Faculty of Arts
Study Guide
VISA 1301
Material and Form
Study Guide
VISA 1301
Material and Form
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TRU seeks to ensure that any course content that is owned by others has been
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of such third party material must obtain clearance from the copyright holder.
The 1988 edition of this course was developed in cooperation between Emily Carr College
of Art and Design, the Open Learning Agency, and the Provincial Education Media Centre,
with the assistance of the Ministry of Advanced Education and Job Training.
Course Development Team, 2nd edition, revised 2014:
Course Reviser:
Program Coordinator, Faculty of Arts:
Associate Dean, Arts:
Course Editor:
Media:
James Lindfield, MA
Michael Looney, MSc
Ronald McGivern, MA
Dawn-Louise McLeod, MEd
Jon Fulton, BFA; Rob Swanson
Course Development Team, 1st edition
Writer and Presenter:
Program Co-ordinator, Humanities (OU):
Program Director, Telecourses (ECCAD):
Television Director:
Course Designer:
Tom Hudson, PhD
Sharon Meen, PhD
Elisa McLaren
Bernard Motut
Norah Kembar
Course Reference: VISA 1301 SW1
Thompson Rivers University
805 TRU Way
Kamloops, BC, Canada
V2C 0C8
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Wood …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. U1-1
Unit 2: Metal …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. U2-1
Unit 3: Plastic ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. U3-1
Unit 4: Paper ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… U4-1
Unit 5: Fibres …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. U5-1
Unit 6: Particles …………………………………………………………………………………………………. U6-1
Unit 7: Stone ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… U7-1
Unit 8: Earth ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… U8-1
Unit 9: Liquid ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. U9-1
Unit 10: Space …………………………………………………………………………………………………. U10-1
Faculty of Arts
Unit 1:
Wood
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-1
Unit 1: Wood
Introduction
Note: DVD 1 includes two video programs: Introduction and Wood.
Wood begins its existence as a living, breathing organism, and the role of trees
involves all other breathing things, including ourselves. We have become
increasingly aware of our dependence on trees and their part in the ecological
balance. The mighty forests that once covered about sixty per cent of the earth’s land
mass have now shrunk to six per cent and are still decreasing. So it may seem rather
ironic that to suggest exploring the qualities of wood and find further uses for it.
However, the intimacy of working with wood may induce a greater respect for it;
creative activity generally uses relatively little wood, and the results demonstrate the
admirable qualities of the material.
Note: In this course, terms that are in bold font type are in your Glossary;
other terms may be in italics. (Bold font is also used for emphasis.) Remember
to refer to the Glossary whenever you encounter new terms in this course.
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Wood
Sources of Wood
Trees are evergreen and deciduous, broad-leafed and coniferous, and their trunks are the
source of wood. This organic material consists of bundles of fibres, running in the direction
of growth of the original tree. Trees are the tallest of all plants; they are also the most
durable of living structures. The oldest living thing on earth is possibly a bristlecone pine
about 4,600 years old, in California’s White Mountains. The largest living thing is a giant
California sequoia, a redwood close to eighty-five metres high and over thirty-one metres in
diameter at the base—though a cypress in Oaxaca, Mexico, is twelve metres in diameter at
one metre above ground level. Probably even more amazing, a single banyan tree sending
out shoots can create a mini-forest covering close to three hectares.
The durability of trees is part of their protective survival. They can withstand most
weather conditions, reaching up to acquire a substantial share of the changing energy of
sun and rain. But as with all organic things, their sequence of growth leads to changes of
form, to deteriorations and decay—the vulnerable cycle of all living things. People are
often horrified by decay, but decay is as necessary and as functional as growth.
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U1-2 Unit 1: Wood
The growth pattern of a tree determines the nature and structure of the wood—its
texture, density, and structural direction. See illustration 1 at the end of this unit to
view a detailed cross-section of the five essential parts of the tree trunk, which are
listed next:
1. The protective outer bark
2. The inner bark, or phloem, which provides an easy passage for the sap to
feed new wood cells
3. The cambium—only one cell thick, this layer powers the growth of the tree,
continuously producing wood and phloem cells
4. The sapwood—or soft, “active” layer—where the sap flows into the annual
growth ring; in a period of fast growth, the annuals are wider apart; slow
growth brings the rings closer together
5. The heartwood, which is the dead centre of the trunk; it gives the tree
strength and rigidity
A felled tree of wet, green wood dries out and shrinks, so it has to be seasoned—that
is, subjected to controlled drying. Once a slow process, seasoning can now be
carried out in days or even hours by accelerated drying in kilns. However, even
seasoned timber is liable to warp—by twisting, cupping, or bowing.
Classification of Wood
Wood is classified as softwood or hardwood, depending on the tree source rather
than on its actual hardness, as might be expected. Some softwoods are harder than
some hardwoods!
• Broad-leaf trees such as oak, walnut, birch, maple, cherry, and mahogany
produce hardwoods.
• Coniferous trees such as pine, cedar, fir, and redwood produce softwoods,
regardless of their actual hardness.
Wood of all types is used by carpenters, joiners, cabinet makers, and craftspeople,
such as instrument and tool makers. It is also used extensively for construction by
builders, engineers, and architects. Designers use it, often in relation to other
materials, while artists exploit it for their own individual and aesthetic purposes.
Characteristics of Wood
Because of its structure, wood splits easily in the direction of growth. According to
how timber is cut, the fibrous nature of wood provides a varied organic pattern,
known as the grain. The decorative quality of the grain has always been exploited by
craftspeople and artists. Grain varies naturally, according to the type of tree and its
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-3
pattern of growth. Straight-growing pines and similar trees have a relatively simple
grain pattern. The grains of walnut, sycamore, or pear are more complex and have a
more attractive grain. The decorative appeal of grain is essentially the appeal of
abstract pattern. The grain of the wood may also show the dark forms of knots, the
cut-through remains of earlier branch growth.
Trees are also subject to checks, or cracks and splits, which vary in form and
position. Star-shaped checks may appear in the central heartwood, long lateral
checks can occur radially around the trunk, and other checks may follow part of the
internal line of an annual ring.
Although wood is generally less durable than inorganic materials, under certain conditions,
it can last for a long time. It has less load-bearing strength than steel, but, weight for weight,
it is structurally strong. Apart from its grain, fibrous structure, and other observable
objective qualities, it can also possess a softness of texture and be warm to the touch. It can
be rigid or flexible, hard or soft. In colour and form, it varies from dense, black ebony to
hollow, pale bamboo; in weight, from heavy teak to light balsa wood.
Working with Wood
There are many ways of cutting timber, demonstrated by computer imagery in the
video Wood. Illustration 2 at the end of this course unit also shows examples of
timber-cutting methods. Some of these methods result in higher-quality wood
products than others.
• Through and through cutting is most common and cheapest.
• Plain sawn timber is a little more expensive.
• Flat sawn boards, cut at a tangent to the growth layers, are liable to warp.
• Radially cut board remains flat.
• Quarter sawn timber has to be turned many times to achieve warp-free
boards; quarter sawing can be achieved by cutting radially around the log,
toward the centre.
• Round the log sawing provides a varied range of sections, suitable for different
purposes.
Wood is now rarely worked from the block, except for turning and carving. The
trunk of a tree, however, can be cut by a process that “uncoils” thin, wide sheets
from the bark to the central pith. These are superimposed one on another,
alternating the direction of the grain, then glued under pressure to make plywood.
Both strong and light, plywood provides large, even surfaces that are easily sawn.
Besides plywood, various compressed boards are made from strips, chips, or
particles of wood. All are used in construction.
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U1-4 Unit 1: Wood
Thin sheets of expensive, richly grained, and beautifully coloured hardwoods are cut
by rotating the wood against a stationary knife after steaming. Damp steam heat is
used to make wood pliable, so that it can be formed into sheets and used in
bentwood furniture. These sheets are called veneers, which are usually laminated to
the surfaces of inferior woods.
In joinery and cabinet making, there are two basic requirements:
• To make skeleton frames, at right angles, for door frames and other
supporting framework; flat areas of wood are used for covering and surfaces
• To construct frames of flat sections of wood joined vertically and at right
angles to make container forms, such as boxes, drawers, desks, and cabinets
To really appreciate wood, to understand and exploit it, you must learn its
characteristics by actual physical experience. You need to be open to possibilities,
responding in your own way to its characteristics by variously cutting, splitting,
bending, gluing, tying, binding, and so on. Remember that technology is really
about bringing things in relationship to each other in particular ways. Artists and
designers have always faced the problem of selecting the best material to realize
their concept or idea from the large variety of materials available.
The design, construction, and form of the materials and objects produced from trees
didn’t just happen—they were evolved through trial and error. They also represent
best-possible solutions of their time. However, that doesn’t mean that we cannot
find new solutions in our own time and from our own experience. Each new
generation has to rediscover everything and tends to remake everything. We make,
build, and construct from our current points of view, according to our needs.
Assignment 1: Wood
Introduction
In Assignment 1, you are required to complete one of three sections.
Detailed instructions on how to work through the assignment are available under
the heading “Instructions.” Before you begin work on your assignment, read
carefully through all of the following instructions for this assignment.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-5
Sections
Complete one of the following three sections:
• Section 1: Tying, Binding, and Constructing Forms
OR
• Section 2: Joining Forms (choose either Project 2-A, 2-B, or 2-C)
OR
• Section 3: Transforming Wooden Furniture
Notebook and Documentation
Before you start work, make sure that you have read “How to Work on Your
Assignments” and “Assignment Documentation Requirements” in the Course
Manual. For this and every assignment in this course, you must submit
documentation of your work.
While working on your assignment, use photographs to document your working
processes. See Course Manual “Techniques for taking Stronger Photographs.”
Ensure that you watch Tom Hudson’s suggestions regarding documentation toward
the end of the video Introduction. Your notebook pages can include brief written
notes, drawings, and diagrams. You can also use video. We recommend that you
wait to send in your work until after you have completed both Unit 1 and Unit 2. If
you are following the suggested schedule you should have finished Unit 1 by the
end of Week One.
Improvisation and Research
When you watch the videos, you’ll notice that the on-camera students use
improvisation to achieve immediate responses to a given material. In the case of
wood, we use a length of rigid dowel as this material.
In this instance, it’s more important for you to experiment with different ways you
can work with wood. For example, you can explore the materials by trying out
primary processes, such as binding, tying, weaving, plaiting, joining, sawing,
cutting, splicing, and so on.
Wood is available in so many forms that it is sensible to give some thought to the
range available before you start your assignment. You may have to collect materials
sometime beforehand from the forest, building sites, lumber yards, or hardware
stores. Make your initial choice of the material you will use for your first
experiments rapidly. If you choose Section 2 of this assignment, it will be possible
for you to change to other material later.
TRU Open Learning
U1-6 Unit 1: Wood
Instructions
Section 1: Tying, Binding, and Constructing Forms
The purpose of this section is to introduce you to ways of creating relationships and
forms in wood by using low-technology methods.
1. Start by gathering wood in natural forms, such as twigs and branches found
on the forest floor. You will be able to select among forms that vary widely in
their scale, flexibility or rigidity, and weight, depending on the type of tree
and the age of the material; that is, how much it has dried out.
2. Break, cut, or saw the pieces of twig or branch and experiment with basic
joining methods of tying and binding. You can use string, hemp, cord, or any
other linear material. Don’t overlook wire as a fastener. Thin black iron wire,
such as baling wire, is soft and can be manipulated easily: one wrap around
and a twist of the pliers should hold two pieces together.
3. When choosing your fastening material, consider how well it relates to the
wooden pieces. Do they look right together? Why or why not?
4. Tie first for functional efficiency using a minimum amount of material, then
give some thought to the aesthetics of the problem. Look for ways of tying
and binding that create solutions that look better to you.
5. Start thinking about relationships, both the ones created by bringing wood
and binding materials together and relationships of form. Try making a series
of linear, geometric, spatial forms, or irregular constructions. If you have a
supply of flexible material, it will be easy to make curved, arched, circular,
and spherical forms.
6. Look at the forms you have created from different viewpoints, or turn them in your
hand. Are you working three dimensionally? Can you add other forms or parts of
forms to improve your least preferred views of your constructions?
7. Still working on a relatively small scale, begin developing more variations,
freely and intuitively.
8. Then, review all you have done by setting out the forms in the order in which
you made them. Try to see where you did things in a logical way, or where
there is a growth or change of forms. Have you developed a range of
methods of tying? Has your technique improved from one piece to the next?
9. Decide which pieces interest you the most and carry out some variations on
their themes. Try inverting or rotating forms or try combining two or more
forms together in different ways. Which do you like best? Or, do something
quite different from what you have already done. At this point, after
appraising your work, you may want to change the scale to some extent.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-7
10. If you haven’t done so already, start thinking about what could be done to
extend the forms you have so far produced—for example, how they might be
used as parts of a system.
11. Develop three to six examples that differ in form, or are variations on a single
theme. The number will depend on the degree of difficulty, your speed of
working, and so on.
Photographic Documentation and Notebook
• Remember to include: photographic documentation of your research and
work product.
• Make sure your notebook pages contain the following entries:
o Exploratory studies of ideas based on your work so far, and some ideas
from your thinking, imaging mind about your process and discoveries
Optional entry:
• Small-scale exploratory studies with materials
Section 2: Joining Forms
This section gives you the opportunity of bringing forms into relationship with one another
by using joining methods. For Section 2, choose one of the following three projects:
• Project 2-A: Join Like Forms
OR
• Project 2-B: Join Unlike Forms
OR
• Project 2-C: Join Unlike Material and Unlike Forms
In the Section 2 projects, you are expected to use creative, personal technology versus
standard wood-joinery technology. That said, if you choose to work with joining forms, it
would be sensible for you to become familiar with the standard methods.
Standard woodworking joints have evolved because of their functional efficiency.
Illustrations 3 and 4 at the end of this unit show examples of several variations of
wood joints—and common principles shared by similar types.
The joints you develop must be efficient, too; however, you are also expected to research the
visual and plastic aspects of your work, in order to show the functional and the aesthetic in
your pieces. (In sculptural works, visual refers the three-dimensionality of the materials
used, and plastic refers to the malleability of the materials, to how they can be shaped and
changed.) On the functional level, the joints you construct must be efficient, and they must
work. On the aesthetic or sculptural level, your development must show a sense of
structure in the materials you have brought into relationship.
TRU Open Learning
U1-8 Unit 1: Wood
Tips on balancing the functional and aesthetic
To make a wood joint of some degree of functional efficiency, you must first
prepare your wood. Even if your material is already planed, you should
check it for square—you will need a face side and a face edge to work from.
If you are working with natural, organic material, you may consider it
aesthetically preferable to have a rough finish or even a degree of
primitivism. Rough sawing or adze, gouge, and other tool marks may appeal
more than an overall smooth finish.
Project 2-A: Join Like Forms
The purpose of this project option is to give you an opportunity to work with similar
forms of wood.
• Decide on two forms that are identical and cut from standard timber stock.
Work on a small scale for research. For example, take two pieces of easily
worked wood, such as cedar, which might be 5 cm in square section, or 3 cm
by 6 cm, or 3 cm by 10 cm. Initially, they should be 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches)
long, for holding with a vise or clamps.
Note: You can easily find imperial to metric conversion tables online, which
can be useful, as both measurement systems are still used.
• You may be able to develop new variations on the common principles of
joining wood; for example, a new type of mortise. You may also add one or
more additional pieces, such as wedges, to make a joint effective. Remember
to give some thought to the nature and colour of the materials you are using.
• Try to present joints and forms that do not directly repeat tradition, by
providing completely new forms.
• If you decide you want to join like pieces of circular-section bamboo,
remember that nails are never used in working with bamboo. Binding with
linear material is required, but it is acceptable to cut the material with a knife
or saw, and to drill holes.
• Develop three to six examples, depending on your speed of working, degree
of complexity, and time available.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-9
Project 2-B: Join Unlike Forms
The purpose of this project option is to give you an opportunity to create your own
technology in working with wood of different dimensions and forms.
• Begin by deciding on your material. Choose material no less than 15 cm (6
inches) in length; otherwise, make your selection from standard timber stock.
There is an immense range of possibilities. You may wish to do variations on
a particular theme or relationship. One of the on-camera students used sheet
plywood with a regular cube; however, you could use sheet plywood with
any square, round, or triangular section material, or with a solid.
• When you select your materials, take characteristics of workability, colour,
and grain into consideration.
• Remember that you can make each of your experiments with pairs of
different wood sections and forms. For example, try joining machine-
processed timber of geometric character with some natural forms of wood,
such as a piece 10 cm in diameter cut from a small log or a natural “fork.” Or,
you might try combining flexible branches with rigid, machined timber, or
bamboo with dowelling.
• Develop six examples.
Project 2-C: Join Unlike Material and Unlike Forms
The purpose of this project option is to give you an opportunity to experiment with
new relationships between wood and other materials, using some form of wood as
your basic material.
• Consider the range of wood pieces you have available and the infinite variety
of other materials that exist. You can use any form of wood. Base your
selection of materials on preference or immediate availability.
• You will can also make other decisions about how many types and/or shapes
of other materials you want to join to the wood—for example, do you want to
carry out variations on joining only one other type and form of material to the
wood? If so, you will want to try different ways to join this material. Or, do
you want to join a range of differently shaped pieces of metal or plastic to a
standard timber cut or a natural form of wood?
• You may prefer to use different forms of wood with a variety of other
materials. As you decide, carefully consider the characteristics of each type of
material; that is, whether they are hard or soft, rigid or flexible, thin or thick,
simple or complex, and so on.
TRU Open Learning
U1-10 Unit 1: Wood
• Tactile and sensory characteristics can be used in either contrasting or
harmonic relationships. For example, wood, as a fibrous material, can be
harmonically related to other fibrous materials, such as felt, fabric, or rope.
Or, wood, as a natural organic material, can be contrasted with synthetic
plastics, elastic, or rubber.
• Produce six examples . Some will be fast and easy—“low tech”—others will
be more complex and time-consuming. Let your interest and available time
determine how many you do.
Photographic Documentation and Notebook
For whichever one of the Project 2 options you choose, your documentation must
include photographs or video, and drawings of the joints both open and closed to
indicate how they work. Make sure your notebook pages contain drawings of your
ideas about how the joints’ are designed and function.
Section 3: Transforming Wooden Furniture
The purpose of this project is to transform one or more familiar pieces of wooden
furniture by sawing, reconstruction, and other experimental actions.
If you select a container form, such as a cupboard or chest of drawers, work on the
inside as well as the outside, using additional wood.
You will be able to explore more fully if you avoid projects that are intended to
produce only a functional outcome. There are many of these projects on the Internet.
Avoid plagiarizing these and invent your own project.
Photographic Documentation and Notebook
Make sure your notebook pages contain the following:
• Preliminary sketches of your initial transformation plan. Remember, new and
more interesting ideas may occur during the process.
• Photographs of your piece(s) of furniture, before, during, and after your
experimental transformative processes
• Photos showing both inside and outside views (if you are working with a
container form)
• Any relevant notes on what worked well, what did not, and what you
discovered in the process of carrying out this project
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-11
Notes on the Reproductions
Read these notes on the reproductions shown on the video Wood before you watch it
or watch it again, so that you will know what to look for when the image appears.
One of these reproductions is also in the Postcard Booklet. The Postcard Booklet has
a wide range of additional work in wood. The contents of the Postcard Booklet are
informally grouped according to both units and materials: works in wood (Unit 1)
are before works in metal (Unit 2). Image numbers are not necessarily consecutive.
Nandaimon (Great South Gate). Todaiji Temple. Completed 1195 CE.
Wood, stone; 25.7 m high.
Nara, Japan.
The great southern gate of the Todaiji Temple of Nara, Japan, was built in the twelfth
century. Since the sixth century, the basic structure in Japanese architecture has been
timber framework carrying a peaked roof (or series of roofs). Lipped or gabled, the
roof usually has a concave curve leading to wide overhanging eaves that turn up at
the corners. Although the principal building material is wood, the foundations and
terraces are stone.
Todaiji Temple (interior detail).
The main columns of this massive building are almost eight metres high and
comparable to the stone columns of a European cathedral.
Sheik el-Balad. Egyptian 5th Dynasty. Circa 2500 BCE. (Postcard Booklet: TRU
OL–001)
Sycamore, pegged arm, and inlaid eye; 108.18 cm high.
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Egypt.
Although wood deteriorates, expanding and contracting according to temperature
and humidity, in a dry climate and protected from insects, it can last for thousands
of years—as the wooden statue of Sheik el-Balad demonstrates. As a relatively minor
dignitary, he is portrayed directly in wood rather than stone, but the work conforms
to the convention of frontal viewing. Notice how the arms are pegged and fitted to
the torso. This statue, with its formal step forward, also represents a first perilous
advance by the human figure into an increasingly dynamic future. In the history of
the single figure, we can see activity increasing in the passage from early statues to
the twisting figures of the Baroque period.
TRU Open Learning
U1-12 Unit 1: Wood
Initiation masks from Suku and Yaka tribes.
Painted wood and fibre; 56 cm high.
Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire).
Photograph credit: Merton D. Simpson.
Artisans used wood for simple tools, ritual objects, and other artifacts such as these
African masks, powerful and mysterious in their fibrous tree-bark settings. Each
possesses a distinct structural character. One is spatial, with projecting linear
extensions; the other is more solidly and sculpturally self-contained. Masks were
used for initiations and religious ceremonies, weddings, and funerals.
Early in this century, African art exerted a profound influence on Western artists
such as Picasso, Braque, Brancusi, Matisse, and the Fauvists. However, Western
demands for African sculpture often influenced standards for the traditional arts.
Riemenschneider, Tilman. Group of Mourning Women. 1480.
Detail of the Wiblinger Altarpiece.
Painted linden wood; 127 cm high.
Furstlich Oettingen-Wallerstein’sche Bibliothek und Kunstsammlun, Schloss
Harburg, Germany.
The great carved altarpieces of both northern and southern Europe provide
outstanding examples of wood carving, as seen in this detail from a side of the
Wiblinger Altarpiece. This work has been an inspiration for joiners, craftsmen,
builders, architects, designers, and sculptors. Painted and gilded, it shows adept
characterization, with expressive forms and gestures. Great skill and delicacy with
refined detail and complex undercutting of drapery and other forms were made
possible by the physical properties of the close-grained linden wood.
In the fifteenth century, wood carving ceased to be anonymous, and individual
artists were identified by name. Riemenschneider and his contemporary Veit Stoss
were unequalled in their mastery.
Saddle Tree with Design of Court Fans. 18th Century. Japan.
Lacquered wood.
Courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London,
England.
Wood yields readily to tools—to saws, axes, chisels, gouges, and the power tools of
the present. This lacquered and gilded saddle tree is an example of fine Japanese
craftsmanship. The fluent, curvilinear forms are decorated with designs of court fans
privilege. Although designed as a functional object—the frame of a saddle—it meets
the highest aesthetic standards.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-13
Picasso, Pablo. Mandolin and Clarinet. 1914.
Painted wood; 57.4 × 35.9 × 23 cm.
Picasso Museum, Paris, France.
© 1991 Pablo Picasso/Vis-Art Copyright Inc.
After looking at objects of great technical efficiency and crafted elegance, it is rather a shock
to see this construction, based on two musical instruments. This slide is included on the
video to remind you that technical skill and high finish aren’t essential or the main objective
of the artist. Here, Picasso is being innovative with waste material from his work bench or
studio floor. After his Cubist experiments in two dimensions (which began in 1907, rapidly
evolving from analytical to synthetic cubism), he made a logical progression from collage to
relief and then to a series of explorations in the three dimensions.
Picasso nailed pieces of geometrically shaped waste together freely and instinctively,
exploiting the natural colour and form of the materials and adding a little enlivening
and descriptive black and white paint. The white-painted, projecting curve defined
the space. Picasso the painter put aside the illusion of the canvas and projected his
image forward into real space. Hepworth, Barbara. Pelagos. 1946.
Chestnut wood, paint, string; 37 × 39 × 33 cm.
Tate Gallery, London, England.
Credit: Art Resource, New York, USA.
Contrast Picasso’s Mandolin and Clarinet with Hepworth’s sculpture Pelagos, which
also uses white paint on wood—in this case, to define a spiral of space passing
through the spherical form of richly figured chestnut. The abstract pattern of the
wood grain, rich and warm, contrasts with the cool white space, strung like a
musical instrument. This contrast of material and form creates exciting tension and
makes space as energetic and positive as mass.
A remarkable range in exploiting the qualities of wood is found in the works of
Hepworth and fellow sculptor Henry Moore; both studied the natural conformation
and grain of wood, discovering the form within the nature of the material. Breuer,
Marcel. Reclining Chair. 1935.
Laminated bent birch plywood and upholstered pad; 81.3 × 147.3 × 60 cm.
Manufacturer: Isokon Furniture Co., England.
Collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York, purchase.
Breuer’s bentwood chair, factory-produced of laminated plywood and upholstery
fabric, is a classic of formed wood. It has the elegant lines of the later Bauhaus tradition:
it is aesthetically satisfying and, at the same time, it is a good ergonomic design solution.
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U1-14 Unit 1: Wood
Recommended Resources
There are numerous books on wood, with a great diversity of focus. Choose those
that are technical rather than project-oriented.
Goldsworthy, Andy. Wood. New York: Abrams Books, 1996. Print.
Many photographs of Andy Goldsworthy’s extraordinary work outdoors, using
natural wood to create very inventive forms.
Haywood, Charles H. Tools for Woodwork. New York: Drake Publishers, 1973. Print.
A useful small book on hand and power tools for woodworking, describing how
to use and maintain them.
Liebson, Milt. Direct Wood Sculpture: Technique, Innovation, Creativity. Atglen: Schiffer
Publishing, 2001. Print.
A comprehensive look at all aspects of wood sculpture, with good contemporary
examples.
Noll, Terrie. The Joint Book: The Complete Guide to Wood Joinery. Cincinnati: Popular
Woodworking Books, 2002. Print.
Illustrations of many different kinds of joints.
Stiles, David, and Jeanie Stiles. Woodworking Simplified: Foolproof Carpentry Projects for
Beginners. Vermont: Chapters Publishing, 1996. Print.
A good practical introduction to working with wood; not directed towards
sculpture specifically, but some of the ideas can be adapted.
Wagner, Willis H. Modern Woodworking. South Holland: Goodheart-Willcox Co.,
1986. Print.
More comprehensive than you will need, but there are useful sections on hand
and machine tools, materials and processes, and mass production and
construction.
Additional Resources
Internet
• Search for “Butterfield, Deborah” on Google Images to find some excellent
large, clear images of Butterfield’s horse sculptures made from carefully
chosen deadwood.
• Search for “Goldsworthy, Andy” on Google Images and Videos to see his
work in wood and other materials.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-15
List of Illustrations
1. Section and detail: the five essential parts of the tree trunk. From computer
animation by Jeanie Sundland.
2. Methods of cutting timber. From computer animation by Jeanie Sundland.
3. Design notes for computer animation of some wood joints. Tom Hudson.
4. a. Dowel variation on mortise and tenon joint.
b. Japanese double scarf joint. From computer animation by E. John Love.
5. Notebook drawings for variations on a cube theme. Personal development using
wood and particle board, with sheet-metal additions. Oliver Kuys.
6. Notebook drawings for lathe project. Experiment to personal development, by
Oliver Kuys.
7. Notebook studies for “chairs” project. Personal development. Geoffrey Topham.
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U1-18 Unit 1: Wood
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U1-20 Unit 1: Wood
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-21
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U1-22 Unit 1: Wood
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U1-23
TRU Open Learning
Faculty of Arts
Unit 2:
Metal
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-1
Unit 2: Metal
Introduction
Note: DVD 2 includes the video program Metal.
Virtually every moment of our lives provides continuous contact with metal—from
money in our pockets, the rings on our fingers, and the watches on our wrists. Our
kitchens contain a wide range of metal utensils. Overhead, there’s the passing plane,
and on the street, there are cars, buses, trucks. Metal reinforcements are hidden in
concrete structures around us.
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Metal
Sources of Metal
Metals are found in the earth’s crust as ores—natural, impure chemical compounds
that are mixed and refined to provide the comparatively pure metals with which we
are familiar. Some metals, notably gold, silver and copper, are occasionally found
naturally in the pure form.
You can find scrap or new metal in scrap metal yards, at garages and auto-body
shops, and at hardware stores.
Look for:
• Basic forms of material: rods, bars, tubes, sheets, and so on
• Forms that are visually interesting to you
• Worked materials—any old or discarded metal scraps
• Parts of objects, machines, and manufactured articles—these can all be adapted
• Iron wire 1.5 mm(1/16 in), also known as baling wire
Classification of Metal
Metals can be grouped in various ways; for example, as:
• Natural products of earth
• Alloys—artificial combinations of metals
• Ferrous—containing iron
• Non-ferrous
• Precious—rare, naturally occurring, such as gold, silver, and platinum
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U2-2 Unit 2: Metal
Characteristics of Metal
The physical properties of metals vary greatly. From an aesthetic point of view, their
degree of ductility and malleability are the most important considerations. Ductile
and malleable metals can be shaped into various forms, with the application of heat
and pressure. For example, when iron is red-hot, it is one of the most malleable, or
“plastic,” of all materials. Many metals can also be worked in an unheated state.
Metals can be:
• Extremely hard
• Load-bearing
• Resistant to abrasion
• Resistant to breakage
• Resistant to fatigue
• Resistant to stress
Metal in Art and Craft
Smelting of metals was a major step in the development of technology. The concentration of
heat to melt liquid copper out of ore was probably achieved in the Middle East around 3500
BCE, and it was found that soft copper could be mixed or alloyed with tin to make bronze,
which could provide a cutting edge. Bronze weapons and tools took the place of wood and
stone implements in the eastern Mediterranean as early as 2500 BCE.
Metal technology brought about rapid advances in the development of common
tools, such as the plough and the axe, which are so well designed and functional that
they have scarcely changed. Other technologies, such as wheeled vehicles, weaponry
and armour, involved more complex manufacturing techniques and, through
history, have required the cooperation n of the craft guilds.
Although iron was known to the Egyptians, the archaeological term “Iron Age” is
used only for the period when iron was mainly used for tools, weapons, and
ornamentation. Modern processing of iron began in central Europe in the mid-
fourteenth century, when it was recognized as having both the capacity to cut other
materials and, when hardened, to cut other pieces of iron. With its tempered cutting
edge, iron is the basis of all modern manufacturing tools. Development of the
cutting edge led to the first steel tools, which were progressively hardened by
additions of small quantities of carbon—and, ultimately, to machine tools.
The technology that allowed for the making of bronze led to casting of ritual objects
in molten bronze in clay and earth moulds. Using bronze as an art material began a
long tradition, a recent example of which is Henry Moore’s Knife Edge Two Piece, the
bronze you’ll see at the beginning of the video Metal.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-3
By the Middle Ages, the working of iron and steel had reached standards of
excellence unsurpassed today. The sword-makers of Sheffield, Damascus, and
Toledo made products of superb quality. Suits of armour made all over Europe
showed the extensive expertise, adaptability, and mechanical ingenuity of the sheet-
iron worker. Interestingly, the sheet assemblage method was not used to fabricate
human figures until this century. The statue figure was traditionally required to be
as seamless as possible! So, modelling, carving and casting were done in the
traditional methods, and these were resolutely perfected by the Greeks and Romans.
The distinction between art and craft developed only during the Renaissance of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. At that time, an artist began as an apprentice in a
studio, with a master who was a painter, sculptor, or both. Artistic tradition interacts
with technical innovation, but often belatedly. For example, early in the twentieth
century, constructivists Naum Gabo and his brother Antoine Pevsner used a wide
range of metals and plastics. Julio Gonzalez taught Picasso how to weld in about
1928, though Picasso had already—in about 1912—worked with sheet metal and
bronze to create early Cubist forms (see the Postcard Booklet).
My own generation in the 1950s was the first to accept the idea that all industrial
machine processes and materials were available to the artist. Now, many modern
sculptors employ industrial craftsmen to handle large-scale or complex fabrication.
In the 1960s and 1970s, major developments took place in the uses of metal,
employing both hand tools and industrial processes.
In the later twentieth century, open-minded and experimental artists discovered new
ways of continuing the interaction between art and industry, technology and ideas.
Working with Metal
Metals possess a wide range of colour that can be enhanced in various ways. They
conduct heat and electricity well and are highly reflective when polished. For
precision work, they are the supreme materials.
Metals can be worked in many different ways. They can be:
• Shaped by hammering, forging, and moulding.
• Hardened or softened by heat.
• Drawn out into wires.
• Rolled into sheets and other forms.
In the Metal video, typical methods of working and production are demonstrated by
computer animation. The production of available forms—sheets, rods, rounds,
hexagons, octagons, tubes, angles, and steel beams of various sections—is followed
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U2-4 Unit 2: Metal
by showing metal machining tools, including a lathe, shaper, and horizontal milling
machine in action. See illustration 5 at the end of this unit for an example of turning
metal with a lathe.
Spinning aluminum sheet represents a recent development compared to the
traditional method of shaping sheet metal by hand. For example, a silver bowl is
hand-shaped by hammering a circular disc of sheet silver against a wood block or
other form, regularly and systematically, so that the edge is formed into a round.
Sheet silver and copper must be softened by annealing (heating and then cooling),
as constant hammering “hardens” them.
Sheet metals easily assume folded rectangular and angular forms when bent along a
line, by hand or machine, and they can also be rolled into cylindrical and conical
forms. Because of the malleability of sheet metal, forms typical of earthenware and
glass vessels can be produced.
Forging, casting, moulding, and pressing are common methods of working metals,
as are wasting (cutting away) and constructing, which involves fastening and joining
processes.
By combining various metal-working methods, many shapes and forms can be produced.
Joining and Forming Methods
• Tying or binding is a useful method for fastening strips, sheets, and bars of
metal and can also be used for ready-made forms and objects.
• Adhesives are usually used for small pieces, particularly thin sheet or
strips—epoxy can be successful if there is sufficient surface contact relative to
the weight or stress imposed.
• Cold-forming methods of attaching, such as bending or using hardware like
rivets, nuts, or bolts in working with sheet and strip metals require a hand
drill and hammer for rivets, but you can bend sheet or strip metals with your
fingers, or twist and tie it with a pliers or a vise.
• Speed nuts and self-tapping screws, which require only a drilled hole and
screwdriver, are quick and easy to use.
• Hot methods of fusing include soldering, brazing, welding, and using gas or
varied electrical processes; for larger forms, brazing with a propane or butane
gas torch is recommended.
• Metals can be joined by using lead-free solder.
In the video program, David is shown carrying out cold-forming activities. These
activities require a means of holding material firmly—normally a vise bolted to a bench,
but you may be able to improvise using other techniques discussed in this unit.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-5
Thin sheet aluminum is so soft you can press it around any cylindrical form—a rod
or tube—held in the vise or clamped at one end. You can fold it by clamping it down
under a strip of wood or metal, then pressing down, using another piece of wood, or
holding it between two pieces of angle iron.
Strip-wrought iron (three millimetres/one-eighth–inch) can be bent cold; still cheaper
material, such as soft steel, can be treated similarly. You can also twist and bend these
materials between the jaws of a vise. You can make angles upright in the jaws of a vise
by putting the metal horizontal in the vise and hammering it against the side.
You can use soldering—the simplest heat process—to join small-scale wire forms
and constructions of thin sheet-material. An electric soldering iron is the fastest way
to fuse the two pieces of metal together with hot solder and flux. If you use this
method of metal working, choose lead-free solder for the least toxicity. For larger
forms of material, brazing with a propane or butane gas torch is recommended.
Metal-Working Tools
The simplest metal-working hand tools and their basic operating principles) have
not changed in a very long time. We still use these basic tools:
• A common edge, or face, of hardened steel or other abrasive material in
contact with the metal to be cut
• A cutting tool locked in a holding form to make contact between the cutting
surface and the work
• Rivets available in soft iron, aluminum, copper, and brass in a variety of
standard sizes
• A hand drill and hammer to use rivets
• Ordinary bolts and nuts
• Pliers—either general purpose or long-nosed
• Wrenches
Don’t be afraid of tools. Tools are merely parts of systems, used and controlled by
the operator. By themselves, tools have no capability to make anything on their own
hook. After all, robotic tools are programmed by people.
When we choose to use a tool, we must accept its range of action, particular limitations,
and the characteristic forms it can produce in order to use it in a creative way.
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U2-6 Unit 2: Metal
Metal Finishing
In addition to grinding and polishing, metals can be finished by:
• Sand-blasting
• Plating, using tin, nickel, electro, or silver
• Metal spraying
• Galvanizing, or hot-dipping in zinc
• Anodizing (used for aluminum, increasing its natural oxidization to provide
a coloured, protective surface)
• Painting—this provides a protective coating, but is less used than other
protective processes because of its relatively short life
• Coating with plastics (resins)—some have a short outdoor life; however,
acrylic, epoxy, polyester, and urethane are fairly durable
• Coating with baked enamel—one of the most durable finishes for steel, which
rusts under a coating, given any atmospheric penetration
Abrasives, which are a form of a wasting tool, are usually granular or powdered,
glued to cloth or paper, and graded for hand or sanding tools. They are also
available as discs or belts. “Wet and dry” paper—or an abrasive sheet plus water—is
excellent for hand finishing.
Assignment 2: Metals
Introduction
In Assignment 2, you are required to complete two projects. Many of you may have
little or no experience working with metals in a workshop situation, nor will you be
able to duplicate the conditions that the on-camera students enjoy. So, the
assignment for this unit requires only levels of technology that suit your experience
and any tools and equipment that may be available to you.
Before you begin working on your assignment, read carefully through all of the
instructions for this assignment.
Remember: Advanced technology doesn’t guarantee good work. Simple tools
and methods have been used to create masterworks in many cultures. In each
video program, you will notice that there some students working with simple
technology.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-7
Projects and Options
For this assignment, you are required to complete two projects and submit
photographic documentation and notes for both:
• Project 1: Soft Wire (one of the simple or intermediate technology options)
AND
• Project 2: Scrap Metal (one of the simple or intermediate technology options)
While working on your assignment, document your work using photography.
Document your ideas in your notebook pages. Include your drawings, written notes,
diagrams, and photographs. You can also use video. Refer to the Course Guide for
instructions on how to send in assignments.
When you have completed this assignment, (Projects 1 and 2) send in your
photographic record and your notebook pages. If you are following the Suggested
Schedule, you should have completed this assignment by Week Four. We
recommend that you send in your documentation for Units 1 and 2 in one batch.
Instructions
Project 1: Soft Wire
For Project 1, choose one of the following two options:
• Option 1-A: Simple Technology
OR
• Option 1-B: Intermediate Technology
Option 1-A: Simple Technology
This option is provided to give you the opportunity of experimenting with the
capabilities of soft wire.
1. Using black iron wire (or similar, easily manipulated wire), carry out a series
of experiments, working on a smallish scale. Exploit the varied capability of
the material: it can be straight, curved, controlled, or crumpled. Wire can be
used to build as well as to bind; you can bend it with your fingers or use a
pair of pliers to twist and tie pieces together.
2. With pliers, you can also form 3-mm-(1/8 in-)diameter wire or thin rods with
little effort, and use finer wires to tie them.
3. Then, make a series of geometric forms. Refer to the Universal space families
illustration in the Course Information Guide for examples of forms. Work from
simple to complex to create your own geometric structures. For example, if you like
working on a really small scale, you could make some fantastic jewellery.
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U2-8 Unit 2: Metal
4. After your first exploratory use of the iron wire, use it to create images and
forms derived from the human figure or from the animal world. Start with
individual forms, but freely develop your ideas to involve pairs or groups,
and, if necessary, provide a context, with wire or other material. For example,
the American sculptor Alexander Calder made a circus: this work is Calder’s
Circus (1926–1931).
5. Turn your pieces around to make sure your forms are three dimensional—
when you look from different angles, the sculptures should show different
aspects. Avoid flat silhouettes. Make sure that the lines of the wire are exactly
as you want them (curved or straight, and so on).
6. Take any sheet or strip material that can be formed cold, and join it with
“cold” fasteners, for example, drilling and wiring, rivets, screws (self-
tapping), nuts and bolts, or glue. Keep the structure to a scale and a
complexity that you can carry out effectively.
7. Alternatively, instead of one structure, you may find it easier or more
interesting to make a series of simple related or contrasting structures, such
as a geometric series, each form involving only two, three, or four pieces,
from strip or sheet. If you choose to create a series, it would be useful to first
draw variations in your Notebook, showing different ways of relating forms
that are similar or different in shape.
In this serial way of working, after making the units, you can decide how they will
be presented: as a series, a group, or a number of forms in relation to each other and
in a specific space.
You will notice that some of the students in the video program use various types
and gauges of wire mesh, ranging from superfine mesh to chicken wire, and four-
square to hexagonal patterns. Others use perforated sheet and expanded metal.
Using any open-structured material, carry out a series by bending and forming
metal by hand on a relatively small scale.
You also may use other materials such as wire, rod, strip, sheet, or plaster, in
conjunction with the mesh in the development of any preliminary ideas.
Your final piece(s) may be abstract or figurative.
Option 1-B: Intermediate Technology
This option is provided to give you the opportunity of working with metal using
heat-processing methods. If you have access to a metalwork bench, vise, and metal-
working tools, along with some form of heat, carry out any of the project alternatives
listed under Option 1-A.
1. Begin by selecting your materials.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-9
2. Experiment with ways to realize your ideas in systems of joining and
technical methods made possible by your equipment, like welding. The
theme or subject matter may derive from the materials and forms you select
—it’s your choice, whether abstract or referring to the human figure.
Remember: Most vertical structures can be associated to the human figure.
3. Alternatively, you may link your sculpture to—or derive it from—anything
else in the world around you, whether materials or a setting.
Project 2: Scrap Metal
For Project 2, choose one of the following two options:
• Option 2-A: Simple Technology—Relationships
OR
• Option 2-B: Intermediate Technology—Brazing or Welding
Option 2-A: Simple Technology—Relationships
1. Pay a visit to your local scrap metal yard and look for interesting pieces that
have a particular form. Whether the forms are geometric or have a character
special to their previous function is up to you. Visiting a scrap yard can offer
an unparalleled opportunity to work with a wide range of forms, colours,
textures and scales. Although it may take some effort to locate and travel to a
scrap yard, the effort can bear fruit through the rest of the course.
2. If you want, look at the Student Projects section in this unit to see how the
students in the videos worked with scrap metal.
In the video program, you’ll see how some students used scrap materials. For
example, Helen works by trial and error with pre-cut materials, trying out different
relationships among circular, internally cut geometric forms, cut discs, heavy metal
cable and the remnants of machine parts. She tried out different relationships, before
arriving at a series of forms that included a suspended structure. This is an example
of the simplest technology—merely bringing things together in relationship and
making a personal context for the materials. See Illustration 6 at the end of the unit
to view Helen’s Notebook studies of improvising with scrap metal constructions.
Geoff also uses materials found in the scrap yard so he does not have to construct all
the parts for his Pegasus. He does, however, have the problem of how to join them
together, which he solves by welding, drilling, and tying with wire.
3. Explore your selected forms to develop a number of possibilities.
4. During your working process, remember to document your work in your
with photographs and on your notebook pages.
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U2-10 Unit 2: Metal
If scrap dealers are not amenable to you purchasing small quantities of metal, try
asking if you can physically move objects around on the site and then photograph
them, or ask for permission to photograph the forms as they currently are placed on
site. By carefully composing photographic images, you can discover a series of
contrasts in form, colour, texture, and other interesting characteristics.
Note: If you are unable to use or purchase metals from a scrap yard, please
discuss alternatives with your Open Learning Faculty Member, as you will
still need to find a way to do hands-on exploration with metal as a physical
material.
Option 2-B: Intermediate Technology—Brazing or Welding
Begin by selecting your scrap metal materials.
1. Explore and experiment with your materials, using trial and error.
2. Develop and complete your sculptural ideas, by welding.
3. The theme or subject matter can derive from the materials and forms you
select. Or, you may have ideas that you impose on the material from anything
in the world around you.
Safety Caution: If you are pregnant, avoid welding of any kind because of
the potential hazard from the fumes.
Notes on the Reproductions
The following reproductions are on DVD 2 in the video Metal and/or in the Postcard
Booklet.
The Ardagh Chalice. 8th Century. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–006)
Gold, silver, bronze, glass, rock crystal; 15 cm high.
National Museum of Ireland.
The Ardagh Chalice, made in Ireland, is an amazing example of early Christian metal
work, from the Golden Age of Celtic art. It involves two forms: a hemisphere and a
cone. Broad areas of plain of plain silver are interspersed with panels of
exceptionally fine filigree work in gold.
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There are further additions of bronze and silver with enamel crosses. The panels of
filigree are interlaced and the decoration shows the traditional Celtic preference for
whorls, circles, spirals, and other decorative linear forms.
Cellini, Benvenuto. Salt Cellar for Francis I. 1539–1543.
Gold, enamel, and ebony; 28 × 34 cm.
Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna, Austria.
Thief, liar, brawler, and possible murderer, Cellini was also a Renaissance man:
goldsmith, medallist, sculptor, designer, and writer. He owes much of his fame to a
flamboyant autobiography. After an extremely violent period, involved in sieges and
sacking, he fled to France to work for Francis I. This gold salt cellar—Cellini’s only
major work in precious metal to escape destruction—shows his brilliant virtuosity,
impressing us with ingenuity and skill. Function gives way to fantasy; a container for
condiments is obviously less important than a divine conversation piece.
As salt came from the sea and pepper from the land, Cellini made a boat-shaped
container for salt under the guardianship of Neptune, while the pepper in a tiny
temple is watched over by the goddess Earth. On the cellar base are figures
representing the four seasons and the four parts of the day (night, dawn, day, and
twilight).
Verrocchio, Andrea. Monument to Bartolomeo Colleoni. 1435–1488.
Bronze; 395 cm high.
Venice, Italy.
Photo credit: C.P. Czartoryski, 1991.
Verrocchio, another typical Renaissance man—sculptor, painter, goldsmith—
possessed exceptional versatility, even among his proficient fellow artists. The
Colleoni monument stands in Campo dei San Giovanni e Paolo in Venice. I first saw
it in the heavy rain of a winter day; it looked almost black and threatening. The
fiercely advancing horse bearing Colleoni the mercenary, his chin and shoulder
thrust forward menacingly, is the image of brutal force and resolution. It is probably
the greatest equestrian statue in the world. Verrocchio died before the work’s
completion, but it was finished in 1496 by Alessandro Leopardi.
Caro, Anthony. Sun Feast. 1969–1970.
Painted steel; 181.5 × 416 × 218.5 cm.
Sun Feast rises from the ground and flows along a horizontal platform like waves
against a horizon. The curves flow from a strong circular profile on the left and leap
up on the right. A sequence of rolled and curved sheet-steel forms, reminiscent of
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U2-12 Unit 2: Metal
ploughshares and propeller blades, rolls over like a lazy wave—to be stopped by a
vertical rectangular plane. You can read the work from left to right and reverse, or
from front to back and reverse. When planes become curves, they present new
surfaces as you move around them; they are the most “changeable” of three-
dimensional shapes.
Mendini, Alessandro. Coffee and Tea Service. 1982.
Silver.
This service is made up of forms based on spheres and ovoids, which provide the
hollow-ware bodies with a satisfyingly simple flow of surface and contour. These
forms are a good example of how the plasticity of sheet metal allows it to be shaped
to conform to characteristics more natural to ceramics. The slender tube pedestals
and handles, which look unnervingly thin, actually exploit the load-bearing capacity
of metal—and, at the same time, provide a quality of poised elegance. The small
flags or wings add a stylistic frivolity of personal trademark.
Rogers, Richard, and Renzo Piano. Centre Pompidou. (1977).
Centre National d’Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou.
Paris, France.
Centre Pompidou, nicknamed the “Beaubourg,” was completed in 1977. Designed
by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, the centre rises in brash contrast to the
surrounding stone buildings of the old Marais district. It looks like a building turned
inside out—or a lobster with its bones on the outside. Everything is supported by an
exposed steel structural form of hollow and solid members, of considerable
engineering invention and sculptural elegance. It looks like a composition of
standard industrial elements, but was in fact custom-designed, engineered, and
fabricated.
The building has five stories of clear space above ground, but half its
accommodation is below ground. On the east facade, all services are exposed and
polychromed: blue for air-conditioning, green for water, and red for elevators. On
the west facade, a Plexiglas-and-steel elevator carries visitors to all floors and
provides varying views of Paris.
Apart from its collection of works of art, visiting exhibitions, public library, and
audio-visual and music centre, the Beaubourg is a national institution with regional
affiliations. The French will learn to love it as much as their Eiffel Tower.
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Picasso, Pablo. Bull’s Head. 1943. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–005)
Welded bicycle handlebars and leather bicycle seat; 42 × 41 × 15 cm.
Picasso found these two objects next to each other in a mixed up pile of objects. He
reported joining them together in his mind to make a bull’s head before he even had
time to think. The sculpture so outraged viewers when it was first exhibited that it
was torn off the wall. He had been making work from found material since 1913 and
went on to make many other sculptures using found objects: for example, Baboon and
Young, in which the mouth of a baboon is made out of two toy cars. Picasso’s leap of
imagination shown in Bull’s Head has influenced generations of artists.
Cabinet with views of Kyoto. Early 20th Century.
Iron and gold; 15 cm high.
By courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London,
England.
This tiny cabinet is Japanese Komai work. Made of iron, it is overlaid with gold. The doors
of the cabinet are decorated with views of Kyoto and the cabinet is further embellished with
filigree and inlay. Precious though this portable container is, it was no doubt crafted to hold
and transport even more precious jewellery and miniature objets d’art.
Picasso, Pablo. Violin. 1915.
Painted sheet metal construction; 100 × 63.7 × 18 cm.
Picasso Museum, Paris, France.
©1991, Pablo Picasso/Vis-Art Copyright Inc.
Picasso’s Violin combines the analytical attitudes of Cubism with the artist’s own
powerful subjective responses. The sheet-metal pieces are placed in relationship by
instinct and by trial and error, and most of the work is painted in blue, with a black
and white diagonal pattern. A combination of painting and structuring, the work
was created at a time when Picasso was determined to see how far he could
revolutionize the perception of an object by moving from two dimensions to three.
He extended the painting forward into real space, demonstrating how early Cubist
approaches in painting were closely related to sculpture.
Talking about the early Cubist paintings, Picasso suggested that, since the colours did
no more than indicate differences in perspective, or planes inclined one way or the
other, it would have been enough to cut them up, and then assemble them according to
the indications given by the colour, to be confronted with a “sculpture.” So an
apparently “knockabout” construction actually has profound significance in twentieth-
century art. (See the image of his Guitar in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–008.)
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U2-14 Unit 2: Metal
Paolozzi, Eduardo. Hamlet in a Japanese Manner. 1966.
Cast and fabricated aluminum, in three pieces:
109 × 110 × 97 cm,
154 × 183 × 185 cm, and
165 × 175 × 110 cm.
Glasgow Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow, Scotland.
Paolozzi was a great manipulator of collage. This work is an assemblage of three
parts; they are permutable, that is, movable into various arrangements. This
potential for variation of form in space has obvious environmental implications.
Although Paolozzi’s titles usually had little or no significance for the sculpture, in
this case, because of the three forms and their spatial arrangement, one can’t help
relating the work to theatrical form. The forms seem to present a dramatic sculptural
incident—a variable performance of machine presences.
Paolozzi was never primarily concerned with working in the classical sculptural tradition.
His restless creative mind was always searching for new living totems, new symbols of our
time. This work is also typical of his machine style and industrial form. Another version
was intensified in its visual complexity by being painted with colours that flowed over and
contradicted, rather than conformed to, the geometric structure.
Caro, Anthony. Georgiana. 1969–1970. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–007)
Steel, painted deep red; 155 × 292 × 472.5 cm.
Georgiana playfully combines steel circle and arc forms, with a connecting series of waves
made from ploughshare forms and rectangular shapes. Together these are arranged in a
loose, open triangular configuration. The apparent lightness of this piece derives partly
from Caro’s placement of negative spaces. The circular and rectangular shapes have been
hollowed out to create negative spaces. These, together with the arc and wave forms, set up
another set of rhythms across the piece. Similarly, one rectangular form lies horizontally on
its edge and is echoed by another held vertically. Each shape element lightly touches its
neighbours as though providing just sufficient contact to pass on its energy.
Mabunda, Goncalo. Untitled Throne. 2011. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–062)
Welded guns and shells; size unknown.
Mabunda grew up during Mozambique’s sixteen-year civil war. His sculptures are
made from a stockpile of decommissioned weapons left over from the conflict. In
these pieces, he refers to African traditional thrones, carved seats, and symbols of
power. Mabunda’s careful placement of weapons and use of negative spaces has
created poised and ironic works that both embody the waste of lives and resources
used in the conflict and suggest the possibility of a more hopeful future.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-15
Recommended Resources
Bedford, John R. Metalcraft: Theory and Practice. London: John Murray Publishers,
1968. Print.
International metric edition. Small but comprehensive, workshop-based, and
well-illustrated.
Hessenberg, Karin. Sculpting Basics: Everything You Need to Know to Create Fantastic
Three-Dimensional Art. London: Barrons Educational Series, Inc., 2005. Print.
Not specific to metal, but contains a section on working with wire. Project-
oriented, with consequent limitations in creativity.
Plowman, John. The Encyclopedia of Sculpting Techniques: A Comprehensive Visual Guide
to Traditional and Contemporary Techniques. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.,
2003. Print.
A wide-ranging guide with a section on working with metal, including brazing,
metal assemblage, welding, and riveting. Includes many photographs and
examples.
Walker, John, R. Exploring Metalworking: Basic Fundamentals. South Holland, IL:
Goodheart-Willcox Co., 1976. Print.
Good technical material; design level of projects is generally low.
Additional Resources
Internet
• Search for “Kapoor, Anish” in Google Images—shows large, highly polished
mirror-like sculpture reflecting the sky, and some other work in metal.
• Search for “Woodrow, Bill” in Google Images—earlier work shows cut sheet metal
from car hoods or washing machines, made into different elements of a narrative.
List of Illustrations
1. Some available forms of metal: rod and tube. From computer animation by Jeanie
Sundland.
2. Typical welded joints. From computer animation by E. John Love.
3. Design notes for computer animations. Tom Hudson.
4. Horizontal milling. From computer animation by E. John Love.
5. The functions of the lathe: turning. From computer animation by E. John Love.
6. Notebook studies for scrap metal constructions, drawn while improvising. Helen Yeomans.
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U2-16 Unit 2: Metal
7. Notebook drawings for turning forms on the lathe. Oliver Kuys.
8. Notebook studies for relationships of metal parts. Ed Person.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-17
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U2-18 Unit 2: Metal
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-19
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U2-20 Unit 2: Metal
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U2-21
TRU Open Learning
Faculty of Arts
Unit 3:
Plastic
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-1
Unit 3: Plastic
Introduction
Note: DVD 2 includes the video program Plastics. The supplementary videos
contain a section on working with plastic and forms.
Since the end of the last century, industrial chemists have invented a vast range of
synthetic materials that we generally refer to as plastics. All forms of life are based
on large molecules made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms combined with
other elements. By using heat, pressure, and catalysts, chains of molecules, or
monomers, can be linked to form more complex molecules, or polymers. For well
over a century, chemists have been selecting monomers and joining them in complex
high polymers. The types of bonds that hold the polymers together within the chains
determine the ultimate characteristics of the plastic material—its hardness, optical
properties, tensile strength, and so on.
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Plastic
Sources of Plastic
Although plastics are synthetic—human-made—substances, they are the result of
subjecting natural products to chemical processing. Plastics contain chemical
elements present in coal, air, and water, but they are actually synthesized from other
common materials. Cellulose is made from wood pulp or cotton; organic acids are
made from coal tar; casein is made from skim milk; and many products are derived
from corn, potatoes, peanuts and soya beans.
Classification of Plastic
Plastics may be classified in a number of ways. You will learn about the two main
groups, thermoplastic and thermo-setting plastic in this unit. You will also be
introduced to expanded plastic. Within each of these groups, plastics differ
according to the way they are manufactured.
The heating and moulding of thermoplastic materials is similar to the heating and
forging of metal. Both soften when heated and harden when cooled.
Oil paint dries when solvents evaporate—the oil belongs to a family of materials
known as organic polymers. Casein and egg used in tempera painting are similar
materials. During drying, they undergo polymerization to make more complex
molecular structures.
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U3-2 Unit 3: Plastic
Today’s plastics possess an incredible range of properties and characteristics. They
may be hard or soft, dense or open, heavy or lightweight, porous or non-porous,
rigid or flexible, elastic or limp, translucent, transparent, or opaque, flammable or
heat resistant. They can also assume various forms, as solids, liquids, foams, fibres,
films, sheets, coatings, and adhesives. Solids can be blocks, rods, strips, tubes and
extrusions of many kinds.
Characteristics of Plastic
Acrylic
Acrylic is the most transparent of all plastics and—with ninety-two per cent light
transmission—more transparent than most glass. In the trade, I’ve heard it referred
to as “water-white.” Acrylic pipes light—that is, it transmits light from one edge to
another with very little loss of light. You can take a piece of acrylic rod, bend it to go
around a corner with a reasonably wide radius, and when you shine a light at one
end it will be piped to the other end.
Acrylic has great potential for constructions and sculpture. It is available in sheets
and other shapes in more than fifty colours. It can be bonded with adhesives or
solvents, and the transparent liquid form can also be coloured and cast.
Unfortunately, acrylic can be damaged by gasoline, cleaning fluids, acetone, and
even perfume, and it is highly susceptible to scratching.
Polyester Resin
Polyester resin has been used by artists more than all other plastics combined.
Because of its great durability in external conditions, I used it to make an outdoor
mural in the fifties. However, it was really in the sixties that artists discovered its
value for sculpture and constructions.
Modern Plastics
There were forerunners of modern plastics. Papier-mâché, a centuries-old Chinese
development, is an example of liquid plastic. The paper is bonded with a solvent
that evaporates and hardens. Various ceramic clays were the precursors of modern
thermo-setting plastics; they hardened and became fixed in form as a result of a
chemical reaction induced by heat.
As often happens with new materials, plastics were created to resemble and
substitute for objects and artefacts previously made of organic materials, such as
ivory, wood, bone, and leather. Gradually, plastics were recognized as useful and
interesting for their own sake.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-3
Synthetic plastics were revolutionary because it became possible to create desired
characteristics instead of being limited to the specific properties of natural materials.
Theoretically, you could say to an industrial chemist, “Make me a material that
possesses properties ABC or XYZ.” It was possible to modify the characteristics of
synthetic material by adding material compounds and colour.
Fibreglass-Reinforced Polyester
Fibreglass-reinforced polyester has been used for a great variety of sculpture, from
the abstract forms of Phillip King to the figurative realism of Duane Hanson (see
Tourists in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–009).
Fibreglass-reinforced polyester is used commercially for making boats, car bodies,
helmets, luggage, tool boxes, swimming pools, theatre sets, baths, storage tanks,
skis, fishing rods and numerous other objects that require strong material that is
lightweight, springy, and heat resistant.
Working with Plastic
There are more than fifty major families of plastics, with many varieties in each
family and with new ones being continuously discovered. In fact, the nomenclature
or names of plastics can be rather confusing. There are family (generic) names,
chemical names, and commercial (trade) names. For example, acrylic—the family
name of one common plastic —is made of polymethyl methacrylate, which is
known as Plexiglas in North America, Perspex in Britain, and ShinkoLite in Japan.
Thermoplastic
When heated to varying temperatures, thermoplastic softens without chemical
change. It can be formed and reformed. Scrap material can be ground and used
again. You can manipulate these plastics easily by heating, bending, and twisting
them; by pressing them against or between formers; and by vacuum-forming them
in various ways.
Common thermoplastics include acrylic, cellulose acetate, polyethylene
(polythene), polypropylene, polystyrene, and vinyl.
The thermoplastic most used in the video program is acrylic sheet, which is perfectly
safe to use cold; however, it requires the use of a VOC mask when heated for forming.
In the video program, we used an electric heater in the top of the vacuum former to
soften the acrylic sheet, but you could use almost any electric heat source.
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U3-4 Unit 3: Plastic
You need to be able to hold the heat source over the material for the time it takes to
soften the acrylic—which will depend on the thickness of the strip or sheet. You
could also lay the acrylic on an old, unwanted large baking sheet or sheet of scrap
metal and heat it outside using a blow torch at medium temperature, moving back
and forth under the baking sheet. When it has softened slightly, take it off the sheet
and form it—either freely, by hand, using protective gloves, or by pressing it around
a preformed object.
Thermo-Setting Plastic
Thermo-setting plastic remains hard and unchangeable after being formed by heat
and pressure. To alter the form of the material or object, you must saw, cut, drill, or
waste by other methods. Thermo-setting resins and adhesives are supplied as
viscous liquid or powder, with a hardening agent that may be liquid, paste, or
powder. They are almost always used with a filler—wood, powder, cotton flock, or
fibreglass—which bonds particles or fibres to strengthen the material.
Common thermo-setting plastics include epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, alkyd,
phenolic, and silicone.
Expanded Plastic
Plastics of this type form a group of their own. They may be either thermoplastic or
thermo-setting, according to the resin chosen for expansion. You can vary their uses
to suit your requirements by controlling their composition and density properties. In
the video program, you will see a student carrying out experiments with expanded
plastic on a small scale, first by free foaming and then by filling moulds. You can
also cut expanded plastics with a handsaw, rasp, file, or hot wire.
Polystyrene and polyurethane are the most common foam materials, available in
solid blocks, sheets, and bars. You can also buy then in two-part systems that can be
poured or sprayed. Styrofoam (foamed polystyrene) is compatible with polyester
but dissolved by epoxy.
On the DVD for this unit, you are shown industrial processes in which fluid plastic
materials are given shape. Plastic, in the form of a liquid, powder, granules or flakes,
is shaped by calendaring, laminating, sheet forming, or coating into intermediate
sheets from which final products can be made. You will see various moulding
processes demonstrated, including blow moulding, compression moulding, and
transfer moulding, as well as injection and extrusion moulding, which are shown
by animation. Refer to illustrations 1 to 4 at the end of this unit for explanations of
these terms; also, remember to refer to the Glossary.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-5
Environmental Considerations
Plastics revolutionized manufacturing, art, and design. It was considered a triumph
of synthetic chemistry to produce materials that were so resistant to natural solvents,
weathering and time, and had dramatic new medical uses. But now, in a world
littered with virtually indestructible material accumulating as trash, it has become
critical to find more ecological solutions. We need to demand the development of
more biodegradable and weathering polymers to avoid smothering our environment
with indestructible synthetic waste. Perhaps, reducing our individual and societal
consumption of non-biodegradable substances would be a start towards more
environmentally friendly living.
Assignment 3: Plastic
Introduction
In Assignment 3, you are required to complete two projects from two different sections.
Detailed instructions on how to work through the assignment are presented in the
following pages, under the heading “Instructions.” You will also find information on
working with forms in plastic, in the supplementary video on DVD 6.
Projects and Sections
Complete two projects: one from Section 1 and one from Section 2. Complete and submit
documentation for your choice of a project from both of the following sections:
• Section 1: Experimental (choose either Project 1-A, 1-B, 1-C, or 1-D)
AND
• Section 2: Personal Development (choose either Project 2-A or 2-B)
Documentation and Notebook
Remember that for each assignment in this course, you must submit documentation
of your work. When you have completed your assignment, your documentation
must show photographs of 3 or 4 examples of each of your project options. Include
various stages of development and different vantage points at completion that show
different relationships between your pieces of work. Crop and magnify the images
as much as you are able. Use drawings and brief written notes about the progress of
your projects in your Notebook pages.
If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have completed Unit3 by Week 6.
We recommend that you wait until you have completed Unit 4. Send in your Notebook
pages and photographic documentation for both Unit 3 and Unit 4 together.
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U3-6 Unit 3: Plastic
Getting Started
Selecting Your Material
Acrylic is a thermoplastic that we used in the video program and that you may wish
to use in your assignment. It is the most transparent of all plastics and—with ninety-
two per cent light transmission—more transparent than most glass. In the trade I’ve
heard it referred to as “water-white.” Acrylic “pipes” light—that is, it transmits light
from one edge to another with very little loss of light. You can take a piece of acrylic
rod, bend it to go around a corner with a reasonably wide radius, and when you
shine a light at one end it will be piped to the other end. You may need to darken the
room to see and photograph this.
Acrylic has great potential for constructions and sculpture. It is available in sheets
and other shapes in more than fifty colours. It can be bonded with adhesives or
solvents, and the transparent liquid form can also be coloured and cast.
Unfortunately, acrylic can be damaged by gasoline, cleaning fluids, acetone and
even perfume, and it is highly susceptible to scratching. If you buy sheet acrylic
(Plexiglas), you will find that the surfaces are covered in paper or plastic film. Leave
this protective cover on until the last moment before heating. You can draw on it the
protective cover before cutting. Otherwise, draw directly on the acrylic with a grease
pencil or non-indelible soft marker. You can use the same cutting tools for acrylic as
for wood or metal.
The most common thermo-setting material you are likely to use is polyester resin.
This resin has been used by artists more than all other plastics combined. However,
it was really in the sixties that artists discovered its value for sculpture and
constructions. Colour could be introduced, and laminates of varying form and
thickness could be made by the cold, hand lay-up method.
Polyester and epoxy are virtually interchangeable for laminating and cold-casting,
but polyester is much less toxic.
Using Additions
The most common thermo-setting material you are likely to use is polyester resin.
When, in the past, we may only have been able to add colour to the surface of a
finished object, with synthetic materials, we can add colour at the initial level of
production so that the object is coloured all the way through. Colour could be
introduced, and laminates of varying form and thickness could be made by the cold,
hand lay-up method.
You will notice in the video program that the cold lay-up process requires you to
add a catalyst to the resin before applying it directly onto your former or to the
fibreglass reinforcement.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-7
Fibreglass reinforcements vary, but the most common type is chopped strand mat,
which is available in different weights. A lightweight type is the easiest if you are
laying-up over a complex or angular form. Heavier weights and woven mats are
suitable for flat surfaces or for work that must have considerable strength in any
direction.
Fibreglass-reinforced polyester has been used for a great variety of sculpture, from
the abstract forms of Phillip King to the figurative realism of Duane Hanson (see
“Tourists” in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–009). Polyester and epoxy can be used
for casting, as you will see in the video program, and they are convenient for small-
scale experiments, such as geometric solids. They may be transparent or translucent,
or you can make them opaque by adding dye, well-mixed powder pigment, or
commercial plastic-based pigment.
You can also add other materials, such as finely sifted gypsum (plaster) or other
compounds, which will reduce the curing speed when you have added the catalyst
to prevent cracking and discolouring.
Besides colour and curing compounds, you can add flat materials—sheet,
perforated, or expanded metal—to your laminate by folding or curving actions. You
can also add other pieces of coloured plastic, or simply paint on a surface with a
palette of different transparent and opaque resin colours.
Using Fillers
Besides being useful in casting, in large works, fillers are an economical addition to
resin. They also modify the resin in many useful ways:
• Sawdust added to resin makes an interesting material more amenable to
carving.
• Silicone makes a softer consistency.
• Sand, fine soils, talc, chalk, clay, cement, and plaster are compounds that can
be used to provide surface textures or material suitable for small carvings.
• Metal powders and granules also serve as fillers.
Using a Release Agent
You must always prepare the surface of your plastic formers or moulds with a
coating of a release agent; otherwise, the resin will act as an adhesive. The release
agent provides a thin plastic film over the surface and can be washed off after the job
has gelled—or set—too hard. PVA—polyvinyl alcohol—is a common commercial
release agent, but wax can also be used. Brush or rub it on.
Finishing Your Work
TRU Open Learning
U3-8 Unit 3: Plastic
Work can be trimmed by cutting or sawing. In the video program, we used
aluminum as a former, with a smooth or polished surface so that the final work
would not require polishing; but, when working with other formers or moulds, you
may need to finish with abrasive wet-and-dry paper and a commercial polish. You
can also embed objects in resin, use surface inlaying, or collage a selection of paper
and illustrated material.
Working with Plastics Safely
There are obvious limitations to working with plastics at home. Two major inhibitors
are the lack of suitable tools and the danger of toxicity.
However, most plastics can be cut with the hand tools you use for wood and metal.
Some thin sheet, particularly flexible thermoplastics, can even be cut with scissors.
The toxicity of some materials, for example epoxy and polyurethane—which I don’t
recommend, can be overcome if you work outdoors or in a well-ventilated space. If you
are working outdoors or in a well-ventilated space on a small scale, over a short
period, a partial vapour face mask will suffice if you are using polyester resin. But if
you work on a large scale indoors you will require an exhaust system and you must
use a full-face vapour mask. Although polyester has become much less toxic over the
last few decades, when the catalyst is added, toxicity still increases.
Safety Caution: Many plastics are chemically inert under normal
circumstances, though some—for example, expanded polyurethane and
polystyrene—will give off very toxic gases when heated or burnt. When
working with potentially toxic materials, even outside on a small scale for
short periods, always take adequate precautions: Do not melt or burn
Styrofoam: It produces very toxic gases which can effect immune regulation.
• Use a mask with cartridges formulated to absorb and filter out volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).
• Use a barrier cream if your skin is sensitive to fumes.
• Wear rubber gloves when using resins.
• Wear face or mouth masks and goggles when cutting, sawing, or grinding
fibreglass-reinforced resins.
• Wear gloves to stop glass particles penetrating your skin, where they could
cause itching, discomfort, and sometimes festering. Glass particles are
probably more dangerous than the resins.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-9
• When heating plastics use protective gloves, ensure good air ventilation—
preferably outdoor access— and wear a vapour mask designed to keep out
VOCs.
• If you are pregnant, or about to become pregnant, it is prudent to avoid
heating plastic and/or the use of catalysts or resins that give off fumes.
• Review the safety resource information and resources in your Course Guide
before beginning your assignment in this unit
Section 1: Experimental
Collecting a range of scrap plastic materials of all kinds can be an interesting
experience. You will find plastics already manufactured into objects, and you may
also find leftovers from production. Try to use some of these discards creatively.
Begin your projects by carrying out a series of experiments with one or more types
of plastic.
Remember that an important part of your experimental work is to make drawings of
what you have made. This provides documentation of your work, as required in the
assignment and it also allows you to respond to the possibilities of your work and
develop new ideas. Look at illustrations 5, 6, and 7 at the end of this unit, for
inspiration on how to document your own ideas.
You can draw and diagram experiments to develop your work plans as you are
carrying them out, or at the end of a work period, or at the end of the day.
Whenever you are working and when you photograph your work, look closely at
your forms. Notice which are similar and belong to a family of related forms, and
which have contrasting shapes that are accentuated when they are placed together
or beside each other as complementary forms. See also working with forms in
plastic, on the supplementary video on DVD 6.
In this section, complete three or four examples of one project:
• Project 1-A: Scrap Objects
OR
• Project 1-B: Acrylic Strip and Sheet
OR
• Project 1-C: Thermoplastic Sheet
OR
• Project 1-D: Thermo-Setting Resins
Complete one of the following projects:
TRU Open Learning
U3-10 Unit 3: Plastic
Project 1-A: Scrap Objects
1. Gather a large collection of scrap plastic objects, remove their labels, and select
various samples of one type of form, e.g., bottles, flexible and rigid tubes.
2. Explore the forms and material by arranging, cutting them, making slots in
them, interlocking them. Try combining them in different ways—sometimes,
this may be a simple inversion of one object, or recombination of several
objects, which can generate a range of new possibilities.
3. Remember to work three dimensionally—look at your work from different
points of view, and work vertically as well as horizontally.
4. Try different arrangements. Make some kind of formal order, or create
physical relationships by putting one form inside another, locking forms
together in some way, suspending them, and so on.
Note: This project may involve plastics of different types, but only
thermoplastics should be heated. See Oliver Kuys’ drawing of heat-sealing
thermoplastic sheet in illustration 5 at the end of this unit for a model.
Project 1-B: Acrylic Strip and Sheet
Safety Caution: For this project, you will need safety gloves and a VOC
mask.
1. Use scrap or bought acrylic (1.5-3 mm/1/16 to1/8–inches thick) in strips of
different widths.
2. Experiment by heating and forming the material, outside, not in an oven.
First, free-form the plastic by hand, and then form it in relation to other
material—wind it around a rod of wood, metal tube, or a triangular or square
section. It can also be twisted and bent in other ways.
3. Experiment with sheet material. You can use a rectilinear piece of sheet
material or cut it to a specific shape—curvilinear, asymmetric, and so on. Try
different ways of bringing two or more of the forms you have made into
relationship by placing or connecting them in some way—by gluing,
cutting/slotting, or drilling. View how acrylic sheets respond to light by
shining a light on the edges and on the broad sides in a darkened room.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-11
Project 1-C: Thermoplastic Sheet
Flexible thermoplastic sheet is cheap and available in large sizes—for example, as
garbage bags. It can be black, white, semi-opaque, or transparent, and it is available
in different grades (thicknesses). Or, experiment with bubble wrap, for example.
1. Start by experimenting with smaller pieces—only a few feet square—to
explore its characteristics. You will find it has little elasticity, for example.
You can cut, pull, and “deform” it into various surface structures, or stretch it
over forms, wood, or wire frames. Try also some other processes, such as
sewing, gluing, twisting, plaiting, and holding water.
2. Using larger sheets, try hanging or suspending them from above, and/or
raising the sheets off the floor. Some grades will hold a form with little or no
support.
3. Respond imaginatively, and try to make contrasting relationships.
Project 1-D: Thermo-Setting Resins
Safety Caution: For this project, you will need a mask capable of filtering
both fibreglass particles and VOCs from resin and catalyst.
1. If you are interested in thermo-setting resins, find a local supplier and ask for
polyester suitable for the cold lay-up process and for a suitable catalyst for
the resin, to make it gel and harden.
2. With basic resin—which may be slightly coloured and a little opaque or
absolutely clear—use lightweight fibreglass of chopped strand mat, about 30
to 50 grams/1 to 2 ounces in weight.
3. To begin, use a flat sheet for a former. Aluminum is best, but you could also
use other sheet material that is smooth, clean, and not too absorbent.
4. Cut the fibreglass slightly oversize—approximately 2 cm by 3 cm all around,
depending on the size of the job—so that it will be easy to work, provide a
strong edge and release promptly from the former or mould.
5. Before applying the resin, apply at least one coat of release agent—so the
resin does not stick to the former. When you are proficient and can make an
even, bubble-free laminate of two or three layers of glass and resin, you can
go on to a variety of experiments. Be careful not to use too much resin. If you
do use too much, it will form a glassy, unsupported surface on the back of the
form. When fibreglass is sufficiently saturated, you can see it and touch it on
the surface.
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U3-12 Unit 3: Plastic
6. Experiment with colour, free and controlled. Try inlaying and collage. Use
different fillers, such as plaster, and powders of various kinds. Then, try
working over or into formers or simple moulds, such as folded metal or
ready-made forms like bowls and hemispheres. These experimental trials can
be the first step of your personal developments. For casting and lay-up, you
can buy slightly more expensive transparent resin.
7. When laying-up the glass and resin, if you want a smooth surface, whether
coloured or transparent, you can brush on a layer of the catalyzed resin and let it
gel—or harden—to a “tacky” consistency before brushing over again with resin,
then lay on the sheet of fibreglass and press it down with the brush.
8. Add successive layers of glass and work in the resin with brush or roller to
produce the strength of lamination that you require.
9. If you are working and laying-up into a more complex plaster mould, you will
probably not be able to use anything except a brush and very small roller. You can
also make small tools for this purpose from cut and shaped pieces of wood.
Section 2: Personal Development
Complete three or four examples of one project:
• Project 2-A: Scrap Plastic Objects
OR
• Project 2-B: Free Form
Having carried out your experimental work, looked at it critically, and discovered
something of its possibilities and implications, you should now be ready for further
developments.
When viewing the video program, notice how students found different ways to use
various types of plastics, which often determined how the work was developed and
presented—the format of the work.
For example, one of the students in the video program, Kuan, cast a fibreglass and resin
piece from either side of a piece of rolled and folded steel. So, he laid out the two yellow
pieces side by side in front of the vertical metal former. Another student in the video
program, Cathy, vacuum-formed a series of nine pieces that, by heating and softening,
had undergone a series of changes and deformations from their first life as firm plastic
bottles. These she made into one large square piece. Cathy’s drawing of her work is
shown in illustration 8 at the end of the unit. Yet, another on-camera student, Adrian,
started with a collage of materials in resin, which he then made boxed and double-
sided, with a handle for carrying—a transparent “briefcase.”
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-13
In illustration 6 at the end of this unit, Brent Hohlweg’s rough Notebook study of his
installation provides one more example of how to create a development might be
done using various plastic materials and forms.
Complete one of the developments described below:
Project 2-A: Scrap Plastic Objects
1. If you worked from scrap plastic objects, you should now have some
responses to those materials and forms.
2. You could work with plastic objects, scrap plastic or expanded plastics used
for packaging by cutting them, working with knives, and then reconstructing
them with other materials to make large-scale reliefs.
3. You could try painting the objects to make your work coherent and either
unified or diverse in colour.
4. Your experiments can be enlarged or made more complex.
5. Is your idea best developed for a particular place—on the floor, wall, or ceiling?
Or set in a corner, or suspended? Would it be more effective out-of-doors?
Project 2-B: Free Form
1. If you used rigid scrap strip and sheet, you can now cut and glue it to create
many geometric forms.
2. If you are using transparent Plexiglas, you can form it with a little heat or, by
gluing and drilling, add it to other forms (such as coloured threads or string),
or add larger sheets. Transparent material acts as a space form or space
modulator—you can extend from its surface or work on both sides of it
simultaneously.
3. You can also introduce coloured material, ready-made material, or pigment
and resin. As you see in the video programs, in her last on-camera
experiments, Cathy made an interesting piece that held a large stone and a
group of smaller stones. You may, of course, use your plastic with other
material, so long as the plastic is dominant. Multi-coloured fibres, strands of
nylon, or fishing line can be incorporated into transparent and/or coloured
thermoplastic forms, e.g., rigid or flexible acrylic and styrene.
4. If you experimented with flexible thermoplastic sheet, and are working on a
larger scale, you might use other materials for support or weighting. Try pulling
the sheet taut, or letting it hang loose, weighted at the bottom. If supported, but
resting on the floor. It will hold water, with or without dyes or pigment. You can
make tents, “clothes,” drapes, or wrapping with the sheet, or use it with natural
or artificial light. Low cost and large dimensions make thermoplastic sheeting
one of the few materials that lend themselves to installations.
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U3-14 Unit 3: Plastic
I am sure that you will have other ideas—or can extend my suggestions. In the video
program, you will see simple uses of formed sheet metal as moulds, bending curves,
or angles. You can use a single three-dimensional form to make standard units for
different relationships, or to make forms in different colours. You can also add other
forms, both “behind the front surface” when laying-up or, finally, on the front. Such
additions must be related formally and by colour, tone, or texture to the rest of the
image.
1. If you have experimented with laying-up polyester resin and fibreglass, its
many possibilities may be apparent to you.
2. You could work in two or three dimensions—on a small scale and inlaying
other flat materials, or using collected materials for flat or relief collage.
3. If you move to a larger scale, you will find these materials flexible and
adaptable—you can change the type or weight of the fibreglass, alter the
colour, etc. If the scale is more ambitious, you may also find the resins are
messy, sticky and hard work, as rolling resins on a large scale is much more
difficult than working on tabletop-sized pieces.
4. You could instead work serially, using a relatively small scale—only a few
feet square—and make a number of pieces, rather like tiles, which can be
arranged together on a wall. One of my first commissioned pieces using
fibreglass-reinforced polyester was a mural for a children’s playground. I
chose this material because it was virtually indestructible and could be
washed with a hose.
5. On another direction, remember that clothes can be shaped and padded with
newspaper to make sculptural forms, and that adding resin will make them
rigid. Resin is tough—it is used for boats, ships, canoes, car bodies, skis and
furniture—as well as for sculpture.
6. In the video program, you will see simple uses of formed sheet metal as
moulds, bending curves, or angles. You can use a single three-dimensional
form to make standard units for different relationships, or to make forms in
different colours. One of the on-camera students, Craig, used a folded sheet
aluminum former to make a coloured relief of fibreglass-reinforced polyester,
and painted it so that its appearance changed when viewed from different
points in his final piece.
7. You can also add other forms, both “behind the front surface” when laying-
up or, finally, on the front. Such additions must be related formally and by
colour, tone, or texture to the rest of the image. Kuan used casting-grade
polyester resin to fill moulds cut from cardboard; however, he did not have
time to develop these into a format.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-15
8. Developing your work involves trying out different approaches and versions
of the same basic idea and then finally developing the piece.
9. Avoid just trying out one idea on a large scale.
10. By using your imagination, and by trial and error adjustment of your
arrangements, you can bring forms together in unique relationships.
Note: In the Course Manual, we suggested that you might want to carry out
your personal development works as installations or environmental projects.
If you wish, you can choose to adapt any of the development projects above
to either an interior or exterior installation.
Notes on the Reproductions
The following are on DVD 2 and/or in the Postcard Booklet.
Gabo, Naum. Linear Construction in Space No. 2. 1972–1973.
Plexiglas with nylon monofilament.
Reproduced with the permission of Nina Williams.
Gabo and his brother Pevsner were among the founders of the Russian Constructivist
School. Interested in scientific ideas and inspired by mathematical models of functions,
they exploited new materials to express their dynamic ideas about form. As early as
1926, Gabo used large sheets of transparent plastic in a design for the set of the ballet La
Chatte for Diaghilev. In the 1930s, he carried out a series of translucent variations on a
spherical theme from which many later forms were developed.
This is one of them, a version of Linear Construction in Space. It is made transparent acrylic,
thermoplastic sheet (Plexiglas) and is strung with nylon monofilament. The work continues
the Constructivist preferences for form independent of solid volume; it lines and plans
activate space and combine to make the space as positive as the material form. In fact, when
looking at the original, it is often difficult to see where material and space begin and end.
King, Phillip. Genghis Khan. 1963.
Fibreglass-reinforced polyester resin; 213.5 × 366 × 274 cm.
King was one of a group of British artists who developed the sculptural possibilities of
synthetic materials in interesting ways in the 1960s. In Genghis Khan, he effectively
draws on the attributes of glass-reinforced polyester-resin lamination. The principal
form is the cone, which opens and makes a fluid contact with the floor; the upper form
is almost two-dimensional and, although abstract, has organic, flower-like connotations.
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King uses a rather monochromatic surface here, but in other works he was attracted to
the possibilities of colour. (Making your own material, casting the forms on formed
sheets or plaster moulds, allows you to control the surface quality completely and to
achieve exact colour.) After a period dominated by Constructivist forms, colours, and
geometric shapes, King—always inventive—extended the organic aspects of his work
by drawing on the more tactile qualities of wood, slate, metal, and brick.
Tucker, William. Memphis. 1965.
Fibreglass-reinforced polyester resin; 3 units.
Tate Gallery, London, England/Art Resource, New York, NY.
In Memphis, William Tucker uses fibreglass and resin to make three differently
coloured standard units. Like other British Structuralists, during the 1960s, he
worked in synthetic material, developing a new range of sculpture that exploited
unmodulated colour and smooth regular surfaces. These forms are of sheet material,
and they indicate volume rather than the full implications of mass. The colours
provide a sense of lightness, but the arrangement stresses the force of gravity.
However, as separate forms, the units are open to reassembly.
Oldenburg, Claes. Giant Pool Balls. 1967.
Plexiglas balls; 50.8 cm;
Wood rack; 50.8 × 304.8 x 274 cm.
Los Angeles Country Museum, Los Angeles, CA.
Anonymous gift through the Contemporary Arts Council
Oldenburg is part of the American Pop Art tradition, in so far as he uses popular
everyday objects as a starting point. This doesn’t necessarily mean that he is simply
celebrating mundane things—though he does find them targets for witty and
satirical comment. He uses a wide range of materials and has developed a major
“non-sculptural” range of three-dimensional forms, replicas that vary from being
tightly engineered hard-geometric to soft-stuffed. His drawings and maquettes are
fascinating, revealing his interest in two- and three-dimensional language.
Sometimes, as in this work, Oldenburg is excited by the notion of replication that is
exact in form but extravagantly increased in scale. He may change not only the
material but also the construction and tension of the original form. The actual siting
of monumental projects creates surreal implications and increases the measure of
transformation and meaning of the object.
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Student work. Pneumatic Sculpture. 1965.
Coloured polythene, Plexiglas, and air; 137.16 cm square.
In the sixties, although fibreglass and polyester resin were the most popular materials for
sculpture and construction for many artists, there were explorations into the use of other
synthetic materials. One was polythene sheet, for large-scale environment projects.
This construction of opaque, coloured polythene was made by heat-sealing each of
the four units, filling them with compressed air, and then bolting them together. It
has a well-engineered industrial look about it and was accompanied by other units
on floor and ceiling.
Arc de Triomphe. 1989.
Draped in red, white, and blue thermoplastic mesh for cleaning.
Paris, France.
When I was in Paris in 1989, they were preparing for the bicentenary of the French
Revolution. Walking out of the Metro, I was confronted with the enormous Arc de
Triomphe draped in red, white, and blue thermoplastic netting. Certainly, this
tricolour shroud was not intended to be a work of art, but rather an effective shield
from the cleaning process. Nevertheless, it possesses something of the spirit of the
occasion and would have fitted into any number of Impressionist paintings of the
city.
Cragg, Tony. New Stones. 1982
Various plastic forms and scrap.
The title of this work by Cragg tells you quite a lot about the artist; it is enigmatic,
wryly witty, and indicates an almost archaeological interest in materials. Cragg
made this collection from waste forms, parts, and scrap of both thermoplastic and
thermo-setting plastics. They are ordered on the ground in the order of the
spectrum—the pieces varying in colour, light and dark, warm and cool—though
they could be picked up and put down again in other orders. The pieces are
arranged in the practical layout of any non-art presentation, like a collection of
archaeological specimens. Yet, they have the intriguing unexpectedness found in
much of Cragg’s work. He creates three-dimensional pieces of simple, minimalist
power, enhancing them with materials he finds and builds into new forms; he
combines disorder and structure, pushing, piling and placing with a free sense of
revealing his processes, whether abstract or figurative in content.
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Dubuffet, Jean. Group of Four Trees. 1971–1972. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–010)
Epoxy and polyurethane over steel; 11.5 × 12 × 10 m.
Chase Manhattan Bank, New York, NY.
Dubuffet was always one of those fortunate, non-classifiable individuals. His earlier
works were predominantly two-dimensional, paintings that recall the intuitive
power of work by very young children, naive images by mental patients, and, in
particular, indigenous forms,. In later years, he tended to work more in three
dimensions and was excited by his discovery of plastics, especially of expanded
polystyrene, which he felt could be of great use to sculptors. He carried out some
immense structures, including buildings and environmental installations. This
image shows one of his modest street sculptures; you can see the tiny figures in the
background. Although the surface structure and finish are plastic, the work is
supported by steel-reinforced concrete, since plastics have yet to achieve the load-
bearing capacity of steel.
Kienholz, Edward. The State Hospital. 1964–1966. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–011)
Plastics, resin, and other media; 244 × 366 × 296 cm.
Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden.
Photograph: Statens Museet, Stockholm.
Although Kienholz is comprised with Pop artists, and seems to have affinities with
figurative realists such as Duane Hanson, his work is quite different. From early
objects to alter environmental installations and tableaux, his use of materials is
always transformative and more surreal than real. The works are often loaded with
bitter comment on contemporary life, evoking the pungent odours of miserable
conditions, the visual slums where people lead their lives, or the languishing despair
of old age punctuated by nostalgia.
The State Hospital is one of his most interesting structures. It shows two figures, or fibreglass
and polyester resin, strapped to the bunk beds of a mental hospital. They are first seen
through an aperture in a solid door, at eye level. In place of faces, you look into goldfish
bowls, bonded into the heads of the figures, where the fish swim mindlessly. The figures
are abject, beyond despair; the work discloses a tragic human condition.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U3-19
Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo. Light Space Modulator. 1926. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–013)
Transparent and translucent plastic, reflective metal sheet, and mesh, and other
materials; base 120 × 120 cms.
Kinetic sculpture.
Image based on Photograph Museum of Modern Art. New York, NY. Size unknown.
Moholy-Nagy was fascinated by the play of light, colour, and shadow on space. His
kinetic sculpture rotates transparent, and translucent plastic and wire mesh and
reflective metal parts to create a range of moving shadows and changing patterns of
light, which both tower over and interact with the viewer. The machine had multiple
low-powered coloured lights and three high powered spotlight bulbs to create
strong shadows. The machine so baffled US Customs that Moholy-Nagy resorted to
calling it “hairdressing equipment.” Moholy-Nagy’s work was intended to be used
in dance or theatre performances or as settings for films.
Gabo, Naum. Head of a Woman. 1917–1920. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–012)
Celluloid Plastic, Metal.
62.2 ×48.9 × 35.4 cms.
Head of a Woman uses the edges of the flat plastic sheet to suggest the surface planes
of the woman’s face. Gabo’s work has strong connections with the carved flat planes
African wood sculpture, but uses the then modern material celluloid plastic to create
a slightly translucent head. Gabo has also radically extended the removal of surface
planes of the woman’s head to create a new expressive image. Instead of responding
to the obvious planes of the woman’s face, Gabo has found planes that respond to
the interior volumes of the head. Years later, he re-interpreted this head on a larger
scale in sheet metal. The metal version is in the Tate Gallery, London.
Recommended Resources
McCann, Michael. Artist Beware: The Hazards in Working with All Art and Craft
Materials and the Precautions Every Artist and Craftsperson Should Take. Revised and
updated ed. Guilford, UK: The Lyons Press, 2005. Print.
Comprehensive overview of health hazards in art materials. Contains a chapter
on safety when using plastics.
Plowman, John. The Manual of Sculpting Techniques. London: A & C Black Publishers
Ltd., 2003. Print.
A good introduction to a wide range of materials, including a section on different
methods of working with plastic. Many photographs showing stages of construction
and details. The sculptural examples chosen could be more inspiring.
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Warring, R. H. The New Glass Fibre Book. Revised ed., Hemel Hempstead, Herts., UK:
Model & Allied Publications, 1971. Print.
The basics of fibreglass and resin, including methods of working.
Williams, Arthur. Sculpture: Techniques, Form, Content. Revised ed. Worcester, UK:
Davis Publications, Inc., 1995.
A very good and detailed review. Contains a section on different ways of
working with plastics. Excellent sculptural examples and many photographs of
techniques for working in a range of materials.
List of Illustrations
1. Bag press forming of polyester-reinforced fibreglass. From computer animation by
E. John Love.
2. Vacuum forming of thermoplastic sheet over wooden formers. From computer
animation by E. John Love.
3. Extrusion moulding of plastics, with form released from the mould. From computer
animation by E. John Love.
4. Injection moulding of plastics, with form released from the mould. From computer
animation by E. John Love.
5. Heat-sealing thermoplastic sheet. Notebook drawing by Oliver Kuys.
6. Installation using various plastic materials and forms. Rough notebook study by
Brent Hohlweg.
7. Drawing of organization for vacuum-formed wall relief in thermoplastic sheet. Cathy
Burton.
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TRU Open Learning
Faculty of Arts
Unit 4:
Paper
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U4-1
Unit 4: Paper
Introduction
Note: DVD 3 includes the video program Paper.
Every day, we handle paper—reading the newspaper, disposing of junk mail, and
writing letters, drawing, printing, and painting on it. We use paper for building
construction and in mattresses for bedding; the Victorians even made furniture with it.
More recently, the architect Frank Gehry designed a range of chairs and couches made
from corrugated cardboard (see Gehry’s Wiggle Chair in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–
067). As you explore paper, you will be amazed at its versatility and the vast range of
forms and artifacts that can be made from it. It can be hand- or machine-made, cheap or
expensive—even precious, and its tactile qualities vary widely. The significance of
paper, however, is determined by the messages and images it carries.
History of Paper
Paper is a sheet made by webbing types of vegetable cellulose fibres with water. Its
forerunners, as vehicles of information and communication, were slabs of clay, wax-
coated tablets, and even stone. But these were rigid forms. With the development of
flexible material, such as palm leaves and papyrus (see the section from the Egyptian
Book of the Dead in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–014), it was possible to make
lightweight writing material that was important in the transmissions of information
and the rule of law in early civilizations. Other early flexible surfaces for writing and
painting were parchment made from the skin of sheep or goat, or vellum, a fine
parchment from calfskin used for the written and illuminated manuscripts of
medieval times (see the vellum pages from both the Book of Kells (TRU OL–020) and
the Lindisfarne Gospels (TRU OL–015) in the Postcard Booklet).
Paper as we know it began in China in 105 CE (Common Era, or the Current Era; the
initials CE replace the Christian AD). It may have been invented and used before
then, but we do know that Ts’ai Lun, in that year, patented the papermaking process
in the Han Court. The paper provided a surface suitable for writing with a brush
and for printing using a woodblock. This is the historical beginning, but there are
two traditions, the Oriental and the Western. Although they share the basic process,
their production methods and end products can be quite different. Both use locally
available materials, responding to the properties of these materials and to the
writing and working implements used. They also reflect the development of printing
within each culture.
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In the Orient, the craft was carried from China to Korea, and then to Japan some five
hundred years later. Many early papers were made from hemp; in Japan, the inner
bark of the mulberry tree and the fibres of various shrubs were used. Many other
plants were tested, including bamboo, rice, straw, linen, and banana. And, even
then, paper was recycled to meet the growing demand.
The earliest known piece of paper, Chinese in origin, was probably made of rags
around 150 CE. By 750 CE, paper had been introduced to central Asia and the
Middle East, arriving in Egypt, where it was manufactured from about 900 CE. The
Moors produced paper in North Africa and in about 1150 CE introduced it to
Europe, via Spain.
In succeeding centuries, the craft spread across Europe. There the introduction of
movable type in the mid-fifteenth century and the development of book printing
stimulated papermaking. Printed paper was a vital factor in distributing information
and improving education. It facilitated the recording of the rule of law, the writing
of literature, and the documentation of music, science, technology, and ideas
generally.
In 1719, French scientist René de Ramur observed that wasps made a very fine paper
for their nests from wood fibres, digested in their mouths. This observation led to
further plant experiments and the realization that whole trees, with extensive
treatment, could produce paper. Later in the eighteenth century, many French
Huguenot papermakers fled from Catholic France and settled in Protestant countries
such as Holland and England; as a result, the Dutch became masters of the world
paper trade.
In 1795, to meet the popular demand for wallpapers, French inventor Nicholas Louis
Robert invented the first practical papermaking machine. Robert sent the designs
and drawing to his brother-in-law, John Bamble, who applied for a British patent for
the papermaking machine, which was granted in 1801. Backed by Henry and Sealy
Fourdrinier (of French Huguenot origin), and subsequently modified by a great
engineer, Brian Donkin, the early “Fourdrinier” paper machines were in wide use in
England by the 1820s.
The machines used today are in principle the same and still bear the Fourdrinier
name. It is exhilarating to witness the almost instant miracle that occurs when the
soup of water and fibres is transformed by these machines into a great continuous
sheet. Their daily capacity is almost forty-four tonnes of lightweight paper,
produced as a giant roll, more than four metres wide, which can be cut to the
requirements of the market and manufacturing. (See illustrations 1–4 at the end of
the unit.)
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If printing was an early stimulus to papermaking, machine processing almost
brought handmade paper to an end. The great impetus for machine-made paper
today is not only the production of paper for printing of all kinds, including
publications and advertising literature, but also for packaging, which now
constitutes a high percentage of production. In the introduction to the video Paper, I
purposely showed you the recycling of packaging material as a reminder that the
use of paper is near the top in the wide range of the world’s wastefulness.
Papermaking
Technical methods of papermaking may have changed during the last two thousand
years, but the principle is the same—the webbing of vegetable cellulose fibres, using
water as a binder. Two stages are involved. First, selected raw material is broken
down in water to form a suspension of individual fibres, which is collected on a
screen. Second, this suspension is spread over a porous surface of felt sheets,
through which excess water is drained.
The hand process and methods of working vary from East to West, according to the
different materials. The raw materials may be almost any vegetable fibres,
depending on the type of paper desired: leaves, straw, bark, rags, leeks, onion, and
so on. These materials are washed in running water to remove dirt and impurities,
then placed in a vat or trough and hammered or pounded to separate the fibres.
When the fibres have been sufficiently broken down, they are kept in suspension in
water, which is not changed. This liquid material is referred to as the half-stuff or
slurry, and is used for the actual papermaking.
The chief tool of the papermaker is the mould, a reinforced sheet of metal, bamboo,
or plastic mesh with either a square mesh wove pattern or a pattern of widely
spaced longitudinal wires held together with thinner, transverse wires called a “laid
pattern.” The mould pattern imprints itself on the finished sheet of paper, leaving a
watermark. So, handmade papers that are not given special finishes are identified as
wove or laid papers, according to the type of mould used in the process.
The mould is placed inside a removable wooden frame called a deckle, which forms
a low rim around its edge. Then, the papermaker dips mould and deckle into the
trough or vat containing the half-stuff, or slurry, of fibres and water. When the
mould and deckle are removed, the surface is coated with a thin film of fibre and
water mixture. Then the mould and deckle are shaken backwards and forwards and
from side to side. These movements have two effects: they distribute the mixture
evenly on the surface of the mould and they cause the individual fibres to interlock,
strengthening the sheet.
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Excess water is drained out through the mould mesh when it is shaken. The device is
then set aside for a short time until the paper is sufficiently cohesive to permit
removal of the deckle. The mould is then turned over and the paper material is laid
smoothly on a sheet of cloth or felt. To continue production, another felt is laid over
the first sheet, and the whole process is repeated. When a number of sheets have
been couched—that is, the paper removed from mould to felt—the pile is referred to
as a post, and the whole is subjected to pressure to remove any remaining excess
water.
The separate papers, stacked and pressed, are dried by evaporation. Rough-textured
papers are pressed lightly for a short period, and smooth papers pressed heavily for
longer periods. You will find that your papers vary greatly in colour, density, and
tactile quality relative to the material or combinations of material that you select.
In the program, you will see Lorraine carrying out an even simpler, quicker process
of tabletop papermaking, based on the Nepalese method. (A step-by-step guide is
presented in this unit.).
Artists Using Paper
The twentieth century saw a revival of hand papermaking, created by the interest of
artists and craftspeople. Many artists have begun to see paper as a flexible and
exciting medium, inexpensive and technologically undemanding. They have the
choice of making handmade paper, working with an experienced specialist, or
adapting material from the fine-art and book-paper markets.
Major artists of the past, such as Rembrandt and Goya, made use of high-grade
handmade papers as a ground for their prints. More recently, artists have used
paper as a medium itself. Picasso and Braque used paper in their Cubist collages and
other masterpieces; and, in his final years at the Hotel Regina in Nice, Matisse
created giant coloured-paper cut-outs—some more than nine metres long (See
examples of their work in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–017 to –019.) Among
leading contemporary artists, Robert Rauschenberg, Kenneth Noland, and Frank
Stella have been attracted to the possibilities of the medium and engaged in
papermaking projects. Hand-produced artists’ books are extensions of the more
traditional role of artists as book designers and illustrators. A visually exciting
example of some of the possibilities of paper/card folding and cutting can also be
seen in the work of Hiroshi Ogawa. (See the Recommended Resources at the end of
this unit.)
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U4-5
Assignment 4: Paper
Introduction
To Begin Working with Paper
Become a collector! Start a folio, or filing system, of all types of paper, card, and
packaging material that is mostly composed of paper. The range of paper materials
available is surprisingly large. You’ll probably find preformed paper in varying
weights and finishes and an excellent range of coloured material, as well as
“specialties” such as graphic paper, tissue paper, grease-proof paper, and so on. This
will be a resource for your experiments and later developments.
For your basic experiments, start with small sheets of white paper—such as
duplicating paper. Cutting, tearing, piercing, folding, wetting, twisting, rolling,
etcetera can all be done directly to this paper. Thicker paper and thin card can be
scored, cut, and folded, as Cathy did in developments that led from simple research
to sculptural paper forms (see illustration 5 at the end of this unit).
Cardboard can be scored, folded, cut and sawn, and constructed with or textured by
peeling layers away. It is load bearing on its sides and especially on its ends. See, for
example, Gehry’s cardboard sofas and chairs.
After these initial responses and experiments, you need to decide whether you are
going to make your own paper as Lorraine, Helen, and Brent did, or exploit existing
paper for sculptural developments, as the rest of the students did (See illustrations
6–8 at the end of this unit).
Materials for Papermaking
Virtually any natural fibrous material composed of cellulose made into a semi-liquid
pulp consistency can become paper. For example:
Natural materials: Artichoke, bamboo leaves, banana leaves, bran, cabbage leaves
and stumps, cornstalks, cotton stalks, elm leaves, esparto grass, eucalyptus, flax,
gladiola leaves, hemp, hay, hibiscus, hollyhock, iris leaves, jute, leeks, mulberry,
nettles, onions, potatoes, rushes
Waste and found materials: Blotting paper, card, construction paper, cotton and
other fine rags, old blue jeans, packaging, paper bags, paper towels, soft particle
board.
Paper with Other Materials
In your experimental approach to paper, you may find that other materials go well
with it. Certainly, there is a natural compatibility between the fibres used to make
paper and the same fibres in their natural state. Such combinations give vitality to
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U4-6 Unit 4: Paper
the paper surface by changing the colour or texture, and they also reinforce the
structure of the paper. Alternatively, you could try contrasting combinations; for
example, the flowers from one type of plant and the fibres from another. Natural
raw material can also be used for layering—putting the material between two pieces
of paper, one of which should be translucent so the layered content can be seen.
There may be constructive and functional reasons for using rigid or flexible material,
especially if you want to construct a relief of work in three dimensions—to make a
screen or geometric construction, for example. (See the ideas presented on three-
dimensional development earlier in this unit.) After your basic experiments using
commercial or your own paper, think about how you could add some other material.
Work from simple to complex, at first using no more than two materials. Try pairing
paper with one other material without necessarily fastening the two together.
Experiment, and then build on that experience.
In the video program, you will see examples of more complex combinations.
Lorraine’s involves a wide range of basic materials. Paper made from bulrush, leek,
cranberry, and garlic is combined with flowers, seaweed, and cornstalks—all very
organic relationships. (See illustrations 9 and 10 at the end of this unit.)
Brent uses dense pulp to make a series of reliefs—not making paper in the
traditional sense, but rather using paper to make objects. These panels give him the
opportunity to combine the pulp material with parts of the material in their original
form; the zipper emerges from the blue-jean pulp; the shirt collar and buttons rise
phoenix-like out of the white cotton pulp, and so on.
Helen combines her handmade pulp with Hessian sacking, leaves, and other materials.
Here are a few other materials that could be combined with paper, particularly for
collage or relief or even for three-dimensional assemblage:
• Natural fibres: Raffia, reeds, thread, twine, string, help, rope, cord, sisal
• Synthetic fibres: Thread, nylon stocking, etcetera
• Paper: Tapes, card, newspapers, magazines
• Plastic: Tapes, strip, or sheet (polyethylene), nylon filament or rope,
cellophane wrap and strip, plastic mesh, various resins, adhesives
• Metal: Fine metal wires, welding rods, woven wire, light metal mesh, chicken
wire (for papier-mâché construction)
• Wood: Various veneers, thin plywood, rods, dowels, branches, twigs,
bamboo
• Animal: Bones, leather, fur, feathers
• Plaster: Chalk, talc, clay, terra cotta, ashes, earth, stone
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U4-7
Papermaking Based on a Nepalese Process
This method is demonstrated on-camera by Lorraine.
1. Select your material—bulrush, cornstalks, etcetera and/or prepared abaca sheets.
2. Wash the stalks and cut into 7 to 10 cm/3 to 4 inch lengths.
3. Soak them for two to three days.
4. Boil with washing soda for three hours.
5. Chop strips finely or tear apart, depending on the desired results. (Long
fibres will be visible in the paper, which can be thin or thick.)
6. Put approximately 125 mL/one-half cup of material in the blender.
7. Add formation aid (15 mL/one tablespoonful). (Formation aid is traditionally
mulberry root or synthetic polyethylene substitute).
8. Add water until blender is three-quarters full (too little water strains the motor).
9. Place the mould and deckle over a vat of water (or large square plastic basin)
and pour the blended liquid into the mould.
10. Take the mould and deckle from the vat and separate mould from deckle.
11. Place cotton (piece of old sheet) material over the surface of screen.
12. Press to drain off some excess water; press down again with felt on top to
drain off additional water.
13. Have a thick pad ready. Pressing firmly on the edges of the cotton with
fingers, pry up the edge and “peel” back the flap of cotton.
14. Lay paper down on flat board and press with rolling pin.
15. Set out to dry.
Three-Dimensional Development of Handmade Pulp
Any of the following processes can be used to give handsome paper a sculptural
dimension.
Embossing
Embossing is a method of producing a slightly raised image or pattern in paper. It
can be achieved by hand or machine-printing processes, or by using a simple
bookbinding press. If you attempt hand embossing, you can create an image, using
low-relief forms cut out of metal or wood, found or pre-made forms, and wire or
plastic mesh. Select your paper carefully. It should be absorbent, but not too soft;
strong enough to withstand pressure, but not so thick that it won’t take an embossed
image. Dampen it slightly before pressing into it, then rub and burnish it with the
back of a spoon. This will provide a “blind” print, or low relief, without colour. You
can combine coloured or printed material in the paper before embossing it.
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Embedding
This is the fusing of paper pulp and an object to create a new form. Objects or
materials can be embedded on the surface or deeper. Place the objects in a tray or
shallow box, pour in the pulp, and leave it to dry. This will take some days,
depending on the thickness and density of the pulp. Alternatively, heavier objects
may be inserted into the pulp when it is dry enough to hold them in position. You
can leave forms embedded or remove them to leave an impression or sculptural
relief. Consider shallow surface pattern as well as deeper relief impressions.
Sculptural Reliefs
These can be made by pouring liquid paper pulp over low-relief forms or shapes.
When dry, the paper is carefully removed, leaving an accurate negative impression.
Use a flat dish or tray; lightly spray the surface of the objects with a release agent
(vegetable spray—non-stick aerosol) to allow easy removal of the paper relief. Pour
two or more layers of well-agitated pulp rather than one heavy dense layer, to
achieve a better flow. You may also use colour, or a different colour for each layer.
Experiment and improvise!
Casting
Casting is done by pouring pulp into a form to make a lightweight cast, thus
avoiding the excessive weight of plaster cast. The pulp can be white or coloured. Use
simple moulds—found objects, clay, or plaster—for easy release. When appropriate,
wash and clean forms with detergent and spray with a non-stick aerosol. Assist
drying with a little heat from a hot air vent, the pilot light of gas oven, or a sunny
window. (These are useful for drying any pulp forms.)
Layering
Thin found objects and forms from nature are placed between two layers of paper,
making a laminate. One paper layer is heavier and supportive, the other more
translucent so the filling can be seen or partly seen. You can use decorative items,
such as coloured material—but use colour with discrimination. If the material is dry
or hard, soak it for two to three hours before layering. Couch the first layer of damp
paper onto felt with material for insertion on top, and then apply the next layer of
thinner damp paper. The final layer may completely or partially cover the lower
areas. Dry naturally.
Note: The final result may be a little uneven.
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Using Ready-Made Paper
If you choose not to make your own paper for your assignments, consider some of
the following applications for ready-made paper:
• As a ground for drawing, painting, and various printmaking processes.
Remember to also work in three dimensions.
• To make decorative papers, such as coverings for walls, containers, book
covers, etcetera by colouring with brushes, sponges, card, and cardboard.
• As a tool for “combing” or “graining” air-brushing, spraying, wax resist or
masking tape, marbling, and stencils.
• To make books as “art publications.”
• To make paper collage or papier-collé images.
• To make relief and three-dimensional objects, using roofing and other
building papers, card, cardboard, boxes, tubes, rolls, etcetera.
• To make geometric structures that exploit the texture or structure of the
material (corrugated paper, for example).
• To paint or cover with other papers (tissue, graph, etcetera).
• To make papier-mâché) for the development of three-dimensional images or
objects.
• To make three-dimensional paper collage.
• To make jewellery with paper that will hold its form when twisted,
laminated, rolled, or spiralled around dowels.
• To make models of objects or architecture.
• To prepare maquettes for three-dimensional projects to be carried out in
another material.
• In combination with lightweight wood frames, to make screens or other
household objects.
• To make folders or portfolios to hold work.
Sections and Projects
For Assignment 4, you are expected to complete and document Section 1 and your
choice of one of the Section 2 project options:
• Section 1: Experiment with Paper and Card
AND
• Section 2: Project options (Choose between:
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U4-10 Unit 4: Paper
• Project 2-A: Make paper
• Project 2-B: Develop an Experiment.
• Project 2-C: Use Ready Made Paper
• Project 2-D: Combine Paper with Other Materials.)
Before you begin working on your assignment, read carefully through all of the
instructions for this assignment.
Documentation and Notebook pages
• Your photos should show a selection of: Your experiments with standard units of
paper and card. Further experiments exploring the characteristics of various types of
paper and card. Include also photos of the progress of your chosen projects.
• When displaying and photographing your paper works, especially those with
sculptural surfaces, you can experiment with side lighting to show the texture
of the surface. Try to use contrast within the work itself and also between the
background and the work.
• Your Notebook should include: Diagrams and notes of your observations,
explorations and developments.
Note: Remember, you are being encouraged to explore and to invent. Please
avoid using pre-existing Origami patterns. “Forms of Paper” by Hiroshi
Ogawa show how some of the basic Origami folds can be extended. Also, see
the Recommended Resources for additional ideas.
If your work is small-scale and fairly sturdy, you also may wish to send
examples of your work to your Open Learning Faculty Member.
If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have completed
Assignment 4 by Week 6. We recommend that you send your Notebook and other
documentation for Assignments 3 and 4 together.
Instructions
You are expected to complete Section 1 and one of the Section 2 project options.
Section 1: Experiment with Paper and Card
For this assignment section, begin by selecting one type of paper. I would suggest
standard white sheets, such as duplicating or printer paper. The following exploration is
very important for gaining understanding of your material. It is when you appear to be
running out of ideas that continuing to explore can produce new discoveries.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U4-11
Begin your exploration with immediate physical responses to the material—folding,
tearing, punching, twisting, cutting, sewing and slotting and everything else you can
think of, for about fifteen minutes.
Next, collect a variety of other types of paper and card.
Spend about half an hour or more exploring what characteristics of the paper,
thickness, rigidity, etcetera best meet the needs of the character of the form—what
can be folded readily, scored precisely, and then bent, crumpled and so on? Which
types of card allow complex forms and constructions to be created? Cardboard is
capable of supporting considerable weight. See, for example, Frank Gehry’s Wiggle
Chair made out of corrugated cardboard ( Postcard Booklet: TRU OL-–67).
Section 2: Project Options
Read through and then select one of these projects:
• Project 2-A: Make PaperOR
• Project 2-B: Develop an ExperimentOR
• Project 2-C: Use Ready Made PaperOR
• Project 2-D: Combine Paper with Other Materials
Project 2-A: Make Paper
1. First, decide on the particular method you will use. Earlier in this unit, you
found a general description of a papermaking method, and a description of
the basic Nepalese papermaking method used by Lorraine. However, other
methods are described in books on hand papermaking that you might want
to consider. Do choose a method, which is simple, convenient and does not
require much equipment—especially if you have no previous experience.
2. Next, decide on a range of materials. Use those which are readily available.
(See the list of paper materials earlier in this unit). Make a range of small
sheets as samples, using different fibres and combinations of fibres.
3. Carry out further development by choosing one of the following:
o Make a sculptural relief(s) by pouring liquid paper pulp over a three-
dimensional form or material.
o Embed objects or natural materials in paper.
o Layer or laminate thin found objects between two layers or paper.
o Cast by pouring pulp into a form or mould.
o Emboss by pressing paper over a low relief form.
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o Explore three dimensional constructions with your paper or with folding,
cutting, and slotting pieces together. Try making your own handmade paper.
o Experiment with light transmission through your paper.
o Develop a composition, using the different colours and textures in your paper.
Project 2-B: Develop an Experiment
For this project option, you may develop any aspect of the material experiments you carried
out in Section 1. Consider changing the scale, making combinations, sequences, contrasts of
shape, etcetera. Or, you could think in terms of rhythms of shape, form and colour.
Experiment with placement of the different elements first. These can be developed on the
floor, wall, tabletop, and so on. Then, having made your decisions on arrangement, glue
them to a board, attach them to the wall, or develop another system to show them.
Document your process with drawings, photographs, and video as you try out different
arrangements in order to find the composition that you like the most. (See one of many
possible examples: Le Courrier by Georges Braque. Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–018.)
Project 2-C: Use Ready-Made Paper
You may carry out any development based on, or selected from the list “Using Ready-
Made Paper” earlier in this unit. This could include working on the surface of the paper to
develop images or patterns, then using this paper in a three-dimensional way. Or, you
could consider developing a three-dimensional object or form from preformed paper, such
as tubes or boxes. Possibilities are endless, so select a subject, scale, and materials that suit
your interests and circumstances. Remember to look at your work from different angles,
and keep turning the work around to create interesting views form each point.
Project 2-D: Combine Paper with Other Materials
Reread the earlier part of this unit, “Paper with Other Materials.” Choose your other
materials from the list. Using handmade or ready-made paper, combine it with other
papers and materials to create a relief or three-dimensional mixed-media structure,
in which paper is the most significant material.
Notes on the Reproductions
The following are on on DVD 3 in the video Paper and/or in the Postcard Booklet.
Bible. Illuminated manuscript. 12th Century.
Vellum.
The Dean and Chapter of Durham, England.
This detail of an illuminated manuscript is one page from a twelfth-century Bible.
Manuscript means written by hand; illuminated, that the text is illustrated or enhanced for
spiritual enlightenment. It is an excellent example of the formal relationships of letter, line,
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U4-13
and space, and of the balance of decorative letterforms with the scribe’s calligraphy. The
piece is a portion from Ezekiel, Old Testament, and was produced at Durham, in the North
of England, then a centre of religious learning. This Bible is typical of manuscripts done on
vellum, a fine parchment from calfskin, which was the forerunner of paper. (See other
examples of illuminated manuscript work done on vellum, in the Postcard Booklet.)
Gutenberg, Johannes (printer). Gutenberg, or 42-Line, Bible (Detail). 1455.
Mainz, Germany.
Gutenberg’s invention of letterpress printing was the brilliant beginning of a new
era. Its technical achievement rests on the use of a press for printing and on the
introduction of setting and printing with moveable type. Gutenberg’s method of
casting type by hand evolved from his training and experience as a goldsmith. He
was familiar with cutting letters on plates and cups and for trademarks, and he
produced pilgrims’ badges that were shallow-cast of soft metal in a mould. Various
types of screw press had been used in Europe for at least a thousand years. Oil-
based inks were already in use, and—most important—abundant paper was
available. So, Gutenberg’s press can be seen as a fine example of creative synthesis.
The new invention underwent the usual misunderstanding and misapplications. At
first, Gutenberg and other printers tried to copy the scribes and calligraphers, using
a profusion of different styles—the Gutenberg Bible, using austere Gothic “textura”
type and coloured illuminations, is difficult to distinguish from the medieval
manuscripts on which it was based. But, by 1480, printers had recognized the
intrinsic autonomy of the new letterpress craft. Development of the printing press
represented a huge democratic step forward, since it made reading (and thus the
acquisition of knowledge) widely accessible.
van Rijn, Rembrandt. Hundred Guilder Print. 1639–1649.
Etching, drypoint, and burin; 27.8 x 38.8 cm.
Trustees of the British Museum, London, England.
The original title of Rembrandt’s Hundred Guilder Print was Our Lord Healing the Sick.
The popular title came about because the artist bought back an impression for that
amount. (Now, you couldn’t buy it for ten thousand guilders!)
A print on Japan paper from an etched copper plate with additional dry point, the
work represents a high point in the artist’s career as well as in the etching process.
The subject is not confined to the healing of the sick, but actually illustrates the
whole of Chapter 19 of St. Matthew’s Gospel.
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Note: Japan paper apparently did come from distant Japan. Rembrandt used
common “Japan,” which was pale golden, with a silky surface that, when
inked, produced crisp lines.
Picasso, Pablo. Violin. 1913.
Carbon, paper, gouache, crayon, chalk.
Musée Picasso, Paris, France.
© 1991 Pablo Picasso/Vis-Art Copyright Inc.
Picasso said that he could readily envisage his Cubist paintings translated into three
dimensions, so it is not surprising that after the rigours of analytical Cubism he
began using other materials in collages. Soon after making works with newspapers,
coloured paper, wallpaper, and cardboard, he moved into three-dimensional relief
construction that included wood and metal. But it was not in the tradition of
sculpture that he worked with such a sense of structural and spatial urgency.
This work shows the transition from two-dimensional to three-dimensional collage. On
a background surface of crayon and gouache on newspaper, an empty cardboard box
has been fixed, bottom up: a paper strip passes through cuts in the box, with additional
drawn lines to suggest violin strings. Paper, card, scissors, and glue were all that it
required—plus Picasso’s ingenuity and dynamic vision. Picasso had a strong sense of
material and surface, and he was forever alert to the materials around him.
Matisse, Henri. Sorrow of the King. 1952.
Cut-out paper; 292 x 294 cm.
Musée National d’Art Moderne, Paris, France.
© 1991 Henri Matisse/ARS New York, USA.
Matisse’s Sorrow of the King is a cut-out paper structure—one of the works of his later
years, some of which are more than nine metres in length. On the left of the picture,
the green nude and the central musical motif are backed by geometric horizontal
bands of colour. On the right, against the vertical background, the figure of the
dancer is light and open, with strong dynamic arcs and curves.
The cut-outs were, according to Matisse, the result of “drawing, and more drawing from
nature,” then, when his hand was sufficiently practised and the form had evolved in his
mind, cutting the images spontaneously. He also said that scissors could acquire more
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feeling for line than pencil or charcoal and that cutting straight into colour reminded him of
the direct carving of the sculptor. So, it was this “carving” process, not snipping and
clipping the hand-coloured sheets, which Matisse used to make these large paper works.
Reese-Heim, Dorothea. Kartuschen. 1988.
Paper, thread; 60 x 60 x 10 cm.
Reese-Heim, a German artist, uses handmade paper with thread and other fibres to
achieve works of considerable delicacy and strength. In this work, she presents a
varied tactile range, providing the qualities of relief sculpture and textile. Fine fibres
within the structural paper rolls combine with filaments and threads laminated in
the sheets and wind around the rolls. The varying smoothness and colour range of
the blues contrasts with the heavier tactile and informal darker fibres.
Mack, David. Adding Fuel to the Fire. 1987.
Magazines, newspaper, car body, furniture, etc.
Installation. Barcelona, Spain.
This large, ephemeral installation by British artist David Mack makes a somewhat
humorous critical comment on our consumer society. He layers quantities of waste
material (magazines and newspapers) to produce a sculptural tidal wave, on which
float obsolete objects. The work implies that we could all end up submerged in a sea
of waste paper.
The public was able to watch Mack at work on this installation. In fact, public
involvement was a vital performance aspect of the work.
Gehry, Frank. “Easy Edges” Body Contour Rocker.” 1971.
Laminated, corrugated cardboard; 81.3 x 87.6 x 97.8 cm.
Manufacturer, Easy Edges Inc.
Collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York, USA.
Gift of the manufacturer.
Canadian-American designer Gehry created “Easy Edges” Body Contour Rocker most
improbably, from sheets of cardboard. Singly, the sheets possess little load-bearing
capacity—but, laminated, they can bear a substantial body weight. The curvilinear
section strengths the form, provides the rocking motion, and provides a fluent
sculptural structure of considerable aesthetic merit.
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The following is not on the DVD, but it is another example of Gehry’s work:
Gehry Frank. Wiggle Chair. 1972. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–067)
Laminated, corrugated cardboard, fibre board, round timber.
Vitra Design Museum.
Now a well-known architect, Gehry designed these chairs by using the vertical
strength of laminated cardboard. Both cardboard’s versatility and ready availability
were key aspects of Gehry’s designs. He has developed a strong clear design which
combines both forms found in nature and industrial materials.
Five-year-old child’s construction. 1960s.
Scrap paper, card, sprayed with metallic paint, crayon, chalk.
This work in scrap material shows clearly how instinctive the constructive idiom is
to the child who constructed this work and transformed collected paper, card rolls,
and lids to make equivalents—no attempt is made to copy actual parts—for the
functional parts of an old steam engine, and then sprayed them with a metallic
finish.
At the British National Exhibition of Children’s Art, where the work was shown, I
asked the boy what the yellow plastic mesh bag was for. “Smoke,” he said. This
demonstrated a constructive logic, since the plastic was the least substantial material
used in the work.
Recommended Resources
Elmert, Dorothea. History of Paper Art. Wienand Verlag, 1994. Print.
A historical survey rather than a “how to” book. Contains a wide range of fine
examples of sculptural uses of paper, including paper making, paper casting,
and paper art. In German and English.
Heller, Jules. Papermaking. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1978. Print.
A comprehensive text on the theory and practice of papermaking, including
experimental approaches and illustrations of artists’ work.
Hopkinson, Anthony. Papermaking at Home: How to Produce Your Own Stationery from
Recycled Waste. Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, UK: Thorsons Publishers, 1978.
Print.
A basic, practical introduction to papermaking.
Ogawa, Hiroshi. Forms of Paper. Trans. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1971.
Print.
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A visually exciting exploration of paper folding to create inventive paper forms.
Ogawa shows a range of techniques he used in paper folding, and the simple
tools required. Mostly photographs, some text, translated into English.
Shannon, Faith. Paper Pleasures: The Creative Guide to Papercraft. New York:
Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987. Print.
Covers various aspects of paper: its making, including innovative approaches,
and its uses for three-dimensional constructions and decorative applications.
List of Illustrations
1. Recycled cartons are broken down and mixed with water in the hopper; waste, wire,
plastic, etc., are removed. From computer animation by Jeanie Sundland.
2. Paper slurry passes from headbox to fourdrinier. From computer animations by E.
John Love.
3. Paper passes through calendar rolls for finishing. From computer animation by E.
John Love.
4. Final roll is cut into desired widths. From computer animation by E. John Love.
5. Preparatory studies for experiments with paper. Cathy Burton.
6. Exploring the boxes, two to three dimensions. Geoffrey Topham.
7. Idea drawings for exploiting jigsaw puzzles. Craig Takeuchi.
8. Preparatory drawings for a card-on-water project. Oliver Kuys.
9. Experiments in papermaking with natural fibres showing photocopies of source
material. Lorraine Yabuki.
10. Photocopies of experiments combining natural fibres with paper. Lorraine Yabuki.
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TRU Open Learning
Faculty of Arts
Unit 5:
Fibres
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-1
Unit 5: Fibres
Introduction
Note: DVD 3 includes the video program Fibres.
You have already learned about fibres in various forms in three previous units. Wood
results from the cohesion of cellulose fibres; however, it is often worked counter to its
fibrous nature. Making and using paper on the program, students were involved with a
wide range of natural fibres, relying on broken-down cellulose fibres to web together and
bond after being mixed with water. Even the use of plastics turned up a variety of synthetic
fibres and glass fibres that were formed into chopped strand mat and woven sheets.
Unit 5 will explore these fibres and others not yet examined—no doubt finding new
characteristics that can be used in the development of new forms.
Note: In this and other units, you are being provided with more information
than you need to simply to complete the course. The idea is to provide you
with a broad background on the material under discussion, so that you can
understand how others have worked with it, and be encouraged, at some
later date, to explore it further yourself.
Classification and Sources of Fibres
Fibres are classified in four main types, according to their origin:
• Animal (derived from animal tissue)
• Vegetable (derived from vegetable sources)
• Mineral (derived from mineral sources)
• Synthetic (produced by chemical or industrial processes)
Animal Fibres
There are two main kinds of animal fibres that differ structurally. They are silk and
hair (which also includes fur and feathers).
Silk
Silk is spun in continuous filaments from the abdomen of various types of insects
and spiders. “True silk” is produced by only one insect, the silkworm, which is
really a caterpillar of a moth that spins its cocoon of silk. The length of silk depends
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on the size of the silkworm cocoon, and the thread is cylindrical in section. “Wild
silk”—also known as “tussah” silk and the raw material for shantung fabrics—is
produced by several related species of insect; in sections, the thread is rectangular
and tends to be irregular. The silk-like threads spun by spiders are not used in
textiles but are sometimes used in precision optical instruments.
Hair
The commonest animal hair fibre is sheep’s wool, which differs from other hair
because the fibres are not smooth. Hairs vary according to the particular breed of the
animal, but individual hairs can be as long as seventy-six centimetres/thirty inches,
or, more usually, about half that. In wild sheep, the wool is short, soft underneath,
and protected by coarse longer hairs. Domestic sheep are bred for long fleeces.
Wool is used for a vast range of woven goods and is often combined with other
materials in fabrics and textiles. The hairs of other animals, such as the Angora
rabbit, Cashmere goat, camel, alpaca, and vicuña are also used as textile fibres. Even
the hair of certain rabbits and cats is sometimes spun into yarn, but is more often
employed in the production of fur felt. Cow and horse have been used for textiles
and upholstery. Horse, camel, sable, and badger hairs are used for paint brushes.
The range of quality of materials produced from animal fibres is extremely diverse,
but woven materials for the fashion industry predominate.
The natural hairs of fur provide a valuable source of tactile sensations, and this is
exploited in manufactured products. The flexible skins are used as clothing and for
lining and trimming garments. Any fur is worthy of consideration for studio
projects.
Natural feathers can be included in the context of fibres. They have been used as
decoration in most cultures since primitive times, and are often incorporated in
clothing, particularly in Central and South America. You can see examples of the
uses of various fibrous materials in the Postcard Booklet.
Vegetable Fibres
The chemical composition of vegetable fibres is predominately cellulose. The
principal vegetable fibres are of five structural types:
• Grasses: Entire stems and leaves are utilized. Esparto grass and raffia leaves
are among many types in this group.
• Leaves and stems: The tough fibres found in plant leaves and stems,
particularly stems that carry sap.
• Seeds: The soft seed-hair fibres surrounding the seeds of certain plants.
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• Tough fibres: Generally referred to as basts, which grow between the bark and
stem of certain plants and shrubs. Tough fibres are also found on various
palm tree trunks. Palm leaves have a strong sheathing, and they are also a
source of fibre.
• Fruit cases: Coverings of tropical fruits, such as coir, from the outer husk of
coconuts (used for ropes and matting).
Cotton is a seed-hair fibre and the most used and adaptable of all fibres. The only
other commercially useful seed-hair fibre is kapok, which cannot be spun, but is used
for upholstery stuffing and is suitable for “soft” sculpture.
Linen is made from flax, a grass. Course cloths, twine, and cordage are produced
from hemp, jute, and ramie. These vast fibres are used in the manufacture of
cordage, but they can also be woven into quite fine textiles. Other vascular fibres,
such as sisal, Manila hemp, and yucca, are used for ropes and similar products.
Even fibres from pineapple can produce textiles. Esparto grass not only forms a basis
for paper, but is woven with other fibres to make hat and matting. Cotton and flax
form the basis for the finest rag papers, while coarse fibres such as hemp, jute, and
Manila are used for wrapping paper and packaging materials. Hemp is also used
today in clothing and was used experimentally in conjunction with sisal and wheat
fibres by Ford Motor Company in 1941, to create lightweight but very strong car
bodies (see Recommended Resources). Wood fibres and sugar-cane fibres are made
into building boards.
Mineral Fibres
Glass fibre, or fibreglass, is the only fibre of inorganic, mineral origin that is used to
any degree in commercial fabrics. It is made by melting glass and blowing or
drawing the molten glass into thin flexible threads.
Fibreglass (as you saw in the previous video program on plastics) is made into an
extensive range of products of different weights and weaves for industrial
applications, particularly as reinforcement for polyester and other synthetic resins.
Fibres of asbestos are also woven or felted into course fabrics. They are no longer
recommended for use as insulation; their application today is limited to essential fire
protection. Insulation is now often manufactured from a fibrous substance made
from limestone or siliceous rock. Very thin metal strands are sometimes combined
with other organic filaments in specially woven gauze for industrial products.
Synthetic Fibres
These play an extensive role in fabric production; apart from textiles for clothing,
textiles for clothing, blankets, and upholstery, there are many industrial uses. The
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U5-4 Unit 5: Fibres
products of synthetic chemistry, these fibres have become increasingly important
since the introduction of rayon in the late nineteenth century. They are classified in
three main types, according to their base:
• Cellulose
• Natural or synthetic protein
• Synthetic resin
Synthetic cellulose fibres came into commercial use first, and they are still the most
important synthetic fibres. Some cellulose fibres, such as wood pulp and cotton
linters, are chemically reconstituted so they are not truly synthetic. Non-cellulose,
true synthetic fibres are usually made from petroleum. Nylon, introduced in 1940, is
now made in a range of types suitable for clothing, coated fabrics, belt drives, ropes,
brushes; and, even substitute human arteries. Nylon is notable for its elasticity, but
can also be used in parachutes and as a component of space suits. Acrylic fibres,
such as Orlon and Acrilan, are resistant to sunlight, moths, acids, and many solvents.
These synthetic fibres are often mixed with other fibres to make tents, awnings, and
protective clothing. Polyester fibres, such as Terylene, are in common use.
Properties of manufactured fibres depend on their chemical composition and
physical structure, which are, in turn, influenced by manufacturers’ needs for their
products. The function of a fabric, for example, will often determine its surface
qualities, its weight, warmth, compactness, softness, and so on. Some products
require elasticity, other more inelasticity. Spandex can be stretched like rubber, and
Spectra 900 is ten times stronger than steel.
Working with Fibres
The use of fibres was one of the first craft applications of primitive peoples and date
from the New Stone, or Neolithic, Age. Cotton was used in Egypt as early as 3000 BCE.
Thousands of years ago, weaving was done with reeds, rushes, and osiers. Today, weaving
is still the commonest method of working thread—like fibres. Knots were almost certainly
one of the earliest developments of primitive technology. They were first used to make and
fasten tools and weapons, then to set a snare, tether animals, last poles and bind things
together. There was a functional concern to find the particular knot best suited for a specific
purpose, whether to fasten a hook to a fishing line or to bridle a horse.
Different aspects of function developed to include decorative embellishment,
combining other material such as leather thongs, animal sinews, flax and other
twisted fibres. The decorative knotting of the Arabs, known as macramé, which is
from the Turkish makrama, meaning bedspread, moved to the West and even to the
Indians of North and South America. Some of these traditions are still alive today.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-5
But knotting (and macramé) was not simply the decorative addition of fringes and
trimming, it was also significant as part of maritime art and craft. The development
of sail and complex rigging made for increasingly complex use of cordage; and
sailors whiling away a few leisure hours invented many knotting variations to
produce their own patterns of macramé.
The knotting of fishing nets was another important early technical development,
which has continued to the present—except for the increase in the scale of nets and
the introduction of synthetic filaments and fibres.
Early examples of three-dimensional knitted forms are the cylindrical structures
found in Coptic tombs, apparently extensions of footwear or “leggings.” They were
probably made by knitting on a circular needle or a wooden circle with pegs around
the edge—similar to the tatting of my childhood, where tubular cores were made by
encircling the hold of a cotton spool with small nails, knitting the loops and pulling
them through the spool. On a larger scale, such forms could be useful structures to
pack or stuff. Knitted shapes could be designed for stuffing; similarly, any ready-
made fabric tubing, with or without reasonable elasticity, can be used to make three-
dimensional and sculptural forms.
All knitting was done by hand until 1596 when an English clergyman, William Lee,
invented a machine that could knit stockings. There have been many refinements
since then: ribbed stockings, then the shaping of heels and toes in hosiery, and,
finally, automatic full-fashioned machines. Small home knitting machines can
produce a reasonable range of basic forms and also produce pattern. I once designed
a series of knitting patterns, based on motifs in some of my sculptures and
constructions, which were incorporated into a knitted dress my wife wore to the
opening of my exhibition.
Fibres are essentially flexible, and they are usually long in relation to their width. All
natural fibres, except silk, are limited in length and average between about one-and-
a-quarter and twenty centimetres/a half-inch and eight inches (wool fibres, as you
learned, run longer). Natural fibres of limited length are known as staple fibres and
are generally spun into yarn.
Manufactured fibres, in long continuous strands, are called filament fibres. These can
be used singly as yarns, or blended with other filament fibres, then cut to length. To
process filament fibre into yarn, only twisting is required. The amount of twist
determines the character of the material: light twist for softness, tight twist for hard
material. Threads and yarns can be woven, knotted, knitted, plaited, or felted. Three
common methods of working with fibres are described next.
TRU Open Learning
U5-6 Unit 5: Fibres
Weaving
The craft consists of interlacing two or more series of threads at right angles to each
other. The longitude threads are called the warp and the transverse, the weft (or
woof). Diversification can be achieved by varying the number, or the materials, of
warps and wefts. In the introduction to the program, you will see computer-
animated diagrams of weaving patterns and digitized images of the varying tactile
qualities of material and pattern, including:
• Plain or taffeta weaves, which can be varied in colour and pattern by using
different colours for warp and weft. A regular variation in colour and
sequence produces a check pattern. The greater the degree of variation, the
greater the complexity of the pattern.
• Twill weaves, which are used to make serge, worsted, jersey, covert cloth,
gabardine, drill and denim.
• Basket weaves, used for plaids and skirting.
• Satin weaves, used for satin, crepe satin, and damask.
• Ribbed weaves, for poplins and piques.
• Pile weaves, commonly used for velvets, plushes, corduroys and Turkish
towelling. Loops create the pile and can be cut or uncut.
• Dolby and Jacquard weaves, which produce complex patterned fabrics for
upholstery, drapery fabrics and brocades.
Fabrics and textiles are fundamentally painterly, and can even be used with a
pictorial end product, such as tapestries (see the Bayeux Tapestry example in the
Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–024). A designer of fabrics respects the nature of the
material and the process of working it. A good textile reveals warp and weft and is
clearly fibrous. The tactile properties should be apparent—ranging from soft and
smooth to warm and rough; appealing to our sense of touch, and visually
stimulating. All weaving aspires to produce a surface with a particular texture. Most
fabrics are made to have contact with the body, as clothing, bedding, and furniture
upholstery. Although our initial response to the fabric may be to the attractiveness of
colour and pattern, it is ultimately the tactile property of the fibres, the “hand” of the
fabric, that we respond to.
Hold a piece of cloth up in front of you and try to “read” it—to analyze its structure
and get the “feel” of it. The computer images can help you do this. Computer
drawings, simulations of the over-and-under weaving process, and digitized
photographic images are all designed to provide you with the tactile equivalent of
the actual woven material.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-7
Knotting and Macramé
Some useful knots are the lark’s head, the square knot (or reef knot), the many
variations of the half hitch, and the more complex braided cordage knot—the
sennit—made in flat, round, or square form, using from three to nine cords. The knot
is a basic unit, and its repetition creates the surface patterns found in the hammock
and fishing net. Changes in the types of knots and fibrous material used can produce
complex, ornate, and sculptural art forms.
Knitting and Crochet
In knitting and crochet, the basic principle involves interlooping or interlocking
yarn, using either a hook (crochet) or two or more needles. This can form a close,
textured structure as a flat, flexible sheet, or as garments or coverings such as gloves,
helmets, etcetera. These products are commonly referred to as knitwear.
There are many complex patterns and conventions and an extensive array of yarns
in various textures, weights, and thicknesses available. Fortunately, by using only
the most basic stitches (plain and purl, stocking stitch, etc.) you need not stay within
the conventions of the craft, nor need you copy the patterns and designs of others.
This is an example of where the methods and work of others can be both informative
and stimulating; however, it is better to start by exploring the possibilities of simple
stitches, different weights of yarn, etcetera, for yourself. You will soon find that
experimenting promotes ideas. Manipulation of the material, developing a
sympathetic “feeling” for it, is the source of much design inspiration.
Apart from knitting with wools of different weight, colour and texture, you can use
many other materials, even incorporating different materials into the same two- or
three-dimensional structures. Designers and artists have knitted strings, cords, twine,
ropes, coloured parcel string, ribbons, waxed sealing cord, nylon, fishing line, white
cotton string, sisal, hemp, flexible or elastic plastic strips, and plastic-covered wire.
Student Projects
You will see that students in the program use a range of fibres and approaches for
their projects. Some work with fibrous material, others exploit ready-made material,
particularly fabrics and garments, and a few are enterprising in their use of fibres in
mixed-media projects.
Their works illustrate the diversity that results from individual choice of materials
and the development of individual responses, ideas, and concepts. What is apparent
from all the projects is the flexibility of most fibres and of materials made from basic
fibres. All such material can be explored and used simply for its inherent surface
qualities, or it can be looped, hung, suspended, and stretched across space or over
TRU Open Learning
U5-8 Unit 5: Fibres
forms. By using additional material or forms, it can also be twisted, stretched and
weighted by a variety of means. Think also about the combination of harmonic or
contrasting material and form.
The natural tension and other characteristics of fibres and fabrics can be
demonstrated in a given space or installation. It doesn’t necessarily have to be on a
larger scale. Ropes and nets of different weight and tension can be used on wall,
floor, and ceiling, and in space.
You will have a number of options in the assignment for this unit; however, you
should be aware that there are an infinite range of possibilities which could be
available to you. If, like Ronaye and Mark, you already have some experience in the
use of fibrous material or in particular craft, don’t hesitate to exploit it—but try to
widen your experience by attempting something new. If you can go to a forest (as
students on the program did, for their environment project for this unit) you might
like to make your own collection of supple branches, twigs, or shoots for
exploitation as structures, screens, shelters, etcetera. At a lake, you might find rushes
and reeds that can be woven into containers, nests, and baskets.
Kuan makes an interesting beginning, using netting—which can be draped, overlaid,
or constructed in a variety of ways—first on the floor and then on the wall. He
eventually contrasts the black net with expanded aluminum mesh by hanging them
in close relationship. Then, he contrasts the multi-coloured threads: one group
looped and lying freely, but bonded onto a curved resin surface, the second
suspended in space in front of the net. The work shows his rapid response to the
materials and his even quicker flight of imagination to arrive at an ordered concept.
Craig stretches and staples ready-made clothing to boards, producing relief
relationships that he then embellishes with paint. The contrasting forms are
analogues to figures and totems.
Lorraine begins exploiting her wide range of collected material, stretching or
suspending natural fibrous forms on a fibre-covered frame (see illustration 1). From
an old straw hat, she creates a “collector’s item,” reconstructing it as a nest with
grass and moss, decorating it with a wood feather, and surmounting it by a real
bird’s next containing quail eggs. Her final piece is a tour de force based on a piece of
driftwood made fibrous by the wearing effects of sand and sea. Bronze found on the
casting floor and a moulded leather mask are added to make a well-integrated and
moving form (see illustration 2).
Brent makes transpositions of form, taking soft, flexible, muslin fabric and making it
rigid. First, he stitches the material onto a metal framework (circular at one end,
square at the other), stretching and twisting it taut; then, he paints it with
transparent catalyzed polyester resin. This is an example of almost instantaneous
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-9
sculptural form, which suggests the many possibilities of stretching materials over
frames and forms. Tent structures could be one category of stretched form; kites
another. You can probably think of many more.
Contrast these with more inert forms, stuffed or shaped by inserting other forms, as
Ed does in his outdoor project (see illustration 3). Inert forms—flags, pennants,
banners, sails—can be transformed by wind.
Some forms can be achieved by development of the surface, particularly by using
colour. Cathy collects fabric samples, excitingly patterned and richly coloured, and
brings them together in a large wall hanging. It shows interesting contrasts, between
colour and tone, black fabric and white cotton canvas, and heavily stitched red-and-
blue felt. Added drawing makes printed fabric motifs “grow” over part of the
surface (see illustration 4). This is, of course, basically collage with some
rudimentary stitching and embroidery, though not in the conventional craft
tradition. Some craftspeople stay within the confines of various traditions, others
seek to extend—following a more open-ended “fine-art” direction, a personal and
exploratory approach to material, processes, and form.
Probably the most fundamental piece of work is by David, who, faced with a bale of
new green hay, has the bright idea of making a figure. This basic concept is then
strikingly developed by using Rodin’s Thinker as the model for Hayman. (It would be
even more interesting if we could have a shot of Hayman contemplating the remains
of his original substance)!
Mark is obviously experienced in dealing with fabric; he designs directly on the
dress-form “figure.” His method involves trial and error processes in which he has
to make decisions to find a good solution. As the dress develops, adjustments are
made, drawings are carried out and the machining is completed. Later, the finished
dress is worn by a model in an installation.
Lisa’s work is an interesting example of what can be done with rudimentary
technology: simple fastening, piercing, lacing, and “weaving” became part of the
rough-cut hessian T-shirts. They evolved into larger wall pieces.
Effective and creative textiles do not necessarily depend on elaborate equipment.
Ronaye—the only student who had any experience of weaving—carries out
stimulating experiments on a small tabletop loom, and her larger-scale project is
made on a primitive frame. The project was successful because she was still
exploring material and structure; developing a personal, even instinctive, sense of
design. You could see this in the variations and relationships of the materials that
Ronaye used and in the sense of surface and space that she achieved.
TRU Open Learning
U5-10 Unit 5: Fibres
Assignment 5: Fibres
Introduction
Your project for Assignment 5 must include both experimental and developmental stages.
Instructions on how to work through each of the project options are on the following pages.
If you have some special skill, or wish to incorporate a technology you are familiar with into
the project option you choose to do for this assignment, please do so. However, do explore
even further than your familiar ways of working. You could try new ways of working or
incorporating different materials into your work. Extend your experience!
Before you begin working on your assignment, read carefully through all of the
instructions for this assignment, look also at the relevant section of the Postcard Booklet.
If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have completed Assignment 5 by
Week 9. We recommend that you send your photographic documentation and notebook
pages for Assignments 5, 6, and 7 together, including any relevant work examples.
Project Options
Complete one of the following six project options for this assignment:
• Project 1: Use Flexible Mesh
OR
• Project 2: Combine Fibrous Materials
OR
• Project 3: Craft Fibrous Materials
OR
• Project 4 Collage Materials
OR
• Project 5: Make a Rug
OR
• Project 6: Combine Fibres in a Mixed-Media Project
Before you begin working on your assignment, read carefully through all of the
instructions for this assignment.
Documentation and Notebook
Make sure your documentation includes:
• Drawings, brief notes, and diagrams of the processes used in your work
• Detailed documentation of your work
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-11
Note: If your work is small, light and unbreakable, you may send it to your
Open Learning Faculty Member in addition to your photographs and your
notebook documentation.
If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have completed
Assignment 5 by Week 9. We recommend that you send your photographic
documentation and notebook pages for Assignments 5, 6, and 7 together.
Instructions
Project 1: Use Flexible Mesh
1. Using any type of flexible mesh (such as fishing net of various gauges),
experiment with the material on a small scale. Try out different materials and
document your different versions in photographs and notes. Then, develop
the ideas that you respond to the most.
2. Next, develop your experiments to work on any convenient scale in two or
three dimensions. Design your project for the wall and/or floor, or for space.
Include ropes and other additional fibrous material, if you wish.
Project 2: Combine Fibrous Materials
1. Research with a variety of different fibrous material—twine, twigs, wool,
rope, nylon, etcetera. Photograph your different combinations and develop
those you find the most visually interesting.
2. From this experience, work towards combining one material with another,
using a basic technology such as tying, twisting, or knotting.
3. Then, think of ways to combine your materials and forms into an organized
whole for an indoor or outdoor setting.
Project 3: Craft Fibrous Material
1. If you have some experience with techniques that involve fibrous material,
such as weaving, macramé, knitting, and crochet, choose one of these and
select the material range you will work with. Then, try out by arranging
different materials together in order to select the combinations you are most
interested in. Photograph your different versions. See if you can explore even
further than your previous work with fibre.
2. Make small experimental structures, and then move to a larger scale. Alternatively,
design and make a product. This can be some type of functional product with, of
course, aesthetic implications—for example, a dress, hat, or knitted form.
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U5-12 Unit 5: Fibres
3. You could create a new “fine-art” form—combining your initial material with
others to develop a mixed-media context.
4. If your chosen process is weaving, remember the following:
5. Structure is the fundamental element in weaving and it creates the basic
characteristics of the cloth.
6. On the simplest structures, you can make virtually endless variations.
7. Fibre colour and texture, although important, should be subordinated to the
structure of the woven fabric.
Project 4: Collage Materials
1. Make a collection of fabrics, sheet material, samples, cut-out pieces from old
clothes, or any cheap material.
2. Working experimentally on a relatively small scale, try to relate up to three
pieces. Do this by cutting, to establish a scale relationship—for example,
putting small-patterned pieces with larger, plain material. Try contrasting
materials, then making harmonic relationships, and so on. This is a vital part
of the composition process because you can rapidly try out, by placing
different fabric pieces together and documenting the variations. In this way
you can try out a range of possible colour, texture, shape combinations, to see
which you like the best. Photograph this composing process so that your
Open Learning Faculty Member can see your ideas developing.
3. Next, try to find a system of relationship so that you can bring more materials
together, or work on a larger scale. You can think of this first as collage; simply
glue or tack pieces together or layer one on another. It’s essential to keep the
whole process in a continuous state of development in these early stages.
4. When you are confident of your direction, you can fasten pieces more
permanently together.
5. The piece can be evolved very much as you wish—it can be hung, laid flat,
stretched on a frame, or attached to a flat board. You can think of it as
appliqué embroidery, or you can evolve it into a new format of your own.
6. Decide when to use adhesive, when to stitch, and how that should be done. Parts
may be flat, padded or quilted; they may be drawn on, or elements may be tied.
You can’t do everything in one piece, so select and organize—you are in control.
Project 5: Make a Rug
1. If you have some specific experience or want to master a new craft, try making a
rug. Because of time constraints, you could design the rug in your Notebook and
submit examples or photographs of the fibres and stitches to be used. Document by
photographing and note-taking how you try out different colour, pattern and
texture combinations before you start the actual weaving process.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-13
2. You should begin experimentally, but ultimately your selection of material
will be determined by structural requirements, with particular importance
given to colour and tactile qualities. Some artists have had their works on paper
or canvas transposed into rugs and tapestries that have for centuries been the
most pictorial form of fibrous art production. But that is an elaborate and
laborious process beyond the scope of this assignment!
3. You could, however, make a small rug, about the size of a prayer mat, by a
variety of means. Ronaye’s handsome “loom” of wood strips attached to the
floor and wall to take the warp could be a quick way to “weave” a mat in the
style of a rag rug. Also, consider other craft methods, such as braiding and
knotting. Remember that the heavier the fibre, the quicker it will be to work.
Project 6: Combine Fibres in a Mixed-Media Project
1. Choose a range of fibres and arrange them in a structure or mixed-media
format.
2. Try out different combinations and placements as you begin the composition
and photograph the different variations as you work.
3. This project may be carried out on any scale, in any situation or site. An
example of this way of working is Helen’s totems, which use a great variety
of fibrous material. Her three totems worked well in the installation she made
with Brent, where they were contrasted with abstract architectural forms of
fabric and polyester.
Notes on the Reproductions
The reproductions for this unit are on DVD 3 in the video Fibres and/or in the
Postcard Booklet.
A village on the Lake of Kainji.
Nigeria.
Fibres are still fundamental to some societies. This bird’s-eye view of an African
village shows public and private areas separated by screens of fibrous matting. The
mud walls and floors of local housing are reinforced with reeds from the lake, and
their roofs are probably made from millet straw and local grasses. These buildings
are cool and effective structures, which can last a surprisingly long time. Easily
repaired and replaced, often with portable roofs, they are completely at one with the
environment.
TRU Open Learning
U5-14 Unit 5: Fibres
Chuckwukelu, Mike. Mask. 1988.
500 pieces of wood, fabric, and mixed media; 300 × 200 cm.
Anambra State, Nigeria.
Exhibited at Centre Pompidou, Paris, France, 1989.
Chuckwukelu is a Nigerian who works in the African mask-making tradition. The
structure I photographed in Paris is made of lightweight materials and has both
abstract and representational decoration; it represents complex tribal beliefs and is
used ceremonially. Following the custom, after a ceremony is completed, the
structure is carefully disassembled to await the next significant ceremonial occasion.
Oppenheim, Meret. Object. 1936.
Fur-covered cup, saucer, and spoon; cup 10.9 cm diameter, saucer 23.7 cm
diameter, spoon 20.2 cm long; overall height 7.3 cm.
Collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York, USA (purchase).
© 1991 Meret Oppenheim/Vis-Art Copyright Inc.
Oppenheim was born in Berlin in 1913. At eighteen, she was introduced to the
Surrealists who, with the Dadaists, attempted to shock people into a new intense
awareness, using the “stuff of dreams,” accidents, and fortuitous events. She was a
painter, but it was her surrealist objects that brought her fame. Made from everyday
utensils, they were covered in fur and leather. The cup, saucer, and spoon are
horrifyingly covered in rat’s fur, which produces surreal sensations. When I look at the
cup, I can feel my lips receding from the revolting thought of touching the rat’s fur.
Oppenheim was celebrated in the Surrealist group as the “fairy woman who all men
desire” and was the subject of some of May Ray’s most beautiful photographs.
In the first half of this century, no artistic movement had such a high proportion of
active woman participants as Surrealism. Apart from Oppenheim, Dorothea
Tanning, Leonora Carrington, Mimi Parent, Valentine Hugo, and Hanna Hoch were
all identified with this movement.
Khan, Muniza. Ikat Ribbons. 1982.
Silk.
Reproduced from The Structure of Weaving, courtesy Ann Sutton.
These fine silk Ikat ribbons by a young British design student are elegant and delicately
processed. Their plain weave has been enriched by colour in warp or weft or both. The
yarns are dyed only in certain areas, by binding them with another material, such as raffia
or plastic, which resists the dye. Certainly, these ribbons look beautiful and complex:
however, these results are achieved by variations of colour rather than by weave.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-15
Abakanowicz, Magdalena. Brown Akaban and Heads. 1976.
Exhibition, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne; and
Exhibition Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney.
Abakanowicz is one of the world’s greatest weavers. She has transcended the norms
of traditional weaving, taking woven and knotted materials into new sculptural and
spatial territory. Her large-scale installations are always satisfying—and sometimes
magnificent—syntheses of space and materials. The abstract surface of sensory
delight is full of invention. Some of her works represent figures, with sisal and rope
making equivalents for bone and muscle.
Morris, Robert. Untitled. 1967. (See Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–027 for another of
his works.)
Felt, 264 pieces; 1.27 cm thick.
© ARS New York, USA, 1991.
As a leader of Minimal art, Morris has worked with many materials; but he is known for his
use of non-traditional media. For a series in the sixties—of which this untitled piece is one—
he chose felt. The felt is dense and heavy—natural, grey fibres “felted” (matted) together in
a monochromatic and proletarian substance. In earlier stages of development, he formally
hung a few pieces vertically, side by side, against the wall. But in this piece he has moved
away from a simple study in grey and gravity, sewing hundreds of pieces of 1.27 cm-thick
felt. The pieces are differently sized, but basically geometric in shape, so they can hang, fall,
curve and loop. In 1967, this represented a new soft sculpture and fibre-art form, readily
evolved and even participatory, as a result of viewer action and intervention. Although
lacking representational context, the work can still provide tactile stimuli, a meditative
maze for eye to mind.
Kubota, Itchiku. Willows (left); Nah 2 (right). 1982–1983.
Tie-dyed, hand drawn silk, gold thread.
These traditional Japanese kimonos are simple in their structure, but complex patterns
of weave and colour give them an opulent look. Tie-dying was used to colour the basic
yard, but the silk is combined with gold thread. After weaving and making up the
garment, there was a further addition to the patterning by hand drawing.
Both forms have a bilateral symmetry, with severe geometric forms at the top and
flexible fold below. In the kimono on the left, the pattern is an all-over repeat on
three wide horizontal bands of colour. The garment on the right is more sculptural,
with completely asymmetric colour blocks and patterned areas. These are objects of
amazing decorative artistry, and you can imagine their sculptural complexity when
actually worn!
TRU Open Learning
U5-16 Unit 5: Fibres
Féraud, Louis. Four Ensembles.
Fabrics as clothing, dress, and fashion constitute the greatest us of fibres. Here are four
garments designed by Féraud of Paris, with embroidery by Féraud and Nini Gill.
The first outfit shows a long jacket, of almost Oriental splendour, in emerald
green and Venetian red crepe de Chine. The floral decoration is embellished with
miniscule beads and buttons.
The second is a bolero over bodice—or bustier—that combines exotically
coloured knitted fibres and is extensively embroidered with tiny coloured beads.
The third is a short, collarless jacket of Shantung silk, beautifully embroidered
with beads and buttons in harmonic colours.
The short jacket of the fourth ensemble is elegantly embroidered with gold and
silver metallic thread, over a long dress in subtle brown shades, with a pleated
structure.
The following are not on the DVD, but they are in the Postcard Booklet:
Goldsworthy, Andy. Leaf Horn. 1996. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–070)
Sweet chestnut leaves and thorns.
Goldsworthy has carefully sorted leaves by size and then pinned them together with
thorns to create this spiral horn. The form of the horn itself relates to spirals found in
nature and the strength of a ram’s horn. Yet, it is made out of a fragile material, held
together with the thorns and the design intentions and will of the artist.
Goldsworthy, Andy. Rowan Leaves Around a Hole. 1987.(Postcard Booklet: TRU
OL–059)
Rowan leaves.
Goldsworthy has sorted a range of colours from very dark red to very light yellow
from the disordered coloured leaves of the rowan tree. He has juxtaposed the light
yellow leaves against the blackness of a hole dug in the ground, to create a strong
tonal contrast. This provides both a visual charge and a focal point for the
composition. With very simple means, Goldsworthy has created a circular form with
its own aesthetic richness, which seems allude to the planetary system, eyes, and the
earth itself.
Recommended Resources
Broudy, Eric. The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the
Present. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1979. Print.
A history of looms, containing excellent information and photographs.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U5-17
Creager, Clara. Weaving: A Creative Approach for Beginners. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1974. Print.
A good book for the beginning weaver.
Ellis, Marianne and Jennifer Wearden. Ottoman Embroidery. London: V & A
Publications, 2001. Print.
Very intricate embroidery using colour and dense pattern to create fabrics of
intense vibrancy and vitality.
The Hemp Revolution. Dir. Anthony Clarke. 1995. Video.
A documentary on the history and uses of hemp, including the hemp, sisal, and
wheat straw car body made by Ford in 1941. Available on the Internet and in
some libraries.
Komatsu, Eiko, Athena Steen, and Bill Steen. Built by Hand: Vernacular Buildings
Around the World. Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith, 2003. Print.
Some inventive examples of the use of fibres. A wonderful testament to the
creativity and ingenuity of people all over the world who use available materials,
such as fibre and earth, to make their dwelling places in a wide range of forms.
(This book may be available in the public library system.)
Sutton, Ann. The Structure of Weaving. London: Bellew & Higton Publishers, Ltd.,
1982. Print.
Excellent technical information on weaving, from drawing and design to finished
work; well-illustrated.
Waller, Irene. Designing with Thread: from Fibre to Fabric. New York: Viking, 1973.
Print.
Fibres and their many applications—knotting, macramé, crochet, weaving,
etcetera—are well covered in this text. (Also available as Thread: an Art Form,
from Studio Vista, London.)
Weltge, Sigrid Worttmann. Women’s Work: Textile Art from the Bauhaus. San Francisco:
Chronicle Books. 1993
An excellent series of colour photographs of the astonishing weaving done by
women at the Bauhaus. The women were marginalized at the most radical
design and art school of its time. They produced magnificent abstract, complex
weavings that used colour theory and design to great effect and beauty. In
addition, there are sections in the book, showing their initial and working
drawings and planning process. The work, though dating from the 1920s, looks
completely contemporary today.
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List of Illustrations
1. Drawing of experiments incorporated into a frame structure. Lorraine
Yabuki.
2. Bark, vegetable fibres with leather mask. Personal development by Lorraine
Yabuki.
3. Page of notebook drawings. Ed Person.
4. Concept and details for personal development. Cathy Burton.
5. a. Basket weave.
b. Honeycomb (cellular structure) weave.
c. Plain weave.
d. Herringbone (diagonal zigzag) weave.
e. From computer animations by E. John Love and Jeanie Sundland
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Faculty of Arts
Unit 6:
Particles
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-1
Unit 6: Particles
Introduction
Note: DVD 4 includes the video program Particles, to accompany Unit 6. See
also the supplementary video on particles.
In ancient Greece, the word atom was used to describe the smallest piece of matter or
particle that could be conceived. Our knowledge of the atom has increased and our
concepts of matter have changed, but the atom remains largely invisible (remember
that there are more than 100 million of them per square centimetre—or about 250
million to the square inch), and it takes sophisticated technical aids to see one. In the
video program Particles, you will see an atom as a field ion micrographic image.
Particle physics is the branch of science that seeks to describe the fundamentals laws
governing the structure and behaviour of matter. We can’t go into that in detail, but
it is important to understand the implications of particles in structure. Knowledge of
the existence of particles tends to make us take a wider view of things and enhances
our sense of scale.
On the cosmic scale, we are somewhere between the macrocosm and the microcosm.
There are numberless stars in our galaxy, and we are only one galaxy among
countless others. We know that the bright points that appear as particles of light in
the sky are stars, though the nearest star is 100,000 times more distant than our sun.
At the other end of the scale, we know that our world is filled with microbes and
bacteria which affect us, even though we can’t see them.
Think of the structure of the forces around you, in the room where you are sitting,
which is receiving the light and colour of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is
energy, wavelike particles, or photons, which are structured by the fixed velocity of
light at a constant 300,000 kilometres/186,416 miles per second. We ourselves are
energy. Our bodies are structures formed by energy; an agglomeration of cells, built
of molecules, which are in turn built of atoms and other particles. We are a kind of
electrochemical soup, spiced by many particles.
The particles of life form a multitudinous diversity. Within this diversity, there are
many similar categories. We can think of ourselves, for example, in relationship to
other living forms: the cell, the molecule, the egg and the seed. The cell is the basic
structural unit of living matter; the molecules conduct metabolism, processing our
energy.
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When we think of seeds, we think of things that are small but that grow as an
extension of reproduction, as is illustrated in this poem:
A million million spermatozoa,
All of them alive:
Out of their cataclysm but one poor Noah
Dare hope to survive.
–Aldous Huxley, “The Fifth Philosopher’s Song”
Through a light microscope, at a few hundred magnifications, you can readily see
indigenous organisms—single-celled plants and animals (and some that are neither)
such as diatoms, amoeba, and paramecium—in a drop of water. At a few thousand
magnifications, or with an electron microscope, you would be able to see the
unicellular organisms we call bacteria; they are among the smallest living cell
particles. They occupy all the earth’s environments air, water, and soil, as well as
plants and animals. Certain types of bacteria are found in most food products. They
serve the essential function of breaking down dead animal and vegetable matter—
without them, human life on earth would be impossible. Unfortunately, there are
also parasitic bacteria that live in animals and vegetable matter. Some of these living
particles can destroy life in very much larger organisms—Homo sapiens included!
In our world of unseen particles, we must consider the dynamics and role of particles,
rather than thinking of them as objects. We see the changing effects of light, and we
should realize that particles play a direct part in the phenomena of colour in the
atmosphere. Minute particles of dust affect the short wavelengths of light and produce
atmospheric colour of great variety. Without particles, there would be no sunsets! As we
look into the distance, through different densities of atmospheric dust, colours change
in quality. Colours also change as a result of the space behind the atmospheric dust; the
blackness of outer space creates a blue sensation—the sky—when we look into space
through semi-opaque atmospheric dust lit by the sun.
Sources and Classification of Particles
Sources of Particles
Erosion
In the production of particles in nature, erosion is the principal factor. Erosion
results from the continuous activities of natural forces—water, wind, heat, gravity,
gases, and plant life.
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The constant force of the ocean waves, moving boulders, stones, and soil, is an example
of why water—rain, river, and ocean—is the most important maker and mover of
particles. There is a long-term rhythm of change in the breaking down of cliffs and rocks
by the sea and the building up of sandy beaches that can eventually become fertile soil,
as shown in illustration 1 at the end of this unit. The sea moves, grinding the rocks and
mingling the sand with silt brought down by the rivers. Up in the mountains, the glacier
grinds its moraine deposits to be washed away by streams and rivers. On the delta, the
silted river changes the formation of the land, as shown in illustrations 2a) and 2b).
The soil and rocks of the earth’s crust are subject to more or less continuous erosion. In soil
erosion, weathering affects the surface layers of the earth. Many parts of deserts are covered
with “pavements” of tiny hard pebbles, which are the intermediate stage before sand. Small
rock fragments, once broken down, are moved by wind and piled up as sand dunes or
spread as layers of dust. A strong, prevailing wind is capable of building up mounds of
sand up to a height of 150 metres/500 feet, but more often the desert sands are slowly
moving oceans—the dunes assuming a regular crescent shape (barchans)—which move
continuously like slow waves across the desert floor, as depicted in illustration 3.
As you can see in the computer animations in the video Particles, and also in
illustration 4, extremes of temperatures between night and day are enough to break
rocks into particles. Daytime desert temperatures can reach higher than 54°C/130°F
in the shade; at night, it can drop to below freezing. Such rapid expansion and
shrinkage fragments the surface of rocks.
Even humans are subject to erosion, continuously losing innumerable tiny particles
of dead skin as a result of bodily movement and motor activities, abrasive contacts,
and changes of temperature.
Classification of Particles
Particles can generally be classified under the usual categories of animal, vegetable,
mineral, and synthetic. In the video program, we use a broad selection from the
mineral category. Some are fundamentally particles; others are the result of various
processes, such as sawing, grinding, and milling. Powders, particles, and small
pellets are prepared for various plastics processes—heat mouldings are combined
with synthetic resins to simulate stone surfacing for the construction industry.
As well as protons, electrons, and neutrons, advanced technology and theoretical
developments in science have let to the discovery of many new types of particles; they have
been referred to as a nuclear zoo. Some are ephemeral and exist only briefly; others spin and
spiral continuously in what physicist Denis Postle calls a “gigantic cosmic dance.”
Standing on a beach when the program for this unit was being filmed, I was
conscious of the conflux of particles all around me. I had a clear sense of their
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diversity and unity, and of the total interdependence and interconnectedness of all
things—the atmospheric dust above; the plankton, algae, and mineral salts in the
sea; and the particles of sand and fragments of shells under my feet.
Before you start your assignment for this unit, pick up an object. Hold it, see it as a
single entity, a fixed form, but recognize that it is a collection of particles, changing
its subatomic structure continuously—approximately once each 150,000th of a
second. Describing a like-minded experience, around the turn of the nineteenth
century, William Blake wrote we could “see a world in a grain of sand,” in his poem
“Auguries of Innocence.”
Working with Particles
Particles have long been connected with making art, but usually as part of a
compound material—powdered pigment mixed with a vehicle such as oil, for
example—or of a process, such as sand casting.
Traditionally, natural earth and mineral pigments constituted the body of the
pigment, as well as the colour. Modern paints may still be made up of ground
particles, but some are supported by chemically inert synthetic material such as
acrylics, their colour based on dyes.
Indigenous art often makes us aware of the composition of pigment because the
pigment used is seldom refined. Particles of ash, earth, and carbon are often apparent.
In many traditions, images are made of discernable particles—for example, The
Navajo coloured sand paintings of the southwestern United States (See Postcard
Booklet: TRU OL–028) and the widespread Rangoli sandpainting tradition in India.
In Hindu rites in India, white and coloured powders are frequently used to decorate
the human body, animals, and ritual objects. They are also used as paste or liquid
dyes, or simply thrown as powder—usually followed by a splash of water!
Artists have often used sand as an addition to the support (canvas or wood) to give a
different texture to the painting surface or ground. Picasso and Braque were adding sand to
their pictures in 1912. On the beach at Juan les Pins in 1930, Picasso made a few sand reliefs,
combining beach findings—seaweed and other vegetable matter—with cut-out cardboard
shapes, gloves, and so on. He sewed and glued the material onto the rear of the canvas
stretcher, which he used as a frame, then coated the assemblage with sand.
More recently, Yves Klein carried out a series of canvases that used sand of different
densities, together with pieces of sponge, glued to the surface. Each canvas was then
painted all over, but restricted to one colour. (See also Laurent Mareschal’s work
with rice and spices. Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–071.)
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Small pieces of stone, tile, or coloured glass have been used to make patterned or pictorial
mosaics since ancient Grecian time. In Italy, the church of San Vitale in Ravenna (Postcard
Booklet: TRU OL–029) and the cathedral of San Marco in Venice possess splendid examples
of Byzantine Mosaics, made from small glass cubes that often included gold.
Sand
In most casting processes, apart from sand casting, particles of gypsum are added to
water to make plaster, which can range from fine dental quality to coarse
construction grades. For sculpture, the development of synthetic resins led to the use
of powdered stone compounds and wide range of other natural powders for casting.
However, the more expensive bronze powder is generally used as a surface
treatment because only a thin layer of it is needed on the casting mould.
Possibly, you remember how, as a child, you enjoyed manipulating sand: its
fragmentary character, slipping through your fingers when dry, taking the imprint
of hand and foot when dense and moist. These tactile sensations are important initial
responses in learning to control material. Once you have some experience of a
material, then forming it follows more or less intuitively. Remember, the bucket and
spade of your childhood also introduced you to volume and construction.
If you want to refresh these memories, and you have access to a beach with the kind
of sand that can be modelled and sculpted, you could begin by working in relief,
then move into three dimensions.
• First, test the sand. It should hold together and show the ridges left by your
fingers when you press it to make a rudimentary hand-form. Avoid surface
sand, which is usually coarse, dry, and dirty.
• To create a relief, wet down a pile of sand, flatten and even it off, then carve it
with an old palette knife, small trowel, or simple tools made from pieces of
wood.
• For three-dimensional carving, use moist sand. You will need to make
supporting walls or use boxes or cut sections of large construction cylinders
as simple temporary supports. To give cohesion and structural strength, pack
the sand, tamping it down with a block of wood or steel plate on the end of a
piece of pipe.
Other Types of Particles
There are, of course, innumerable other particles that are not used in the video
program, including food, other organic particles and, even, particles of liquid. Think
of particles blown through an atomiser or fixative spray, or any of the coloured
metallic or stone sprays. These should be used sparingly so that the pattern of the
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particles is visible on the supporting form. How could you use raindrops? Try to
think of a way to capture the pattern of falling rain.
Transparent and Reflective Surfaces
Particles on transparent surfaces (glass and Plexiglas) offer possibilities. Mirrors can be
used to multiply the effect of particles—an example by Robert Smithson is used on the
program, which you will read about in the Notes on the Reproductions. Consider using
mirrors with the commonest everyday particles—salt or the dust that is everywhere. In
streaks of sunlight, we can see dust particles suspended in the air. They can take a day
to fall three metres/ten feet, but, in time, can be carried hundreds of kilometres. After the
volcanic eruption at Krakatoa, volcanic dust was carried several times around the
world. Think about what kind of surface could be used to capture dust, which we
automatically draw in when we find it laying on a surface.
Light
Then, there are particles of light; how could you make an equivalent of the light
particles of the night sky? At a more immediate level, you could use the pixels of
light of a computer—using the menu to provide you with particles points on the
screen and on a printout surface. With the aid of a computer, it is possible to mix
particles of sound with image patterns.
Custom Made
Rather than using readymade particles, you can make your own. If you live in an
area where coloured minerals and mineral earths are available, you can break them
down first with a hammer, then grind them in a pestle and mortar. Readymade
chalks and crayons can also be pulverized into particles. Black, white, and coloured
particles can be used on various surfaces such as paper, sandpaper, and rough
unpressed paper—look at a Seurat drawing and note the black Conté particles on the
surface of the paper, leaving points of white paper showing through. Large sheets of
flexible transparent plastic, such as polyethylene, could be used to suspend particles
in space, or as the surface treatment for a hung or supported construction.
How you exploit any of these materials will depend on your response to them, on
your selection of other materials, and on the context in which you use them. This
subject is a little different to those we have already dealt with. You can’t go to the
library and find a book to cover the creative use of particles—so your experiments
and research in this assignment are going to be more than usually important.
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Student Projects
Now, let us consider the particle materials chosen by students in the video, and how
they use these materials.
Cathy begins by experimenting with fine dry casting-sand to make vibration patterns, and
then blowing forms onto boards. This leads to a series of wall boards, each glued and
covered with a particular particle. Tone, colour, and texture are considered in her choice of
materials, which include sand, clam shell, and sawdust; you can view these in illustration 5.
Kuan’s improvisations on the floor use moist and dense beach sand with wooden
boards as forming tools. Further explorations use fragments of fine pine needles
with sheet metal forms.
Oliver pursues two projects: casting blocks of plaster (in milk cartons) for hand
carving, and mixing Olivine sand with unibond resin in a blender, making the sand
into a cohesive mass by adding carbon dioxide.
Brent explores simple sand castings. Using coarse dense construction sand to hold
an impression of his hand, and then filling the mould with a plaster made of
gypsum particles and water. (The desired amount of casting sand can be washed off
with a spray and powder colour applied. This needs to be sprayed with a fixative.)
His final project explores sand in relation to other particles—stones and sawdust—in
a “sand garden” developed in a shallow tray.
Ed’s concrete, made from cement, sand, and small gravel, is combined with other materials,
first on a small scale and then on a large scale, using imbedded vertical metal forms.
Adrian dyes and dries wood sawdust particles and fragments making the three
primary colours. You can develop a wide spectrum by mixing amounts in pairs to
make the secondary colours. Do this in a small open cardboard box. Yellow and blue
produce green; yellow and red produce orange; and red and blue produce violet.
The smaller the particles, the more readily your eye will read the mixed colour.
Consider it a three-dimensional variation on Seurat’s Divisionism, or division of
colour. Adrian limits himself to difficult figurative imagery, but you could try free
abstraction, using different areas of colour and exploring proportions.
Craig uses broken clam shells in his first experiments, extending this to development
on the floor where he juxtaposes the shells with sections of white plastic tubing to
make “shadow” forms and various projections and penetrations. You will see an
image of his work in illustration 6a).
Lorraine prepares Velcro hands and other three-dimensional objects to which she
glues fine sand. She extends her idea by adding a variety of particles to found
objects, such as shoes and gloves. Her work is shown in illustration 6b).
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Geoff packages a wide range of particles—sand, gravel, small pebbles, sawdust,
wood chips, and metal particle—in transparent plastic tubes. However, in his final
developments, his instincts as a painter take over. On a base of fine sand in a shallow
box, he does a series of freehand paintings, using dry pigments. You will see an
image of his work in illustration 7.
Assignment 6: Particles
Introduction
Complete one of the following six projects for this assignment:
For Assignment 6, you are required to carry out one of the six project options
outlined next. Detailed instructions on how to work through each of the project
options are presented on the following pages. Before you begin your assignment,
take time to read through all the options.
• Project 1: Sand Sculpture
OR
• Project 2: Beach Installation with other Natural Forms
OR
• Project 3: Indoor or Patio Sand Garden
OR
• Project 4: Transformations of Natural Forms and/or Human-Made Objects
OR
• Project 5: Computer Exploration
OR
• Project 6: Personal Choice: work with a range of particles that interest you
Photographic and Notebook Documentation
Remember that documentation at every stage of your experiments and personal
development is particularly important, due to the unstable quality of many
particles—or the way you choose to work with them. For example, you may want to
capture a series of moments, or shifting sand, or falling rain.
Whichever option you choose, your documentation should include:
• Drawings, diagrams and descriptions on your notebook pages that outline
your discoveries, ideas, materials and methods.
• Two sets of photographs—one set that documents your experiments and a
second set that documents your personal developments
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If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have completed
Assignment 6 by the end of Week 8. We recommend that you send in your
documentation for Assignments 5, 6, and 7 in one batch.
Improvisation and Research
Before making your selection, recall the range of particles used by the students in the
video program and ask yourself:
• Which particles did you feel drawn to?
• Which particles that weren’t used are of interest to you?
Another way you can explore your interests is to look around different parts of your
home, like your kitchen or an outdoor area, to see which particles you encounter that
appeal to you. Look at texture, scale, colour, and other characteristics. Yet another
way you could explore your interests is to try listing all the particles you can think of
in your Notebook, as a way of stimulating your imagination.
As you make your choice of particles you want to work with, consider which types
are available to you, and the work space you will be using.
If you are working in a limited space, such as a tabletop or small space on the floor,
cover the area with sheet material—plastic, tarpaulin, plywood. You might make a
simple frame to contain the particles, or, if you are working on a board, build edges
to contain the particles.
If you plan to work outdoors, you might be able to take over a children’s sandpit for
a while, or set apart an area of the garden by staking it with vertical boards.
Alternatively, you may choose to work on a project that calls for unrestricted space.
Because particles can be rapidly moved and redistributed in a different
configuration, it may be tempting to try to hurry this assignment. However, to
explore some of the potential of particles may require patient work. For example, the
complex Tibetan sand mandalas can take days of meditative work to create.
Similarly, the installation Beiti (2011) by Laurent Mareschal using spices, rice and
acrylic templates, took him a week to complete. (See Postcard Booklet: TRU–OL 071.)
Whichever option you choose, try making small trial combinations of different
particles in different arrangements: patterns, furrows, etcetera. Then, having
photographed your experiments, choose several of those combinations you respond
to the most and work further with your project.
Instructions
Project 1: Sand Sculpture
1. Experiment with mixing sand and water to achieve a good consistency for
relief or three-dimensional development.
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2. Make a series of small pieces to work out your subject matter, figurative or
abstract, and your methods.
3. Once you have decided on your subject, scale, tools, and the consistency of
sand required, define an area with boards or string. If necessary, flatten the
sand before beginning. Review the commentary on sand carving preparations
earlier in this unit before you begin.
4. Complete your final relief or three-dimensional personal development.
5. Document your step-by-step activities and the result at each stage. They will
not last long!
Project 2: Beach Installation
For this project, you may need to find a part of a beach that contains not only sand
but also branches, bark, logs, seaweed and so on.
1. Decide if you want to use other found objects, waste material, or even things
not found on the beach.
2. Experiment with various tools, to see how you can use trowels, spades, rakes,
etc., to move sand, fix objects, and make patterns and textures.
3. Try out a few ideas on a restricted scale—perhaps developing a portion of
what will become a larger installation.
4. Once you have decided on your final direction, stake out the area with string
or rope and smooth the sand down to proceed with your project.
5. Make sure to clearly express these aspects of your idea:
o Any strong personal response to the nature of the materials.
o Effective organization or structuring of all elements.
6. Make sure that you organize and work on all areas within the frame of your
camera—smooth or otherwise modify all parts of the beach so that you can
immediately see around your installation.
7. Record your progress as you proceed!
Project 3: Indoor or Patio Sand Garden
If you do not live near a beach or sand site, consider the possibilities of a sand
garden. You can create a small garden indoors on a large board (much larger than a
coffee tray) or a larger one out-of-doors in a garden or yard, on a terrace or patio.
1. Make a collection of particles and related materials that can be used in
association with each other. You should achieve some measure of stimulus by
the variations and contrasts of related forms.
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2. Define the space you wish to develop. For your explorations, use one area, or
a series of small spaces.
3. Try various arrangements of different particles, contrasting or relating
texture, form and colour.
4. At the development stage, extend the work to include:
o A number of related areas OR
o A larger series OR
o Use of a larger scale
Project 4: Transformations of Natural Forms and/or Human-Made Objects
1. Consider the word “transformation.”
2. Make a collection of natural objects—stone, sponge, wood, roots—and/or human-
made objects and consider how you can transform them by the addition of particles.
Particles can be glued to the surface, poured over, dipped on or sprayed.
3. Experiment, and then decide on a range of particles. If you use only one type,
you will create directly relatable, homogeneous surfaces. Alternatively, you
may wish to contrast types, adding stone particles or stone spray to transform
metal or metal particles to alter a stone surface, and so on. Particles can also
be dyed and mixed to change their mass and surface characteristics.
4. Appraise your work not just for visual appeal but for tactile qualities and
other aspects of sensation, of “feeling things” in the mind.
5. Once you have experimented with a range of particles and objects, proceed to
developments.
6. Decide how you can use the pieces you have made:
o In a context, organization, or display
o Indoors or out-of-doors
o Formally or informally
o In relation to nature
o In relation to a human-made environment; for example, by placing them
on shelves or a table, or in drawers
Project 5: Computer Exploration
If you have a computer, explore the possibilities of particles, first experimenting on
the screen and then advancing to personal developments using printouts.
1. Think of the pixel as an electronic particle. Starting with the smallest marks
on the menu, begin with black-on-white, proceed to white-on-black, and then
if you have the printing capability, move into colour.
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2. Use a range of different-sized marks. The particle points denote position; they
can also be grouped formally or informally.
3. When you have printed out a few sheets, think of their possibilities as three-
dimensional forms. For example, you could:
o Fold them.
o Roll them into cylinders, cubes, cones.
o Make or find cardboard forms that you can cover.
o When making your printouts, consider using colour—especially in
relation to other natural or dyed particles.
o See if you can make an interesting contrast between two and three
dimensions and also between printed and natural particles. Consider
using actual particles and printouts in combination.
o You could also try drawing more particles in different sizes over the
printed particles. This will give even more control over your final images.
Project 6: Personal Choice
Select any particles that interest you, from seeds to raindrops.
1. Experiment with the particles, as material in themselves, and in relation to
other materials and forms.
2. Experiment with patterns made by using sound or mechanical vibration on
particles. (See the work of Dr Hans Jenny in the Recommended Resources section.)
3. Photograph your research and explorations throughout and before
developing your larger projects.
4. Work to a personal development in whatever context you prefer, from
installations to painting with dry pigment. Be sure to wear a safety mask
when working with dry pigment particles.
Notes on the Reproductions
The following reproductions are on DVD 4 in the video Particles and/or in the
Postcard Booklet.
Atoms of iridium. 1969.
Superimposed micrograph.
Magnified × 350 000, enlarged × 2 000 000.
Photo: Dr. E. W. Mueller.
Iridium atoms are virtually invisible, but they can be seen through the powerful
magnifying “eyes” of a field ion microscope. The concentric rings you see in this
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micrograph are facets of iridium; the dots of light pinpoint the locations of
individual atoms. The red dots are atoms that have evaporated or corroded away,
whereas the green ones are probably atoms of gas that have been absorbed.
Collision of subatomic particles (quarks).
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois.
Subatomic particles, with names like kaons, muons, pions, and quarks, are elusive and
ephemeral. Although they are invisible, their actions can be tracked as they pass
through a special environment—a bubble or spark chamber. The bubble chamber
records the collision and action of particles, creating negative images such as this
one. In the image, neutrinos (neutral particles) are beamed into the chamber at
nearly the speed of light, causing a collision with particles on the left. At this point,
arcs and spirals of energy spurt out in dynamic patterns—the traces left by the
moving particles. (Ignore the white circle; it is part of the bottom of the chamber.)
Diatoms in a drop of water.
At a mere 1500 magnification, a drop of water reveals an exquisite collection of diatoms—
unicellular organisms. Diatoms are plants, capable of photosynthesis, and most living
things in oceans and lakes are directly dependent on their ability to harness sunlight. One
can only marvel at the design of these structures that combine both organic and geometric
factors. And, also at the fact that a similar single drop of water contains millions of atoms!
Oasis Landscape of the Soul in the Algerian Desert.
Photo: George Gerster.
The Saharan landscape has thousands of craters, some as deep as 54 metres (180 feet),
protected from encroachment of the great wavelike dunes of the desert by fences made
of palm fronds. Date palm trees are planted in these hollows so their roots can reach
into the water beneath the sand. This is one way to make a successful stand against the
creeping sands, but the desert is always active and ready to take over.
Heizer, Michael. Desert Ride.
Photo: Gianfranco Gorgoni.
Heizer worked in a desert area of Nevada, and the pieces he made there are
generally categorized as “earth art” (though he also painted and made prints and
sculpture). Heizer produces on a large, even heroic, scale and his subjects are often
about the displacement and replacement of material, such as masses of earth or rock.
This drawing is an example of the displacement of particles: the dust, sand, and
small pebbles of the desert surface. A physical, direct form of drawing, it is also
ephemeral and will be eroded away by natural processes.
TRU Open Learning
U6-14 Unit 6: Particles
Heizer, Michael. Desert Dust Drawing.
Photo: Gianfranco Gorgoni.
The drawing looks dramatic, even mysterious. Heizer’s method might not be
acceptable to ecologists; the desert also contains small living organisms, which
would have been disrupted in its making. Heizer is always seeking to make
something artistic of normally unused materials and to explore their creative
possibilities.
If you are wondering whether this is art, remember that many artists have also asked
that question—and then set out to answer it.
Smithson, Robert. Gravel, Mirror, and Dust. 1968.
91 × 548 × 91 cm.
Gallery installation.
Smithson wrote that pavements, holes, trenches, mounds, heaps, paths, ditches,
roads, and fences all have aesthetic potential. Unconcerned with traditional art
aesthetics, he explored the possibilities of working directly with raw materials in his
work, whether in the great Spiral Jetty (see Unit 9) or in this modest interior piece.
Many artists in the sixties and seventies were influenced by the emerging ecological
movement to seek a new relationship with nature. Smithson chose to begin in an
indigenous way, working without predetermined forms and ideas, putting aside
concepts of scenic beauty. He was concerned with the development and variation of
themes, the juxtaposition of material and what he called, “the back and forth
thing”—working back and forth between the rough outdoors and the smooth
interior, between “site” and “non-site.” In this case, transferring earth, the raw
reality of nature, indoors makes the room an abstract container. Smithson used
mirrors to fracture surface, to dislocate and transfer space, and to duplicate mass. It
is not surprising that this piece deals with illusion and reality.
Kapoor, Anish. As If to Celebrate, I Discovered a Mountain Blooming with Red
Flowers. 1981.
Powder pigment and wood.
96.5 × 309.9 × 304.8 cm.
Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, New York, USA.
Kapoor makes unusual sculptural forms, singly and in groups. Some are simple
variations on primary and other geometric forms; others have a complex organic
character. However, what is remarkable, even paradoxical, is that the solid wood forms
are covered with powder colour, which does strange things to our perception of them.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-15
The pieces stand on the floor, the colour intense and saturated as if poured over
them just a moment ago. They appear to be growing out of the ground; they seem to
absorb space and light. We are aware of the significant contrast between the solid
wood, a permanent mass, and the incohesive, impermanent colour. So the pieces are
a mixture of both stable and unstable elements: tactile, yet not to be touched. For me,
they seem to be ritual objects of poetic intensity that is rarely found in sculpture.
Wright, Frank Lloyd. Guggenheim Museum. 1943–1959. (Postcard Booklet: TRU
OL–030)
Steel and concrete.
New York, USA.
The main form of this Manhattan art museum is a circular spiral, gradually
expanding as it rises and internally forming a continuous ramp. The continuity and
flow of this remarkable form are made possible only by the use of concrete—
particles of sand, cement, and gravel, reinforced by internal metal structuring.
Wright had a commitment to organic forms, and he intended to find alternatives to right-
angle-dominated architecture (of which he was also a master). He also intended that visitors
to the museum would take the elevator to the top of the spiral and then walk down to the
ground floor. The gradient is quite shallow, and it might take more than one visit to become
accustomed to this unusual environment for pictures and people.
The following is found only in the Postcard Booklet.
Mareschal, Laurent. Beiti. 2011. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–071)
Rice, spices.
Varying dimensions, according to site.
Beiti means “my house” in Arabic. Mareschal has used elements of Islamic tile
designs in his installations. From his experiences working alongside Palestinians in
West Jerusalem, Mareschal has stated his intention to use the fragility of his work to
relate to Palestinian-reported experiences of displacement, and house demolition. By
using common foodstuffs and formal design, Mareschal also stresses a shared
humanity. The floor is apparently made of glazed ceramic tiles, but is actually made
from particles of dry rice and spices to give a range of colours, smells, and patterns.
The particles are laid down on a predefined grid, using a series of ten precut acrylic
stencils to create different parts of the patterns.
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U6-16 Unit 6: Particles
Recommended Resources
Chaney, Charles. Plaster Mold and Model Making. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1973. Print.
An older book, which contains a wealth of written and pictorial information on
all aspects of working in plaster and creating casts or molds.
Jenny, Hans, Dr. Cymatics: The Healing Nature of Sound. Newmarket, UK:
MACROmedia, 1986.
YouTube video containing Dr Jenny’s original film in which particles respond to
various sounds by moving into complex and surprising patterns. Search for:
Cymatics Experiment + Hans Jenny
Cymatics: A Study of Wave Phenomena and Vibration. 1967. Newmarket, UK:
MACROmedia, 1972. Print.
Dr Jenny’s original books have been republished and show many photographs of
the complex patterns produced by the action of sound waves applied to a range
of different particles. Additional videos and information are on the Cymatics
website: http://www.cymaticsource.com/video.html.
Reichard, Gladys A. Navajo Medicine Man: Sandpaintings. New York: Dover, 1977.
Print.
Highly complex and symbolic ritual healing paintings made in fine coloured
sand. Many colour plates and extensive discussion of the work. Because the
actual paintings are held as sacred, these versions designed for looking at, all
have deliberate flaws and areas of colour reversal.
Additional Resources
Internet
You can find images of Tibetan sand paintings if you search Google Images for
“mandala sand painting photo gallery” or “mandala of compassion” by the
Venerable Losang Samten. Although not thought of as art by the Buddhist monks,
these sand paintings have great beauty and complexity.
Look for Rachel Whiteread in Google Images for series of castings in plaster or
cement, taken between or underneath large objects, most notably the interior of a
house and a library Holocaust memorial in Austria.
Search Wikipedia for aspects of particles in general or an entry on sandpainting.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-17
Encyclopedias and Books
I recommend that you also look for information on the physical forms of particles in
encyclopedias. Look first for listings to do with the physical form of particles. Check the
geology section under: sand, sediment, and erosion. Then, look at listings for atomic and
subatomic particles. Check sections on nuclear energy and nuclear physics. Biology is a
third source for listings. Look for sections on cell physiology and on plant and seed growth.
The information on microphotography—using light microscopes and more sophisticated
electron and special-purpose optical microscopes—can provide you with marvellous
illustrations of particles. The following encyclopedias are available in book form. The online
versions may be available at TRU Library but the Internet versions are subscriber-based:
• Encyclopedia Americana
• New Encyclopedia Britannica
• The World Book Encyclopedia
You can also find information in books on microphotography—using light
microscopes and more sophisticated electron and special-purpose optical
microscopes—which will provide you with marvellous illustrations of particles.
List of Illustrations
1. Shoreline erosion. From computer animations by E. John Love.
2. a. Sediment from mountains and scoured river bed forms the line and flow of
the river.
b. Sediment builds up; areas are covered by new vegetation and ox-bow lakes
are formed.
From computer animations by E. John Love.
3. a. Formation of barchan dunes by wind.
b. Wind flow across a barchan dune.
From computer animations by E. John Love
4. Hot-cold rock erosion in desert climate. From a computer animation by E. John Love.
5. Organization study for installation using particles. Cathy Burton.
6. a. Drawings showing progress from exploration to personal development.
Craig Takeuchi.
b. Photocopy of collaged particles and drawing of objects covered in sawdust,
sandpaper and metal particles. Lorraine Yabuki.
7. Notebook drawings of initial ideas. Geoffrey Topham.
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U6-18 Unit 6: Particles
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-19
TRU Open Learning
U6-20 Unit 6: Particles
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-21
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U6-22 Unit 6: Particles
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-23
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U6-24 Unit 6: Particles
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U6-25
TRU Open Learning
Faculty of Arts
Unit 7:
Stone
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-1
Unit 7: Stone
Introduction
Note: DVD 4 includes the video program Stone, to accompany Unit 7.
Stone can have awesome weight, authority, and physical presence. Many cultures
have valued stone for its potential as a significant image as well as for its functional
uses. Though we seldom build with stone today, it still represents for us the
primordial excitement of the earth’s formation, the eons of material evolution, and
the long, continuous cycle of rock formation. We are aware of its ability to survive
and outlive, not only ourselves, but many human generations—and, even,
civilizations.
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Stone
Sources of Stone
Stone is part of the rock that forms the solid crust underlying the earth. It can be
detached from the rock mass by natural forces (as depicted in illustrations 1 to 3 at
the end of this unit) or by being quarried in usable pieces for building, civil
engineering, and, of course, sculpture.
In the video program, you will see that some students made good use of the stone
saw, but it may be that you do not have access to one. So, it is important that you
find other ways to respond to, and work with, the material without many technical
resources. Fortunately, there are many ways you can enjoy stone. The most
important is, probably, collecting them. Many kinds of stone are usually available
naturally in almost every locality—on the beach, in a riverbed, below cliffs and rock
faces. You will find that stone is worn and weathered by sea and river, and by wind,
rain, and changing temperatures.
Found or quarried stone can also provide you with a wide variety of geometric
forms that are roughly cubic, similar to a pyramid, or angularly polygonal. These
will contrast with rounded and ovoid forms. I remember a beach in Wales where
almost cubic blocks of stone fell from the cliffs onto a surface of undulating smooth
rock. There, worn by waves, they were eventually transformed into almost perfect
spheres, which would be arranged in various cavities, or rolled and actually
bounced over the surface of the rock.
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U7-2 Unit 7: Stone
Classification of Stone
An inorganic mineral, rock can be classified into three types:
• Igneous: Produced by heat and volcanic action
• Metamorphic: Transformed by natural forces, such as wind, water, heat,
cold, and pressure
• Sedimentary: Borne by wind or water and then consolidated
Characteristics of Stone
In the cycle of rock evolution, one rock type can be changed to another. For example,
igneous rock can be worn away by erosion and reduced to fragments and sand.
Look at illustration 4 at the end of the unit for a visual image of this process. In time,
fragments of this nature may become consolidated into sedimentary rock, which
may then be subjected to forces that transform it into metamorphic rock. If the
metamorphic rock undergoes increased heat and pressure, it will eventually melt to
form magma—subterranean molten rock—that, when it cools, forms igneous rock.
Rocks are generally aggregates—or mixtures—of minerals. Some of these minerals, such as
coal, asbestos, bauxite (a chief source of aluminum), borax, and phosphate, are non-metal
rocks. Others contain valuable metals, such as gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc, and tin that can
be smelted from the ore. Because of their scarcity, colour, and optical effects, some minerals
are considered precious, or to contain precious treasures of the earth. Precious minerals and
metals found in sand, gravel, and ore include gold, diamonds, and platinum.
Gem, or gemstone, is the name given to any mineral that is treasured for its beauty
and durability. The value of gems often depends on the way they have been cut and
polished. Diamonds, rubies, and emeralds represent great concentrations of financial
value. Diamonds are desired for their fire and brilliance; rubies and emeralds for
their intense colour. Opals seem to have an inner fire behind their semi-opaque
reflections and refractions of light.
Reflection refers to light bouncing off surfaces, and refraction to light bending or
changing direction as it passes through an object or substance. To understand the
difference between reflection and refraction, think of how sunlight gleams brilliantly
as it bounces off a mirror, or refracts softly in a rainbow as it shines through the
remnants of clouds at the end of a rainstorm.
Many gemstones sparkle by refracting light either singly or doubly. Diamonds and
garnets are singly refracting, whereas emeralds, rubies, sapphire, and amethysts are
all doubly refracting. If you were to hold these stones in direct sunlight, next to a
white card, you would be able to see the single or double reflections of their facets as
they refract the light source.
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Stone in Art and Architecture
Paleolithic
The Paleolithic era, or early Old Stone Age, which covers at least ninety per cent of the
history of humankind, was characterized by its use of stone. The architectural
beginnings of this era were natural rock formations, like the overhang, the cave and the
hole. Next, building with loose stones developed, a tradition which continues to the
present day in, for example, the dry-stone walls that surround fields in the North of
England or farms in some parts of Ontario. Individual stones were used as markers and
posts and as rubbing stones for cattle and in collections of stone-made cairns.
Pebbles and small stones were chipped and flaked for use as early tools. Paleolithic
art used stone as both a life support and mark-making tool. In the cave paintings of
Lascaux, Font de Gaume, and Altamira, the variable rock surfaces were used for
painting and for incised carving and reliefs. (For an example of incised stone
carving, see the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–032.) Stones were also probably the
predecessors of the earliest human-made figurines, which led to the first “school” of
three-dimensional art. The Venus of Willendorf, shown in the video program and
discussed in the Notes on the Reproductions section at the end of this unit, is an
example of this (see also the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–031).
Apart from the functional and expressive uses of stone, there was also an early
recognition of stone’s symbolic qualities. Vertical stones often personified the human
form. Stones were touched, kissed, and made parts of ritual and worship. They were
fundamentally related to fertility and to burial. Ceremonial rows and circles of stone
exist in profusion in Britain, Brittany, and Ireland. Great stone circles such as Aveby
and Stonehenge (the latter is shown in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–033) involved
concentric circles and avenues formed from menhirs and dolmens, as you can read
about in the Notes on the Reproductions. Tumuli, or barrows—long or conical
mounds—were usually associated with burial and funerary rites but also were used
as protective earthworks. These stone tombs were quite elaborate, often with a large
slab-roofed central chamber and branching chambers and passages.
Neolithic
Maeshowe in Orkney, the island north of Scotland, is an excellent example of stone
building from the Neolithic era, using slabs from a cliff of stratified, layered rock—a
use that preceded one of the greatest technical innovations of all time. Someone,
somewhere, dressed a stone, making a flat surface, then repeated the process,
putting the two flat faces together so that they met at all points. Later, stones were
dressed at right angles so that, made in geometric blocks, they became the primary
building unit for thousands of years.
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U7-4 Unit 7: Stone
Old World
The technique of cutting and dressing stones for building was advanced in the early
civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, and in India, the Middle
and Far East, and the Pre-Columbian New World. It is interesting to compare the
style and methods of old- and new-world builders. Both excelled in the
manipulation of large pieces of stone in immense projects, using minimum
technology and no mortar. We can see various techniques of cutting and dressing of
stone in the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the pyramids of Cheops in Egypt, the
pyramids built by the Toltecs and Aztecs at Tenochtitlan, and the Inca buildings at
Machu Picchu and Cuzco in Peru.
It’s interesting to think about the massive stone Temple of the Sun in Peru in relation
to the temples at Luxor and Karnak. The Incas also engineered complex stone
terracing for agriculture. Ruins at Sacsahuamán near Cuzco (see Postcard Booklet:
TRU OL–035)illustrate the classic Inca method of forming walls by fitting large,
variously shaped stones together asymmetrically, without regular courses. The walls
are also remarkable for their organic flow. The sharply cut profiles of the stones
contrast with the “swell” of the wall surface, almost like musculature.
Greco-Roman
In the Greek Classical period of the sixth to fourth centuries BCE, building and
carving of stone were of fundamental importance. Greek architecture was essentially
of stone, and the Greeks—whose ideal of beauty was based on proportional
relationships—could appreciate even stone walls for the beauty of their masonry.
For example, many sixth-century builders preferred polygonal masonry, where each
block had its own shape. At Delphi (see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–036), such a wall
resembled a perfectly assembled jigsaw complicated by the adjoining edges being
curved. Other styles included masonry, in which joints alternated to form a regular
pattern and trapezoidal masonry, with diagonal joints. For public buildings, stone
blocks were fitted together without mortar, but held in place by metal clamps.
Where marble was used, walls were scraped from top to bottom with chisels to
remove blemishes, and were often complexly coloured.
Greek sculpture, too, was coloured, either stylistically or naturalistically. The white
Parian marble statues of artists such as Praxiteles, Polyclitus, Lysippus, and
Callimachus were flesh-coloured, with “rouged” cheeks; their vacant eye sockets
were inset with blue lapis lazuli stones. The Romans copied the well-known Greek
sculptures. They also elaborated on Greek architectural masonry orders to produce
Roman Ionic and Roman Corinthian columns. But the Roman genius with stone was
most notable in civil engineering—roads, bridges, and aqueducts.
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Western European
These forms of Greco-Roman antiquity were models referred to, copied, and varied
in training students through the twentieth century to draw studies of classical casts.
Classical sculpture was a dominant influence in the Renaissance, and sculptors such
as Michelangelo, Donatello, and Verrocchio all had a thorough grounding in
classical art. This training became the foundation of the first art academy, founded
by the Carracci brothers in Bologna, and continued through Europe into the early
twentieth century.
In Northern Europe, the God-centred world of Gothic art was dominated by the
great stone cathedrals. Among the greatest work of all time, the cathedrals represent
the apogee of masonry, created by superb craftsmen who moved from one
masterwork to another and who, for the most part, remain unknown.
These medieval cathedrals were decorated with architectural features and stone
carvings, inside and out (see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–043). Although sculpture is
not strictly necessary for the humanization or animation of architecture, sometimes
expressive decoration and significant symbols speak to a subjective need.
In the largely illiterate society of the Middle Ages, sculpture was an important
vehicle for communicating the stories and teachings of the Bible.
In some styles, sculpture is incorporated into the fabric of the structure; in others, it
is added as decoration. In Gothic buildings, the stone towers were fretted and
pinnacled, and the geometry of the building “softened” at its corners with carved
and sculpted forms and figures. The front of the building and the tympanum were
often a riot of sculpture, with interior screens and stalls similarly embellished.
Sometimes, sculpture was so much a part of the structure that it could be conceived
as being integral—essential—to the whole building.
Buildings in the twentieth century were characterized by glass or plastic exteriors. A
sculptor, usually not a participant in the original concept, would sometimes be asked
to embellish the building by creating a work for a forecourt or an interior space. For
examples, see Henry Moore’s Madonna and Child in Northampton, England, and his
sculptural decoration of a free-standing wall for the Time-Life offices in London. See
an image of his Recumbent Figure in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–039.
Contemporary sculptors working in stone, such as Isamu Noguchi, provide
sculpture for specific places, create environments of stone, or use stone with other
materials as he did at the Chase Manhattan Bank in New York and in the marble
garden at Yale University. Read more about Noguchi in the Notes on the
Reproductions.
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U7-6 Unit 7: Stone
Working with Stone
Artists are still compulsively drawn to stone. Working in close contact with stone,
which carries its own history through geological times, is a means of coming to grips
with where we are and what the earth is. Henry Moore saw the planet’s stone ridges
as its bone structure, showing through the flesh of earth.
Types of Stone
If you want to carve stone, you need to have a basic understanding of your material.
Each kind of stone is different and has qualities that call for working in different ways.
Igneous Stones
Among these are stones with hard densities that require harder chisel points of
tungsten carbide.
Granite has a range of colours: whites, blacks, reds, pinks, mixed and mottled
surfaces of subtle beige and grey, such as Labrador’s blue-and-green and Swedish
granite’s red-and-green.
Basalt is smooth-textured and dark grey or black.
Obsidian is glassy, and flakes under pressure.
Sedimentary Stones
Stones such as limestone are also variously coloured, with textures ranging from soft
to hard and tough. They can be cut with steel tools but are too soft to polish well.
The Pyramids were built of yellow limestone. Pure limestone is white, but impurities
in the stone make yellow and red (iron oxide); grey (carbon, blue, sulphides); or
green (chlorites). Limestone is often used by beginning carvers.
Sandstone, found in a range of red, buff, and brown, is generally porous and doesn’t
weather well in cold wet climates; however, when cemented with quartz, it is tough
and durable. The hard, fine grains of sand in the stone can rapidly wear down tools.
Slate is actually a dense form of highly stratified shale. Although brittle to cut, it can
be worked with files, rasps, and abrasive tools. Often classified as a metamorphic
stone, slate is not as dense or as cohesive as most in this classification. Slate is similar
to shale type sedimentary stones in its quality of fissility, or capacity to fragment in
thin layers. Slate is suitable for shallow relief carving.
Metamorphic Stones
Metamorphic stones are often the best for carving. Various forms of these stones are
described next.
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Marble is a crystallized form of limestone. It is fine-grained, can be worked with fine-
edged steel tools, and takes a high polish. Plain or figured, its varieties include
white, pink, green-and-white, and blue-grey-and-white.
Onyx is a translucent marble with striations of red, brown, or yellow.
Soapstone, a popular material for beginning carvers, is smooth and usually black,
grey, or green.
Serpentine can be cut with a knife; it is green or blue but its flaws present problems.
Alabaster is a delightful stone for the beginner; very soft, it has a subtle variety of
colours, white, cream, yellow, and pink. Its principal attraction, however, is its
translucency.
Within igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic classifications, stones may be soft or
hard, dense or porous, gritty or smooth, fine or coarse, light or heavy, even or
weathered, plain or coloured, figured or blank, stratified or solid, flawed or
unflawed, translucent or dense, and so on!
Minerals such as quartz can look very beautiful, and I’ve found large pieces of
amethyst on a beach in the west of Ireland. Inexpensive polishing kits are used by
amateur “rockhounds” to bring out the colour and pattern of stone, though
sometimes the natural condition is more appealing. Stone jewellery made with
limited technology, using wire and epoxy glue, with thin strips or small sheets of
metal such as copper and aluminum, could be interesting. Think of how you could
use the pieces in relationship to different parts of the body.
Synthetic Stones
Synthetic stones made from various cements and plasters can be another good form
for carving. Cement can range from white to grey, but colour can be added. The
cement powder plus water (not too much) takes from two to eight hours to set, at
which point you can start carving it. Then, a further ten to twenty-five days must be
allowed for it to fully cure at roughly 20°C/70°F. To avoid cracking, cover the
carving with moist cloths during this slow drying period.
Cements and plasters are certainly easier to carve than stone. You can start with a
cast block roughly the dimensions of your final form; or you can pour it into a rough
approximation of your final form, and then carve it when set. Cement can also be
poured around a Styrofoam form that can be removed later, so that you have a
hollow, lightweight form. You can use old knives, saw blades, spoons, and plaster
working tools. If you pour plaster or cement into a box, first line it with thin plastic-
flexible polyethylene will do. If the box is small, simply coat the inside with
Vaseline.
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U7-8 Unit 7: Stone
When the mix is set (fifteen minutes for plaster and two hours minimum for
cement), remove the supporting form and carve directly into the material. If you
want a more refined form and surface, let your roughed-out form dry out for about a
week, then complete carving the finished surface.
Plaster and cement may be applied to many different armatures: wire mesh, small-
dimension chicken wire, expanded metal (iron or aluminum); also to constructions
of wood lath and Styrofoam. In fact, you can use anything that will hold the cement
or plaster until it sets.
Other forms of building and moulding with synthetic stone can be found in books
on sculpture and casting. Relief moulding is the easiest way of reproducing a form
of limited dimensions without undercuts. Start by pressing forms (wood, metal,
etc.), or carving into a thick slab of clay. Build clay walls around the mould and pour
in plaster or cement to set. Then remove the plaster or cement relief form from the
clay and clean up the surface. Another form of synthetic stone is made by mixing
ready-made stone compound, in powder form, with a synthetic casting resin such as
polyester or epoxy. Apart from making a cast form, I found that I could also make
the material dense enough to turn it on a lathe.
Formal Aspects of Stone
Let’s consider briefly a few of the formal characteristics of these natural materials.
Mass and Volume
When mass is positive, space can be considered as negative, in a traditional way. Or
think of mass and space as contrasting forms and forces. Think of shape and
dimension, which is the combination of planes in a solid. If a rock is spherical, or has
a combination of compound curves, the surface of planes is continuous. When there
are distinct changes of curvature in convex and concave forms, think of the positive
and negative aspects of the form. Concave curves are space pushing into the form
and convex curves are forms pushing into space. Think, too, of how light affects the
form, changing it over the course of a day, or how the form absorbs or reflects light
according to its surface. Mass is not so much a negative element of space as a
penetration and displacement of space. Stone has a dominant mass; I think other
materials, such as a block of wood, depend more on bulk. Many other materials,
such as constructed forms of sheet metal and plastic, possess only volume. You need
to walk around a three-dimensional mass, seeing it from all points of view and
synthesizing the experiences and the sense of weight in your mind.
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Line
Line relates to mass as the observable edge, or contour, often stressing the sense of
mass and creating volume. Scratching or cutting into the stone surface can
accentuate contour. Tying other materials such as string, twine, or wire around stone
is also a useful way to reveal form. Even simply using chalk lines on dark stones can
be a useful method in relating stones in a group or large assemblage.
Texture and Surface Quality
The texture and surface often reveal the structure of a stone, from the pitted to the
almost fibrous quality of some minerals and stones. We can feel not only the rough
and smooth but also the temperature of a stone, such as the granular warmth of a
piece of sandstone, or the smooth coldness and marble.
Colour
There is an incredible range of colour inherent in rock and stones Natural colour may be
superficial, penetrate the stone, or make up the total colour of the mass. A single stone may
contain many gradations of colour, of varying warmth and coolness even within the grey
scale, which give it a visual vitality. Stones from the same location and formed geologically
by the same processes will be harmonically related. To see the colour in all its nuances and
richness, brush off the dust and loose particles, wash the stone with water, or rub it with oil.
You may have a preference for coloured stones. At the BC Lower Mainland site where we
filmed the video programs, the predominant orange-brown stone was offset by grey-blue
rock, making an interesting contrast.
Light
Both natural and artificial reveal the stone or sculpture differently, stressing or
diminishing particular characteristics and aspects of the form. Light and shade, or
chiaroscuro, are fundamental to how we see and negotiate objects in space.
However, the language of colour is more complex. In cut and polished surfaces or in
crystals, colour may depend on the refraction and reflection of light.
Space
Space is not strictly characteristic of stone. However, since stone is given form in space,
you need to learn how to combine both elements effectively. When looking at artists’
work, try to see how the artist has used the material and formed it relative to space.
Looking at Brancusi’s Fish (Postcard Booklet TRU OL-042) it is evident that the form has
been flattened so that it both penetrates and divides space, just as a fish moves in water.
The combination of dark grey marble and its lighter horizontal striations with the
smooth flow of continuous form is very spatial when poised above the three-part
pedestal. This is part of the sculpture rather than merely its base.
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U7-10 Unit 7: Stone
Sources of Stone
In the video program, some students made good use of the stone saw, but you probably
won’t have access to one. So, it is important that you find other ways to respond to, and
work with, the material without many technical resources. Fortunately, there are many
ways you can enjoy stone. The most important is, probably, collecting them. Many
kinds of stone are usually available naturally in almost every locality—on the beach, in a
riverbed, below cliffs and rock faces. You will find that stone is worn and weathered by
sea and river, and by wind, rain, and changing temperatures.
Found or quarried stone can also provide you with a wide variety of geometric forms that
are roughly cubic, similar to a pyramid, or angularly polygonal. These will contrast with
rounded and ovoid forms. I remember a beach in Wales where almost cubic blocks of stone
fells from the cliffs onto a surface of undulating smooth rock. There, worn by waves, they
were eventually transformed into almost perfect spheres, which would be arranged in
various cavities, or rolled and actually bounced over the surface of the rock.
Tools
Carving Tools
There are two basic ways to process stone. You can break or pulverize it, usually by
striking the stone at right angles to the surface. Or, you can waste it, by cutting small
pieces out with the tool, usually at an angle of less than ninety degrees.
Hand Tools
Hammers: These should be made of iron, which is more flexible than steel.
Chisels: Tooled chisels may have a number of points, which break up stone across the
surface plane. The number of teeth varies. Flat chisels have straight cutting edges,
and are used to create a smooth surface, after the tooled chisels have removed stone
to create the form.
Points, or picks: These are used to rough out harder stones; used directly, a point
breaks the surface; at an angle, its action is more like that of a chisel.
Bush hammers, or bouchardes: These are a combination of hammer and points
projecting from the striking surface, so these tools both cut and hammer. They are
good for roughing out.
Abrasives: These are used for surface treatment. Your carving may call for the use of
rasps and rifflers to smooth the surface. If you want a very smooth surface, polish
with abrasive wet-and-dry papers or use a buffing machine with an abrasive block.
Fine-textured stones, such as marble and alabaster, take a high polish. Coarse stones,
such as sandstone, can’t be polished at all.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-11
Power Tools
These can be used, but they deprive you of the intimacy with the material that comes
from working it by hand. Electric hammers and grinders are available, but pneumatic
compressed air tools are often preferred. You will need to fasten the material effectively
while working. Clamps can be used for small stones; blocks or beams of wood can be
bolted down, gripping the stone, to hold larger stones in position. You can also fill
canvas or plastic bags with sand and use them to grip the stone as you carve.
Student Projects
Kuan collects a range of smaller stones and plays a game of balance and suspension,
using twine and a suspended wood form. There is no transformation of individual
stones, but an exciting context of relationships.
Helen wires stones into a wheel construction that is immediately seen as having totemistic
implications. On a smaller scale, the work could be a form of amulet or jewellery.
None of the students collect crystalline examples or semi-precious stones, such as
lapis lazuli.
Geoff also collects stones to build without technology, using principles of balance
and suspension. He builds a miniature wall from pebbles, and, above it, a long
inverted arch (see illustrations 5 and 6).
Helen collects scrap and offcuts of stone masons and lays them out on the floor,
playing a continuous game of improvisation in response to their various shapes and
colours. Her arrangements seem to be imbued with a sense of the human figure.
Craig combines stone with other materials. He uses the stone saw to cut a channel deep
into the stone in which to place a sheet of Plexiglas. The contrast between the mass of
the rock and the transparent sheet is extreme, because the transparency indicates space.
Craig experiments by scratching the Plexiglas and cutting into its surface, and also by
painting and taping the sheet. In the final piece, he indicates relationships between the
rock (representing the earth), fire (represented by carefully cut copper mesh flames),
and water (represented by scored and painted rain and clouds).
Lorraine, an assiduous collector, brings together stone, sheet metal, and coal in a
wooden tray. I particularly like a work where she uses a large round stone, cutting
channels around it and impregnating the channels with thin strips of carpet to
provide a form with strong tactile contrasts.
Ed finds cylindrical drill cores with a smooth, cement-like surface. He combines
these with sheet metal to make interesting forms, contrasting solid and sheet, solid
and space, by using expanded metal in an arching form.
TRU Open Learning
U7-12 Unit 7: Stone
Adrian instantly sees a relationship between the form of a particular stone and a loaf
of bread, commenting that it is made of “stone-ground flour.” He goes on to find or
make other equivalents for the contents of a sandwich, including lettuce out of a thin
sheet of aluminum painted green.
Oliver is the only student in the program who carves stone. It is his first attempt,
though he has carved some plaster blocks in the Particles DVD program.
David and Brent are intrigued with the idea of transforming stones with colour; both
use metallic paint.
Brent is interested in a play on value, using gold paint on facets of the stone and
accentuating it with the remaining unpainted areas. Some surfaces receive only one
layer of gold; others are progressively built up with several layers.
David is intrigued by the implications of time in the rock; he experiments with fast
and free gestural marks, painting and repainting, using silver paint to work the
image into the pitted stone as well as onto its surface.
After their individual developments, David and Brent work together on an installation.
The second installation, a collaboration between Geoff and Lorraine, is an effective
combination of suspended and “grounded” stones.
Geoff finds some rusting ready-made wire structures, which he cuts up to contain a
selected range of small stones and then suspends from the ceiling.
Underneath, Lorraine arranges her collection of stones in small groups in relation to
the suspended forms.
Apart from the few cut stones, almost all the student projects require little or no technology,
but rather a feeling for the stones and an appreciation of their characteristics.
Preparing to Work
Drawing
Since you can’t draw a finished form on the stone, you need to have a clear idea of it
in your mind. One useful way to clarify your ideas is to make preparatory drawings
on paper. You will still have to project your mind’s-eye image onto the stone while
working, as well as looking at what you are doing, and what is being evolved. To
help with this, you can frequently redraw with a wax or dark pencil a kind of profile
of the sculpture. Some sculptors keep drawing on the stone while carving. This is
another way of transporting the mental image onto the stone.
Be sure to keep rotating the piece, carving and drawing from different sides to get a
sense of the whole form. Alternatively, you might choose to evolve something more
intuitively, finding the form as you experiment with the material. On a larger scale,
you can work around the form.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-13
Modelling
Making a model, or maquette, is a traditional way to begin working out an idea
before carving. Use the maquette simply as a working guide. Do not copy it exactly.
Some sculptors work from clay models, but it is better to work from a carved model,
if you can. You can make one by casting a block of plaster in a cardboard milk
carton, or by carving a piece of fairly hard clay.
In the nineteenth century, a pointing machine was used to copy sculpture from clay
models and to increase the scale of the model into stone. With a pointing machine,
and using drill holes as guides, the artist could leave the final work to journeymen
carvers, many of them trained in Italy, but intimacy with the stone was sacrificed.
Material
When you decide to carve, you must first find your stone. Unless you already know
about stone, visit a working stonemason who can supply you with a variety of stones,
scrap material, and information. Try to choose the right stone for your particular idea or
form. If you have to reduce the stone to an approximate size; ask the stonemason to cut
what you want with a stone saw. Or, if the stone is large, it can be notched by cutting or
drilling and then split by driving wedges into the notches.
Stone carving can be a long process, but a long-term work allows you to develop
ideas for variations and extensions of the piece you are making. You alone can
decide when your work is finished. Base your decision, not on when you have
copied a model precisely or even when you have completed a preconceived idea, but
on when you know that you found the form and released it from the stone.
Imagining the Form
Captive, also called Awakening Slave, or Awakening Giant is a well-known marble carving,
close to three metres/ten feet high, by Michelangelo (see Captive Saint Mathew and
Awakening Slave Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–040). Many people believe that he intended to
carve a figure in the round, but I don’t share that belief. If he had, there would have been
carving on all surfaces. Instead, the work was carved from front and sides only, the
struggling figure gradually emerging from the block of marble. You can see, indeed feel, the
direct carving: the point marks and the teeth marks of a claw chisel. The figure is lying
backwards and, if carved in the round, would be completely off-balance, unless there was a
contrived counterbalance, which I don’t believe Michelangelo would have used.
It is interesting to compare this work with Rodin’s Danaïd (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–
041) in white marble. It also portrays a nude figure emerging from the stone, but, unlike
The Awakening Slave, there is no sense of release, or of a complete relationship between
stone and figure. Rodin modelled his figure in clay, which was then carved by a
professional stone carver. The work was inspired by The Awakening Slave , but the
difference in the process makes for a difference in the form and its quality.
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U7-14 Unit 7: Stone
The Creative Mind
The creative process depends on the use of one’s senses and mental capability. Most
artists work by intuition and instinctive response. Works are evolved mentally and
physically: the artists’ inner logic is accompanied by a self-conscious awareness of
material and process. Sculptors sometime have a problem sustaining the idea and
image of what they want to achieve over a long period. They have to maintain the
vitality of the work through its slow unfolding.
A number of artists have used pieces of stone for what they are—the transformation
that takes place is purely conceptual. Richard Long makes lines and circles of stones
and cairns, leaving a trail of his travels and activities in many parts of the world.
Carl Andre placed rough uncarved stones in a downtown area, contrasting them
with the formed and controlled material of the urban environment.
It’s relatively easy to approach your work with preconceived ideas based on drawings and
models, and simply work toward the end product. If this is the case, you may find you can
incorporate new ideas into the work as it is created. However, like many artists, you may
prefer to use materials in more immediate ways. Everyone has to find an individual way of
working. You certainly need to develop skills and learn general ways of using material to
express ideas and form. But how you organize forms depends on your individual artist’s
sensibility; that is, on your experience and personal vision, and on what you have to say.
Directly and indirectly, you can say a lot with material—and the material can say things to
you, revealing its properties and characteristics as you work with it.
As you are learning, stone is infinitely varied, and its characteristics will determine
its workability. So you have to decide which tools and processes suit it best. If stone
is a new experience, you must begin by trial and error-for example, by choosing a
soft stone for carving, and then finding out how to work it with the tools you have
available. Like a primitive man, you can begin by testing the surface, scratching it
with a hard, sharp tool, then cutting and hammering it.
As you learn about stone and other materials, you are learning how to work
creatively as an individual. Work with awareness, responding to what happens as
you handle and form the material. Through experiment and research, you will
inevitably gain ideas for personal responses. After working instinctively, spend
some time looking at, and thinking about, what you’ve done. Looking analytically is
important: your assessment defines your standards and preferences.
Remember, no one works absolutely logically or totally intuitively. We all travel in
both these worlds of the mind.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-15
Assignment 7: Stone
Introduction
For Assignment 7, you are required to complete one of seven project options. Once
you have chosen your project, first make a large collection of stones, or select stones
for specific purposes, such as carving. Then, using a hands-on approach, research
the nature of the material and explore possibilities for development. As a general
rule, use little or no technology.
You will find detailed instructions on how to complete each of these project options
in the following pages. Some suggestions on different ways of working are also
provided to help you get started.
Project Options
• Project 1: Relate Stones to Each Other
OR
• Project 2: Relate Stone to Other Materials
OR
• Project 3: Make a Stone Garden
OR
• Project 4: Create a Stone-Water Relationship
OR
• Project 5: Make a Direct Carving
OR
• Project 6: Make Stone Jewellery
OR
• Project 7: Carve Soapstone, Alabaster, or Limestone
Notebook and Photographic Documentation
Your Documentation should include:
• Brief notes on the materials, tools, and techniques you are using
• Drawings or diagrams showing the development of your ideas
• A set of photographs that illustrate the development of your project from
beginning to end
• If you choose to complete Project 6, you may wish to send in your developed
piece(s) if your work is small enough to mail conveniently.
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U7-16 Unit 7: Stone
Note: If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have
completed this assignment by the end of Week 9. We recommend that you
send in Assignments 5, 6, and 7 in one batch in Week 10.
Project 1: Relate Stones to Each Other
Make a large collection of stones of varied character. Experiment to find how the
stones can be related to each other in different groups and formats. You could carry
out this assignment option in a specific location, such as a garden, patio, urban
space, field, beach, or forest. Small scale developments could be carried out on a
table, bench, or portion of floor.
Project 2: Relate Stone to Other Materials
Examine stones you have collected to determine their specific characteristics.
Consider how you might use any stone or number of stones in relation to other
materials. The scale is up to you, as are the format and presentation.
Do not attempt to put everything into one complex collection of material. Start by
relating only one stone with one other material, and then develop this relationship in
different ways. Remember to photograph your work as your development evolves.
Project 3: Make a Stone Garden
Choose a corner of a garden or patio not less than 2 metres by 1.5 metres/6.5 feet by 5
feet, in which to design and make a stone garden. Clearly define the area. The
garden should present a wide range of stones of different scale: large stones and
pebbles, smaller stones, very small stones and pebbles. If you need to, use small
amounts of gravel and sand. To accentuate the character of the stones, you may feel
that other materials should be included. Use them in small quantities.
Project 4: Create a Stone-Water Relationship
There is a fundamental relationship between the elements, particularly between stone
and water; think of ways you can emphasize this relationship. If natural resources, such
as a stream, river, or beach, are inaccessible, you will have to think of simple ways to
organize water. You might find that transparent plastic sheet (polyethylene) in a frame
could be useful. Be discriminating about any other materials you choose to add, so that
they do not diminish the water-stone relationship.
Project 5: Make a Direct Carving
If you have the proper tools, experiment with available stones and carry out a direct
carving. You may make a model, or maquette, by carving a piece of hard clay or
plaster. Alternatively, you can make up some cement, following the method
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-17
described earlier in this unit, and carve that, using simple tools and adapting old
ones. You will need to work outside, wear safety goggles for eye protection and a
plastic mask to avoid breathing dust.
Project 6: Make Stone Jewellery
Collect a range of small stones and pebbles that range widely in colour, shape and
texture. After an experimental period of trying different relationships and
groupings, design and make a series of pieces of jewellery. Use rigid and/or flexible
wires or other linear materials, or adhesives such as epoxy, to connect the stones.
Project 7: Carve Soapstone or Alabaster
Using soapstone or alabaster, carve a stone with the largest dimension
approximately 20 cm (8 inches). Or, carve two smaller stones in relation to each
other. You may begin by doing preparatory drawings and/or carving a maquette
from hard clay to plaster, or you may work intuitively by direct carving. You will
need to work outside, wear safety goggles for eye protection and a plastic dust mask
to avoid breathing soapstone dust, which contains asbestos.
Ways of Working For Projects 1-4 and 6
Here are some of the many ways you can approach your assignment:
• Collect materials.
• Sort materials, looking at size, form, colour, surface etc.
• Explore the material: for example, you could try stacking, or suspending.
• Look for aspects of the stones that you respond to.
• Combine material by simple technical means.
• Relate materials without technology.
• Combine stones of the same substance.
• Combine different types of stones.
• Collect other materials or ready-made objects to combine with stone: liquid
and solid-oil or water with stone; line and solid-stone and string, wire, rope;
sheet and solid-netting, plastic, or fabric with stone.
• Consider gravity and anti-gravity, location, elevation, suspension and balance.
• Think of measure, direction, proportion, not only of your stones but also of
the space between them.
• Think of ways of containing, or presenting stones: in various boxes, shelves,
drawers, glass, metal, etc. For example, Heizer dug into the desert and lined
the pits with concrete in which he placed large natural stones. Some
Minimalists made crates and other structures to contain stones placed in
galleries, or simply arranged them on the gallery floor.
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U7-18 Unit 7: Stone
Notes on the Reproductions
The reproductions are shown on DVD 4 in the video Stone and/or in the Postcard
Booklet.
Quartz, fluorite, and amethyst crystals.
M.Y. Williams Geological Museum.
University of British Columbia.
Vancouver, Canada.
Crystals are the portion of matter that has a definite, orderly, atomic structure and
an outward from bounded by smooth plane surfaces. Crystals embody the many
forces and processes that continually change the form and structure of our earth. The
atoms that compose crystals are arranged in regular patterns that determine the
shape and growth of the crystal. The type of atom determines the various properties
of crystal, such as it colour, hardness, lustre, and optical qualities. Almost three
thousand mineral species are known—and fifty more are discovered every year.
A perfect crystal specimen is very rare. Although all rocks are composed of crystalline
minerals, variable geological conditions seldom allow perfection. Crystalline structure is the
accepted criterion of solidity, though solids that have no crystalline structure—such as
ordinary glass—are really more similar to liquids. The immediate fascination of crystals is
their plane surface structure in geometric form—for example, the octahedral crystals of
sulphur, cubic crystals of rock salt, and hexagonal crystals of amethyst and quartz. The
study of the growth and shape of crystals is called crystallography.
Pavlovian tools.
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) stone.
Moravske Museum, Brno, Czechoslovakia.
The Paleolithic Age was characterized by the making and use of rudimentary
chipped stone tools. Earlier tools were of wood, bone, antler, and pebbles or hand-
sized throwing stones. A major step forward was the development of the hand axe,
not a handled axe, but a pear-or almond-shaped hard stone that could chip other
stones. Later, a new stone tool industry was based on flakes of stone, such as flint.
Special tools, like those shown, were made from carefully flaked shapes of flint and
other hard stone. There were three tool classifications: core, flake, and blade.
Core tools were basic chipped pieces of rock that could be used as implements. Flake
tools were formed when flakes struck from a core rock were used as new
implements. Blade tools were the result of striking off long, parallel-edged blades.
Smaller chips could be removed by further striking and refining the edges.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-19
Using these simple methods, a considerable range of specialized tools could be
made: scrapers, points, awls and borers, gravers, chisels, gouges, and knives. They
were the forerunners of the hand tools of today.
Venus of Willendorf. Circa 21,000 BCE. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–031)
Paleolithic, carboniferous limestone; 10.8 cm high.
Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria.
This is one of the most famous of Paleolithic fertility figures and belongs to the first
known “school” of three-dimensional art.
This little figure is not typical of contemporary standards of beauty, but, as a fertility
symbol, it shows exaggerated female anatomy. The limbs are abbreviated and the
head is purely symbolic, with formally carved, curled hair. By emphasizing parts of
the body, the form shows aesthetic decisions and preferences, and, in sculptural
relationship, working toward a unity of the parts.
The sculpture of this period was invariably small, realistic, and portable; charms and
amulets are examples. Works like this may be an early demonstration that art is a
basic human need, satisfying the creative desire to record and reproduce aspects of
life and the world around us. The polishing of such forms may have been an
aesthetic consideration, since it took place before the polishing of tools. The other
form of Paleolithic art was monumental images rendered in paint, incised design, or
relief on the walls of caves (for incised caving see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–032).
Stonehenge. Circa 2400–1200 BCE. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–033)
114 m diameter.
Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in a circular setting of large standing stones; it was
once surrounded by an earthwork. The original form, built in the late Neolithic and early
Bronze ages, consisted of a number of concentric rings and an avenue outside the existing
group. Pillars of igneous rocks—bluestones—were transported by water from the Preseli
Mountains in Wales, and erected in the centre of the site to from two concentric circles. Soon
after 1600 BCE, some eighty large blocks of Sarsen stone were transported from the
Marlborough Downs, about thirty-two kilometres/twenty miles north, and erected in a
circle of thirty uprights, capped by a continuous ring of stone lintels. The surfaces were
dressed fairly smooth and the lintels carefully shaped and curved. The stones are of
exceptional size and up to 45.4 tonnes/fifty tons in weight.
Stonehenge is unique among the megalithic monuments of Europe. Probably, it was
constructed as a place of worship; however, the nature of the religion is not known.
Any supposed connection with the Druids has no historical basis.
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U7-20 Unit 7: Stone
The Erechtheum—South Porch. 421–409 BCE.
Ionic Temple.
The Acropolis, Athens, Greece.
The Erechtheum is a temple situated on a difficult site on the Acropolis and built in
the Ionic style. The decorative and structural details are famed for their excellence,
with exquisite Ionic columns on the east and north porches. The third porch (the
subject of this image) shows the caryatids forming the Porch of the Maidens.
These figures are remarkable for their grace and perfect balance. They stand erect, with
the body weight on the back foot, and the other leg relaxed, the knee projecting forward,
displacing the drapery. The vertical folds of the drapery strongly support the upper
figure and reflect the vertical flutings of the Ionic columns of the rest of the temple. In
contrast, the folds on the upper part of the body flow downwards, accentuating the
sense of gravity. It seems to me that, although these figures are usually cited for their
graceful rhythmic upward movement, they also substantially convey the countering
down thrust of the weight of the entablature and roof above. Remember that the Greeks
at this time had no concept of space but only of place. Their philosophical notion that
“everybody is at a place” seems well exemplified by this remarkable work.
Ellora. Circa 5–8 BCE.
Facades of Hindu, Buddhist Cave-Temples, India.
The image shows only part of the entrances to the series of temples of Hindu and
Buddhist origins. These cave temples are hewn out of solid rock and extend deeply
into the hillside. Some have up to three stories. The largest is close to forty-six
metres/150 feet square, but the most remarkable is the Kailasa Temple, fifty
metres/164 feet long and twenty-seven metres/88.5 feet high. It is exquisitely covered
with exceptionally vigorous sculptures of Hindu deities and mythological figures.
The best of Indian sculpture combines cosmic grandeur and infallible balance, associated
with the gods Vishnu, Preserver of the Universe, and Shiva, Master of Cosmic Dance. Some
figures are in erotic and voluptuous poses. Others reflect India’s traditional polarities of
asceticism and indulgence. It should be remembered that these so-called cave temples,
particularly the Kailasa, were entirely hewn from the rock and are not actual caves.
The Nave—Durham Cathedral. 1093–1133 CE. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–043)
Durham, England.
Because the cathedral at Durham was built in a relatively short time—a mere forty years—it
is entirely Norman in design, and in a unified style. This mighty building is regarded as the
outstanding Romanesque Church in Europe; indeed, as one of the world’s greatest
buildings. It was extremely innovative for its time. The transepts were remarkable for
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U7-21
having the first high-level ribbed vaults in Europe, dating from about 1110 CE. In the nave,
vaulted later, the huge piers are alternatively circular and compound. With a circumference
of seven metres/twenty-three feet, the circular columns are deeply incised with geometric
pattern. They support the arches, which in turn support the first great transition to the
Gothic ribbed vault with pointed, transverse arches.
Detail of three columns—Durham Cathedral.
In the video Stone, you can see the detail of the great piers, with diamond-and chevron-
incised carving; also part of a larger compound column. Look a little more carefully, and
you’ll see the stone courses, curved and dressed. Sometime in early history, one of the most
important technical innovations took place—dressing stone, so that two flat-surfaced
stones, placed one on top of the other, would meet at all points. Dressed to right angles, the
geometric-shaped stones became the principal unit of building for thousands of years.
Royal Portal, Kings and Queens of Judah—Chartres Cathedral. 1145–1150 CE.
m high.
Chartres, France.
During the night of 9 June 1194, lightning destroyed most of the original cathedral at
Chartres, except for the crypt and the west front. This west, or Royal, portal was
incorporated into the new cathedral, bringing the total number of statues (including those
of the north and south sides) to the more than seven hundred that adorn the building today.
Although these four elegant figures are far removed in time, appearance, and belief
from classical Greek art, the Royal Portal does represent a similar subordination of the
sculpture to an overriding architectural design. However, there is no contradiction
between the structural and sculptural functions of the figures. The Gothic sculptor, with
his developing sense of space, elongates the figures, and—as in the Erechtheum
caryatids—accentuates the verticals of the drapery. He imbues his figures with the
sensation of lightness, even of uplifting movement-a link, no doubt, to spiritual beliefs
and religious concerns. These figures are much less naturalistic than the caryatids; you’ll
notice that, on the left-hand side, there are a number of very small, sculptured figures.
The scale is hierarchic—that which is most important is largest—but it also varies,
according to the architectural functions and surface space.
Skull of rock crystal. 1878–1881. Forgery. Formerly thought to be from Aztec Empire.
Carved rock crystal, 21/6 cm high.
Trustees of the British Museum, London, UK.
Light is a moving, fluctuating element, and when it moves over the surface of a solid object
that is also transparent—like this crystal skull—the changing light or the movement of the
observer continuously transforms the object and the impression made on the senses. So, the
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U7-22 Unit 7: Stone
polished rock crystal skull is not only seen through, it is also highly reflective and mirror-
like, creating sensations of movement. This penetration of light through a solid sculptural
object is certainly paradoxical. Compare this work with constructions in transparent plastics
by Naum Gabo, or a highly polished metal form by Brancusi. Transparent and translucent
sculpture was also made of moulded, blown, and drawn glass at Murano (Venice) and
Limoges (France) in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Other forms of skulls
continue to appear annually in Mexico’s popular celebration on the theme of death.
Recent microscope analysis indicates the use of machine tools to grind the quartz
and polish the surface, technology that was unknown in the Aztec Empire (1300–
1521 CE). Both this and similar crystal skulls were first publically shown by the same
dealer, a further indication that leads the British Museum to now conclude this
carving is a 1878–81 CE fake originating in France.
Noguchi, Isamu. Double Red Mountain. 1969.
Persian Red travertine.
33 × 101.6 × 76.2 cm.
Courtesy of the Isamu Noguchi Foundation, Inc.
Noguchi has worked in a wide range of material an on an extremely varied scale-
from relative small pieces (such as the work shown) to public gardens,
environmental structures and fountains in many cities around the world. He has
said that the essence of sculpture is the perception of space, the continuum of human
existence; like some other modern artists, he has been concerned with giving order
and meaning to the energy and implications of space.
However, in Double Red Mountain, which can be seen as a small table sculpture, the
forms thrust upwards, and the top surfaces are polished smooth in an apparent contact
with space. It is like the rocks in a Japanese garden, which are seen as protuberances
from the fundamental mass of rock below the soil, a contact with the earth’s crust. For
all its small scale, the work evokes the landscape—but an essentially human landscape,
systematically eroded by mind and hand, rather than by wind and water.
Recommended Resources
Andrews, Oliver. Living Materials: A Sculptor’s Handbook. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 1988. Print.
A good section on stone in Chapter 6, “Stone Carving.”
Balfour, Michael Balfour. Stonehenge and Its Mysteries. New York: Scribner’s, 1980. Print.
An intriguing account of the great megalithic monument, its stones, and its
construction.
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Burkitt, Miles. The Old Stone Age. 4th ed. New York: New York University Press, 1963. Print.
A good, basic pocketbook, covering all stages of development during the Stone Age.
Feininger, Andreas. Stone and Man. New York: Dover Publications, 1979. Print.
A photographic exploration that provides excellent images of stone as it appears
in various places, buildings, and sculpture.
Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pharaohs. Ed. Carolyn Feuerstein. New York: New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. Print.
Shows a great range of carving in stone with varied subjects, forms, scales, and surfaces,
from relief carving through finely smoothed hard sculpture to massive carved blocks.
Goldsworthy, Andy. Stone. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1994. Print.
Photographs of Goldsworthy’s constructions in stone that work with the
landscape to make inventive and visually powerful structures.
Liebson, Milt. Direct Stone Sculpture. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 1991. Print.
A thorough survey of stone carving, with excellent examples from the twentieth
century and clear, photographic demonstrations on how to work with the stone
by hand or with power tools.
Meilach, Dona Z. Contemporary Stone Sculpture: Aesthetics, Methods, Appreciation. New
York: Crown Publishers, 1979. Print.
Although dated, this book provides a useful review of relatively recent sculpture:
its aesthetics and methods. The selection is international.
Read, David. The Art and Craft of Stonescaping: Setting and Stacking Stone. Asheville,
NC: Lark Books, 1998. Print.
A thorough and well-designed book that addresses many aspects of working
with stone in different landscape projects. Many clear colour photographs
throughout of demonstrations and finished projects.
Valentine, John, 2007. Sculpting in Stone (Basics of Sculpture series). London: A&C
Black Publishers Ltd., 2007. Print.
A thorough discussion of stone carving and a step-by-step guide to a number of
complex projects in a way that allows the reader to use the techniques with their
own design and subject matter. Shows examples of relief carving and three-
dimensional work.
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Additional Resources
Internet
Stephen Cox. Search Google Images and Artcyclopedia.
• Cox makes very subtle use of form by carving in stone.
Andy Goldsworthy. Search Google Images.
• Goldsworthy uses the shape and scale of stone and does not modify or carve
the stone, but instead selects very carefully as he constructs his inventive
forms.
Peter Randall-Page. Search Google Images.
• Randall-Page’s work involves relief carving over the surface of large rocks,
using spiral and circular forms situated in the landscape to great effect.
List of Illustrations
1. Tectonics: when large blocks or plates move along fault lines. From computer
animations by E. John Love.
2. Ice wedging: alternate freezing and thawing of water – the ice expansion
levers rocks apart. From a computer animation by Jeanie Sunderland.
3. Rock slide. From a computer animation by E. John Love.
4. The eroding power of windblown sand often creates unusual land forms. From a
computer animation by E. John Love.
5. Drawings of experiments with stone. By Geoffrey Topham.
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Notes for an installation. By Geoffrey Topham
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TRU Open Learning
Faculty of Arts
Unit 8:
Earth
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U8-1
Unit 8: Earth
Introduction
Note: DVD 5 includes the video program Earth to accompany Unit 8. Please
also watch the supplementary videos.
This unit is about the permeable layer of earth on the surface of the rock crust rather
than about the planet Earth on which we live. We can extend this definition to cover
any dry land—soil in all its varying conditions—which we often refer to as ground.
The soil of the earth, the uppermost layer above the rock mantle, is significant
because it covers most of the land area of the world and serves as the foundation of
plant, animal, and human life. Among the important functions of soil is sustaining
vegetation. Agriculture produces more than ninety per cent of all our food. In the
forestry industry, soil-connected activities produce many other materials we use in
everyday life, such as cellulose, fibres, and leather.
Composition and Classification of Earth
Soil is classified by its chemical composition, colour, texture, depth, and structure.
Earth is made up of organic and inorganic matter. Its chemical composition is an aggregate of
unconsolidated mineral, vegetable, and animal matter that is produced by the combined
action of wind, water and organic decay. The inorganic particles that make up most of the
soil’s volume are weather rock. The organic matter comes from living, dead, or decaying
plant and animal substances. Earth also has a liquid content—soil water—which is a dilute
and complex solution of chemicals such as bicarbonates, nitrates, sulphates, and
phosphates, all of them soluble nutrients used by plants.
Colour is a minor factor, but it allows us to distinguish soil layers easily. Soil colours
range from white through brown to black, depending on the amount of humus
present. Humus is a constantly changing mixture, representing every stage in the
decay of organic matter. Different-coloured earths have been used as the basis of
pigments since the earliest times. Traditional earth pigments include raw sienna,
burnt umber, Indian and Venetian red, and terre verte. Reds and yellows are quite
common and indicate the presence of small amounts of iron oxide.
Texture is important if you plan to work with soil; the proportions of sand, silt, clay,
and humus provide many variations. Textural groups include sandy clay, silty clay,
clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy loam, silt loam, and so on. Soils
with a large percentage of fine particles (clays and loams) contain water and mineral
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material. Heavy clay soils tend to contain an excess of water and have a dense
texture that is not particularly conducive to plant growth. If you have a garden, you
already know something about the types of soil in your own locality. Every gardener
also knows the value of soil organisms that break down plant and animal tissues,
releasing nutrients into the soil. Creatures that live in the soil incorporate humus
into soil, where it is gradually broken down by the microorganisms that release its
constituents for crop nutrition.
Depth is the element that changes the composition and structure of soil. According to
its depth, soil density can vary from soft humus to fine impervious clay, coarse
permeable sand, and gravel, which in turn vary and regulate the content of water in
the soil. With depth, soil grows denser and falls into layers, called horizons (see
illustration 1), which differ in texture, colour, and consistency. A complete
succession of horizons from the surface ground downward is known as a soil profile.
The most common horizons are:
Horizon O: This term is sometimes applied to the surface layers
of dead vegetable matter and decomposed humus.
Horizon A: The next layer, often dark in colour and rich in
organic matter.
Horizon B: Directly below Horizon A; rich in clay and poor in
organic matter.
Horizon C: The subsoil, consisting of partly decomposed rock
material.
Horizon D: The bedrock on which C rests.
The nature, number, thickness, and arrangement of horizons are important in the
classification of soils. It is not necessary for us to consider the details of structural
and chemical classifications, but we can consider some of the geographic and
climatic factors. Vegetated regions—polar tundra, coniferous forest, grassland, rain
forest, savannah, dry forest, and desert—follow a definite pattern to which the
distribution of soil is related. Although climate and environment play the largest
part in forming mature soils, factors such as movement and transportation of
material, topography, and biological activity—all in the context of extended time—
also determine soil profiles.
Working with Earth
In this unit, we explore working with earth in two ways: through clay and pottery,
and through earthworks.
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Pottery
Even before the development of agricultural communities, in the Middle East
around 5000 BCE, nomadic peoples carried with them their pottery cooking vessels,
food bowls, and drinking cups (see the Postcard Booklet for a series of examples).
Pottery was produced in China from about 3000 BCE, and since then virtually every
civilization has produced pottery in various forms.
The Chinese used a pottery wheel during the Shang dynasty, 1500–1000 BCE to
make pottery, but the pottery wheel may have been in use even before then.
Certainly, the wheel was an early milestone in technical evolution—though, at first,
it was operated by hand. Not until the seventeenth century, when wheels with a
pulley and cord were invented, did the kick-wheel come into being. Today’s wheels
are rotated by electrical power.
Earthworks (Earthworks, Land Art, Environmental Art)
Each unit of this course includes internal installation and external environmental
projects. The installations may be said to reflect our everyday situation, living and
often working inside geometric units of enclosed architectural space. The
environmental projects, on the other hand, are reminders that we live in a world in
which there is an incredible variety of physical material and natural form. These two
aspects of environment—internal and external—engage in some measure the
polarities of our personal experience of physical environment.
Historical precedents for these activities can be found in the evolution of responses
to landscape, and by the changes in spatial concepts of this century. Landscape
seems to be one of the most enduring of artistic inspirations, but it was not always
so. For a long time the landscape was mostly unknown, a formidable and forbidding
place, full of evil spirits or evil men, bandits and outlaws. Gothic illustrations show
small tamed areas of nature, in some convenient corner of the castle where plants
and flowers could flourish: the cultivated “paradise gardens.” From Giotto on
(culminating in the great pastoral figure paintings of Giorgione), the new concept of
representing directly observed natural forms identified the landscape as an
increasingly important background to life. Dutch realism opened up the landscape
vista for its own sake, without figures. By the nineteenth century, landscape
dominated the visions and vistas of art—represented in intimate water colours and
panoramic views by Turner—setting new ideals of beauty. To this day, for a
majority of people, the idea and ideal of beauty exists as an image of the landscape.
Humans have always had the desire to have some essential relationships with
nature, using its materials, propitiating its gods and devils; it is an ageless and
instinctive impulse. The history and form of gardens indicate something of that
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changing relationship, from the recreations of a corner of paradise, the formal
geometry of Italian and French gardens (notably Versailles to the “natural”
landscaped parks of England (Stourhead, Stowe, and Castle Howard). The
picturesque landscaping showed a new confidence in dealing with nature, saying,
“Look—it’s beautiful, not frightening.”
The Japanese garden constitutes perhaps the greatest single contribution of the
Japanese to the history of world art. It emphasizes year-round continuity by effective
use of various evergreen plants. Colour is controlled; stones are specially selected
(texture, shape, and size) for a particular role. Streams, pools, and waterfalls may be
natural or simulated, creating the sensation of a landscape in miniature. The garden
masterpieces of Katsurarikyu, Ryoanji, and Tenryuji, created centuries ago, are
perfectly preserved today.
Twentieth-Century Developments
Early in this century, interest in landscape diminished somewhat for artists, who
became preoccupied with technology and with widening the categories of what art
could be. Significantly, many new systems rejected the dominant approach of
representing what was seen from a single point of view.
However, since the late fifties and sixties, new attitudes to landscape have appeared
which are not about representation in the traditional sense. Artists have been attempting
to discover new relations with the landscape, trying to create a new intimacy with
nature. This has meant the artist’s entering into nature, not so much by looking at it, as
by experiencing it physically. There was an increasing variety in what could constitute
art, and entering into the landscape opened up many new possibilities.
Creating new landscapes was, for some artists, more important than simply
decorating the environment with pieces of sculpture. The developing tendency was
to work with nature and the landscape rather than against it. Instead of looking for a
view, the artist was busy looking for a site in which to work. It suddenly strikes me
that entering into the work of art has become important, as Jackson Pollock entered
physically into his painting, sometimes standing in it to make his gestural marks
without a baseline.
Japanese-American artist Isamu Noguchi has created gardens and environments at
UNESCO in Paris, in New York and in other cities. They may be seen as a new
sculptural form, but one that contains many aspects of nature: a form of landscape
rather than a single sculptural object. Certainly by the late 1960s, many artists were
questioning the prevalent notion of art as object—that is, a painting or piece of
sculpture, something self-contained, to be imposed on a room or placed in an
environment.
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Site-Specific Pieces
Working on the site could present different options, going along with nature,
preserving the natural appearance of materials or environment, or taking processed
material into the site. This might involve taking ready-made forms onto the site—as,
for example, in Nancy Holt’s Sun Tunnels or Christo’s Wrapped Coast, in which
ninety-three thousand square metres/one million square feet of Australian coastline
were wrapped in plastic sheet. With vast areas of landscape available, the scale of
operations increased considerably. Robert Morris’s Observatory is about 91 metres in
diameter; Michael Heizer’s Double Negative is more than 457 metres long, and Dennis
Oppenheim’s Identity Stretch is 305 metres by 91 metres.
Other artists worked toward intimacy rather than imposition. So, if there was no
longer a concern for the direct portrayal of nature, there was a new interpenetration
between humans and nature. In many cases, it was important that the spectator
become part of the physical being of the work, and the work was often used by the
spectator. There is a direct link here to the role of the observer as participant in the
“happenings” of the early 1960s.
It is not necessary to keep to an “artistic” norm of landscape. You can work
anywhere, in an abandoned space or derelict area; it doesn’t have to be traditionally
picturesque. Everywhere we see our effects on the land—proof that, for good or ill,
we can’t set ourselves apart from nature. Robert Smithson showed a preference for
sites that had been (as he said) “disrupted or pulverized.” He certainly wasn’t
looking for any “nice, artistic” landscapes. Nature could be reordered, reclaimed,
reconstructed. On the wall of a quarry, he wrote, “fragmentation, corrosion,
decomposition,” which seems the antithesis of creative building.
Working on a site, creating non-portable works, artists often produced documentary
evidence and by-products—samples of earth or rock, photographs and maps of the
site—which could be used in galleries. Richard Long walked the world, leaving the
trail of his creative and physical responses in lines and in cairns and circles of rocks,
as well as in gallery works formed from rocks, wood, slate, and mud. Michael Heizer
ambitiously rebuilds the landscape and (because of the scale of his activities)
replaces his sculptor’s hammers and chisels with pneumatic drills, bulldozers,
earthmovers and explosives. The earth is engaged as a sculptural material: a forty-
seven-tonne piece of granite was placed in a rectangular depression in the desert at
Silver Springs, Nevada as an example of “displaced mass” in 1969.
Artists working in the environment interact with the landscape in varied ways, and
their attitudes range from ecological indifference to activism. There is nowhere on
earth that could not be considered as a suitable site for something by someone.
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Working with Clay and Pottery
Clay is a significant component of earth and owes its origin to the decomposition of certain
rocks. Common clay contains kaolin or china clay. Clays vary in plasticity—their ability to be
formed or moulded when moist. The more plastic clays are used for making pottery
because, when dry, the formed clay can be fired in a kiln or baked until it becomes
permanently hard (though somewhat brittle). This plasticity allows an unlimited variety of
forms, an endless range from a flat tile or simple container to complex three-dimensional
representations of natural forms, such as the human figure and abstract modelling.
Whatever the origin of the pottery, the process and principles of its production
remain basically the same. Steps in the making of pottery include:
• Preparing clay
• Shaping or casting (hand-built, thrown, or cast)
• Decorating
• Firing
• Glazing
• Refiring
Shaping can be done by hand, on a wheel, or by using a mould. The hand process
entails either hand-building the clay and pressing it, or else rolling and coiling the
clay in spirals or rings, pressing them together and smoothing them.
Casting has become increasingly important as a production method. In this process,
a liquid mixture of clay and water (this mixture is called a slip) is poured into an
absorbent mould. The water soaks into the mould, leaving a thin deposit of clay,
which can be fired once it is dry (and the mould has been removed).
Decorating can take place at this point. Designs can be painted or drawn on the
dried-out clay vessel before it is put in a kiln and fired. See Elisabeth Fritsch’s finely
decorated work in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–067.
Glazing may start with a coloured underglaze (biscuit) applied before the first firing.
A final glaze may be applied to the biscuit-fired pot, by brush or spray, or by
dipping the pot directly into the glaze. After firing, the glaze has a glassy surface,
which can be coloured, solid, opaque, or transparent.
Pottery Classifications
There are three basic classifications for pottery:
• Earthenware
• Stoneware
• Porcelain
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Earthenware clays are selected for plasticity, hardening qualities, fusibility, and
colour. They include unglazed, simply baked clay, such as terra cotta and bricks. The
commonest earthenware forms are ordinary household pottery, crockery with lead
glaze, enamelled ware and other translucent, semi-translucent, or opaque glazed
forms. Selected clays, baked and coated with a slight vitreous glaze—such as ancient
Greek vases—are lustrous and can be elegantly decorated.
Stoneware clay has higher silica content than earthenware. When fired, this vitrifies
the clay body to produce a dense, hard form. Stoneware made from coloured or dark
clay, coated with a salt glaze, is used for stoneware crocks.
Porcelain is characterized by hardness, semi-translucency, and resonance. It has a
body of clay containing silica and kaolin, usually with an alkaline glaze. Some
porcelain is commonly referred to as china or chinaware. See also Kiki Smith’s
sculpture in porcelain Woman with Owl (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–072).
Pottery Forms
Basic clay vessels are thrown in one piece. Any subsidiary parts, such as handles, spouts,
and lids are added later, luted on while the clay is still moist, by means of a wet solution of
clay, or slip, which acts as an adhesive. When throwing, the clay is centred on the disc of the
wheel. The potter’s hands shape (throw) the desired object as the wheel rotates.
You will notice in the video program that I ask Oliver and Lorraine to begin by
throwing simply. They start by throwing the forms typical of thrown clay—
beginning with the hollow cylinder, which requires good vertical control of the form,
and then throwing progressively towards an open hollow sphere and variations of it.
Along with the cone—thrown first with a wide base, then as an inverted cone with a narrow
base—these are the fundamental forms created on the potter’s wheel (see illustration 2).
Pottery Functions
Variations on these forms are usually determined by functional requirements. Pots
are used primarily for eating, drinking, containing and storing. They are also used
for display, as flower and fruit containers, vases and so on. The variety of forms in
Greek pottery shows how the interpretation of functional design involved
considerable concern for proportion and for the relationships of the various parts—
handles, bases, necks, feet, rims, and lids; the result is a superb combination of
functional and aesthetic qualities. Simple variations on the hollow spherical form,
which must have an opening of some kind, provide us with functional possibilities:
• If the objective is to contain a maximum quantity, the opening will be as
small as possible.
• If the object is to provide maximum access to its contents, the opening will be
as wide as possible—that is, a hemisphere (half of the hollow sphere).
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• An opening of less than half the surface will provide a round vase or jar.
• A form less than half the sphere makes a bowl; when a quarter or less of the
sphere is used, the result is a shallow dish or plate.
Any of these rudimentary forms may require necks, or rims, to strengthen the edge
or make it suitable for domestic use. A footing will often be necessary, so that forms
will “stand” or “sit” effectively. Handles are a secondary feature; two were
developed for heavy vessels, one for lightweight ware or for pouring. A spout on a
pouring vessel must not drip, and the handle must be wide enough to grip and to
keep the hand away from the (possibly hot) body of the vessel. These are elementary
functional design requirements. The balance of spout and handle on either side of
the body of a teapot can be a serious sculptural design problem—and its effective
solution a rare aesthetic achievement.
Pottery Vitality
Casting and throwing depend on the cohesive plasticity of clay. But, as the clay
changes shape on the wheel, the combination of hand and material produces
strength of form that has great psychological appeal. This organic vitality in thrown
work is not present in the more inert and passive method of pouring liquid and clay
particles into a porous mould. However, the designer can vitalize the process by
effective design of form, relationship of parts, combination of units, and, of course,
surface effects. Surface texture, pattern, and decoration must relate to the line of the
form, so that what may be lost in organic vitality is gained in proportion and
precision.
Clay Forming
Experimenting with clay
Explore the material by trying out different actions on the clay. Try making a range
of simple marks in the clay, try making slabs, coils, and joining one piece to the next.
After you have completed this initial exploration, you will have a much stronger feel
for the material and a better sense of its possibilities.
Preparing clay
You will need to find actual clay, not self-hardening, brightly coloured, or plastic
“clay”—such so-called “clay” is not suitable for this unit.
Packages of prepared clay can be purchased inexpensively, ready for use; you can
further prepare the clay by “wedging” it, to make it more plastic. Local community
centres that offer clay classes may also be a source of clay. As noted in the previous
paragraph, synthetic or plastic clay is not adequate for the assignment in this unit.
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Knead and pound the clay against a firm, hard surface. If you want to add sand or
other aggregates, do so at this point. If the clay is sticky and difficult to work, you
can add grog—a clay that has been fired and ground up. The thicker and larger the
work, the coarser and more open the body should be. Grog and other aggregates do
this; sand and pumice give a different texture and “feel” to the clay. If you have
quite a lot of clay, store it in an airtight container; for example, in a tin box or tightly
tied polyethylene bag.
Clay Modelling Techniques
Modelling with clay is done using various techniques, which include direct building,
forming, and modelling over an armature; building up, cutting away, and hollowing
out, or building around a newspaper core. Large pieces can be made by uniting
smaller pieces made by these methods, which are then fired or cast.
Modelled work, if it is thin enough, can be fired in a kiln. However, if air is trapped
inside the work, the piece will explode as it is heated. Consequently, if the piece is
more than two inches thick, the form will need to hollowed out and a hole made in
its base. This will make sure that the piece has an air vent, which will let hot air
escape from inside the form.
If the modelled form is made around a wood or metal armature, it cannot be fired.
Instead, a plaster mould can be made from it and a more permanent sculpture can be
made in the mould, either from plaster or cement. Or the work can be left to dry out
and then painted. The unfired piece will be fragile, but if solid enough, can survive.
The nineteenth century French artist Daumier produced a series of satirical heads in
unfired, painted clay that are now over a hundred years old.
Modelling using a newspaper armature
Large, hollow forms such as heads or figures can be constructed in a way that
permits their firing in a kiln and so made much more permanent.
This technique involves wrapping clay around a central core of tightly wrapped
newspaper and making a hole in the base to allow hot gases to escape later when the
kiln is fired. When finished, the piece should be allowed to dry for several weeks
and only fired slowly when the surface of the piece no longer feels cool on the cheek.
Note: View the supplementary videos for a demonstration of building a life-
size head.
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Clay Tools
Tools can vary—basically, your tools are your hands and boxwood modelling tools
of various flat shapes. Wood tools with open wire ends are useful for cutting away.
Or, you can make useful tools from pieces of plastic or wood, or old knives and
spoons. I’ve found that, when working on a fair-sized scale, a good slab of wood is
useful for beating the clay mass into its basic form.
Clay Weight
If the piece involves a considerable weight of clay or requires the form to be
balanced or held erect, a supporting armature is required. You can make this of
metal pipe, wood in square section, or some form of screening, such as hardware
cloth, chicken wire, or expanded metal. You can also wrap the main supporting
armature with burlap, sisal cloth, and twine or wire, which help to hold the clay to
the armature. Or, you can make crosspiece butterflies as Lisa did and wire them to
the basic armature.
The armature doesn’t have to approximate the final form of the finished work. It is
basically a structural support somewhere in the centre of the clay mass, holding it
up. Unlike quick-setting plaster, clay doesn’t harden quickly and will not support its
own weight. Simply add lumps of clay of a suitable size to keep covering the
armature, until the form begins to take shape. The pieces should be pressed and
interlocked to give strength. Make the pieces somewhat smaller as you approximate
the final shape of the mass. Then push, press, squeeze, and model the form.
If you have to leave a work in progress, wrap it with a damp cloth or towel.
Overnight, put a polyethylene bag over the wet towelling. If it should dry out a little,
spray it with water.
The surface of any modelled form is a matter of personal choice—which will be
influenced by your modelling methods, along with the demands of the subject and
form. Once you have completed the modelling, allow the work to dry out
completely (uncovered) before casting.
Slab Construction
Slabs of clay can be made rapidly either by slamming down a block of clay onto a
dry canvas or newspaper covered table, or by using a roller to roll out a slab of even
thickness. (You can control this by putting pieces of board six or twelve
millimetres/one-quarter inch or one-half inch thick on either side of the clay and
rolling until the rolling pin makes contact along these board strips). If you simply
use a roller, you can also use a sharp skewer, knitting needle, or toothpick to cut
away any areas that are thinner than the body of the main slab.
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Slab construction requires that the pieces of clay be effectively joined. You can do
this by taking a small amount of the clay you are using and adding water to make a
liquid or slurry. When two edges or surfaces are to be joined, roughen them by
scratching or incising with a wire tool or rough-ended piece of wood. Cover this
tooled surface with the clay liquid mix, then press and knead the two surfaces
together and add whatever additional clay and surface reworking are required until
a strong bond has been formed. (You can use this joining method for all types of
construction with clay). See the supplementary videos, for a demonstration of slab
building.
Slabs lend themselves to construction of house or box shapes or abstract planar
forms. Flat slabs of clay can be cut up and made into tiles.
Coiling
To make coiled pots or other coiled forms, first roll the clay with the palms of both
hands to produce coils of equal thickness along their length. Once you start building,
roughen the surface of the first coil by scratching it, add clay slurry and then follow
by another coil, pressing down lightly. Blend the two coils together by pulling the
clay up and down, from one coil to another. Then, add another coil. By making the
coil slightly longer or shorter, you can begin to establish the basic line or profile of
the form. Repeat this procedure until you achieve the desired form. Then, blend and
scrape the coils smooth, with the blade of a knife held vertically. This allows you to
refine the profile and overall shape of the form to a precise degree and prepares the
surface for texture or other surface characteristics.
Smooth the coils, so that they no longer show. Avoid leaving the coils showing.
Leaving the coils visible is one of the most common and impractical elementary
school clichés of working in clay. Smoothed coiling lends itself to great shape
variety. Smoothed coiling is an excellent and versatile low-tech method of achieving
a hollow product of uniform wall thickness. The results can have great presence and
visual appeal. (See the Postcard Booklet for varied examples of working with
smoothed coil techniques. In addition, Hans Coper’s work, which although partly
thrown on the pottery wheel, shows great awareness of both the vitality of the clay
surface and the use of form (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–60).
Pinch Pots
Pinch pots can be made by starting with a hand sized ball of clay. Then, insert your
thumbs into the centre of the ball and turn the ball round in the palm of one hand as
you squeeze between the thumb and fingers. These pots can be carefully shaped
with a knife and also combined in different configurations to make a range of forms.
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Moulding
You can press clay into any number of ready-made moulds, such as bowls or colanders, or
build it around tubes (use paper towels to stop clay from sticking to surfaces). Experiment
by adding grog or sand to your clay. Your forms can replicate the mould, or you can use the
mould to create basic forms, which you can refashion into irregular forms, for example, by
modelling, pinching, or providing differing rims and edges.
Clay and Pottery Finishing
As you can’t glaze for these low-temperature firings, add surface interest with
texture, by marking or scratching the surfaces. For slab building, roll out the clay on
rough surfaces and relief textures—for example, sacking, or corrugated,
geometrically perforated or expanded metal, or plastic.
Used Clay
Used clay, too stiff to work, should be dried naturally until it is brittle, then pounded
up and soaked in water to make it soft and plastic. At this point, it can be mixed
with dry clay and grog to the required consistency. To slice clay, use wire tied to
pieces of dowel, which act as handles.
Building a Kiln
A simple kiln for firing clay can be made at little or no cost, using old bricks and waste
sawdust, and you can build it in a corner of your garden or on waste ground. You will need
about twenty ordinary building bricks to make a small enclosure two bricks square and two
bricks deep (see illustration 4a). Leave an air hole in the front and use a loose brick to control
the intake. Pour in the sawdust to a depth of ten centimetres/four inches and embed the
dried clay forms in it five to eight centimetres/two to three inches apart. Pour more sawdust
over the pots and make another layer of pots and cover with more sawdust. Place four
bricks across the corners of the square to narrow the opening and top up with more
sawdust. Make a twist of newspaper and stick it in the top of the sawdust; light it to start the
sawdust smouldering (see illustration 4b). Place an old metal garbage can lid or sheet of
metal over the opening; smoke should slowly curl up through the gaps in the bricks.
If you are more ambitious, you can double the size of your brick kiln vertically, by
increasing the brick courses. But, remember, the larger the kiln, the more ventilation you
will require. Introduce pieces of tubing between bricks at least halfway up, and from
different directions. Sheets of wire mesh can be laid across between the bricks and layers of
pots, so that the objects don’t fall against each other as the fuel burns away. You can fire
such a kiln from the bottom, starting with wood kindling, wood chips, and wood shavings,
which can also be introduced as a sandwich halfway up the kiln. This will increase the
burning rate and cause differences of colour in the pots. Increase ventilation to complete the
firing by pulling out one or two bricks from the base of the kiln.
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Alternatively, you can make a clamp—that is, dig a hole in the ground. You will
require three or four pieces of metal tube placed in different directions, from outside
the rim down into the bottom of the hole. Start the fire with wood kindling, pour in
sawdust, and arrange the pot layers as before. Cover the pile with the original turf
and, if it rains, with a lid.
If you use a metal bin, be sure to create sufficient ventilation at the bottom for the
sawdust to burn completely.
Kiln Fuel
Your kiln can be whatever size you need, provided that each object to be fired is
surrounded by five to eight centimetres/two or three inches of slow-burning fuel. Sawdust
is a suitable fuel, to which you can add peat, leaves, dried grasses, and crumbled bark,
which burn at different rates, to produce variations of colour in your objects. In sawdust
firing, the clay must be heated to a minimum of 500°C to 600°C/932°F to 1052°F before the
structure of the clay changes from its plastic form to rigid pottery. A gently smouldering
sawdust heap will produce more heat than a domestic oven, and it is easy to make.
Enclose the sawdust to conserve heat and prevent draughts (don’t fan the fire too
much, or create rapid changes of temperature). Make your ventilation hole or holes
adjustable, and ensure that the fire burns gently, irrespective of any wind variations.
Drying and Firing
Objects should be allowed to dry for at least a week, until they no longer feel cool or
damp when placed against your cheek. Large sculptural heads may take much longer to
dry, even in the summer. No matter how thoroughly you dry clay objects in an even
atmosphere before firing, some moisture will remain. To remove it, and avoid the
possibility of the objects bursting under steam pressure, fire them for at least one hour at
100°C/212°F. Within about fourteen hours, the sawdust should slowly burn away and
the fire-hardened pots can be removed, still warm, from the ashes.
For this kind of simple firing, you will be using earthenware or pre-tested local clay.
You will not be able to glaze objects fired by this means; the temperature is too low
to produce the dense, even surface required. Stoneware and porcelain clays cannot
be used in a simple kiln. They are fired at 1200°C to 1350°F/2192°F to 2462°F, using
more sophisticated firing methods.
Depending on the clay used, objects fired in sawdust will be black or dark grey—
from the carbon in the smoke, or the iron in the clay—with patches of light grey, red,
or pink. When the atmosphere is less smoky, any iron in the clay will oxidize and
burn red with lighter variations. Lighter colours are also the result of more
ventilated areas in the kiln. By varying your fuel (as described above), you can
produce interesting colour variations.
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Remember the basics of firing: dry fuel, dry clay, hollow forms with air vents, and
slow heating and cooling. Objects expand as they are heated and contract as they
cool; they will crack if either process is conducted too rapidly.
If you have access to a kiln, you will need to let the clay dry for at least a week
before firing. Keep the temperature of the kiln at 100°C/212°F for at least an hour,
but preferably for three hours. Then, start raising the temperature in hourly intervals
in at least three steps, until the kiln temperature is at maximum. The kiln will need
an automatic shut-off for when it reaches sufficient temperature. You will need to
allow an equal length of time for the kiln to cool down.
Raku Firing
Raku firing is a process that provides remarkable results. In traditional raku firing,
pots are first biscuit-fired and allowed to cool. Glazes and decoration can be applied,
after which the pots are placed directly in a red-hot kiln. Within ten to twenty
minutes, the glazes will have melted and the pots can be withdrawn. At this point,
they are quenched in water and/or smothered in peat or sawdust and this process
further, and sometimes unpredictably, affects the colours.
However, for raku, you require a kiln that will burn cleanly and with consistent
temperatures of up to 1000°C/1832°F. Raku is truly one of the “arts of the fire,” an
intriguing combination of prepared form and creative accident. (For more details on
this and other methods of firing, consult your local library for resources.)
Student Projects
Although only nine students participated in this unit, each achieved a distinctive
and individual way of working. To cover a really comprehensive range, we would
have needed many more students.
Here is a list of methods of forming that the students employ and a brief comment
on their specific objectives.
Moulding
Brent takes impressions from the surface of wood with clay slabs and fashions a
replica of part of a wood log.
Also in this category are Ed’s clay extrusions; later, he goes on to build constructions.
Building
Kuan builds with bricks, learning to make cement and lay the bricks. To achieve a deep arch
form, or barrel vault, a week before the project was filmed, he built the bricks over half of an
empty metal drum, which was later withdrawn. The mortar needed time to set.
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Such a form suggests interesting variations. A similar form could be made up inside
the metal-drum mould, or the arch could be stood on end as a curved wall, and so
on. The piece could be a permanent feature of a garden or patio.
Kuan makes his piece rather amusing by including a model TV set made from half a
brick and a contrasting round natural stone. You could think of bricks built into
various containers, and combine other types and categories of material.
Modelling
Lisa is committed to modelling heads, the first a generalized male head, from
memory, and the second directly observed, of Cathy. Lisa makes an armature by
attaching wood crosspieces with wire to a substantial vertical post.
Cathy also chooses to model; she makes a small standing figure. It was Cathy’s first
attempt, and the armature she makes for her standing figure is rather frail. It could
be supported with an attachment to a standing post, or by simply running a piece of
three-millimetre/one-eighth inch wire from the back of the waist, out to a right angle
and down to the base and angled again to fasten it in position with a staple or two.
Construction
I have put David’s work into the construction category because he uses building
bricks and wood construction, rather than classifying it as an earthwork or
environment, which the upturned layers of grass sods might suggest.
Throwing
Oliver has had a little experience of throwing. The forms he produces are basically
geometric, developing into combinations of two-form pots. His finished work
includes a piece that has been raku-fired.
Lorraine has had no previous experience, except an introduction and demonstration
a week or so before we filmed the sequence. She, too, tries to produce a range of
forms (see illustration 5), and her combinations results in some interesting
relationships of formal thrown pots with more informal pieces (some quite organic)
attached. By adding some natural forms, she makes each piece reflect her particular
interest in collecting. Of course, these additions will be burnt away in the heat of the
kiln, but I’m sure that, given time, Lorraine will find ways to develop her idea.
Environmental
Geoff’s work, planned for an external environmental setting, combines earthwork
and construction (see illustration 6). The dark surface of rich, peaty loam will, of
course, change colour in time, but the other contrasts of cruciform grass—lawn,
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wood, and metal geometry—are well considered. They would be impressive on an
architectural scale. You will see how, in its final form, the work is successively
increased in scale.
Other Possibilities
Having more students would have allowed for more experimentation with small
forms, given more time in the studio. Certainly, it would have been possible to make
a whole range of equivalents for the figure without using armatures—particularly
lying, kneeling, sitting, and squatting figures. Working on subjects with such a sense
of mass—squeezing and pressing, moulding the clay in your hands—gives you the
opportunity to show your inventiveness by trying different interpretations and
equivalents for any one idea of a pose or character. These small subjects would also
be excellent for showing the expressive handling of the clay, developing the form
rather than the finish. Red terra cotta clay could work well for such a project.
Other possibilities not explored fully were some of the very oldest clay-forming
traditions: hand-forming “thumb” pots, and rolling clay into rings or lengths that are
then spiralled to form shapes. Clay can be formed in geometric shapes and then
pressed together with thumbs. Fingers or a wooden tool can be used to add
indigenous patterning. Clay forms can also be smoothed and decorated by painting,
but using the colour of the clay as the basis of the linear or area decoration. Coiled
pots can have multiple forms by a process of metamorphosis; begin with a circular
coil and gradually change the form until you end with a triangular form. Remember
to scrape and remove all coil marks so that the form shows through precisely and
clearly. You can reverse this, or end with a square. Think of how many permutations
you can draw and make. Also, invent any number of compound forms, combining
thrown and coiled forms. Remember that another early tradition was building with
slabs of clay, in relief or three dimensions.
Consider these various possibilities when you select your project, next, in
Assignment 8. Also, try to decide where you could use clay forms or other mass for
casting using gypsum plaster. Relief modelling can also be made more permanent
by casting.
Assignment 8: Earth
Introduction
For Assignment 8, you will complete one project only. Your chosen project must
include both experimentation and personal development.
Before you begin working on your assignment, read carefully through all of the
instructions for this assignment.
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Project Options
For this assignment, you are required to complete one project from the following six
options:
• Project 1: Moulding
OR
• Project 2: Coiling Pots
OR
• Project 3: Slab Building
OR
• Project 4: Simple Figure Modelling
OR
• Project 5: Portrait Head
OR
• Project 6: Environmental Project
Documentation
When you have completed your project, send in:
• Notebook drawings, diagrams, and descriptions outlining your objectives,
materials and methods
• One set of photographs or a video to document your experiments and a
second set of the same to document your personal developments
If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have completed this
assignment by the end of Week 10. We recommend that you wait till you have
completed the next assignment and then send in Assignments 8 and 9 in one batch.
Instructions
Project 1: Moulding
1. Experiment with the plasticity of your clay: roll it out, make marks in it, tear
it and cut it up. Select pre-made forms—round and square tubes, balls, bowls,
etc. as the basis for a series of clay forms. If the objects are metal, you may
need to line them with newspaper, so that the clay will release from the
object, when you remove it. Consider joining several forms together to make
larger more complex forms. Try these out with different combinations, or
modify the shapes after you have joined them together, adding and
subtracting clay as you need to.
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2. Determine the size of the form relative to the thickness of your material.
3. Consider the scale. Begin with relatively small forms, and then increase particular
forms to the scale you want. You may make a series of containers or display units,
or a series of forms in association with another material. Respond to the character of
the clay and change it when necessary by adding sand or grog.
Project 2: Coiling Pots
1. Roll out lengths of clay as a preliminary for making coiled pots.
2. Experiment with different diameters of clay and make some small
experimental forms. Vary the way you fashion the pot, building out from the
centre of the base. Join and fuse the coils to present a continuous surface
suitable for incised, scratched, and pressed decoration. When you are
confident about the basic process, move on to the next step.
3. Carry out a series of smoothed coiled pots; create variations on a theme of
your choice or make a series in which the top and the bottom of the pot have
a radically different shape. The form of the pot will metamorphose in the
process of building; e.g., circular base to triangular top and/or the reverse;
circular base to square top and/or the reverse; triangular base to square top
and/or reverse.
4. Remember to smooth out the coils so that you can define the form. Make a vase or
large bowl. Avoid leaving any coils showing. If you were to leave the coils showing
(an elementary school cliché), you would be leaving the pot unfinished and
preventing yourself working accurately with form and lines of your work. You can
draw a silhouette of the form you want, and then as you are working, check the
sides of the form to make sure the profile you want is emerging. Scraping back the
sides or adding clay will allow you to fill in hollows or smooth out bumps, until you
have the exact profile, lip and base you want. (See Egyptian and Mimbres coiled
pots and bowls Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–045 and –046).
Project 3: Slab Building
1. Experiment with clay building using slabs. First, roll out a sheet of clay; not too
thick. Experiment with fastening the pieces you cut from the sheet, working first
with flat rectangular slab and strips. Then, try other simple shapes. Give some
thought to shape and proportion, particularly when dealing with geometric
forms. See the supplementary video for a demonstration of slab building. Also,
experiment with the texture or consistency of the clay, its surface character and
texture. Roll out your clay on different materials, such as hessian, jut, wood, and
corrugated material. Try curved slab forms. See also Elisabeth Fritsch’s work in
the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–067.
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2. From these experiments, let your ideas grow toward personal development
of one or more final products. Piercing, patterning, scratching, or carving into
the clay to make patterns and decoration is optional.
Project 4: Simple Figure Modelling
1. Using clay without armatures, make a series of small (longest dimension,
fifteen centimetres/six inches) modelled forms based on the human figure.
Use a mirror or a friend to check proportions, and overall shapes, etcetera.
Work experimentally and not necessarily realistically. You may take the
opportunity to look at how various peoples and civilizations have used clay
to deal with the human figure. In the Postcard Booklet, see both the Neolithic
female figures (TRU OL–048) and Kiki Smith’s contemporary sculpture in
porcelain Woman with Owl (TRU OL–72).
2. Without armatures, certain poses are difficult to achieve. You will find that
“self-contained” positions (kneeling, squatting, reclining) and seated figures
provide many possibilities. This project is a test of your personal
inventiveness more than an essay in finished products
If you want to make larger figures, you can use sponges or twists of newspaper to
provide a simple external armature and to support the clay as it dries. Alternatively,
carry out this assignment as indicated above, but use animals as your subject matter.
Project 5: Portrait Head
1. Make an armature suitable for a life-size head. Use a strong wooden board as
the base and a vertical wooden post, to which you can fasten wire with cross-
pieces or “butterflies” to hold the clay in place. Or, you can attach thick wire
directly to the post. Or, instead, you can use a newspaper core as
demonstrated in the supplementary videos. Wrap slabs of clay around a
preformed newspaper head and then model the basic shape of the head
before addressing the features. If you intend to fire the head in a kiln later,
you will need to make a hole in the base of the head to allow hot gases to
escape. Without an escape hole, the gases will explode your work.
2. Build up the clay to make a portrait modelled directly from your chosen
model. Do a series of preliminary drawings from a few points of view—
profile, three-quarters, front and back, etcetera—until you have acquired a
basic response to, and understanding of, the character of the subject. When
modelling, keep moving around the model. Try to work over the whole form,
modelling the main planes, curved and flat, before starting in on particular
parts. Feel and use the plasticity of the clay, and model and carve, rebuilding
and remodelling when necessary. You are dealing with a live subject; your
hands and eyes must also be alive.
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Project 6: Environmental Project
1. If you have a convenient garden or patio space or access to a piece of waste
ground, you may prefer to do an environmental or site project.
2. First, consider the site. Pace it, look at it from different points of view, feel the
surface, and think of its possibilities and its characteristics. Is it flat or does it
already have a particular form? What is it composed of? Is it soil, and, if so, of
what type? Does it contain stones or roots? The quality of the earth is
important—you may have to move some as well as dig it.
3. Consider the scale of your operation. Don’t be too ambitious; think of the
time involved.
4. Plan to use any aspect of naturally existing features—turf, rocks, etcetera—
but make earth the dominant material. You may use “soft” or “hard” earth.
You may consider the project as a garden in the widest sense, but it must be
unique.
5. Alternatively, you can present your project as a new, environmental format.
Bricks (which are fired earth) or clay may also be incorporated as a built
feature of your structured earth project.
Notes on the Reproductions
The following are shown on DVD 5 in the video Earth and/or in the Postcard
Booklet.
Female idols. Paleolithic.
Clay; 22.8 and 20.32 cm high.
Moravske Museum, Brno, Czechoslovakia.
These Palaeolithic clay female figurines found in the Danube Valley are probably
derived from pre-classical works from the eastern Mediterranean islands—though it
is somehow fitting that the earth mother, which they represent, was made from the
clay of central Europe rather that the marble used in Cyclades. The small figurines
are highly stylized: the breasts are clearly indicated; the hips and thighs are
emphasized and exaggerated. The legs of one are quite thick stumps; the other’s are
more gracefully tapered. The characteristic arm gesture is simply a lateral axis in one
and an angular variant in the other. The heads are only simply indicated, but there
seems to have been some attempt at changing the surface texture on the more
developed figure. So I wouldn’t be surprised if some of these mother-goddesses
were further decorated with pigment, like painted Moravian pottery.
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Hydria of the “Painter of Madrid” vase. Greek. Circa 5th–4th Centuries BCE.
Black figures on a red ground.
Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid, Spain.
The gifted inhabitants of the Attic Peninsula in Greece—particularly in Athens—
from the sixth to the fourth centuries BCE produced an abundance of art of
extremely high quality. Their genius in working in three dimensions and in various
materials, notably metal and stone, was to have a far-reaching effect on the rest of
the world. Exekios and other first-rank masters evolved a wide range of clay pottery
forms, which came to dominate the market in Greece and elsewhere. Governed by
the prevailing system of proportion and a commitment to technical perfection, the
pots were made of high quality red clay and decorated with an excellent black glaze.
This hydria, or water jar, of black figures on a red clay ground by upper and lower
friezes of animals and incidents, with variations of scale in the decorative forms.
Later painters replaced the black figure technique by the reverse process (known as
red figure) in which the figures appeared in red clay against the black-glazed ground.
In both styles, elegant design and dynamic draughtsmanship supported real or
mythological subject matter.
Farm in Northern Ghana.
Clay dwellings.
Photo: Gert Chesi.
The village was, and still is, the nucleus of African civilization. Whether built of mud
and earth, rock, branches or grass, the buildings always seem to grow from the
ground, like natural forms in the landscape. The villages also embody the cultural
traditions, as you can see in the special forming and decoration of these buildings.
With their thick earthen walls they provide insulation against high and low
temperatures. The beautifully curved forms of red earth have the great formal
strength reminiscent of shells or good hand-formed pottery, and, like pottery, have
been fired—but only by the sun. The black and white geometric decoration seems to
be stretched in tension around the curve of the forms and the large pot in the tension
around the curve of the forms and the large pot in the foreground further suggests
the significance of the round form in this culture. Also, the use of the materials
shows how the village was responding to the particular resources of the
environment, remaining as self-sufficient as possible.
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West African wall structure.
Deteriorating wall of bamboo fibres, palm fronds, and mud.
This detail of a deteriorating West African wall reveals the interior structure. It is a
typical combination of earth particles and water, making mud, which was applied to
a structure of fibrous lengths of tied bamboo and palm fronds. Compare this with
modern metal-reinforced concrete.
Chinese tea pot. Circa 18th Century.
I-Hsing Ware.
By courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
In Neolithic cultures, the most ancient art was pottery. Perhaps only China had the privilege
of a genuinely artistic Neolithic civilization; it produced magnificent, highly decorated
painted pottery. However, when I first saw this teapot, made much later in seventeenth-to-
eighteenth-century China, I couldn’t help but mentally relate its powerful dark form to
those earlier Neolithic wares in black and grey. The design problem—how to relate the
large central volume to the smaller additional forms of handle and spout—is still with us.
The artist has achieved a very satisfying sculptural unity by surmounting the large basic
ovoid with a hemispherical lid, topped by a small spherical form for lifting easily with two
fingers. But it is the almost black, basalt-like density of the surface that gives theses complex
forms such unified and related contours. (Incidentally, China gave us porcelain and
chinaware, exporting great quantities to Europe, where the cult of Chinoiserie greatly
influenced taste in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries).
Aislabie, John. English garden at Studley Royal. Circa 1720.
287.5 hectares (710 acres).
North Yorkshire, England.
Great English gardens are usually a combination of lawns and grass with water,
trees and shrubs. They reflect the change from the symmetrical geometry of Italian
and French gardens to a picturesque “natural” irregularity. The new view of nature
was of a gentle pastoral world in which rude nature is subtly reorganized. This
required a perfect knowledge of the land and the objects in it (whether natural or
artificial) and infinite patience in planting and maintenance. Studley Royal was laid
out by Aislabie in the 1720s; his design included straight-sided canals and water
gardens of circular and crescent ponds that were flanked by classical temples (in the
Claudian manner). This asymmetrical landscape was set in a valley near the visible
Gothic ruins of Fountains Abbey, which became the focal point of the valley. In the
early nineteenth century, Studley Royal was considered “one of the most spectacular
scenic compositions” in England.
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Shigemori, Mirei. Japanese garden, dry-landscape garden. 1939–1963.
Earth, rocks, plants.
Tofukuoji Temple, Kyoto.
This Japanese garden was laid out and altered by Shigemori relatively recently,
between 1939 and 1963. The garden—an example of dry-landscape gardening—
continues a great tradition of Japanese art (seen today in the preserved masterpieces
of Ryoanji, Katsurarikyu, and Tenryuji). The artist usually had in mind the
experience of an actual landscape; drawings would often show the landscape used
as a model for a small landscape garden. Although greatly reduced in scale, the
garden would still be monumental in form. In the Japanese garden, the
representation of landscape is both abstracted and reduced to essentials. It is
artistically concentrated, by intuition and by tradition, and involves the
transposition of material and idea into a new artistic form. Rocks thrust upward, as
if projecting part of the earth’s crust through the soil. Or they are surrounded by
raked sand and pebble particles, like islands in an ocean bay.
Citrus plantation.
Morphou, Cyprus.
Photo: George Gerster.
The citrus orchards of the Mesaoria, a fertile depression between the mountain ranges of
Cyprus in the Eastern Mediterranean, are here seen from the air. Their pattern lies over the
land like the gridding of a modern city—an imposition of rectangles on the landscape.
Dark, deep patterns of green or younger sunlit forms glow against the deep reds of the
earth. From this position, the orchards reveal the conquest of nature by geometry—
civilization as subjugation. For all its formal strengths (like a well-organized abstract
painting by Paul Klee) one wonders how vulnerable such an imposition would be to the
elements; however, well-grown trees provide their own wind break.
Vegetable field in the New Territories.
Hong Kong.
Photo: George Gerster.
A rather different scene from the last—again viewed from above—is this agricultural
landscape in Hong Kong. Here the geometry of the fields exists within the natural
conformation of the land. Chinese Taoist philosophy requires that one should
understand nature and be ready to compromise with it, to adapt to it. Agriculture is
seen as a way to cosmic harmony. The straight line is considered to be soulless and
geometry godless; hence, the paths around the upper ground and the flow of
watercourses fit naturally into the landscape. Not resistance, nor imposition, but
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adaptation was the guarantor of good fortune. Natural irregularities could be
combined with organization, so fluid natural boundaries contain the well-
marshalled battalions of growth in the inevitable geometric pattern of planting.
Morris, Robert. Earthwork. 1968.
Mixed media: earth, peat, brick, steel, felt, copper, aluminum, brass, grease; 6.1 x
7.62 m.
Exhibition installation.
© ARS New York, 1991.
This earthwork, the first of its kind, was shown at the Virginia Dwan Gallery in New York
in 1968. The artist referred to it as a spread of substances or things that are clearly marked
off from the rest of the environment; there is no confusion about where the work stops. In
this sense, the work is discrete but not object-like. It is one of those works made when
sculptors were tending to react against the making of single sculptural objects. At the same
time, it is a first attempt to relate what the artist was doing on a site by making a “non-site”
work in the gallery. The earth is the subject—not simply a ground or base, a resting place
for objects—and Morris does add other materials (which tend to be fragmentary or linear,
becoming part of, not interrupting, the form of the mass. The thin rods and wire are spatial
forms that penetrate the mass while contrasting with it. Can you smell the pungent earth?
Later, Morris filled most of the available gallery space with earth, altering it every day,
subtracting elements until at the end of the show nothing was left but a series of
photographs of the work in progress.
Smithson, Robert. Spiral Jetty. 1970. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–047)
Rock, salt crystals, earth, water; 457 m long.
Great Salt Lake, Utah.
Photo: Gianfranco Gorgoni.
Aerial view photo: George Gerster.
Smithson created large-scale excavations and earthworks. Using the earth as both
material and subject, he fashioned a new landscape—here, he moved material on a
large scale and placed it in a completely different context: water. He virtually
extends the land mass by a linear spiral into the waters of the lake. Although the
construction is planned and predetermined, the spiral mathematically correct, the
material appears as it was taken and unloaded. It is rather informally disposed,
containing earth, sand, stones and rocks of various sizes. The process of moving and
unloading builds the spiral road, so that this environmental form is a quite immense
synthesis of material, space, significant form and the imaginative power of the
artist—not forgetting the physical manpower and equipment required to make it.
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You saw the architectural use of the spiral in mass, in Frank Lloyd Wright’s
Guggenheim Museum, and this counterpart in earth links water and space. The
spiral is universal: it is drawn by children, used by indigenous peoples, and
logarithmic spirals are the bases of many forms in nature.
It is also interesting to see that water algae have concentrated around this new home
and coloured the water red.
Butterfield, Deborah. Horse No. 1. 1983.
Red mud, branches, sticks, metal armature; 218.4 x 346.4 x 94 cm.
Butterfield’s horse is made of red mud over an armature of steel and chicken wire.
The sticks, branches and mud emulate the basic structure of the horse’s body and
stance without recourse to precise anatomy. The work is eminently recognizable as a
horse—even if it couldn’t take its place on the Parthenon. Its rough abstraction and
the seemingly perfunctory application of some of the materials give it a primeval
appearance.
From the ordinary workhorse to Alexander the Great’s warhorse Bucephalus, horses
have great significance and many associations for us. The artist provides us with an
icon that is loaded with metaphor and meaning.
Smith, Kiki. Woman with Owl. 2004. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–072)
Porcelain clay; 9.25 × 8.25 × 3 inches. Edition of 24.
Smith’s work has been primarily concerned with the human body. In Woman with
Owl, she has carefully defined the female figure and a very large owl, so that we
become aware of both the weight of the owl and the seriousness with which the
woman regards her task in carrying the bird. We are invited to participate in a
mythological and symbolic event as though we are participating in a shared dream.
Smith has used the spaces between the owl and the woman as part of her
composition.
Coper, Hans. Large Spade Form. 1978. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–060)
Clay thrown on pottery wheel and modified by hand.
Coper developed his work from his control and skill in wheel thrown pottery. His
interest moved towards flattened sculptural forms that relate to vessels and vases
but function as objects of expression rather than utilitarian pottery. He has used the
spontaneous nature of wheel thrown pottery—there is only one chance at a time to
get a particular wheel thrown pot to work. Then, he has added another form—the
base and joined to the flattened top. The clean, spontaneous, precise lines and
carefully rounded and flattened forms and the mat surface all contribute to a
singular sculptural clay form of great presence.
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Fritsch, Elizabeth. Optical Pot. 1980. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–067)
Clay form, made from slabs, hand painted with glaze.
In this example of Fritsch’s work, both the flattened vase form and the painting on
the surface hover between two and three dimensions. Her work shows her precise
and patient control over her material, hand-built form, and glaze painting on the
flattened surface. At the same time, Optical Pot has a playful lightness and rhythm
about it. Fritsch has taken great care to smooth the clay so that both the surface and
the profile of the pot are without any distracting bumps or hollows. This allows the
viewer respond to the presence and form of the pot and the geometry and rhythms
of the glazed surface.
Recommended Resources
Eliscu, Frank. Sculpture: Techniques in Clay, Wax, Slate. Philadelphia: Chilton, 1959. Print.
This is an older book, but contains an excellent section on working with clay,
which provides detailed, clear directions on how to use various techniques.
Contains photos of processes by Conrad Brown.
Komatsu, Eiko, Athena Steen, and Bill Steen. Built by Hand: Vernacular Buildings
Around the World. Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 2003. Print.
Buildings made by hand. A wonderful testament to the creativity and ingenuity
of people all over the world who use available materials such as earth and stone
to make their dwelling places. The book contains many fine examples of the use
of earth to create dwellings in surprising and functional forms, including large
multi-storey buildings. (May be available in the public library system).
Peterson, Susan. Working with Clay: An Introduction. New York: Overlook Press, 1998. Print.
A well-produced book with many photographs, showing a wide range of
techniques of working in clay and good examples of finished work.
Additional Resources
Internet
Hans Coper: Search Google Images.
Very finely worked and dynamic ceramic forms. Coper’s work was frequently
made to stretch the possibilities of a vase form.
Lucy Rie: Search Google Images.
Subtle and very thin, fine work thrown on the wheel. Very carefully incised and
decorated.
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Online or Community Library Reference Texts
• The Larousse Encyclopedia of Earth (1965)—a marvellous book that covers all
aspects of its subject, past, and present
• Any texts on working with clay, landscaping, soil, and stone
• Collier’s Encyclopedia
• Encyclopedia Americana
• New Encyclopedia Britannica
• The World Book Encyclopedia
List of Illustrations
1. Soil profile showing horizons. From computer animation by Jeanie Sundland.
2. Fundamental geometric forms, basic to pottery. From computer animation by E.
John Love.
3. Tiles and tessellations. From computer animations by E. John Love.
4. Making a sawdust firing kiln. Computer drawing by E. John Love.
5. Notebook drawings of built and thrown pot forms. Lorraine Yabuki.
6. Notebook drawings on earth installation. Geoffrey Topham
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Faculty of Arts
Unit 9:
Liquid
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U9-1
Unit 9: Liquid
Introduction
Note: DVD 5 includes the video program Liquid to accompany Unit 9.
Water is the liquid that we will explore in this unit.
Water is vital to all life. Fortunately for us, it covers nearly three-quarters of the Earth’s
surface. It fills the vast ocean beds, where the first forms of life on earth grew. This life-
sustaining liquid makes up most of the animal blood and plant sap that nourishes living
tissue. Water is a major constituent of living matter, accounting for fifty to ninety per
cent of the weight of living organisms. Your body is about sixty per cent water, which,
as part of your blood, circulates nutrients and disposes of waste materials. A chicken is
about seventy per cent water and a pineapple about eighty per cent.
Sources, Properties, and Composition of Water
Sources of Water: The Hydrologic Cycle
Water is never used up. It constantly recirculates, replenishing the earth. When you
drink a glass of water, you may be drinking the same molecules that gave refreshment
to your ancestors. However, because of geography, vegetation, and climatic conditions,
rain does not fall evenly throughout the world. There are droughts, which cause deserts,
or too much precipitation, which causes destructive floods.
The original cycle of water was the result of hydrogen and oxygen being among the
gases when the earth was forming. When the earth began to cool, atoms of these two
gases joined to form water. The earth was still too hot for water to exist as a liquid,
so steam cooled to form thick clouds. Finally, the earth cooled sufficiently for some
water to remain liquid, and vast amounts of water vapour in the clouds condensed
and fell to the earth as rain. Depressions in the earth’s surface were gradually filled
with water, and the shaping of the oceans and continents began.
This water—or hydrologic—cycle involves continuous evaporation of ocean, river, and lake
water, and even of moisture from the soil, by the sun. Therefore, an immense amount of
water is always suspended in the atmosphere in the form of vapour, which is blown by
winds across the sea and land. As water vapour is lighter than air, moist air is less dense
than dry air at the same temperature. Some of the water vapour forms clouds that—when
they accumulate more water vapour than they can hold—return the moisture to earth as
rain or snow. Sun, air, water, and gravity keep the water cycle continuous. Other factors
that affect the cycle are the transpiration of water by plants and the condensation of water
vapour by cold air (see illustrations 1 and 2).
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The precipitation of water by gravity returns water not only directly to the oceans
but also to the earth, which acts as a giant sieve. Some moisture stops on the surface
for a time and disperses as surface run-off. Other water permeates through the
ground until it meets rock and can go no further. It is known as ground water and is
the source of water from wells. The topmost level of groundwater is called the
“water-table.”
The hydrologic cycle causes geographic changes. The sea continuously erodes the
land, and rain beats down on it, washing soil into rivers and cliffs into the sea. The
cycle also keeps the earth’s climate from getting too hot or too cold—and it regulates
our own body temperatures.
It’s as well that the hydrologic cycle is continuous—but even this won’t be much use
if we continue to contaminate the atmosphere. Fresh, pure water is infinitely
precious. A human being requires about 11 litres (2.5 gallons) of water per day to
maintain bodily tissues; but, for other needs, we each use up to 225 litres (50 gallons)
daily. As water becomes increasingly scarce, water treatment plants must clean and
chlorinate our supplies. This most common substance on the earth is an absolute
necessity in our lives, and we really take it too much for granted. Let’s consider it
something to celebrate and try to use it sparingly and creatively.
Before looking at ways of working with water, consider how others have used and
are still using water, first for predominantly utilitarian purposes—as a tool—and
then creatively.
Properties of Water
Water, along with other liquids, is one of the three states in which matter exists. The
other two are solid and gaseous. A liquid resembles a gas more than a solid because
its molecules are not fixed to each other in a rigid pattern. They are, however, not as
free as in the gaseous condition; there is sufficient attraction in liquid molecules to
keep them loosely together. Like a solid, liquid has a definite volume, but, unlike a
solid, it has no shape of its own. A pint of water will change its shape when poured
from a glass into a bowl, but the volume remains the same. Conversely, a gas will
expand to fill the complete volume of its container.
At a given temperature or pressure, a substance will be in solid, liquid, or gaseous
form. For example, water transforms with changes of temperature. If it is heated
beyond boiling point, it changes into steam—a gaseous condition; if cooled below
freezing point, it changes to ice—a solid. It is significant that water freezes from the
surface downwards, that ice is lighter than water and, in this solid form, floats. Ice,
and water in its other intermediate solid states—snow and frost—crystallizes in the
hexagonal system.
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As a liquid, water also seeks its own level, on a horizontal plane. Think of the
surface of the sea, or a bowl you fill with water. If you fill a watering can, the level in
both of the can and in the spout will be the same.
The surface of water has a tension caused by the molecular structure, which acts like skin.
This is called surface tension, and it helps things float. Try putting a greased pin or needle on
a settled surface of water and you’ll see that it will rest on the surface instead of sinking.
A most valuable property of water is its capacity to dissolve a wide variety of
substances. Given time and specific conditions, nearly all known substances will
dissolve in water to some extent—hence, its name of “universal solvent.” Consider
how valuable this single property has been to artists, who have used water as a
medium and vehicle by mixing it with pigments and dyes.
Composition of Water
Ancient philosophers believed water to be a basic element, and it wasn’t until the
late eighteenth century that water was proved to be a compound, containing two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen; thus, its chemical formula: H₂O.
Pure water is odourless and tasteless. It may be perceived as possessing a tinge of
colour when in large volumes or because of light and reflected colour.
Seawater contains as much as three per cent sodium chloride—so is described as
“salt water,” or saline. Sea salts vary considerably and can include calcium, iodine
(which you can often smell), bromine, sodium, and magnesium.
Other waters are called “fresh” (but seldom are), and some waters near marshes and bogs
are “brackish”; that is, somewhat saline. Minerals colour water as well as provide different
tastes, depending on local geology. Spring waters have been exploited for their medicinal
values at spas. Rainwater in industrial areas may contain oxides of nitrogen ammonia,
sulphurous gases, and other contaminants that produce so-called “acid rain.”
Water contains various organic compounds, which are derived from decaying matter. As
you will see illustrated in the video program, numerous micro-organisms (living varieties of
protozoa and insects) as well as vegetable forms (diatoms and bacteria) exist in water.
Water in History
Great civilizations have risen where water was plentiful and have fallen when the
rains failed. Early humans worshipped rain gods—maybe some farmers still do,
praying for rain for their crops. We have learned to exploit water and use it as a
tool—to irrigate land; to move it for use first by aqueducts and later via modern
piping systems; to harness it to turn turbines to produce our light and heat; and to
transform it by processing it in desalination plants.
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Artificial Waterways
Canals and aqueducts are artificial waterways constructed for navigation, irrigation and
drainage. Canals have been used since the earliest times, in early Babylon, India, Egypt
and China. If you had water resources like the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, for example,
it was very useful to connect them. Ship canals were used to connect inland centres to
lakes or the sea; others—notably the Suez and Panama canals—to connect seas with
oceans. Roman engineers created aqueducts, such as the one in Nimes, France, built in
14 CE. Its channel is supported by three tiers of arches of stone blocks, 259 metres/850
feet long and 55 metres/180 feet above the River Gard. There is a similar masterpiece in
Segovia, Spain (see the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–049).
Canals required level stretches with locks to raise and lower the water level as the
altitude increases or decreases. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the
Industrial Revolution stimulated the development of a vast network of barge canals.
Alongside them, horse-drawn barges moved between cities and ports. Such canals
are still used in some countries, though now they are plied by tugs and tow-boats
that push or pull trains of up to forty barges.
Steam Energy
Formulation of new scientific and engineering principles led to the invention of
many efficient industrial devices and machines.
During the nineteenth century, steam (water in hot vapour state) engineering and
the steam engine made possible the trains that largely replaced water canals as a
means of transportation. Steam became an important component of engineering
technology. The steam engine transformed the heat energy of steam into mechanical
energy, by allowing the steam to expand and cool in a cylinder equipped with a
movable piston that could drive an engine. Steam turbines—a further exploitation of
steam—harnessed the energy of steam flow. In a turbine, high pressure steam strikes
a series of curved blades situated around a revolving wheel, or drum, and turns it.
The steam engine was the first important development in the use of water since the
water wheel—and that was in use when the pyramids were being built.
Hydraulics
Hydraulics is the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices that make
use of liquid—sometimes oil, but usually water. The flow of liquid can be controlled
through pipes and channels, storage dams, pumps, and water turbines. Hydraulic
presses, brakes, nozzles, valves, and jets are other methods for the control of liquid.
Jacks and other lifts for heavy loads are based on hydraulics development for use in
the construction industry.
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Life Support/Enhancement
Water has long provided some people with a living and others with leisure.
Commercial and sport fishing in the world’s oceans; swimming for relaxation and
diving for pearls; transporting oil by tanker and skiers by powerboat—there are
hundreds of examples.
Water attracted earth’s earliest human residents. For example, the “cradle of
humankind” where Stone Age life developed is a site on Lake Rudolph in Northern
Kenya. Think of the cities of the world that have been built on the banks of rivers:
Rome, Paris, and London, for a start. On the northeast coast of what is now Italy,
people from the mainland decided to build Venice on the waters of the Adriatic. In a
lagoon, they created a unique city, a place of visual enchantment and continuous
magic: a work of art in itself. Other cities, such as Amsterdam, Stockholm and
Leningrad, have tried to pattern themselves to some extent on the Venetian model.
Water in Art
Historically, the principal use of water in relation to the arts is in fountains. The
great Renaissance and Baroque villas of Italy used fountains to marvellous effect,
spouting water in intricately related streams and jets. Fountains were also traditional
in Persian and Arab architecture, like the fountain in the centre of the Alhambra,
palace of the Moorish kings in Spain (see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–050).
Ornamental pools are universal—what would the Taj Mahal be without its reflecting
pools (See Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–051), or the lesser-known river behind the
palace?
However, it was in France, at the palace and gardens of Versailles, that water was
most effectively used. The mile-long Grand Canal and magnificent fountains with
sculpted figures are supplied by a water system that is almost 160 kilometres/100
miles long. Peter the Great of Russia was inspired by Versailles to construct (at his
own palace, the Peterhof) a tiered Grand Cascade, ornamented with gilded statuary,
which spouted and flowed down the Gulf of Finland.
On the video program, you will see how liquid has been used by contemporary
artists. Water has not been a primary material for artists, but a few have used it very
effectively. Isamu Noguchi, in particular, has shown us the power and beauty of
water, using it with discretion and sensitivity in his sculptural gardens and
environments.
German artist Hans Haacke also responds to water—often with ecological and social
concern, as in his Rhine Water Installation, which used Rhine water, fish, pumps and
plastic containers. In other works, he has used refrigeration units to make relatively
permanent ice forms.
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Michael Singer uses water for the format of constructions, as in his First Gate Ritual
Series, which involves wood frameworks on rock supports, in and over the waters of
woodland pool.
Past students of mine have used water in many ways. One used water with foaming
liquid detergents. He made a glass box that, when automatically filled with foam,
activated the interior sculpture, an octopus-like form whose flaying appendages
spurted water and washed the interior down before the cycle began again. In
another work, three shiny black spheres, mounted one on top of the other (a hard
piece of sculpture) were gradually covered with soft foam that flowed out of the top
of the sculpture, gradually obscuring the whole work with glittering froth. Other
students combined sculptural forms and constructions—particularly blown-glass
industrial forms—on water.
• Sculpture and environmental projects in the future will undoubtedly often
make use of natural forces and phenomena, and particularly water. Andy
Goldsworthy has produced many inventive and inspiring examples of using
water, snow and ice. (Look online for the video Rivers and Tides about
Goldsworthy’s work with water). The energy of tides, rivers and streams is
readily available and every form of liquid can be used, from ice and snow to
the sea.
• One student made wooden frame boxes, lined them with translucent paper,
showing her own photographs of waves. She then placed tea lights inside
them and documented the event, as she floated the boxes at night, moving
through the dark, on the waves of the sea.
Many combinations of water with mechanical and electronic machines are
possible—for example, small electrically powered units to drive waterborne forms.
Using water to make art depends on the artist’s abilities and preferences, and also on
a willingness to experiment and explore. Even traditional watercolours can be
rejuvenated in new contexts and relationships with various materials.
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Language of Water
Consider the following table of terms that are associated with water. These terms
may help you to think of possibilities for working with water in your assignment.
Some of these terms are in the Glossary.
absorption atomizing atmosphere
capillary action cohesion colour
cooling corrosion dispersion
dissolving distillation dyes
evaporation environment fire
fishing flotation fountain
freezing frost glass
gravity growing heating
hoses ice melting
Mylar oil pumps
rain reflections siphon
snow solutions spiral
sprays steam suspensions
transparency translucent vapour
vibration viscosity
When you do begin your work with liquid, start with a direct and intuitive response
that involves physical contact, as you have with all the other materials you’ve
learned about so far in this course Try spraying, splashing, moving the water,
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shining lights through it, making the water as flat and calm as possible. Try freezing
water soaked cloth into different configurations, and so on. Even something as
simple as placing a stick into water and looking at the distortion of the image may
give you ideas. Children provide a wonderful example. Playing in the bathtub, they
come to appreciate that certain things will float. They learn how to fill containers
and pour water, which gives them a measure of confidence with the material. They
like to smack the surface of the water with their flat hands: it makes a splash and a
sound!
Student Projects
In their improvisations, the students respond to memory triggers and to the
activation of sensory and psychological cues. To be creative with the medium,
however, they must go well beyond an intuitive response and focus on the specific
properties and characteristics of water.
Lisa begins by packing dyed water in thin plastic material. The colours are related in
various ways—complementary, harmonic—but are generally intuitive. Her final
work is made up of plastic bags that are partially filled with controlled mixtures of
transparent colour and tone, and presented in a logical sequence on a wall panel.
Lorraine’s initial experiments are with opaque-coloured liquid: water plus well-
mixed powder colour. Transparent bags containing violet, red, and orange are
suspended over containers of yellow, green, and blue. The bases of the bags are
punctured and the colours dripped into their complementary counterparts to create
colour greys (see illustration 3). Her final work is a series of partitioned trays filled
with transparent dyes. Two or three trays are overlaid, creating fascinating and
changing colour relationships (see illustration 4).
Adrian siphons liquids down through a sequence of stepped glass containers,
connected by transparent plastic tubing that held oil and coloured water. In the
process, both the viscosity and colours change. The final movement is through the
branches of a white-painted tree.
Oliver begins by researching vibration patterns, first using an electric drill held in a
vice, on which shallow metal trays of water vibrate. He follows this by using two
drills with wire attachments to make concentrate patterns in the water. Finally, he
simulates and makes wave motions of varying speeds (see illustration 5).
Brent explores relationships of coloured water and other materials, using a series of
related trays. He draws on the various qualities of glass, mirror, and stone—
particularly in relation to substance and light.
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Cathy begins with research into viscosity, using water, dye, glycerine, and
cornstarch packaged in test tubes inverted in a dish. Her personal development
explores the range of transparency, opacity, suspension and viscosity in long
transparent plastic tubes, forming a suspended screen.
Geoff clearly has a concept relating to ecological concerns. In a water-filled tray
(polythene wrapped around a wooden frame), he pours sand, dust, gravel, and oil.
To this sludge (which included some natural colour effects), he adds a series of
inflated plastic bags containing imagery and various sociological and ecological
messages.
David prepares a series of sound structures: coloured bells, chromium-plated tubes,
and bamboo clappers (leftovers from Kuan’s previous bamboo structure). These are
later attached in a line and powered by a water wheel. A long steel rod makes a
flowing wave movement and activates the sequence of sounds.
Daryl volunteers to work with mini-fountains. Using a tank of water with rocks, he
experiments with various jets and pierced rubber tubing, ending up with five forms
of jets, sprays, and falling water (see illustration 6).
Note: Because of the difficulties of creating installations with water in the
studio, we went outdoors for this program. First, we spent some time
improvising in the children’s waterpark; then, in the large pool, we combined
forces on a project dealing with aspects and forms of flotation.
Assignment 9: Liquid
Introduction
At this late stage in the course, I suggest that you set your own assignment for this
unit. However, if you do not come up with an idea after you have carried out your
hands-on exploration, consult the Recommended Resources at the end of this unit,
and, after putting in some serious thought, select one project from the options below.
You will find detailed instructions on how to complete each project option in the
following pages. As usual, document the process.
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Project Options
For this assignment, you are required to complete one project:
• Project 1: Water Tray
OR
• Project 2: Water Containers
OR
• Project 3: Water Power
OR
• Project 4: Water and Colour
OR
• Project 5: Moving Water
OR
• Project 6: Water Sculpture—Flotation
Documentation and Notebook
When you have completed your assignment, you should send in documentation of
both your research and personal developments, including:
• Your Notebook work, showing your drawings or diagrams and descriptions
of the development of your ideas through both phases
• A set of photographs or video that demonstrates your research and the
evolution of your personal development
Note: If you are following the Suggested Schedule, you should have
completed this assignment by the end of Week 11. We recommend that you
send in Assignments 8 and 9 in one batch.
Project 1: Water Tray
Make a water tray. Take four wooden boards and fasten them together at the corners
to a board, considerably larger than a tea tray, to make the sides of a large, tray. Line
this with polyethylene sheet—white, translucent, transparent, or black, according to
the requirements of your project. Experiment on a small scale with various materials
that exploit water, mirrors, found objects, and cut and constructed forms, and then
develop these ideas into a project using the tray as a whole. Or, transfer your ideas
to include the bathtub.
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Project 2: Water Containers
Start with self-sealing (Ziploc-type) plastic bags or transparent plastic or glass
bottles, and then add water and/or other liquids in a way of your choice. You may
for example, want to suspend, hang, or fasten the containers to a board or wall;
stand them on the floor; arrange them in a construction; or shine lights through
them. You could also vary the shapes of the bags by using elastic or tape. This
project could also be adapted to an external situation.
Project 3: Water Power
Think of a project that uses the energy of a stream or river, or the tides of the sea. Find a
suitable site and demonstrate the results of water energy. You may also find that rain, a
more limited from of energy, is effective in the transformation of material.
Project 4: Water and Colour
If you are interested in colour, experiment with dyes or pigments of various kinds in water.
Decide on the type and range of containers you wish to use—transparent plastic bags and
containers; plastic tubing, flexible or rigid; glass bottles; or test tubes. Be prepared to modify
the shapes of the containers and combine containers. Try out different colour and shape
compositions or use these to demonstrate particular colour concepts. You could also
experiment with different lighting to see how the different liquids transmit light. Or, try out
different densities of liquid—for example, oil and water—to see how colours react with the
different densities and mixing between them. Or, you could try using sound to vibrate the
water and create patterns of colour. (See Recommended Resources for more ideas).
Alternatively, you could freeze the coloured water in different-shaped and -sized
containers and then carefully construct with the resulting ice forms.
Project 5: Moving Water
Think of any principle or method of moving water from one place to another; or of
using water to move other things. Build a construction to demonstrate the process.
Other liquids may be used with (or instead of) water.
Project 6: Water Sculpture—Flotation
On the surface of a lake or pool, make a construction in the materials of your choice,
designed in relation to the water. The form may float by itself, or you may build a raft as
part of the structure. Use found objects and containers if necessary—empty metal
drums, plastic tubes, bags, pipes, or anything that can be made to float or will hold air.
You may prefer to work on a small scale; for example, in an aquarium. If so, use the
full depth of the water as well as the surface. If you choose to work on a small scale,
you may need to refine your found objects, such as plastic containers. Refine them
by removing labels and other visual clutter.
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For either indoor or outdoor work, consider the form of the flotation device, try out
different arrangements until you find the one most suitable.
Notes on the Reproductions
A drop of plankton-rich water. 1980.
Radiolarians and diatoms.
Photo: Peter Parks.
This is a view of plankton-rich water magnified 675 times. Plankton is a collective
term for a variety of marine organisms—microscopic algae and fungi, including
diatoms and radiolarians—drifting on or near the surface of the water. You can
recognize the diatoms shown (you’ll recall this image from Unit 7), and the
radiolarians are easily identified by their radiating extensions. A litre of lake water
may contain more than 500 million plankton organisms; they are so numerous that
they can colour the water red or green. Marine plankton is a primary source of food
for marine organisms—the first link in the great aquatic food chain. It may even be a
food source for us someday.
Wright, Frank Lloyd. Fallingwater. 1936–1937.
The Kaufmann house.
Conneville (Bear Run), Pennsylvania.
Wright’s Fallingwater was designed in 1935, fairly late in the architect’s career.
Wright described this house as leaping out over the falls, which gives a clue to both
his organic and structural sensibility. He used cantilevered beams of reinforced
concrete to extend the terrace that are the basic form of the house. The spatially
projecting planes echo the rock ledges of the natural site; in fact, the rock ledge
beneath the house penetrates the living-room floor. But the glory of the house is the
waterfall that cascades out from under the structure. Wright told his client that he
wanted him to live with the waterfall, not just look at it—inferring that he should
live intimately with the thing he loved.
The Church of the Gesuati.
Venice, Italy.
Photo: Inge Morath.
Changing reflections in the canals of Venice are a constant delight. They range from
the still mirror image, an inverted portrait, to the rippling undulations and flowing
ribbons of colour created by a slow-moving gondola and the fragmented images
caused by the frenzied wake of a passing vaporetto. The blue sky merges with blue
shades in the water; red tiles and Venetian-red washed walls break into tessellations.
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Around the extended image of the Church of the Gesuati, the doors and windows of
white Istrian stone fragment into moving particles. Water is everywhere, recreating
ephemeral images at every level of abstraction.
Gabo, Naum. Revolving Torsion Fountain. 1975.
London, England.
Reproduced with the permission of Nina Williams.
Gabo’s last public commission, Revolving Torsion Fountain, is sited outside St. Thomas’s
Hospital on the River Thames, London. It is an adaptation of an earlier work, a
remodelling in plastic of the Torsion of 1929. Gabo did not think of his work as a
sequence of completed phases but as a continuous process in which he could return to
earlier ideas. He believed it was reasonable and logical to respond to changes in
technology and to new materials. As Gabo pointed out, the jets of water in Revolving
Torsion Fountain form lines that correspond to his use of plastic filament lines in earlier
projects. Stainless steel was used to fabricate the large revolving structure, designed so
that jets of water shoot out from the edges of the ribs in a timed pattern, turning the
upper section. Gabo combines water, light and moving form to create a marvellous
visual experience: water streaming in space and the gleaming metallic centre of the
fountain viewed through a changing veil of diaphanous mist.
Gabo’s interest in kinetics is apparent in his motorized works. His ability as an
expert engineer was proved by the great de Bijenkorf construction in Rotterdam.
Noguchi, Isamu. Chase Manhattan Bank Plaza. 1961–1964.
Granite paving, black river stones from Japan; 18.29 m diameter
New York, NY.
Courtesy of the Isamu Noguchi Foundation, Inc.
The circular sunken garden at the Chase Manhattan Plaza in New York has links with
traditional Japanese gardens, if only because the rock Noguchi used in its creation were
taken from the river in Kyoto, Japan. A previous garden by Noguchi, for UNESCO in Paris,
was a tribute to the form and principles of Japanese gardening, but this garden in New York
is purely sculptural. Noguchi thought of it as the swell of the sea, rising out of elemental
rocks—the ground of granite blocks is undulating and contoured, with concentric patterns
of paving and lines suggestive of ocean currents. The recessed water jets and fountains rise
and fall, flooding over the rim. The most satisfying and delightful aspect of the work is the
wonderful assimilation of natural and non-natural materials (tiles, glass, and metal tubes)
on an urban site, just where we need such projects. And it can be viewed from above; from
a rail, one can contemplate the forms on the circular plane. Amid the confusions and
distractions of the city, it is an island of sanity.
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Noguchi, Isamu. Fountains. 1970.
Two of twelve fountains; stainless steel.
Osaka, Japan.
Courtesy of the Isamu Noguchi Foundation, Inc.
Noguchi was commissioned to create a group of twelve geometric fountains for
Expo ’70 in Osaka, Japan. The artist approached the work as a challenge to the
commonly held idea that fountains only spurt upward. His fountains jetted down
over thirty metres/one hundred feet, rotating, spraying, swirling, disappearing, and
creating clouds of mist. This was Noguchi’s first major work using water, and it is
on a heroic scale, fully exploiting his theatrical sense. The fountains extend over
three large rectangular pools for about half a kilometre/one-third of a mile.
Emerging from the pools, the twelve enormous sculptures—cubes, spheres,
cylinders, and other forms, bristling with nozzles—provide an exuberant water
display. Carefully choreographed, it is dramatically illuminated at night. Seen
through mist and vapour, the sculpture forms resemble atmospheric objects in a
space of liquid particles. Expo ’70 is long gone, but Noguchi’s fountains remain as a
brilliant engineering feat and an example of structural finesse and aesthetic
complexity.
Christo (Javacheff). Surrounded Islands. 1980–1983.
Biscayne Bay, Greater Miami, Florida.
Pink woven polypropylene fabric; 604,500 square m.
© Christo 1983.
Photo: Wolfgang Volz.
Christo’s enormous projects make us aware of the logistics of creating such work, no
matter what their effect on our aesthetic responses. We begin to understand the
necessity for negotiation and for precise preparation. This project required brilliant
organization and structural virtuosity, but the result transcends material and formal
issues and provides us with a phenomenal experience and a surprise. Surrounded
Islands required more than 600,000 square metres/6.5 million square feet of pink
woven polypropylene synthetic fibre, floating and extending more than sixty
metres/200 feet from, and around, eleven islands. In all Christo’s work, the point of
departure is the transformation of landscape. In Surrounded Islands, he recreates in
our minds the image and idea of islands. The landscape is thus rediscovered in new
and unforgettable terms. As in any transitory creative activity, the final phase of this
work was its complete documentation: drawings, diagrams, collages, photographs,
slides, films, books, and journalism. A necessary epitaph.
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Goldsworthy, Andy. Thin Ice. January 10–11, 1987.
Welded with water from dripping ice, hollow inside.
Scaur Water, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland.
We have already learned, in earlier units, that Goldsworthy is an innovative British
artist who collaborates with nature. He works instinctively in the landscape, arriving
at new perceptions of it and developing an ever growing intimacy. His work deals
with conjunctions of climate and land, growth and change. Finding the place and the
material, he comes to understand the land and its complex nature. For him,
observation, material, place, and form are all inseparable from the resulting work.
He has worked all over the world, including in Grise Fiord on Ellesmere Island,
which is in Canada’s far north, and in other exotic locations, assembling materials in
his own way, using them “naturally”—whether they are leaves or monoliths, stone
structures or snow blocks or water and reflections. This piece, Thin Ice, was made
over two freezing days. It is hollow inside and is welded with water from dripping
ice.
Goldsworthy, Andy. Early Morning Calm. February 20 and March 8–9, 1988.
Knotweed stalks pushed into lake bottom; made complete by their own
reflections.
Derwent Water, Cumbria, England.
This second work by Goldsworthy, carried out in the north of England in 1988, looks
like an ineffective fish trap; but with a little poetic imagination it could trap the sun
or moon.
Recommended Resources
Rivers and Tides: Andy Goldsworthy Working with Time. Dir. Thomas Riedelsheimer.
Roxie Releasing, 2003. DVD. (Available online.)
This is a wonderful DVD of Andy Goldsworthy’s inventive and surprising work
with water and other natural materials. Includes a marvellous sequence of plants
joined into a long strand, coiled on the surface of a river. Gradually the current
uncoils the strand and it slowly floats downstream following both the
undulations of the water and curving with the contours of the river’s course. You
may remember viewing two examples of Goldsworthy’s work in the Unit 9 video
program).
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Schwenk, Theodor. Sensitive Chaos: The Creation of Flowing Forms in Water and Air.
London: Rudolf Steiner Press. 1996. Print.
This book has many black and white photographs showing the spiral forms
created by free flowing water and how these forms are repeated in the spirals of
some seashells or in the creation of vortexes and even some tree barks. A very
thoughtful book, which may spark ideas for working with liquid. May be
available in the public library system.
Additional Resources
Internet
• Search for: “Simon Butler + Cymatics M4V” on Google to view a short video
showing the use of sound to vibrate three coloured strands in water. The
sound creates shifting complex coloured undulating nets in intriguing and
powerful visual sequences. Or search in YouTube for: “Dr Hans Jenny—
Cymatics: Bringing Matter to Life with Sound.” Part Two of Three shows the
effects of sounds on coloured liquids.
• Search for “Goldsworthy, Andy” in Google Images to view several images of
Goldsworthy’s large scale work with ice.
• Consult an encyclopedia using internet searches and/or community library
reference books for general information on water related subjects, such as:
Aqueducts Canals
Fountains Gardens
Hydraulics Irrigation systems
Sculpture with water Water-wheels
List of Illustrations
1. The Hydrologic Cycle. From computer animation by E. John Love.
2. Infiltration and percolation: ground water taken up by plants returns to the
atmosphere. From computer animation by E. John Love.
3. Liquid paint drip mixes primary and secondary colours to make dark grey. Drawing
to show set-up of experiment by Lorraine Yabuki.
4. Notebook studies for wave machine. Oliver Kuys.
5. Notebook studies for fountain installation. Daryl Paul Ashby.
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Faculty of Arts
Unit 10:
Space
VISA 1301
Material and Form
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-1
Unit 10: Space
Introduction
Note: DVD 6 includes the video program Space to accompany Unit 10.
There are many definitions and concepts of space, the illusive and complex subject
for this, the final unit of Material and Form. You might well find that space is your
most difficult area of study in this course because it involves physical, perceptual,
and conceptual aspects, as well as diverse subjective responses. However, much of
the work in the Postcard Booklet which uses other materials, also have large spatial
elements, for example Richard Deacon’s bentwood piece, For Those Who Have Ears #2
(see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–064).
It is limiting to define space as that which is between objects—an interval of area
between points. Space is also where events take place. How space perceived at a given
time, in a specific culture, has much to do with the way it has been defined in the past.
Today, we depend on science for precise observations, with the dynamic concepts of the
theory of relativity and quantum mechanics replacing outdated static notions of space.
In a post-Einstein world, to study space without including time would be inadequate.
For us to gain some understanding of the whole range of spatial phenomena, we will
need to consider some historical aspects of space in this unit.
Understanding space at a personal level is a process of the growth of consciousness,
beginning with the first breath and the first instinctive movements. We begin to
orientate ourselves, to know where we are, where we can move and our relationship
to other things. As we develop we can accommodate a wider view of space, but still
we ask: how? and why? The answers depend on our own curiosity, existing
knowledge, new and changing information. We can discover other realities of space
in the microcosm and macrocosm, realities beyond our “real,” everyday space.
The space that concerns us in this unit—and with which you will be working as
artists—is called actual space, which surrounds objects and in which material objects
exist and are perceived.
Concepts of Space
For thousands of years, actual space was regarded as having three dimensions: left
and right, up and down, forward and back. This kind of space is measurable by the
rules of Euclidian geometry and Newton’s mechanics, which are consistent with
ordinary measurement of size, scale and distance. However, when dealing with
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astronomical phenomena and velocities, which are very great, relativity physics
became necessary. Scientists have indicated that space and time are actually
extensions of the same continuum, that is, the structure of time and space is
continuous, not separated.
Concepts of the nature of space have depended on the changing theories proposed
for the origin and structure of the universe. Even in the sixth century BCE, Greek
philosophers theorized that the formation of the world occurred as a natural, rather
than supernatural, sequence of events.
The Atomists put forward the idea of an ordered cosmos governed by mathematical
relationships; a boundless universe in which the interplay of atoms created endless
worlds in various stages of development and decay. These notions were supplanted
by the infinite cosmologies of Plato, Aristotle, and Ptolemy, whose ideas became
linked with supernatural notions of medieval theology. The sixteenth-century
Copernican theory suggested that the sun, not the Earth, was the centre of the
universe. This led to significant shifts in concept over the next two hundred years,
brought about by the precise celestial measurements of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), the
mathematical discoveries of Kepler (1571–1630), the astronomical observations and
“dangerous” arguments of their contemporary, Galileo, and finally the theories of
Newton (which remained dominant from the seventeenth century until the
development of the theory of relativity at the beginning of the twentieth century).
Gradually, minds were opened to the possibility of an apparently infinite universe
whose centre has no specific location.
The realization that stars may be arranged into systems emerged in the mid-
nineteenth century, supported by William Herschel’s (1738–1822) observations. The
Milky Way galaxy as a flattened system of stars and nebulae, isolated in space, was
understood about 1785. Early in the twentieth century, astronomer E. P. Hubble
(1889–1953) determined that galaxies exist beyond the Milky Way system; also that
the external galaxies are receding at speeds which increase with distance; that is,
relative to their distance from the Earth.
There is no “time or space” here to go into details of space exploration and its
implications, though you may well be inspired by manned missions to distant
planets. When astronaut Armstrong stepped onto the surface of the moon, he said,
“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind”—the first childlike steps
into the new environment of outer space.
Physicist Albert Einstein’s (1879–1955) general theory of relativity and the later
special theory established modern cosmology. The idea of the expanding universe,
the dynamic state of outer space, is linked to the prevailing theoretical attitude about
the origin of the universe. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe originated
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in an explosion about ten billion years ago. Immediately afterward, the universe
consisted primarily of radiation, but, as it expanded, matter developed and existed
dominantly in space. Hubble’s discoveries and more recent findings suggest that the
expanding universe will continue to expand in space indefinitely.
This popular concept embraced by the majority isn’t necessarily correct; there is an
alternative—the steady state theory—which suggests that the large-scale features of
the universe do not change with time. Despite the expansion of the universe, this
theory maintains that the universe is kept stable by the continuous creations of
matter in intergalactic space. Although the galaxies compensate for the separation,
so that the average density of the universe remains the same.
Relativity, Space, and Time
The theory of relativity, developed primarily by Einstein, is the basis for
understanding the unity of matter and energy, space and time. The Special Theory of
Relativity, published in 1905, was the result of consideration of objects moving
relative to one another in constant velocity. In this theory, space was redefined: the
relative velocity of object and viewer was the crucial factor, not the distance between
them. In 1915, Einstein published the Theory of General Relativity, in which he
considered that objects accelerated with respect to one another. This theory involved
a new approach to the concept of gravity.
The hypothesis on which Einstein’s theory was based was the non-existence of
absolute rest in the universe, whereas Newton had defined space as absolute, and at
rest. Certainly the cultural influences of these theories are apparent. In our
increasing dynamic world, more things move in space, in real-time activities; or
events are recorded and made available in different contexts of time and space.
Satellites in space provide images instantaneously in different places, and at
different places, and at different local times around the world. Increasing use of
electronic media, in which images of time and space are often mixed and collaged,
means that understanding space and time is essential for coping with the
increasingly complex visual language that dominates everyday life.
Rapid changes in technology and the diversity of what we see can be better
understood if we have some basic comprehension of space, time and matter, both as
a real experience and supported by general notions of art and scientific theory.
Everything in space and time is related to everything else, so nature is a single system.
Space has three dimensions, time only one. Time is linear and directional, in the sense
that events happen in an irreversible order, which has impetus. It is as if we are being
carried forward, but we can only look backward. Space is indifferent to direction: up
and down, left and right, can be reversed by changing our frame of reference.
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Apparently, an astronaut in space is able to fully comprehend and deal with the
relationships of objects in free space without a base. Knowledge of space and time is
interrelated, since we measure time by the path described by a moving body and we
measure space by the time taken for a signal to move from one point to another.
Space Exploration
The activities of humans in space provide us with new technology and interesting
new images. The technology of space often uses traditional materials, metals and
ceramics in new ways and also creates demands for new synthetic materials.
The human race may in the future require additional support systems. If the
atmosphere continues to deteriorate, we may face the possibility of living in
controlled environments, denied the freedom of movement we now enjoy. In space,
we would face a combination of stresses: weightlessness and consequent bone
density reduction, cosmic radiation, acceleration, vibration, confinement, sensory
deprivation, reduced mobility—and, probably, silence. Unique to space is
weightlessness, or “free-fall,” which results when the orbital acceleration of the
Earth is equal to its gravitational acceleration. In space, we would be removed from
the rotational cycle of day and night and seasonal change.
Astronauts apart, more than fifty species, including single-celled organisms, plants,
animals, and mammals have been put into Earth orbit for research purposes. In our
exploration of space, the search for extra-terrestrial life is not merely a matter for
science fiction but a basic concern of biology. The discovery of any form of life, no
matter how minute, would permit structural and chemical comparisons with life on
Earth. Who knows what other environments distant galaxies might produce?
In our continuing attempt to understand space, exploration plays a leading part.
Space in Art
Indigenous people, painting the walls of caves, saw animals moving in their
imagination. They depicted the animals on one plane, separated from each other in
the pictorial space, or overlapped them and sometimes changed their scale.
Australian Aborigines conceived of space as an immense circle. Each culture seems
to have its own sense of space, which is reflected in its art and inferred in its political
organization, social institutions, and religious beliefs. The Egyptians, for example,
envisaged space as a narrow path along which the body and ultimately the soul
moved. In their temples and tombs, they constructed pathways enclosed by masonry
walls, on which reliefs and paintings led the spectator in a specific direction;
inevitably, they believed, the souls would move through the tunnel into the tomb to
meet ancestral judges.
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The Greek world was dominated by a sense of “near and far”—a cosmos in which
things were close, and completely visible, or seen at a distance. Buildings and
temples were built about a centre that was often partially enclosed by a colonnade.
The finite structure of the city-state reflected the desire of the Greeks for a central
organization. They produced a geometry of regular closed figures, and a
mathematically based system of proportion that dictated ideal forms of beauty.
Although Gothic cathedrals induce a sense of soaring, even limitless, space, the
medieval European world was God-centred in thought and belief. The universe was
believed to move around its centre, the God-made Earth-world. Medieval paintings
show a tiered hierarchy of heaven, where beings are given a scale suited to their
importance, but the artist has also attempted to locate them in the pictorial space as
they would appear in the visible world. Space and time are manipulated in some
medieval paintings, so that the image of Christ appears in various parts of the
picture, representing events taking place at different times. Justification for this is
based on shared knowledge and information rather than direct observation.
As we are dealing with creative processes, we must consider how concepts of space
affect the way different artists and cultures use space and work in it. We can
consider the use of illusions and sensations in pictorial space, and working with
three-dimensional materials in “real” space (see illustration 1). We can begin to
comprehend space as a positive rather than a negative phenomenon.
We will find that space has been a proposition and problem within the context of art
throughout the centuries, with various rules and many interpretations. Some
attention will also be given to architectural space, as it is a major element in modern
procedures of designing with space.
Pictorial Space
A crucial date in the history of art is 1435, when Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) set out
rules for pictorial space in the system known as linear perspective (and also as optical, or
Renaissance, perspective). This perspective system was created to demonstrate an
equivalent of how the eye sees objects in space. It is a means of delineating solid objects on a
plane surface by drawing. The object is drawn with all the distortion and foreshortening
that is seen by the eye from a given point of view. All lines and planes that are not parallel
to the picture planes converge at vanishing points. Alberti’s system was to dominate art for
almost five centuries. An illustrative image of this system is shown in Piero della
Francesca’s (1450–1492) The Flagellation (see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL-052).
I believe that this new concern for representing space effectively may have arisen
because God-centred space was giving way to a belief in a more significant role for
man. Insignificant man needed psychological support to venture into unknown
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space, to take possession of the Earth. Fear of geographical space was not conquered
for a considerable time, but Renaissance paintings show new confidence in the
understanding of space. Humans are no longer frieze-like, formally immobilized,
but depicted in the round, anatomically able to act realistically in their new space.
This unified pictorial space represented the harmony of nature and a growing
rationality; it also reflected a human-made world in the making.
Linear perspective was a dominant feature of studio and academic training. It was
taught and carried out by drawing construction, not by freehand expression, which
made it relatively limiting. A serious shortcoming of the system was that it did not
allow for response to the nature and quality of space. Appreciation by the Venetians
and the artists of northern Europe that space possesses colour, both local and
atmospheric, led to the integration of aerial perspective with existing Renaissance
systems. Aerial perspective is the result of seeing things at a distance through the
atmosphere, which changes the gradients of brightness, saturation of tone, sharpness
of edge, density and texture of shapes, and intensity of hue.
Although Alberti’s rules were followed until the beginning of the twentieth century,
there were a few heretics. In particular, the Italian Mannerists used elongated
figures, often in unusual or unnatural poses, to populate their melodramatic spatial
compositions.
Landscape art in Northern Europe continued the chromatic exploration of real space
and its equivalence in pictorial space. The British landscape painter Turner, in
particular, gave great vitality to his paintings by the use of aerial perspective and by
his inspired use of colour. I also feel sure that he purposely used the physical aspect
of space—the weather that occurs in space. J. M. W. Turner’s (1775–1851) Rain, Steam
and Speed – The Great Western Railway is a painting of a train crossing a viaduct, but
mist, fog, and the colours of light were used as special phenomena of space; in a
poetic way, they almost make it objective.
The Impressionists, dealing with light and atmosphere in space, were also
responsible for new attitudes. Painting the changing conditions of light and
atmosphere necessitated direct painting, working on a number of canvases in one
day, and repeating the process the next. Although the Impressionists still worked
traditionally, from a fixed point of view, the subject was the changing light and
colour of space itself. The Impressionists were very free in the way they placed their
canvases, certainly not observing Alberti’s rule that they should be placed one metre
(3.3 feet) from the ground. They raised and lowered them, tilting them forward,
back, or obliquely to the subject. For them, the canvas was no longer the proscenium
of a cubed section of space—like a theatre stage—that it had traditionally been.
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Post-Impressionist Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) explored and developed concepts of
pictorial space by presenting different spaces and perspectives in the same painting—
Still Life with a Basket. Multiple perspectives of the various objects are contained in one
composition; objects are tilted, ellipses distorted by flattening or enlarging; the basket
and table corners are seen from different points of view. Cézanne realized that, to
control the representation of space, he would have to reduce the pictorial depth.
Cézanne’s innovations were invaluable to the Cubists, who brought about the most
important change in rendering space since the fifteenth-century. They abandoned
linear and aerial perspective and viewed objects from many physical points of
view—tending to create a multiplicity of spaces, which had to be brought in the
pictorial image. A dictum of Cubism is that the farthest part of the picture away
from you is the surface on which the picture is painted. For the Cubists, this brought
to an end the old illusions of perspective. However, it is a mistake to think that
multiple points of view is all there is to Cubism. If we look at anything completely—
visually, physically, analytically—seeing it not only through 360 degrees of space
but also from the interior and the exterior, we end up with an enormous catalogue of
visual and other sensory information.
Writers have referred to the so-call X-ray images of Cubism. Conditioned to
perspectival space, artists did not comprehend the results of seeing analytically from
a number of points to view. They totally misunderstood the process; the seeming X-
ray images are achieved by simply looking at the interior of the object from a
number of visual points to view and selecting or synthesizing. The actual X-ray is
one-point-of-view image and is therefore not a good analogy.
As it is impossible to make equivalents for all aspects or parts of an object, selection
takes place. Picasso, who famously said “I do not seek, I find” and invented Cubism
for his own purposes, was capable of simultaneously determining what had pictorial
significance for him and its place in the pictorial image. So, what developed in
Cubism was the selection and synthesis of multiple points of view with an even
more significant synthesis of the artist’s psychological point of view.
Cubism moved rapidly from two to three dimensions. Picasso worked
constructively with linear and planal material, typical of the language of form in
space. This opened up new possibilities in sculpture and construction, and also
began the population of the “no-man’s-land” between painting and sculpture. You
have to remember that in the Renaissance, in spite of brilliant practitioners,
sculpture was subservient to painting. Artists now realized that they were free to
develop their own artistic language, including new visual and spatial systems and
formats. The Cubists never really abandoned pictorial depth, but limited and
controlled it according to their needs. They demonstrated that there is a great deal of
difference between visually perceived space and pictorial space.
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Cubism is sometimes seen as representing the confusions of the modern age, but it
was rather a means of finding a way through the confusions. The movement does,
however, represent developments within art which reflected the creative impetus in
science and other cultural developments.
The cinema for example, which carried on the theatrical tradition, may have had a
fixed screen but it could be used as freely as a Cubist canvas. In cinematography, the
frame can be altered by changing the lens, the angle of the lens, or the focus. The
point of view of the action or distance from the action is changed at will; the view
can be panned or reviewed sequentially in close-up, then modified by editing. The
cinema collapses space, time, and distance to show us worlds that we could
normally never see otherwise.
In place of rigid and limited perspective, artists discovered and developed a new
range of sensations, achieved by new uses of colour and pigment, active in new
kinds of space. In the late 1940s, Jackson Pollock (1912–1956) worked inside and
outside the canvas placed on the floor, but without using a pictorial baseline. He
demonstrated a new capacity for simultaneous thought and action that became
known as “action painting,” which was unfortunate, because the term separated
action from thought. Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944), in his painting Blue Mountain
(c. 1908–09), created a homogeneous composition out of images and events seen in
nature at different times and places. He demonstrated that the artist does not have to
remain motionless in front of the subject, at a fixed distance in time and place. Space
and time can be brought together in true post-Einstein developments.
Sculptural Space
Sculpture exists in space. Matter and material is given specific form by the displacement
of space. Traditionally, this displacement was predominantly by mass; but, in the
twentieth century, the form, materials and nature of sculpture have changed and
diversified enormously. The development of Constructivism during the second decade
of the twentieth century, and constructive practice, accentuated the implications of
space by using points, lines and planes of material in preference to mass.
Other forms of engineering and engineered space have developed sculpturally; the
use of space on specific sites, and even the use of light and time, has extended
sculpture’s range.
Principles of sculptural space and opinions about its organization vary considerably.
Certainly, there are no set rules, and preconceptions are often limiting. So many forms
in the world of nature can be considered sculptural that we should be able to learn from
these natural phenomena. Any movement through the natural environment should
alert our senses, helping us to feel the spatial character of where we are.
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Space, as we understand it, was foreign to the ancient Greeks. To them, it was not an
abstract concept but rather a place where people and object existed. They had a
profound sense of place. Although we know of many single-figure sculptures in
Greek art, their sculpture was subordinated to architecture. It was part of building
rooted in a precinct of architectural space in the city. Yet despite the dominance of
frontal sculpture (that is, sculpture designed to be viewed from the front only), there
were astonishing developments to figures that indicated movement in space. Greek
humanism led to the almost perfectly articulated figures admired by Renaissance
artists. In the sixteenth century, Benvenuto Cellini saw that eight or ten viewpoints
were needed to see a sculpture effectively.
Gothic sculpture was part of the religious collective of the church; dedicated to the glory
of God, it was not seen as art, nor as an expression by a particular artist. Gothic artists
and architects did have a sense of space, but their sculptural forms were subordinated to
the architecture, like those of their Greek predecessors. Figures adorning the tympanum
or comfortably enclosed in niches were within the form of the building and carved in
relation to it. However, the elaboration of later Gothic buildings made it possible for
forms and figures to be disposed in a greater variety of ways, balanced or poised, on or
outside of the architecture, as if ready for flight. Nevertheless, the underlying concept
was still subordination of the parts to the whole.
Anything constructive or sculptural that we put into the environment is affected by its
immediate surroundings and cannot escape the fundamental relationship between Earth
and space. All forms are affected by gravity, not only physically but also by our sense of
that principle in action. We can have a sense of gravity along with a sense of the amount of
space occupied by the object: by its bulk, volume, or extent as a structure. To the sculptor,
everything in actual space is real; tactile values are real and not illusions. To reach out and
touch something means intervening in space. Whether in the process of carving away from
the mass and introducing space in the process of building in space by modelling and
construction, the making of sculpture is a matter of contact and touching.
Positive-Negative Space
Traditionally, the volume of space which is occupied by mass, by displacement, is
referred to as positive space. The volume of space that is not occupied by mass, but has a
proximity and direct influence on how the form is seen, is known as negative space.
An immediate example of negative space is penetration of mass, or a concavity in a form.
Since in constructions using linear or planal material negative space can predominate, this
constructive space could be considered functional rather than negative. When we look at
works by Gabo in acrylic sheet and nylon filament, we cannot be certain where form and
space begin and end in the continuum of space and light (see Gabo’s Construction in Space
with Crystalline Centre in Notes on the Reproductions).
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U10-10 Unit 10: Space
There is the same ambiguity with any transparent material, and there is also an
intervening phenomenon when open-structure materials, such as fine wire, plastic,
mesh, metal, and woven fibre netting, are used. I prefer to think of this phenomenon
as a category of inner space. Any positive mass, pierced or removed in part, can
appear as if penetrated by space. We saw this in Hepworth’s Pelagos, and it is
evident in numerous sculptures by Moore. He explored the sculptural space found
in nature—the hollows and curves of rock forms and caves. Spaces between trees,
branches, rolling hills, can all serve the sculptor as a source for a language of spatial
relations.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Cubists, Suprematists, and
Constructivists explored space by working with linear and sheet material on a small
scale in their studios. See for example Moholy-Nagy’s work with space and shadow
in Light Source Modulator, in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–013. Picasso’s
constructions in paper (now lost) and later development of materials extending from
the two-dimensional surface, gave rise to his relief constructions in wood and metal.
As an extension of Cubism, these pieces also advanced that philosophy and its
processes into real space. Demonstrating that found and waste material may be used
intuitively, they gave an exciting redirection to modern sculpture.
It is not possible to list here all the artists who have used space as an integral factor
in three dimensions, as a medium, or in environmental operations, but you will find
that they are diverse, cutting across schools and groups. Painters venturing into
sculpture seem to be particularly attentive to the implications of space—in this
respect, Degas and Matisse are as important as Picasso. Look at Endless Column and
other works by Brancusi; the reliefs and The Monument to the Third International by
Vladimir Tatlin Postcard Booklet TRU OL-053.; Bottle Rack and Hat Rack by Marcel
Duchamp; and Development of a Bottle in Space by Umberto Boccioni, which is a
particularly explicit example of the new concepts of mass-space relationships (see
also his Unique Forms of Continuity in Space).
David Smith (see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL-055) and Anthony Caro (see Postcard
Booklet: TRU OL-007), working principally with welded steel, created major works
with strong spatial implications. Using standard metal stock, which lends itself to
spatial construction, Caro has developed a spatial language with a considerable
variety of nuances; he shows great virtuosity with a wide range of planal and linear
forms.
James Turrell (1943–) has used light to define space inside his chosen site, Roden
Crater, a hollowed out, extinct volcano. Some of his light installations are so
powerful and disorienting that he has had to install hand rails to prevent falls.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-11
Rachel Whiteread’s (1963–) work consists of plaster, rubber. or cement casts of the
spaces between or inside large objects. One of her large installations, House, was a
full-size casting, in cement, of the interior spaces of a two-storey house. Her
sculptures have a very quiet, powerful, and eerie quality to them (see Postcard
Booklet: TRU OL–068).
Space consciousness in the development of forms transcends stylistic boundaries and group
ideologies. The Minimalists have provided many spatial references within their formal
constructions. Environmental developments and site operations have been notable for
extending the implications of space, in scale and form, in diverse contexts.
When we are creatively involved in space, we cannot rule out the responses of all
our senses. Sight is dominant when we are active in space, but our eyes alone are not
enough to fully comprehend space and its complex range of forms. To see an object
in space merely confirms its existence; we should exercise all our senses! In the
computer animations, I ask you to respond to the hard and soft feel of textures, and
also to their warmth and coolness. We must each respond as an individual to the
multi-dimensional world of seeing, knowing, and feeling.
Architectural Space
The history of architecture is the evolution of the shaping of space for a variety of
reasons and purposes in which function and aesthetics are combined. Different styles of
architecture represent the distinctive sense of space in a given time and culture. For
example, the pharaohs of ancient Egypt used the pyramid—the form with the greatest
base in proportion to mass—to provide security and permanence and to enclose its
underground secrets. In the mid-twentieth century, architects in Caracas, Venezuela,
built an inverted pyramid, truncated so that it could be poised on a plateau rising out of
the city. The inverted base projects into space to receive maximum light, thus providing
a functional solution for that city’s Museum of Modern Art.
I will not elaborate on the history of space in architecture, but, rather, comment on
the period at the beginning of the twentieth century when a new consciousness of
space affected its practice. Before this century, space was considered to be a negative
element of a building, as opposed to its positive elements—walls, floors, ceilings,
and so on. The form of the building was determined by a combination of its
function—a windowless castle-fortress, a many-windowed cathedral—and the
materials and methods of construction. Changes in concepts brought about the
innovative principles of engineering and methods of construction that made new
systems of architecture possible. When architects composed in space early in the
twentieth century, they were able to use new load-bearing materials and structural
systems, together with novel forms of illuminations, heating, and ventilation. These
innovations made possible a freer sculpting of space.
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U10-12 Unit 10: Space
Modern sculpture had shown that space was no longer a mere setting or site but a
constituent element of the work. Works by Picasso and other Cubists,
Constructivists, and Futurists like Boccioni changed the notions of positive and
negative space and had a considerable influence on architectural thinking. In
Holland, the de Stijl group, which included artists Piet Mondrian and Theo van
Doesburg, architects Gerrit Rietveld and J. J. P. Oud, and sculptor and theorist
Georges Vantongerloo, were primarily concerned with problems of space and
colour. The doctrine, which involved the use of ninety-degree angles (van Doesburg
preferred forty-five-degree angles), and Rietveld’s smooth surfaces and active
planes, resulted in such works as the Schröder house (see Postcard Booklet: TRU OL-
057) and Rietveld’s 1917 constructivist Prototype for Red/Blue Chair (1917–1918),
which is now in the collection of New York’s Museum of Modern Art.
One of the most important art institutions of the early twentieth century was the
Bauhaus—“building house”—in Germany. It was an attempt to develop an academy
for modern art that would stress the interrelationship of the arts of painting,
sculpture, and architecture. In 1919, Bauhaus founder Walter Gropius (1883–1969)
introduced ideas and methods in which new concepts of space and functionalism
were combined. The architect Gropius understood Cubism, as well as modern
advances in engineering and standardization, so was alert to changing attitudes
toward space. By 1926, when the Bauhaus moved from Weimar to Dessau, a new
generation of architects was working with artistic discoveries, using new methods
and materials of construction.
This was the generation of Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe, who drew on advances
in engineering to give architectural expression to their new sense of space. The new
space/form language required precise engineering to allow for the flowing
interpenetration of space, for walls that were often no longer load-bearing but used as
planes in space, as van der Rohe’s 1929 Barcelona Pavilion shows. Space was now the
means to organize complex building concepts. The transparency of glass was a spatial
device that permitted the interior and the exterior to be seen simultaneously. Glass was
used to dematerialize building mass; never coloured or stained, it defined space. Planes
and rectilinear forms were subtly and intimately juxtaposed and interpenetrating, in
unified compositions. Frontally disposed buildings gave way to many-sidedness.
Twentieth-century space-time concepts had practical realizations in this innovative
architecture, just as Cubist simultaneity and varied points of reference had achieved
in the development of two- and three-dimensional expression. Once again, advances
in mathematics and science influenced every aspect of culture. It is of more than
passing interest to note that all great advances in geometry, mathematics, and
science have synchronized with great developments in art—in the Greek Classic
period, the Renaissance, and the beginning of the twentieth century.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-13
Le Corbusier said that “To take possession of space is the first gesture of the living…The
first proof of existence is to occupy space…Architecture, sculpture and paintings are, by
definition, dependent on space, tied down to the necessity to come to terms with space,
each by its own means.”1 And like the other architects of the “new” space, he paid his
respects to “the wonderfully creative flight of Cubism” (van de Ven, 1987, p. 190).2
Working with Space
Although you may not have access to resources such as lasers, searchlights, spotlights,
neon, dry ice, helium, meteorological balloons, and holograms, you will be surprised at
the extent to which you can use and activate space with ordinary materials.
You can work either indoors or outdoors, using natural or artificial light or even a
darkened space. Remember that, no matter what materials you use to demonstrate
your ideas, or what structures are necessary, your subject is space.
• For spatial construction, select linear materials that pierce space, like string,
yarn or plastic tape. Consider sheet materials that divide space, such as
cardboard, Masonite, Plexiglas, corrugated plastic, and so on.
• For equivalents of space, or as indicators and activators of space, choose
water, glass, mirrors, Plexiglas, flexible polyethylene, Mylar, and mirrors.
• Span and define space using light beams from digital or slide projectors
powerful flashlights, laser blackboard pointers, LEDs, etc. You may be able to
purchase dry ice to create fog from Oxygen supply companies.
• Use colour to activate space and modify distance. (You’ll find that it is itself
modified by both.)
• Consider sound and interval in relation to space.
• Use reflective material to contrast space, as a new and intense reality, with
illusion and sensation.
• In outdoor projects, exploit natural forces, materials, and physical conditions
such as fog and mist.
• If you have technical difficulties with a certain material when constructing in space,
try simple techniques, either indoors or outdoors, such as suspending, leaning,
stretching, or projecting. Or try pinning and stretching string to the walls and ceiling
and attaching it to the furniture or other objects to define the space they occupy.
• Consider using flexible materials: wire, mesh, netting, and fabrics of various
degrees of transparency and pliancy.
1 In Le Corbusier: Modulor 2 (1948). Trans. By Peter de Francia and Anna Bostoc. Faber and Faber, 1958, Reprint, 2004 (page 25).
2 In Space in Architecture: the evolution of a new idea in the theory and history of modern movements, by Cornelis van de Ven. Published in the USA by Van Gorcum, 1987.
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U10-14 Unit 10: Space
• You will find that stretchable materials, such as rubber and elastic, can be
effectively used in relation to other material.
• You can make large-scale structures of paper or thin polythene sheeting and
give them form in space by filling them with hot air from an electric fan.
• Carry out small-scale projects on a workplace or bench. Even an open
window or doorway can be used temporarily as the site of a construction.
• Your patio, yard, or garden may provide a suitable site. Alternatively, find
your spatial site and materials in the natural environments.
Student Projects
The student projects begin modestly on a small scale: mostly tabletop and “low”
technology. Even the later personal developments stay comfortably within bounds
of the studio. Given more time for preparation and experiment, the level of
technology might have increased. Regardless of the technology used, to be given
“space” as a subject is a novel situation for the students.
Geoff begins with small-scale experiments with wire, graduating to larger hanging
forms made from ready-formed iron wire, which he sprays with colour and ties into
a fixed spatial orientation (see illustration 2.).
Brent carries out tests of the load-bearing capacity of balloons filled with hydrogen,
dropping water from an eye-dropper into small containers attached beneath the
balloons. Later, he engages in a number of balloon forms in an installation and
suggests a group effort for an outdoor project: three large meteorological balloons
carrying the banners of Material and Form lifted off above the trees.
Adrian begins by building a house of cards but, found to be cheating by gluing them
together, moves to the “hard labour” of building forms with hollow bricks.
David experiments with small wood pieces and metal tubes under tension, going on
to achieve an excellent demonstration of tensegrity (tension and integrity) with a
large-scale piece, using units of constructed angular cardboard forms held in a
magical suspension.
Cathy explores the reflections of transparent plastic circles in a mirror-like Mylar
construction. Later, she collects plastic bottles of similar size and colour (white), but
varying in form. She casts solid forms by pouring plaster into the cut and taped
bottles, and then arranges them on a white turntable, trying numerous variations of
spatial orientations.
Lorraine experiments with hollow forms, obviously interested in the notion of inside
and outside space. Her final development involves balloons trapped inside a
stretchable muslin tube, which she makes rigid by applying a thin coat of plaster.
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-15
Ed makes a few small maquettes for kites and then settles for a combination of flat
and curved surface constructions.
Daryl makes a curving light “tree,” a tube of transparent blue plastic that he fits with
a circuit of small lights that illuminate in sequence.
Oliver makes a large-scale structure of stretched cord in a corner of the workroom
(see illustration 3).
Assignment 10: Space
Introduction
For this final assignment, you are required to complete one of five project options.
Project Options
Complete one of the following:
• Project 1: Lines to Define Space
OR
• Project 2: Planes to Define Space
OR
• Project 3: Transparent Material to Define Space
OR
• Project 4: Wave or Wind Powered Material
OR
• Project 5: Illusion and Space
OR
• Project 6: Environment Project
Documentation
Some of these projects may be difficult to document using still photography. You
may need to use digital video. Please feel free to propose your alternative, if you
have another preferred digital format.
If you have chosen a project that calls for transparent materials, you could
experiment with different lighting conditions or you should document the results of
your work, as well as the planning and execution stages, in your Notebook, in
simple drawings or diagrams that show the development of your ideas.
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U10-16 Unit 10: Space
Instructions
Project 1: Lines to Define Space
1. Using black iron wire of 1.5-mm/1/16-inch diameter (baling wire), which is
easy to bend with fingers or pliers, carry out a series of experiments in spatial
form. It is important visually to make the lines as clear, and defined as
possible, it can take some work to eliminate unwanted wiggles in the wire .
2. Make a range of small forms, freely, or by wrapping wire around selected
forms or objects. Make your forms distinctively different from each other;
e.g., rectilinear, curvilinear, regular, irregular.
3. Select two or three forms. The scale will depend on your available technology.
Three-mm/1/8-inch wire is useful for medium-sized work; 6 mm/1/4-inch iron or
steel is about the maximum dimension for cold bending. Make them on a larger
scale and design them for a specific setting or place them in relationship to each
other on a board or in a particular spot. Experiment with their placement in
relation to one another; try looking from different angles as you do this. Even
fully exploring the various placements of three objects in space will give many
different possibilities. Can you find the exact placement that you like the best?
4. Or, you could work with using wire to define the physical space of large objects,
such as furniture. You will need to wrap the wire around the object in sections so
that it can be removed and reassembled as a freestanding form echoing the shape.
5. Or, you could define space by using different coloured yarn, string, or even rope,
radiating from or connecting particular forms, such as furniture or trees.
Project 2: Planes to Define Space
1. Using rigid sheet-cardboard and wood will be the easiest materials to build a
spatial structure. (Use linear materials for assembly).
2. Experiment on a small scale to work out technology and space relationships.
3. Develop a construction that defines the space. Will it be free in space or will it
articulate a more enclosed space?
Project 3: Transparent Material to Define Space
1. Taking a sheet of Plexiglas 3 to 6 centimetres (1/8- to 1.4-inch) thick as your
basic material, cut it with a saw and glue the pieces together to construct a
rectilinear 3-D space-form. If you have a heat source large enough, try
making a free curvilinear form. You may use either of these forms with other
material; e.g., wood strips, planes, or blocks, which can be fastened to the
rigid flat surfaces of the rectilinear space-form.
2. If you have free-formed the sheet into a curvilinear structure, try relating
other curvilinear volume or mass (formed wire or sheet, or even stone).
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-17
3. Consider colour early in the project. Do not make a merely colourful object
that may diminish the reality of the space.
4. Remember that Plexiglas can be drilled, pierced, or engraved with simple
marking tools—even the sharpened tang of a small file.
5. Remember also that Plexiglas will conduct light shone against its edges.
Project 4: Wind Powered Material
1. Make a wind-motivated form. Here, it is not sufficient to simply copy an
existing design. The assignment requires you to experiment with the forms of
your construction i.e., its configuration scale, colour, markings, flying pattern
as it moves through space etc.
2. One student made a large kite of their own design, carefully painted it and
designed its tail, then photographed it flying at different heights and close up.
3. One artist attached an inexpensive movie camera to a kite to record the aerial view.
4. Remember that colour and/or sound can be an important feature of a
structure in space.
5. Photograph your work as it flies or moves in space, as well as the stationary details.
Project 5: Illusion and Space
1. Using Mylar, mirrors, or any transparent or reflective material, experiment
with illusion and/or reflection.
2. Construct and relate the forms or materials in a spatial organization. Use the
material in relation to a constructed form or locate it in a given interior or
exterior space.
3. Or, use powerful lights or legal laser pointers to define spaces.
4. One student used a series of laser pointers and the early morning and
evening mists in a field to eerily illuminate his defined spaces.
You are not required to spend a long time forming the basic material. It is
more important that you develop a series of units that you can arrange in
various relationships to consider and explore illusion, sensation, repetition,
and reality.
Project 6: Environment Project
1. First, find a site.
2. Using natural materials-branches, for example-create one or more spatial structures
that you consider appropriate to the site, for example pyramids or dome structures.
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U10-18 Unit 10: Space
3. Your structure(s) can relate to any existing natural features such as a path,
pool, trees, soft earth and so on.
4. Remember that space is your principal statement. You may want to define the
space further, using rope or string attached to your structure and connecting it to
the natural forms around it. When working outside, consider clearing the visual
field as much as you can, so that your sculptural intentions show clearly.
Notes on the Reproductions
Spiral galaxies.
Courtesy: H.R. MacMillan Planetarium
Galaxies are vast expansion of stars and nebulae (clouds of interstellar gas and dust)
that, in the millions, are the principal constituents of the universe. Our galaxy, the
Milky Way, was once thought to be the extent of the spatial universe. Now we know
that numerous star systems extend infinitely into outer space—as far as the most
powerful telescopes can explore.
Smaller components among the galaxies include the solar system and other
assemblages of planets, satellites, comets, and meteoroids that revolve around a
central stellar body. The spatial universe also contains gravitational fields, various
forms of radiation and sources of infra-red, radio, X-rays, gamma rays, and other
components of the electro-magnetic spectrum.
They are millions of light years away; but in our minds they can be connected to the
personal space we inhabit.
Gabo, Naum. Construction in Space with Crystalline Centre. 1938–1940.
Perspex (Plexiglas) and celluloid, 32.4 × 47 cm.
Reproduced with the permission of Nina Williams.
This work shows spatial form accentuated by the use of transparent material, which
tends to dematerialize the form. The edges of the Plexiglas refract the light and,
under normal circumstances, other images will be reflected on the surface. The
crystalline nucleus, which gives the work its name, contrasts strongly with the
dominant curves of the outer spatial shell. In 1920, Gabo and his brother Pevsner
had issued the Constructivist Manifesto, which states, “To communicate the reality of
life, art should be based on the two fundamental elements, space and time.” They
were drawing our attention to more dynamic concepts and preparing us to work
with new concepts of space.
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VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-19
Le Corbusier. Villa Savoye. 1928–1931.
Southwest façade and courtyard detail.
Poissy, France.
© Fondation Le Corbusier.
With its elegant functionalism, Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye speaks visually and
structurally, in what was then a new way. Poised and projected in space on slim
columns, the strip windows that ring the upper floor make a spatially penetrated
sandwich. Inside, a stepped ramp leads the visitor up through the open centre of the
house to a roof garden. Corbusier professed a desire for harmony between humans
and the machine age, at a time when new materials—steel, reinforced concrete,
structural glass and plastics—and new engineering would combine to modify
architectural space.
Ed White, EVA, Gemini 4. 1965.
Photo: James McDivitt.
Command pilot James McDivitt took this photograph of Ed White in space outside
the Gemini spacecraft, engaged in what is referred to as extra-vehicular activity
(EVA). It was a sensational image at the time, and it is still one of the most
compelling images produced in space.
The Gemini program of the 1960s, when astronauts first floated free in the near-
vacuum of space, passed a major milestone in space exploration.
Lunar Module Rising from Surface of Moon: Earthrise.
Apollo II, 1969
Photo: Michael Collins
As lunar module Apollo II rises from the moon’s surface, Earth comes into sight,
luminous blue and white. The cratered moon below, its pitted crust drab and inert,
now possesses a few human footprints. Astronaut Michael Collins looked across the
vast distance at tiny, fragile Earth and photographed a new kind of space landscape.
The initial lunar landing was made in July 1969, when soil, rock, and mineral
samples were collected, and when astronaut Armstrong, first onto the moon’s
surface, said, to millions of television viewers, “That’s one small step for [a] man,
one giant leap for mankind.”
TRU Open Learning
U10-20 Unit 10: Space
Morris, Robert. Untitled. 1967.
Steel, 78.75 × 177 × 177 cm.
© ARS New York, 1991.
Morris, American Minimalist, has pointed out that simplicity of shape does not
necessarily equate with simplicity of experience. In this form, with its
complimentary straight and curved lines and plans, he has made a container from
heavy metal mesh that reveals both the inside and outside. Substantial and
transparent, the mesh allows the inside of a closed form to become the outside, and
the outside to be seen as part of the inside. All the mesh parts are constructed
around an open centre, so space penetrates all aspects of the volume as a structure.
Snelson, Kenneth. Easy K. 1971.
Cantilevered aluminum and stainless steel, 6.1 × 6.1 × 30.48 m.
Park Sonsbeek Centre, Arnhem, Holland
Captivated with the geometry of structure and constructive techniques, Snelson
experimented with the forces of tension and compression held in equilibrium in
space. These two mechanical forces correspond to the muscles and bones of the
human body. The tension members are the muscles—the wire cables in Easy K—
whereas the compression members are the bones-or the tubes in this work.
Buckminster Fuller credited Snelson with the invention of a new structural principle:
tensegrity, a combination of the words “tension” and “integrity.” Rigid rods and
tubes pierce space; wire cables not only stretch across space, but also complete the
structured form in space—a synthesis of mathematics and aesthetics.
Piene, Otto. Olympic Rainbow. 1972.
Polythene tubes and webbing, 1 × 610 × 4 m.
Munich, Germany.
Piene is an exponent of “sky-art.” Using many different media, including balloons,
kites, performances, and events, he always involves light and space. He has referred
to space as “what you see through the Earth’s atmosphere lit by the sun.” He has
also commented that space is a realm formerly reserved for religions—sky and space
have been the “home” of the gods in many faiths. In his use of light and air, Piene’s
art attempts to fuse the scientific with the visionary.
This multicoloured helium-inflated sculpture was installed for the closing ceremony of the
1972 Olympics in Munich. It comprised five parallel polythene tubes, each measuring one
metre/3.3 feet in diameter, connected by transparent synthetic webbing. Each tube was in
one of the five colours of the Games of the XX Olympiad. When inflated, the sculpture
formed an arch 610 metres/2,000 feet long and approximately four metres/thirteen feet
wide. At night, it was lit by forty programmed ground lights equipped with coloured gels.
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-21
Morino, Sachiko. An Air Sent from Switzerland. 1977.
Cotton rope, 36.9 × 34.9 × 27.9 cm.
Space is the content of this amusing package. I hope the clear mountain air survived
the journey, enclosed in the pressurized aircraft!
Erickson, Arthur. Graham House. Cedar, glass. Circa 1962–1964.
West Vancouver, BC.
Canadian architect Erickson designed this small but spacious house for a Vancouver
artist. Built overlooking the ocean, it had a central spatial core; light and space
penetrated the whole building. It was reminiscent of the Villa Savoye, but the
extensive glazing made it possible to see space through, as well as above and
(because of its raised site) below. The house seemed to project out of the almost
encircled space of the wooded hillside platform—and also to draw space into it.
Oppenheim, Dennis. Formula Compound. Circa 1980s.
Activated July 1982.
Battery Park, New York, NY.
Oppenheim is known for large-scale machines works, land art and dynamic ideas. In
Formula Compound, one of the Firework series of the early 1980s, he celebrated with
the temporary release of convulsive pyrotechnic energy, like a launch pad gone mad.
For half an hour, a single fuse triggered a chain reaction of light forms and
projectiles tracing and overlapping in space. Once ignited, the piece performed
automatically, making space visible with a continuous flow of space writing.
Two Can Play. 1983.
Richard Deacon.
Galvanized steel, 183 × 365.8 × 183 cm.
The Saatchi Collection, London, England.
A significant number of works by British sculptor Deacon are constructed in a
spatial idiom. He can be uncompromising in his construction and use of material,
revealing his process and methods. There is an easy intimacy and no fuss about the
work, but once you start responding to it, it becomes quite complex, managing to
refer to many things, physical and sensual, and somehow both geometric and
organic in association. In the end, the sculpture is a balance of the metaphorical and
the physical-like a new machine for digesting space. (See Deacon’s work with space
in For those who have ears #2 in the Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–064.)
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U10-22 Unit 10: Space
Whiteread, Rachel. House. 1993. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–068)
Cement. (Now demolished).
London, England.
House was made from the interior casts of a terrace house that was due to be
demolished. The recessed spaces of the empty fireplaces, now show as blocks
protruding from the wall, to the right of the photograph. Whiteread‘s work in
focusing on the spaces between objects in effect reverses object and space. The empty
space now becomes a positive object and the actual object is only present in the form
of the cast. This makes the overlooked “empty” space both visible and unsettling.
Switch shows the process in a simpler form. Everything looks familiar but is obviously
displaced from everyday reality. In practical terms, a mould has been made of the exterior
of the switch, and then a cast made from plaster has been made in the mould.
Kapoor, Anish. Cloud Gate. 2004–2006. (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–065)
Steel plate
Chicago, IL.
Cloud Gate occupies a prominent plaza in Chicago and represents the current
summation of Kapoor’s work with space and reflection. The idea of the sculpture
came from looking at forms taken by the metal mercury. Cloud Gate’s highly
polished curved forms, reflects, and bends a vast space. Sky, clouds, and
surrounding buildings are all reflected and become part of the sculpture. The
sculpture changes as the weather and time change. Kapoor’s work has used the
effects of scale, form, and different coloured surface treatments to create ambiguous
spaces that develop themes of immateriality and spirituality.
Goldsworthy, Andy. Knotweed Stalks. 1988 (Postcard Booklet: TRU OL–066).
Derwent Water, Cumbria, England.
Goldsworthy’s piece, also known as Early Morning Calm, and which we saw in Unit
9, works with the careful placing of the knotweed stalks. These set up spatial
rhythms above the water in a loose hexagonal shape. The stalks are then reflected in
the water to create a complete and balanced circular form which seems to encompass
sky, space, mist, light, and water.
Recommended Resources
Critchlow, Keith. Order in Space. New York: Viking, 1978. Print.
Well-illustrated, with diagrams of geometric order in space from the simplest
functions and relationships to the most complex.
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-23
Ewing, William, A. Inside Information, Imaging the Human Body. New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1996. Print.
Highly coloured and detailed photographs of the inside spaces of the human
body. Many structures show striking similarity with external forms.
Giedion, Siegfried, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition. 5th ed.,
rev. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971. Print.
Possibly the first and perhaps the best book about the modern movement in
architecture and its relationship to developments in art; a classic that rewards
study.
Purce, Jill. The Mystic Spiral: Journey of the Soul. London: Thames and Hudson.
1997/2003. Print.
Shows the recurring presence of the spiral, in both the art, cosmology, and the
conception of space of a range of different cultures. The spiral also occurs in
natural phenomena such as the shape of some galaxies, vortices, the spiral of
plant’s leaves, and the hair on the crown of the human head.
Senechal, Marjorie, and Fleek, George, Eds. Shaping Space (A Polyhedral Approach).
Cambridge, MA: Birkhauser Boston, 1988. Print.
A stimulating, practical book that deals with shaping and forming polyhedra, as
well as with space perception, form, and function.
Additional Resources
Internet
It will be worth your time to explore images of the developments of three
contemporary artists who are working with space in very powerful and very
different ways:
You will find a good range of range of images of James Turrell’s work inside and
with the Roden Crater by searching Google Images. You can also find a series of
interviews with the artist by doing an Internet search for the “Roden Crater Project –
A Perspective.”
Images of Rachel Whiteread’s powerful work, which involves casting the space
between, or inside forms, can be found in Google Images, or on the Artcyclopedia
and Artangel websites. Take time to view some images of her House sculptures.
Anish Kapoor’s work uses large sculptural forms embedded with coloured particles
or highly reflective surfaces to provide viewers with new perceptions of space.
TRU Open Learning
U10-24 Unit 10: Space
List of Illustrations
1. Forms and order in space. Storyboards prepared for computer animations in
Unit 10 by Tom Hudson.
2. Preliminary studies for forms in space. Notebook drawings by Geoffrey Topham.
3. Space installation. Notebook drawing by Oliver Kuys.
4. Bamboo poles in space. Planning drawing for installation by Oliver Kuys.
5. Relationship of two and three squares at right-angled contact. Analytical drawing
for plane structures in wood, metal and so on by Oliver Kuys.
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-25
TRU Open Learning
U10-26 Unit 10: Space
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-27
TRU Open Learning
U10-28 Unit 10: Space
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-29
TRU Open Learning
U10-30 Unit 10: Space
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-31
TRU Open Learning
U10-32 Unit 10: Space
TRU Open Learning
VISA 1301: Material and Form U10-33
TRU Open Learning
U10-34 Unit 10: Space
TRU Open Learning
Unit 1: Wood
Introduction
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Wood
Sources of Wood
Classification of Wood
Characteristics of Wood
Working with Wood
Assignment 1: Wood
Introduction
Sections
Notebook and Documentation
Improvisation and Research
Instructions
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 2: Metal
Introduction
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Metal
Sources of Metal
Classification of Metal
Characteristics of Metal
Metal in Art and Craft
Working with Metal
Joining and Forming Methods
Metal-Working Tools
Metal Finishing
Assignment 2: Metals
Introduction
Projects and Options
Instructions
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
Additional Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 3: Plastic
Introduction
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Plastic
Sources of Plastic
Classification of Plastic
Characteristics of Plastic
Acrylic
Polyester Resin
Modern Plastics
Fibreglass-Reinforced Polyester
Working with Plastic
Thermoplastic
Thermo-Setting Plastic
Expanded Plastic
Environmental Considerations
Assignment 3: Plastic
Introduction
Projects and Sections
Documentation and Notebook
Getting Started
Section 1: Experimental
Section 2: Personal Development
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 4: Paper
Introduction
History of Paper
Papermaking
Artists Using Paper
Assignment 4: Paper
Introduction
Sections and Projects
Instructions
Section 1: Experiment with Paper and Card
Section 2: Project Options
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 5: Fibres
Introduction
Classification and Sources of Fibres
Animal Fibres
Vegetable Fibres
Mineral Fibres
Synthetic Fibres
Working with Fibres
Weaving
Knotting and Macramé
Knitting and Crochet
Student Projects
Assignment 5: Fibres
Introduction
Project Options
Instructions
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 6: Particles
Introduction
Sources and Classification of Particles
Sources of Particles
Erosion
Classification of Particles
Working with Particles
Sand
Other Types of Particles
Transparent and Reflective Surfaces
Light
Custom Made
Student Projects
Assignment 6: Particles
Introduction
Photographic and Notebook Documentation
Improvisation and Research
Instructions
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
Additional Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 7: Stone
Introduction
Sources, Classification, and Characteristics of Stone
Sources of Stone
Classification of Stone
Characteristics of Stone
Stone in Art and Architecture
Paleolithic
Neolithic
Old World
Greco-Roman
Western European
Working with Stone
Types of Stone
Formal Aspects of Stone
Mass and Volume
Line
Texture and Surface Quality
Colour
Light
Space
Sources of Stone
Tools
Student Projects
Preparing to Work
Drawing
Modelling
Material
Imagining the Form
The Creative Mind
Assignment 7: Stone
Introduction
Project Options
Notebook and Photographic Documentation
Ways of Working For Projects 1-4 and 6
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
Additional Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 8: Earth
Introduction
Composition and Classification of Earth
Working with Earth
Pottery
Earthworks (Earthworks, Land Art, Environmental Art)
Twentieth-Century Developments
Site-Specific Pieces
Working with Clay and Pottery
Clay and Pottery Finishing
Student Projects
Moulding
Building
Modelling
Construction
Throwing
Environmental
Other Possibilities
Assignment 8: Earth
Introduction
Project Options
Documentation
Instructions
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
Additional Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 9: Liquid
Introduction
Sources, Properties, and Composition of Water
Sources of Water: The Hydrologic Cycle
Properties of Water
Composition of Water
Water in History
Artificial Waterways
Steam Energy
Hydraulics
Life Support/Enhancement
Water in Art
Language of Water
Student Projects
Assignment 9: Liquid
Introduction
Project Options
Documentation and Notebook
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
Additional Resources
List of Illustrations
Unit 10: Space
Introduction
Concepts of Space
Relativity, Space, and Time
Space Exploration
Space in Art
Pictorial Space
Sculptural Space
Positive-Negative Space
Architectural Space
Working with Space
Student Projects
Assignment 10: Space
Introduction
Project Options
Documentation
Instructions
Notes on the Reproductions
Recommended Resources
Additional Resources
List of Illustrations