, help team members better understand one another, open up communication in work groups, and possibly reduce conflicts.
To foster effective decision making, creativity, and motivation in employees, model positive emotions and moods as much as is authentically possible.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Managers (2 of 2)
Regulate your intense emotional responses to an event by recognizing the legitimacy of the emotion and being careful to vent only to a supportive listener who is not involved in the event.
Be careful not to ignore co- workers’ and employees’ emotions; do not assess others’ behaviour as if it were completely rational. As one consultant aptly put it, “You can’t divorce emotions from the workplace because you can’t divorce emotions from people.” 180 Managers who understand the role of emotions and moods will significantly improve their ability to explain and predict their co-workers’ and employees’ behaviour.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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Breakout Group Exercises
Form small groups to discuss the following topics. Each person in the group should first identify 3-5 key personal values.
Think back to your perception of this course and your instructor on the first day of class. What factors might have affected your perceptions of what the rest of the term would be like?
Describe a situation where your perception turned out to be wrong. What perceptual errors did you make that might have caused this to happen?
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications
Eighth Canadian Edition
Chapter 3
Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in the Workplace
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1
Chapter Outline (1 of 2)
Values
Rokeach Value Survey
Hodgson’s General Moral Principles
Assessing Cultural Values
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures
The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures
Values in the Canadian Workplace
Generational Differences
Cultural Differences
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
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Chapter Outline (2 of 2)
Attitudes
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Job Involvement
Perceived Organizational Support
Employee Engagement
Managing Diversity in the Workplace
Effective Diversity Programs
Cultural Intelligence
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.
3
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)
Contrast Rokeach’s terminal and instrumental values.
Describe Hofstede’s value dimensions for assessing cultures.
Identify unique Canadian values.
Understand the three components of an attitude.
Describe key attitudes that affect organizational performance.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
4
Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)
Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.
Identify the main consequences of job satisfaction.
Identify four employee responses to job dissatisfaction.
Describe how organizations can manage diversity effectively.
Identify the benefits of cultural intelligence.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
5
Values
Values
Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence
Concepts or beliefs that guide how we make decisions about and evaluations of behaviours and events.
Two frameworks for understanding values
Milton Rokeach’s Value Survey (RVS)
Kent Hodgson’s general moral principles
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LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values.”
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Rokeach Value Survey
Types of values
Terminal: goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime
Instrumental: preferable ways of behaving
Importance of values
Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour.
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LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values.”
7
Hodgson’s General Moral Principles
Ethics
The study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour, and inform us whether our actions are right or wrong
Ethical values are related to moral judgments about right and wrong
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LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values.”
8
Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Culture (1 of 2)
Power distance
Individualism vs. collectivism
Masculinity vs. femininity
Uncertainty avoidance
Long-term vs. short-term orientation
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Assessing Cultural Values.”
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Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Culture (2 of 2)
Recently, Hofstede has added a sixth dimension:
Indulgence vs. restraint
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Assessing Cultural Values.”
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Hofstede’s Cultural Values by Nation (1 of 3)
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Assessing Cultural Values.”
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Hofstede’s Cultural Values by Nation (2 of 3)
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Assessing Cultural Values.”
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Hofstede’s Cultural Values by Nation (3 of 3)
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Assessing Cultural Values.”
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The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures (1 of 2)
Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values in the Canadian Workplace.”
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The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures (2 of 2)
Some GLOBE dimensions resemble Hofstede’s dimensions, such as:
Power distance
Individualism/collectivism
Uncertainty avoidance
GLOBE framework added dimensions such as:
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values in the Canadian Workplace.”
15
Values in the Canadian Workplace
Generational Differences
Cultural Differences
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values in the Canadian Workplace.”
Note: This is an introductory slide to the two general values differences. Slides to follow provide speaking notes for both Generational Differences and Cultural Differences.
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Generational Differences
Baby Boomers (born mid-1940s to mid-1960s)
Achievement and material success are very important
Sense of accomplishment and social recognition rank high with them
Pragmatists who believe ends can justify the means
Generation X (born mid-1960s to late 1970s)
Value flexibility, life options and achievement of job satisfaction
Family and relationships are very important
Less willing to make personal sacrifices for the sake of their employer than Boomers
Millennials (born between 1979 and 1994)
High expectations; seek meaning in their work
Tend to be questioning, electronically networked and entrepreneurial
Socially responsible
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values in the Canadian Workplace.”
Baby Boomers (called Boomers for short) are a large cohort born after World War II. They brought with them a large measure of the “hippie ethic” and distrust of authority. But they placed a great deal of emphasis on achievement and material success. They work hard and want to enjoy the fruits of their labours. They are pragmatists who believe the ends can justify the means. Boomers see the organizations that employ them merely as vehicles for their careers. Terminal values such as a sense of accomplishment and social recognition rank high with them.
Generation X – The lives of Gen-Xers have been shaped by globalization, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers. They value flexibility, life options, and the achievement of job satisfaction. Family and relationships are very important to this cohort. Gen-Xers are skeptical, particularly of authority. They also enjoy team-oriented work. In search of balance in their lives, Gen-Xers are less willing to make personal sacrifices for the sake of their employer than previous generations.
Millennials (Generation Y) – The most recent entrants to the workforce, Millenials grew up during prosperous times. They have high expectations and seek meaning in their work. Millennials have life goals more oriented toward becoming rich (81 percent) and famous (51 percent) than do Gen-Xers (62 percent and 29 percent, respectively), but they also see themselves as socially responsible. Millennials are at ease with diversity and are the first generation to take technology for granted. More than other generations, they tend to be questioning, electronically networked, and entrepreneurial. At the same time, some have described Millennials as entitled and needy. They largely grew up with parents who watched (and praised) their every move.
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Cultural Differences
2011 Census findings on newcomers
20.6 percent of Canadian population is foreign born vs. 12.9 percent for the US
Immigrants make up
46 percent of Toronto’s population
40 percent of Vancouver’s population
22.6 percent of Montreal’s population
2011 Census findings on language
20 percent speak neither English nor French as their first language. Of these:
Largest majority spoke Punjabi, Chinese (not specified) Cantonese, and Spanish
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Values in the Canadian Workplace.”
Canada is a multicultural country. One in five Canadians was born in a foreign country.
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Attitudes
Positive or negative feelings concerning objects, people, or events.
Reflect how we feel about something.
Attitudes can affect job behaviour
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
Attitudes are evaluative statements, either positive or negative, concerning objects, people, or events.
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Components of an Attitude
Cognitive component – the opinion or belief segment of an attitude
Affective component – the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude
Behavioural component – an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
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The Components of an Attitude
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
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Types of Attitudes (1 of 6)
The four important attitudes that affect organizational performance:
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Job Involvement
Perceived Organizational Support
Employee Engagement
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LO5-LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
This is an introductory slide to introduce the general types of attitudes coming in future slides.
In OB the focus is on a limited number of job-related attitudes. The four important attitudes that affect organizational performance are job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement, and employee engagement.
22
Types of Attitudes (2 of 6)
Job Satisfaction
An individual’s positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
Job Satisfaction (a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics)
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Canadian Job Satisfaction
In 2011, a survey found that Canadians are not all that satisfied with their jobs:
36 percent said they were thinking about leaving their employers
20 percent were ambivalent about staying or going
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3 – ‹#›
LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
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What Causes Job Satisfaction? (1 of 2)
A strong correspondence between how well people enjoy the social context of their workplace and how satisfied they are overall.
Interdependence
Feedback
Social support
Interaction with co-workers outside the workplace
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
25
What Causes Job Satisfaction? (2 of 2)
Key Sources of Job Satisfaction
Work itself, pay advancement opportunities, supervision, co-workers
Enjoying the work itself is almost always most strongly correlated with high levels of job satisfaction.
Once a person reaches a level of comfortable living the relationship between pay and satisfaction virtually disappears.
People with positive core self-evaluations believe in their inner worth and basic competence, and are more satisfied with their work.
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
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Consequences of Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction affects
Individual productivity
Organizational productivity
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB)
Customer satisfaction
Absenteeism and turnover
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
Individual productivity: The evidence suggests that the link between an individual’s job satisfaction and their productivity is slightly positive.
Organizational productivity: The link between satisfaction and productivity is much stronger when we look not at individuals, but the organization as a whole.
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB): When employees feel that their employer is behaving fairly, they are more satisfied, and will then engage in OCB.
Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction: Job satisfaction leads to better treatment of customers, which leads to greater customer satisfaction.
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Job Satisfaction and Productivity
Job satisfaction affects both individual and organizational productivity
Happy workers are more likely to be productive workers
Generalizable across international contexts
Organizational results also show that organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
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Job Satisfaction and OCB
OCBs are discretionary behaviours that are not part of an employee’s formal job requirements
Job satisfaction is a major determinant of an employee’s OCBs, due to:
Fairness perceptions
Good mood
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3 – ‹#›
LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
29
Job Satisfaction and Customer Service
Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.
More likely to be:
Friendly
Upbeat
Responsive
Less prone to turnover
Customers receive experienced help and familiar faces
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
30
Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism and Turnover
The relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is stronger than between satisfaction and absenteeism
Satisfaction-absenteeism relationship – You can find work satisfying yet still want to enjoy a three-day weekend
Satisfaction-turnover relationship – Also affected by an employee’s alternative job prospects, high human capital investment, and their embeddedness in their jobs and communities
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
31
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction
Exit
Voice
Loyalty
Neglect
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
Exit: Expressed by actively attempting to leave the organization
Voice: Expressed by actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions
Loyalty: Expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve
Neglect: Expressed by passively allowing conditions to worsen
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Figure 3-6 Responses to Job Dissatisfaction
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
Exit: Expressed by actively attempting to leave the organization
Voice: Expressed by actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions
Loyalty: Expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve
Neglect: Expressed by passively allowing conditions to worsen
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Types of Attitudes (3 of 6)
Organizational Commitment
A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to remain a member of the organization.
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3 – ‹#›
LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
In OB the focus is on a limited number of job-related attitudes. The major ones are job satisfaction (a general positive or negative attitude toward a job) and organizational commitment (the degree to which an individual identifies with an organization).
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Organizational Commitment
Three types of commitment
Affective commitment
An individual’s emotional attachment to an organization and a belief in its values
Normative commitment
The obligation an individual feels to staying with an organization for moral or ethical reasons.
Continuance commitment
An individual’s perceived economic value of remaining with an organization.
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
Professor John Meyer at the University of Western Ontario and his colleagues have identified and developed measures for three types of commitment.
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Types of Attitudes (4 of 6)
Job Involvement
Measures the degree to which people identify with a job, actively participate in it, and consider performance important to self-worth
Psychological empowerment – employees’ beliefs in the degree to which they influence their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their perceived autonomy.
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
36
Types of Attitudes (5 of 6)
Perceived Organizational Support
Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributions and care about their well-being.
Employees perceive their organization as supportive when:
rewards are deemed fair
employees have voice in decisions
employees view their supervisors as supportive
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
37
Types of Attitudes (6 of 6)
Employee engagement
An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for work he or she does
Highly engaged employees have a passion for their work and feel a deep connection to the company.
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
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Employee Engagement
Firms that have employees with a higher level of engagement tend to see positive results:
Higher customer satisfaction
More productive employees
Higher profits
Lower levels of turnover and accidents
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Attitudes.”
39
Managing Diversity in the Workplace (1 of 3)
Organizations increasingly face diversity concerns as workplaces become more heterogeneous.
Most obvious are biographical characteristics such as age, gender, race, disability, and length of service
Other differences include religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity
Diversity in ability
Protected groups – women, people with disabilities, Aboriginal people, and visible minorities
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Managing Diversity in the Workplace.”
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Managing Diversity in the Workplace (2 of 3)
Effective Diversity Programs include promoting:
legal framework for equal employment opportunity and encourage fair treatment of all people
how a diverse workforce will be better able to serve a diverse market of customers and clients
personal development practices that bring out the skills and abilities of all workers
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Managing Diversity in the Workplace.”
41
Managing Diversity in the Workplace (3 of 3)
Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
The ability to understand someone’s unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures in the same way as would people from his or her culture
Particularly helpful to expatriates on international assignment, due to being able to be confident about and interested in being in new cultural environments
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Managing Diversity in the Workplace.”
42
Cultural Intelligence Profiles
According to Earley and Mosakowski, most managers fall into the following cultural intelligence profiles:
Provincial
Analyst
Natural
Ambassador
Mimic
Chameleon
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Managing Diversity in the Workplace.”
43
Measuring Your Cultural Intelligence
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Managing Diversity in the Workplace.”
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Global Implications
Is Job Satisfaction a US concept?
Although most of the research on job satisfaction has been conducted in the US, evidence suggests people in other cultures can and do form judgments of job satisfaction.
Are Employees in Western Cultures More Satisfied with Their Jobs?
Employees in Western cultures have higher levels of job satisfaction than those of Eastern cultures.
Is Diversity Managed Differently across Cultures?
There are international differences in how diversity is managed.
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LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”
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Summary
Values represent basic convictions about what is important, right, and good.
Attitudes tend to predict behaviours.
Job satisfaction leads to better performance.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Review (1 of 2)
What is the difference between Rokeach’s terminal and instrumental values?
What are Hofstede’s five value dimensions for assessing cultures?
What values are unique to Canadian culture?
What are the three components of an attitude? Are these components related or unrelated?
What are the key attitudes that affect organizational performance? In what ways are these attitudes alike? What is unique about each?
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3 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
47
OB at Work: For Review (2 of 2)
What causes job satisfaction? For most people, is pay or the work itself more important?
What outcomes does job satisfaction influence? What implications do the consequences of job satisfaction have for management?
What are the four employee responses to job dissatisfaction?
How do organizations manage diversity effectively?
What are the benefits of cultural intelligence?
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3 – ‹#›
Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
48
OB at Work: For Managers (1 of 2)
Pay attention to your employees’ job satisfaction levels as determinants of their performance, turnover, absenteeism, and withdrawal behaviours.
Measure employee job attitudes objectively and at regular intervals in order to determine how employees are reacting to their work.
To raise an employee’s job satisfaction, evaluate the fit between the employee’s work interests and the intrinsic parts of his/her job to create work that is challenging and interesting to the employee.
Consider the fact that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
49
OB at Work: For Managers (2 of 2)
Understand your organization’s anti-discrimination policies thoroughly and share them with your employees.
Look beyond readily observable biographical characteristics and consider the individual’s capabilities before making management decisions.
Fully evaluate what accommodations a person with disabilities will need and then fine-tune a job to that person’s abilities.
Seek to understand and respect the unique biographical characteristics of your employees; a fair but individual-oriented approach yields the best performance.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
50
Breakout Group Exercises
Form small groups to discuss the following topics. Each person in the group should first identify 3 to 5 key personal values.
Identify the extent to which values overlap in your group.
Try to uncover with your group members the source of some of your key values (e.g., parents, peer group, teachers, church).
What kind of workplace would be most suitable for the values that you hold most closely?
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
51
Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications
Eighth Canadian Edition
Chapter 4
Theories of Motivation
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1
Chapter Outline (1 of 2)
What Is Motivation?
Needs Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Summarizing Needs Theories
Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Self-Efficacy Theory
Reinforcement Theory
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “SnapShot Summary” at the end of the chapter
2
Chapter Outline (2 of 2)
Responses to the Reward System
Equity Theory
Fair Process and Treatment
Self-Determination Theory
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation for Whom?
Putting It All Together
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “SnapShot Summary” at the end of the chapter
3
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)
Describe the three key elements of motivation.
Evaluate the applicability of early theories of motivation.
Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
Describe goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement theory.
Describe why equity and fairness matter in the workplace.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
4
Learning Outcomes (3 of 2)
Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.
Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
Discuss the ethics behind motivation theories.
Summarize the essence of what we know about motivating employees.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.
5
What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal:
Intensity: How hard a person tries
Direction: Where effort is channelled
Persistence: How long effort is maintained
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LO1: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”
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Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X Assumptions
Employees dislike work
Employees attempt to avoid work
Employees must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Theory Y Assumptions
Employees like to work
Employees are creative, and seek responsibility
Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.
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LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”
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Motivators
Intrinsic Motivators
A person’s internal desire to do something
interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction
Extrinsic Motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person
pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards
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LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”
Ask students whether they’re motivated more by intrinsic or extrinsic factors, and the conditions where this would vary.
8
Needs Theories of Motivation
Basic idea
Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Note: This is an introductory slide to introduce the Needs Theories of Motivation. Further slides will provide detail on each theory.
The early needs theories, developed in the 1950s, are often heavily attacked and are now questionable in terms of validity. However, these are probably the best-known explanations for employee motivation, and they do represent the foundation from which contemporary theories have grown. Also, practising managers use these theories in explaining employee motivation.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1 of 2)
Physiological
Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
Safety
Includes security and protection from physical & emotional harm
Social
Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
Esteem
Includes internal esteem factors: self-respect, autonomy, and achievement
Includes external esteem factors: status, recognition, and attention
Self-actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming
Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Abraham Maslow’s theory is perhaps the best known of all. He hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (2 of 2)
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivators
Sources of satisfaction
Intrinsic factors (content of work)
Achievement
Recognition
Challenging, varied, or interesting work
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Hygiene factors
Sources of dissatisfaction
Extrinsic factors (context of work)
Company policy and administration
Unhappy relationship with employee’s supervisor
Poor interpersonal relations with one’s peers
Poor working conditions
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Motivation-Hygiene Theory was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg after investigating the question, “What do people want from their jobs?” Factors affecting job attitudes were tabulated and classified. Herzberg concluded that the replies people gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad.
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Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Herzberg’s data suggested that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. The factors that were cited as leading to extreme dissatisfaction had very little relation to those factors cited as leading to extreme satisfaction.
13
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Herzberg proposed the existence of a dual continuum: The opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No Satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction.”
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Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Procedure Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.
Reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.
No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
Herzberg assumed that a relationship exists between satisfaction and productivity.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
15
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
David McClelland proposes three needs as being important in organizational settings for understanding motivation. These are
need for achievement (nAch), to achieve in relation to set of standards,
need for power (nPow), the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise, and
need for affiliation (nAff), the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
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Relationship of Various Needs Theories
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
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Summarizing Needs Theories
All the needs theories propose a similar idea: Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation.
Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs.
Herzberg: Motivators lead to satisfaction. Hygiene factors must be met if a person is not to be dissatisfied. However, they will not lead to satisfaction.
McClelland’s: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or power.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
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Summary: Impact of Needs Theories
Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Most managers are familiar with it.
Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.
McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they do personally.
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Summary: Support and Criticism of Needs Theories
Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data was collected and interpreted.
Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: assumes a link between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or demonstrated.
McClelland’s: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.
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LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”
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Process Theories of Motivation
Look at the actual process of motivation
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory
Self-efficacy theory
Reinforcement theory
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Note: This is an introductory slide to Process Theories of Motivation. There follow specific slides that provide speaking notes for the three process theories listed.
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Expectancy Theory
The theory that employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort if they believe the following:
That their effort will lead to good performance
That good performance will be followed by a given outcome (organizational rewards such as salary increase)
That the reward will satisfy employee’s personal goals
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
This theory concerns an attractiveness, performance-reward and effort-performance linkage. The likelihood a person will act in a certain way depends on the strength of his or her expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
22
Expectancy Relationships
The theory focuses on three relationships:
Effort-Performance Relationship (Expectancy)
The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance
Performance-Reward Relationship (Instrumentality)
The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to organizational rewards
Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship (Valence)
The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and are attractive to the individual
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
23
Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory
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LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
This is a good exhibit to use in class. Ask students questions like:
-What if I asked you to write a paper?
-A book?
-To change the oil in your car?
-To build a car?
Have them relate their responses in terms of expectancy theory.
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Importance of Providing Performance Feedback
An effective performance review:
Employee perceives the appraisal as fair
Manager is sincere
Climate is constructive
Performance review should be more like a counselling activity than a judgment process, allowing the review to evolve out of the employee’s own self-evaluation.
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
25
Goal-Setting Theory (1 of 2)
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.
Specific goals increase performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.
Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
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Management by Objectives
A program that encompasses:
Specific goals (tangible, verifiable, and measurable)
Participative decision-making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
Management by objectives (MBO) emphasizes employee participation in setting goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. The idea was originally proposed by Peter Drucker more than forty years ago as a means of using goals to motivate people rather than to control them. Its appeal lies in its emphasis on converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members. The model conceptualizes a “cascading” of objectives down through the organization.
For the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance objectives.
MBO is a popular technique found in business, health care, educational, government, and non-profit organizations. Failures are often the result of unrealistic expectations regarding results, lack of top management commitment, and an inability or unwillingness by management to allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment.
27
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?
Goals:
Direct attention
Regulate effort
Increase persistence
Encourage the development of strategies and action plans
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
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Goals Should Be SMART
For goals to be effective, they should be SMART:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results-oriented
Time-bound
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
SMART goals are very popular in the business world, so you might have students work at remembering the acronym.
29
Locke’s Model of Goal Setting
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Goal-Setting Theory (2 of 2)
People differ in how they regulate their thoughts and behaviours during goal pursuit.
Promotion focus – strive for advancement and accomplishment, and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals
Prevention focus – strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
31
Self-Efficacy Theory
Also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
The higher your self-efficacy the more confident you are in your ability to succeed in a task
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
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Four Ways to Improve Self-Efficacy
Enactive mastery
Gaining relevant experience
Vicarious modelling
Confidence gained by seeing someone else perform the task
Verbal persuasion
Confidence gained because someone convinces you that you have the necessary skills to succeed
Arousal
An energized state can drive a person to complete the task
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”
33
Joint Efforts of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance
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Reinforcement Theory
Behaviour is a function of its consequences
Skinner suggested that people learn how to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.
This idea is known as operant conditioning:
Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
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Methods of Shaping Behaviour
Positive reinforcement
Following a response with something pleasant
Negative reinforcement
Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant
Punishment
Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour
Extinction
Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
There are four ways in which to shape behaviour.
Exhibit 4-10 on the next slide gives examples of each type of reinforcement.
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Types of Reinforcement
EXHIBIT 4-10 Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Type Example
Positive reinforcement A manager praises an employee for a job well done.
Negative reinforcement An instructor asks a question and a student looks through her lecture notes to avoid being called on. She has learned that looking busily through her notes prevents the instructor from calling on her.
Punishment A manager gives an employee a two-day suspension from work without pay for showing up drunk.
Extinction An instructor ignores students who raise their hands to ask questions. Hand-raising becomes extinct.
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
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Schedules of Reinforcement (1 of 2)
The two major types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermittent.
Continuous reinforcement: reinforces desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated
Intermittent reinforcement: ratio or interval type
The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behaviour.
The individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaviour after a particular time has elapsed.
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
See Exhibit 4-11 Schedules of Reinforcement, on slide 40.
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Fixed and Variable Reinforcements
A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable.
Fixed-interval schedule
Variable-interval schedule
Fixed-ratio schedule
Variable-ratio schedule
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
Fixed-interval schedule: The reward is given at fixed time intervals.
Variable-interval schedule: The reward is given at variable time intervals.
Fixed-ratio schedule: The reward is given at fixed amounts of output.
Variable-ratio schedule: The reward is given at variable amounts of input.
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Schedules of Reinforcement (2 of 2)
EXHIBIT 4-11 Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Schedule Nature of Reinforcement Effect on Behaviour Example
Continuous Reward given after each desired behaviour Fast learning of new behaviour but rapid extinction Compliments
Fixed-interval Reward given at fixed time intervals Average and irregular performance with rapid extinction Weekly paycheques
Variable-interval Reward given at variable time intervals Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction Pop quizzes
Fixed-ratio Reward given at fixed amounts of output High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction Piece-rate pay
Variable-ratio Reward given at variable amounts of output Very high performance with slow extinction Commissioned sales
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LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”
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Responses to the Reward System
Equity Theory
Fair Process and Treatment
Self-Determination Theory
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Note: This is an introductory slide. Additional slides follow which provide speaking notes for each of the theories listed above.
41
Equity Theory (1 of 2)
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
42
Equity Theory (2 of 2)
Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
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Equity Comparisons
Self-inside
An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization.
Self-outside
An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization.
Other-inside
Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.
Other-outside
Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.
44
Responses to Inequity
Change their inputs.
Change their outcomes.
Adjust perceptions of self.
Adjust perceptions of others.
Choose a different referent.
Leave the field.
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LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
• Change their inputs (for example, don’t exert as much effort).
• Change their outcomes (for example, individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality).
• Adjust perceptions of self (for example, “I used to think I worked at a moderate pace but now I realize that I work a lot more slowly than everyone else”).
• Adjust perceptions of others (for example, “Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I previously thought it was”).
• Choose a different referent (for example, “I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my dad did when he was my age”).
• Leave the field (for example, quit the job).
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Fair Process and Treatment (1 of 2)
Equity theory is an important precursor to the study of organizational justice: an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.
Employees evaluate how fairly they are treated along four dimensions:
Distributive justice
Procedural justice
Informational justice
Interpersonal justice
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
46
Fair Process and Treatment (2 of 2)
Employees are concerned with what they receive:
Distributive justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of resources among individuals.
Employees are also concerned about how outcomes are distributed:
Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards
Informational justice: degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions
Interpersonal justice: degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
47
Model of Organizational Justice
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LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
48
Self-Determination Theory (1 of 2)
People prefer to feel they have control over their actions
If a previously enjoyed task feels more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity, it will undermine motivation.
Much research on self-determination theory in OB has focused on cognitive evaluation theory.
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
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Self-Determination Theory (2 of 2)
The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work effort that was previously rewarded intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s motivation.
Intrinsic Motivators
A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction.
Extrinsic Motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
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Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation (1 of 2)
Sense of choice
Sense of competence
Sense of meaningfulness
Sense of progress
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
Managers can act in ways that will build these intrinsic rewards for their employees.
51
Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation (2 of 2)
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LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”
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Motivation for Whom?
Who benefits from theories of motivation?
They help managers get more productivity from employees
Little concern with employees beyond improvements to productivity
Researchers propose organizations have a moral obligation to make workplaces better for employees and provide meaningful work
Focus on improving conditions of workplace
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LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivation for Whom?”
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Putting It All Together
What we know about motivating employees in organizations:
Recognize individual differences.
Employees have different needs.
Don’t treat them all alike.
Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee.
Use goals and feedback.
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.
Link rewards to desired performance.
Check the system for equity.
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivation for Whom?”
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Global Implications
Needs Theories
Theories align with Canadian and US cultures, but not all
Goal Setting
Setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have different effects in different cultures.
Equity Theory and Fairness
Equity means different things to different cultures
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Cultural differences in manager’s perception of employee motivation.
Cross-Cultural Consistencies
Don’t assume that there are no cross-cultural consistencies.
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LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications”
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Summary
Recognize individual differences
Goals and feedback help motivate individuals
Rewards signal what is important to the employer (or leader)
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Review (1 of 2)
What are the three key elements of motivation?
What are some early theories of motivation? How applicable are they today?
What are the key tenets of expectancy theory?
What are the key principles of goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement theory?
Why do equity and fairness matter in the workplace?
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Review (2 of 2)
How is organizational justice a refinement of equity theory?
How do the predictions of self-determination theory apply to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards?
What are some of the ethical issues with motivation theories?
What is the essence of what we know about motivating employees?
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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OB at Work: For Managers
Consider goal-setting theory: Clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.
Consider how reinforcement theory applies to the quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.
Consult equity theory to help you understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.
Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
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Breakout Group Exercises (1 of 2)
Form small groups to discuss the following topics:
One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings and does not turn drafts of assignments in on time. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the member’s current behaviour and how the theory could be used to motivate the group member to perform more responsibly.
You are unhappy with the performance of one of your instructors and would like to encourage the instructor to present more lively classes. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the instructor’s current behaviour. How could you as a student use the theory to motivate the instructor to present more lively classes?
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Breakout Group Exercises (2 of 2)
Harvard University recently changed its grading policy to recommend to instructors that the average course mark should be a B. This was the result of a study showing that more than 50 percent of students were receiving an A or A− for coursework. Harvard students are often referred to as “the best and the brightest,” and they pay $27 000 (US) for their education, so they expect high grades. Discuss the impact of this change in policy on the motivation of Harvard students to study harder.
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Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.
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