The class name is called motivation.
200 words for each discussion question.
1)
A young couple is sitting at a table in the school’s cafeteria when, suddenly, the young woman throws a glass of iced tea all over her male friends, and she storms out of the cafeteria in a rage. What internal and external attributions do you make of this situation? Why do we frequently make attributions? Are our attributions usually correct? Be specific in your response.
2)
Knowing how to motivate yourself is important, especially if you are feeling rejected or defeated. Identify 3 strategies for motivating yourself based on your readings and our class discussions and discuss briefly how you can apply them.
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Please look at the powerpoints attached.
Please don’t take info from other sources.
Just from the powerpoints I posted.
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 1
The Science of Motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1
Learning Objectives
1.1 Analyze the characteristics of motivation
1.1.1 Explain how motivation is future oriented
1.1.2 Define motivation
1.1.3 Describe the relationship between goals and motivation
1.2 Explain how self-control positively affects motivation
1.2.1 Determine the relationship between temptation and self-control
1.2.2 Create your ProjectMe goal
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
2
Introduction: The Science of Motivation
Key questions to be answered
What is motivation?
Why is motivation important?
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The ability to imagine and prepare for the future is unique to humans, and while the study of motivation is a fairly new field, the concept has strong historical roots.
Motivation is critical because of the wide variety of temptations and their connections to social problems.
3
1.1: What Is Motivation? (2 of 4)
1.1: Analyze the characteristics of motivation
How are humans different from animals?
Anticipate the future
Free from the “tyranny of bondage to the present”
Develops through childhood
1.1.1: Motivation Is Future Oriented
1.1.1: Explain how motivation is future oriented
Lobotomies
Neurosurgical procedure
Treatment for severe psychiatric disorders
Impact on planning and goals
Goals
Cognitive representation of the future
Resist temptation
Prefrontal lobe
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1.1: Analyze the characteristics of motivation
Point 1 – How are humans different from animals?
While animals have demonstrated language and self-awareness, the ability to anticipate the future appears to be a human trait.
Humans are able to project their minds into the future.
The ability to think into the future develops as humans grow up.
1.1.1: Motivation Is Future Oriented
1.1.1: Explain how motivation is future oriented
Point 1 – Lobotomies
A lobotomy severs connections to the prefrontal cortex.
The procedure was popular during the 1940s and 1950s.
While lobotomies appeared to have no impact on intelligence and memory, they did impact planning and sticking to goals.
Point 2 – Goals
Goals are cognitive representations of the future that an individual is committed to approach or avoid.
Lobotomized patients could not avoid temptations, reverting to pleasure-seeking animals.
The prefrontal lobe is where the ability to anticipate the future, plan for it, and set goals accordingly is located.
4
1.1: What Is Motivation? (2 of 4)
1.1.2: Defining Motivation
1.1.2: Define motivation
What is the definition of motivation?
Motus
Energy and direction
The components of the energy within motivation
Initiation
Intensity
Persistence
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1.1.2: Defining Motivation
1.1.2: Define motivation
Point 1 – What is the definition of motivation?
The Latin word motus means to move, and was first used by Cicero when he refers to the motion or stirring of the soul as motus animi.
Schopenhauer first used the word “motivation” in 1813 to describe the underlying processes that provide energy and direction for behavior.
Point 2 – The components of the energy within motivation
Initiation is the starting of a behavior.
Intensity is the amount of resources expended to carry out the behavior.
Persistence is the continuing of the expenditure until the behavior is completed.
How do these components vary by each situation?
5
1.1: What Is Motivation? (2 of 4)
1.1.3: Goals and Motivation
1.1.3: Describe the relationship between goals and motivation
The Three-Step Process to Achieve a Goal
Choose a particular goal
Develop a plan of action
Initiate and expend resources until completion of goal
Why study motivation?
Determine what drives the behavior of others
Determine what drives your own behavior
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1.1.3: Goals and Motivation
1.1.3: Describe the relationship between goals and motivation
Point 1 – The Three-Step Process to Achieve a Goal
Refer to Figure 1.1: Using the Three-Step Process to Achieve Your Goal .
Goal-seeking is not always conscious.
What factors, both internal and external, do you think affect the goal-achieving process?
Point 2 – Why study motivation?
Humans are naturally people-watchers and want to understand why people act the way they do.
We also want to know what affects our own goals. This figure is not listed in the template.
6
Figure 1.1: Using the Three-Step Process to Achieve Your Goal
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7
1.2: Why Is Motivation Important? (1 of 4)
1.2: Explain how self-control positively affects motivation
What factors affect life success?
Intelligence?
Self-esteem?
Self-control
Willpower
Impulses
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1.2: Explain how self-control positively affects motivation
Point 1 – What factors affect life success?
How have societal focuses on intelligence and self-esteem affected people, especially the younger generations?
Point 2 – Self-control
Self-control is what allows us to become the person we want to be.
Some people have low self-control and are slaves to their impulses.
How are social problems linked to self-control?
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1.2: Why Is Motivation Important? (1 of 4)
1.2.1: Importance of Self-Control
1.2.1: Determine the relationship between temptation and self-control
What is the relationship between temptation and self-control?
Never ceasing temptations
Not all temptations are equal
How often do we exert self-control?
3 hours/day
Lower rates for social interaction and alcohol
30 minutes of self-control failure
Prediction of later success
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1.2.1: Importance of Self-Control
1.2.1: Determine the relationship between temptation and self-control
Point 1 – What is the relationship between temptation and self-control?
Hofmann, Baumeister, Förster, and Vohs (2012) demonstrated that temptation is the norm.
The most common temptations are eating, drinking nonalcoholic beverages, and sleeping.
Leisure, social interactions, and media were also popular.
The highest intensity temptations were sex, sleep, playing sports, and social interaction. Cigarettes and alcohol were the lowest.
Point 2 – How often do we exert self-control?
The Hofmann et al. (2012) study shows temptations are ubiquitous.
Moffitt et al. (2011) found that children who had high self-control at age 3 had better health and wealth at age 32 than children will lower self-control.
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1.2: Why Is Motivation Important? (1 of 4)
1.2.2: ProjectMe Goal
1.2.2: Create your ProjectMe goal
The ProjectMe goal
Application of theories and research
Concrete, self-relevant situation
Guidelines
Pick a goal
Weekly monitoring
Length of the class (be realistic)
Public
Legal
Not to perform well in the class
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1.2.2: ProjectMe Goal
1.2.2: Create your ProjectMe goal
Point 1 – The ProjectMe goal
The purpose of the ProjectMe is to provide a work in progress in which you as a student will apply the theories and research findings from the course to a concrete situation.
This will be an individual, ongoing project in which you identify a goal you want to achieve.
Point 2 – Guidelines
Your goal must be quantifiable and achievable. It might be made public, so choose something you feel comfortable sharing. The goal cannot be to perform well in the course; choose something else instead.
10
Summary: The Science of Motivation
The definition of motivation
The importance of motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The ability to plan is located in the prefrontal cortex and is uniquely human. Motivation is the underlying process that provides energy and direction for behavior. Behavior can vary in initiation, intensity, and persistence. Motivation can be affected by biological, environmental, emotional, social, and cognitive forces.
Self-control is the ability to regular and change thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. People with high self-control are not as affected by temptations. Poor self-control is associated with nearly every social problem. Interestingly, a study by Moffitt et al. (2011) showed a link between self-control at 3 and later health, wealth, and criminality at age 32.
11
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 2
Philosophical Origins of Motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1
Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
2.1 Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation
2.1.1 Describe how Plato explained human motivation
2.1.2 Explain the components of Aristotle’s theories regarding motivation
2.1.3 Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics
2.2 Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation
2.2.1 Explain Saint Augustine’s philosophy of motivation
2.2.2 Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas’s perspective of motivation
2.2.3 Describe how Descartes’s Passions related to his philosophy of motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
2
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
2.2.4 Explain how Hobbes’s theory of relationship between thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation
2.2.5 Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of motivation
2.2.6 Describe Hume’s philosophy of motivation
2.3 Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment
2.3.1 Analyze Bentham’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
2.3.2 Analyze Kant’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
2.3.3 Analyze Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
3
Introduction: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
Key questions to be answered
Ancient Greeks
Medieval and post-Renaissance philosophers
Age of Enlightenment
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The earliest motivation theory is hedonism, but there was also a push to separate emotion from reason.
During the medieval and post-Renaissance times, philosophers examined passions and dualism to understand motivation.
The Age of Enlightenment examined utilitarianism, emotions, and, finally, used the term “motivation.”
4
2.1: Ancient Greeks (1 of 3)
2.1: Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation
The early philosophical theories to explain motivation
Hedonism
Pleasure
2.1.1: Plato
2.1.1: Describe how Plato explained human motivation
The Tripartite Theory of Motivation
Rational
Spirited
Appetitive
Metaphor of a chariot rider pulled by two horses
Unequal pleasures
Physical
Mental
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
2.1: Analyze the earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation
Point 1 – The early philosophical theories to explain motivation
The early Greek philosophers believed humans are motivated to pursue pleasure and avoid pain.
2.1.1: Plato
2.1.1: Describe how Plato explained human motivation
Point 1 – The Tripartite Theory of Motivation
Plato argued that these three sources of the psyche were in constant conflict with each other.
He likened the conflict to a chariot rider (rational) pulled by the ugly black horse (appetitive) who is kept in check by the white noble horse (spirited).
Point 2 – Unequal pleasures
Plato believed the pleasures from physical desires were inferior to those from higher-order desires.
5
Figure 2.1: Plato’s Tripartite Theory of Motivation
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6
2.1: Ancient Greeks (2 of 3)
2.1.2: Aristotle
2.1.2: Explain the components of Aristotle’s theories regarding motivation
The golden mean
Aristotle’s four causes
Efficient cause
Material cause
Formal cause
Final cause
Aristotle’s passions
Somatic
Psychic
Aristotle’s two types of happiness
Hedonic
Eudaimonic
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2.1.2: Aristotle
2.1.2: Explain the components of Aristotle’s theories regarding motivation
Point 1 – Aristotle, as well as other philosophers, argued that wise humans seek pleasure in moderation.
Point 2 – Aristotle’s four causes
Efficient cause is something about from the focal target (you) that caused it to change.
The material cause is the physical material that makes up the focus target.
The formal cause is the functional organization of the individual that it shares with other members of its species.
Final cause is the aim or purpose being served.
How could these causes be applied to you yelling at your roommate?
Point 3 – Aristotle’s passions
Somatic passions include emotions with the body.
Psychic passions are emotions associated with the mind.
What are some examples of somatic and psychic passions? When is too much passion bad?
Point 4 – Aristotle’s two types of happiness
Hedonic happiness is the attainment of positive emotions and the absence of negative emotions; therefore, it focuses on the outcome.
Eudaimonic happiness refers to living a life that has meaning and striving for excellence in all that you do.
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2.1: Ancient Greeks (3 of 3)
2.1.3: The Stoics
2.1.3: Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics
Who were the Stoics?
School of philosophers
Emotions as a destructive motivational force
The Stoics’ four types of emotions
Desire
Fear
Pleasure
Pain
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2.1.3: The Stoics
2.1.3: Describe the motivation philosophies of the Stoics
Point 1 – Who were the Stoics?
How were the Stoics different from Plate and Aristotle?
The Stoics placed importance on logic and reasoning.
Point 2 – The Stoics’ four types of emotions
Refer to Table 2.1: The Stoics’ Four Types of Emotions.
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Table 2.1: The Stoics’ Four Types of Emotions
Emotion Description
Desire (epithumia) Desire is directed toward something good in the future.
Fear (phobos) Fear is directed toward something bad in the future.
Pleasure (hedone) Pleasure is experienced when we obtain what we want and avoid what we fear in the present.
Pain (lupe) Pain is experienced when we fail to obtain what we want and succumb to what we fear in the present.
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9
2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (1 of 6)
2.2: Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation
The medieval and post-Renaissance philosophies of motivation
Morality
Sin
2.2.1: Saint Augustine
2.2.1: Explain Saint Augustine’s philosophy of motivation
How did Saint Augustine explain motivation?
Emotions contrary to reason
Emotions as choice or will
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2.2: Contrast the medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation
Point 1 – The medieval and post-Renaissance philosophies of motivation
The Stoics’ perception of emotions was alive and well during this time period.
There was some dissention among philosophers, however.
2.2.1: Saint Augustine
2.2.1: Explain Saint Augustine’s philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – How did Saint Augustine explain motivation?
Saint Augustine argued that emotions are not inherently good or bad, and the distinction resides in our choice of which objects we feel the emotions toward.
10
2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (2 of 6)
2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas
2.2.2: Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas’s perspective of motivation
How did Saint Thomas Aquinas explain motivation?
Emotions tied to physical body
Matter and form
Aquinas’ types of emotions
Concupiscible passions
Irascible passions
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2.2.2: Saint Thomas Aquinas
2.2.2: Describe Saint Thomas Aquinas’s perspective of motivation
Point 1 – How did Saint Thomas Aquinas explain motivation?
Aquinas believed the passions arose from the body (matter), and could affect the mind (form).
Point 2 – Aquinas’ types of emotions
Concupiscible passions are lustful passions that reflect basic desires to pursue good things and avoid bad things.
Irascible passions occur whenever an obstacle blocks one of the concupiscible passions.
What are examples of each?
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2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (3 of 6)
2.2.3: René Descartes
2.2.3: Describe how Descartes’s Passions related to his philosophy of motivation
Descartes’ dualism
Mind-body
Actions and objects do not necessarily have a higher-order purpose
Rational soul
“I think, therefore I am.”
Foundation for instinct
Descartes’ passions
Love
Wonder
Hate
Desire
Joy
Sorrow
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2.2.3: René Descartes
2.2.3: Describe how Descartes’s Passions related to his philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – Descartes’ dualism
The mind is a nonphysical entity that is uniquely different from the body.
Descartes disagreed with Aristotle and argued that when it came to physical phenomena, they could be completely explained by mechanics.
Only human behavior was driven by a sense of purpose.
Descartes argued that the mind and body influence each other, and at times, the rational mind was not always in control.
Point 2 – Descartes’ passions
Descartes argued that there exist six primary passions or emotions, each characterized by a motivational force that moves humans toward or away from a particular object.
Descartes’ theory of passions is one of the earliest recognitions of the important tole that emotions play in motivation.
12
Figure 2.2: The Six Primary Passions or Emotions
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13
2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (4 of 6)
2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes
2.2.4: Explain how Hobbes’s theory of relationship between thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation
Hobbes’ central ideas
Abandoned Descartes’ mind portion of dualism
Materialism
Hedonistic
Rationalism as an illusion
Hobbes’ theory of the relationship between thoughts and emotions
Desire for an outcome
Expectation of the outcome
Expectancy-value theory
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2.2.4: Thomas Hobbes
2.2.4: Explain how Hobbes’s theory of relationship between thoughts and emotions aligned to the philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – Hobbes’ central ideas
Materialism suggests that all human behavior consists of blind, automatic reactions to environmental stimuli.
Life tries to seek out pleasure and avoid pain.
Hedonism is the principle of motivation.
Point 2 – Hobbes’ theory of the relationship between thoughts and emotions
Expectation for an outcome is not enough for action; one must also have the desire.
Hobbes’ ideas would later be revisited in both behaviorism and in expectancy-value theory.
14
2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (5 of 6)
2.2.5: John Locke
2.2.5: Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of motivation
Locke’s ideas
Blank slate
Nurture
Behavior stems from uneasiness
Hedonism
Delay of gratification
Locke’s additional contributions
Empiricism
American Declaration of Independence
Separation of church and state
Separation of government branches
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2.2.5: John Locke
2.2.5: Explain how Locke contributed to the philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – Locke’s ideas
Locke argued that the human mind was a tabula rasa and that behavior was solely motivated by nurture (environment).
While Locke’s ideas rely on hedonistic principles, he argues that people can choose not to give into their temptations.
Point 2 – Locke’s additional contributions
Experience is the only way to gain knowledge; his ideas formed the basis for the scientific method.
American founders built off of the tabula rasa concept, and argued that all men (and women) are created equal.
Many of Locke’s ideas helped shape American society.
15
2.2: Medieval and Post-Renaissance Philosophers (6 of 6)
2.2.6: David Hume
2.2.6: Describe Hume’s philosophy of motivation
How did Hume explain motivation?
Desire
Beliefs
Hume’s passions
Direct
Indirect
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2.2.6: David Hume
2.2.6: Describe Hume’s philosophy of motivation
Point 1 – How did Hume explain motivation?
The rational mind is “the slave of the passions.”
Beliefs play an important role in the formation and experience of emotions.
Point 2 – Hume’s passions
Direct passions arise immediately from feelings of pleasure and pain.
Indirect passions are experienced through pleasure and pain, but with the addition of beliefs associated with the object producing the pleasure or pain.
16
2.3: Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment
How did the explanations of motivation change in the Age of Enlightenment?
Willpower
Free will
Morality
Redefining hedonism
2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham
2.3.1: Analyze Bentham’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
What is Bentham’s utilitarianism?
Restatement of hedonism
2.3: Age of Enlightenment (1 of 3)
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2.3: Evaluate the cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment
Point 1 – How did the explanations of motivation change in the Age of Enlightenment?
Philosophers in the Age of Enlightenment focused on the topics of freedom, reason, knowledge, and science.
2.3.1: Jeremy Bentham
2.3.1: Analyze Bentham’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
Point 1 – What is Bentham’s utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism asserts that the utility of a particular course of action is determined by how much it maximizes happiness and reduces suffering.
Point 2 – Beyond prior hedonistic theories
Bentham was the first to emphasize the importance of certain motivational qualities.
Bentham created a mathematical algorithm to compute the utility of a particular course of action.
Bentham encouraged the comparison of the pros and cons of any moral dilemma.
Bentham also created a list of 14 sources of motivations, what he called the “springs of human action.”
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Beyond prior hedonistic theories
Intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, extent
Felicific calculus
Hedons vs. dolors
List of pains and pleasures
2.3.2: Immanuel Kant
2.3.2: Analyze Kant’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
What was Kant’s philosophy of motivation?
Reason is golden
Minimize impact of emotions
Affect vs. passion
2.3: Age of Enlightenment (2 of 3)
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2.3.2: Immanuel Kant
2.3.2: Analyze Kant’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
Point 1 – What was Kant’s philosophy of motivation?
Kant’s beliefs were reminiscent of the Stoics.
He distinguished between affect and passion; affect is quick to build, and passion is slow.
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2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer
2.3.3: Analyze Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
What was Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation?
First to use “motivation”
Will as intangible active force of nature, universe, and mankind
Body’s experiences
Body through an objective lens
Body through a subjective lens
Driving behavior
Instincts
Impulses
2.3: Age of Enlightenment (3 of 3)
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2.3.3: Arthur Schopenhauer
2.3.3: Analyze Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation in relationship to other theories of motivation during the Age of Enlightenment
Point 1 – What was Schopenhauer’s philosophy of motivation?
Schopenhauer viewed will as a blind, mindless, aimless, irrational urge that propels human action toward largely selfish endeavors.
Point 2 – Body’s experiences
Schopenhauer argued that the objective and subjective outcomes occur at the same time, and therefore, an argument for will is an argument against free will.
Point 3 – Driving behavior
Schopenhauer believed all human action occurs because we are acting in accordance with our “inborn and immutable behavior,” which is inherently selfish.
19
The earliest philosophical theories that were devised to explain human motivation
The medieval and post-Renaissance period philosophies that were devised to explain human motivation
The cause of the seismic shift in philosophical explanations of motivation in the Age of Enlightenment
Summary: Philosophical Origins of Motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The earliest theories used to explain motivation stemmed from ancient Greek and tended to focus on hedonism. However, the Stoics also tried to separate emotion from reason.
During the medieval times, Saint Augustine argued that emotions were not inherently good or bad, but were defined by whether they are directed toward a good or bad object. Saint Thomas Aquinas examined two passions: concupiscible and irascible. Descartes promoted mind-body dualism and argued that human behavior is a function of urges of the body and a rational mind. Hobbes endorsed materialism, while Locke believed the mind was a tabula rasa. Hume argued that cognition can alter emotion.
During the Age of Enlightenment, the understanding of motivation changed greatly. Bentham endorsed utilitarianism, while Kant focused on affect and passion. Schopenhauer was the first person to use the term “motivation,” and argued that will is the subjective illusion that we control our own movements when, in fact, we do not control them.
20
Burkley
First edition
Chapter 3
Psychological Origins of Motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1
Learning Objectives (1 of 1)
3.1 Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation
3.1.1 Explain James’s contribution to the study of will
3.1.2 Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss Ach to the study of will
3.2 Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation
3.2.1 Explain Darwin’s contribution to the study of instinct
3.2.2 Explain James’ contribution to the study of instinct
3.2.3 Explain McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct
3.2.4 Describe alternate perspectives of instinct
3.2.5 Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept of motivation
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
2
Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
3.3 Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation
3.3.1 Summarize Freud’s contribution to the concept of drive
3.3.2 Describe Hull’s contribution to the concept of drive
3.3.3 Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation
3.4 Contrast the psychological theories of personality differences in motivation
3.5 Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation
3.5.1 Describe Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives
3.6 Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior
3.6.1 Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation
3.7 Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation science
3.7.1 Describe motivation in the modern era
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements
3
Introduction: Psychological Origins of Motivation
Key questions to be answered
Will
Instinct
Drive
Incentives
Cognition
The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Key questions to be answered
Early theories on motivation examined will, which is the ability of an agent to make choices free from constraints. A variety of theorists examined will in a variety of settings.
Determinism states that some predetermined cause determines all things, and that instincts are one form of determinism.
Other theorists argued that people (and animals) are motivated by drive, which is a form of arousal that arises when a need is deprived.
Incentives stemmed from behaviorism, which examined incentives and learning.
In the 1970s, cognition changed the way we understand motivation, removing it from other paradigms.
As with other disciplines, motivation has experienced rises and falls. Currently, there is an increased interest in motivation.
4
3.1: Will (1 of 2)
3.1: Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation
What is “will”?
Make choices free from constraint
Plato’s chariot rider
How did will emerge in the field?
Focus on internal control
Focus on resisting temptation
Wilhelm Wundt
3.1.1: James’s Contributions to the Study of Will
3.1.1: Explain James’s contribution to the study of will
What was James’s contribution to the study of will?
Founder of psychology
Deliberate vs. decisive
Will vs. effort
Volition vs. nolition
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
3.1: Evaluate will as a psychological origin of motivation
Point 1 – What is “will”?
Will is sometimes known as willpower or free will.
Point 2 – How did will emerge in the field?
In the late 1800s, the Victorians were searching for secular reasons to retain morality and social order. Samuel Smiles wrote Self-Help in 1859.
Victorians were obsessed with guarding themselves from temptation, especially sexual and hedonistic ones. The temperance movement emerged during this time.
Wundt believed that involuntary actions always start out first as voluntary actions that require a great deal of will.
3.1.1: James’s Contributions to the Study of Will
3.1.1: Explain James’s contribution to the study of will
Point 1 – What was James’s contribution to the study of will?
James called automatic responses ideo-motor action. However, many times we make a conscious decision to pursue a course of action, and this involves will. Volitional acts begin with a deliberative step, followed by the decisive step.
To keep an effort sustained, we must continually hold our goal in mind and not let it fade.
He argued that there are two types of will: impulsions (volitions) and inhibitions (nolitions). Too much volition is explosive will, and too much nolition is obstructed will. What are some examples of these different behaviors?
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3.1: Will (2 of 2)
3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers
3.1.2: Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss Ach to the study of will
What was Lange’s contribution to the study of will?
Experimental study of motivation
What was Ach’s contribution to the study of will?
Experimental study of will
Associative equivalent
Hillgruber—difficulty law of motivation
The decline of will
Effect of World War I
Progressive Movement
Desire for biological constructs
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3.1.2: Contributions of Other Pioneers
3.1.2: Evaluate the contributions of Ludwig Lange and Narziss Ach to the study of will
Point 1 – What was Lange’s contribution to the study of will?
Lange was the first to officially conduct the first experiment of motivation, using a “control hammer” to measure the time when people responded to a stimulus.
Point 2 – What was Ach’s contribution to the study of will?
Ach required participants to memorize nonsensical pairs of syllables and asked them to override habits with new pairings. To complete the second task successfully, the strength of one’s will had to be stronger than the strength of habit, known as “associative equivalent.”
Hillgruber was a student of Ach who established the difficulty law of motivation, which states that increasing task difficulty automatically increase the amount of effort an individual will devote to the task.
Point 3 – The decline of will
After World War I, the idea of will began to disappear from discourse, except in Germany, where it was strongly associated with the Nazis.
The Progressive Movement involved people focusing more on their external environment and not their inner will.
Scientists also found will difficult to define and measure. They moved to instinct instead.
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3.2: Instinct (1 of 3)
3.2: Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation
What is instinct?
Animal urges
Determinism
3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.1: Explain Darwin’s contribution to the study of instinct
Charles Darwin and instinct
Natural selection
Power of external environment
3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.2: Explain James’ contribution to the study of instinct
William James’s contribution to the study of instinct
“The faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in the performance.”
List of instincts
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3.2: Analyze how the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation
Point 1 – What is instinct?
Early philosophers were intrigued by the idea of instinct and its influence on behavior.
Instincts represent one form of determinism in the sense that they represent an innate predisposition to approach or avoid a particular outcome.
3.2.1: Darwin’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.1: Explain Darwin’s contribution to the study of instinct
Point 1 – Charles Darwin and instinct
The criterion necessary for the existence of extinction of a species is whether it promotes survival.
Darwin’s ideas caused motivation researcher to focus on the power of external environments in shaping behavior, instead of internal factors such as intelligence and will. His ideas placed motivation out of philosophy and into biology.
3.2.2: James’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.2: Explain James’ contribution to the study of instinct
Point 1 – William James’s contribution to the study of instinct
James included instincts for rivalry, hunting, fear, and play.
James argued that instinct was among many other motivational forces.
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3.2: Instinct (2 of 3)
3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.3: Explain McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct
William McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct
18 instinct “propensities”
Cognitions
Behavior
Emotions
3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct
3.2.4: Describe alternate perspectives of instinct
What are the alternative perspectives of instinct?
Reflexes
Emotional, purposive (teleological)
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3.2.3: McDougall’s Contribution to the Study of Instinct
3.2.3: Explain McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct
Point 1 – William McDougall’s contribution to the study of instinct
McDougall believed instinct was the only motivational force responsible for human behavior.
He argued that instincts affect cognitions by selectively focusing our attention toward particular objects.
He believed that instincts influence our behavior by providing energy and direction for our actions.
He also believed that instincts are intricately tied to emotions, and that the emotional component was the core of instinct.
3.2.4: Alternative Perspectives of Instinct
3.2.4: Describe alternate perspectives of instinct
Point 1 – What are the alternative perspectives of instinct?
Some theorists argued that instincts were almost identical to reflexes, especially when referring to animal reflexes.
Other theorists (including McDougall) thought that certain cues in the environment elicit an instinct, and this elicits an emotion that turns to action.
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3.2: Instinct (3 of 3)
3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts
3.2.5: Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept of motivation
The decline of instincts
Lack of clear criteria
Contradictions between instincts
Circular logic used to identify instincts
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3.2.5: The Decline of Instincts
3.2.5: Explain why instincts declined as an underlying concept of motivation
Point 1 – The decline of instincts
Why did the popularity of instincts lead to their downfall? What other factors contributed to it?
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3.3: Drive (1 of 3)
3.3: Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation
What is drive?
A form of arousal or energy when a biological need is deprived
Assumed to aversive
Primary reinforcers
Qualities of drive
Initiated by need
Organisms try to reduce drive.
Every behavior is to reduce drive.
Necessary for learning
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3.3: Analyze the aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation
Point 1 – What is drive?
When we are deprived of a need, then we experience drive.
Objects or events that reduce drive are primary reinforcers.
Point 2 – Qualities of drive
A mouse who is deprived of food will learn to run a maze for food faster than a mouse who is not deprived.
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3.3: Drive (2 of 3)
3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive
3.3.1: Summarize Freud’s contribution to the concept of drive
What is Freud’s contribution to drive?
Behavior is motivated to satisfy basic biological needs
Libido
Needs are never fully satisfied
Freud’s three types of drives
Sex
Death
Self-preservation
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3.3.1: Freud’s Contribution to Drive
3.3.1: Summarize Freud’s contribution to the concept of drive
Point 1 – What is Freud’s contribution to drive?
Libido is the internal energy generated by basic needs.
Needs never go away and will only settle down briefly before resurfacing.
Point 2 – Freud’s three types of drives
Freud believed that the key to mental and physical health is to satisfy the three drives on a regular basis.
How can humor help satisfy a drive?
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3.3: Drive (3 of 3)
3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive
3.3.2: Describe Hull’s contribution to the concept of drive
What is Hull’s contribution to drive?
The intensity of an organism’s behavior is determined by drive multiplied by habit.
Nonspecific arousal
Habits
3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive
3.3.3: Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation
What is the difference between instinct and drive?
Instinct is innate.
Drive has no restrictions.
Criticisms related to drive
Not all behaviors seem to derive from biological needs.
Learning occurs without drive.
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3.3.2: Hull’s Contribution to Drive
3.3.2: Describe Hull’s contribution to the concept of drive
Point 1 – What is Hull’s contribution to drive?
Hull believed drive was a form of nonspecific arousal, while habits are well-learned responses that become automatically activated by situational cues.
Why did Hull’s theory appeal to a wide range of motivational theorists?
3.3.3: Instinct Versus Drive
3.3.3: Contrast instinct and drive as they relate to motivation
Point 1 – What is the difference between instinct and drive?
Why was drive considered to be better at explaining motivation than instinct?
Point 2 – Criticisms related to drive
How did incentive motives, secondary reinforcers, and functional autonomy attempt to counteract the argument that many behaviors do not stem from biological needs?
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3.4: Personality
3.4: Contrast the psychological theories of personality differences in motivation
Theories of needs
Henry Murray—Thematic Apperception Test
Abraham Maslow—hierarchy of needs
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3.4: Contrast the psychological theories of personality differences in motivation
Point 1 – Theories of needs
Murray identified 24 psychogenic needs and developed a measure to assess how strong a particular need was within an individual.
Refer to Figure 3.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs This figure is not listed in the template.
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Figure 3.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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3.5: Incentives
3.5: Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation
What role do incentives play in regard to motivation?
Behaviorism
Incentives
The importance of incentives
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Tolman and Honzik (1930)—maze learning
3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives
3.5.1: Describe Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives
What was Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives?
Focus on mental processes
Latent learning
Expectancy
Expectancy-value theory
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3.5: Explain the role incentives play in regard to motivation
Point 1 – What role do incentives play in regard to motivation?
One of the core motivational components of the behaviorist approach is that an incentive (external stimuli) can motivate an organism to perform a particular behavior.
Point 2 – The importance of incentives
The responses that are closely followed by an incentive will be more associated with that situation than other responses with be.
Discuss the 1930 study of incentives and mazes. Refer to Figure 3.2: Effect of Incentives on Maze Performance.
3.5.1: Tolman’s Contribution to Incentives
3.5.1: Describe Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives
Point 1 – What was Tolman’s contribution to the concept of incentives?
Tolman argued that learning occurs, so he went beyond basic behaviorism.
Latent learning occurs without obvious incentive, while expectancy is the perceived likelihood that the behavior will be successful.
Expectancy-value theory states that behavior results from the joint function of one’s expectancy and value.
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Figure 3.2: Effect of Incentives on Maze Performance
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3.6: Cognition
3.6: Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior
How does cognition play a central role in behavior?
Cognitive maps
Cognition, not behaviorism
3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation
3.6.1: Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation
The cognitive revolution
Mentalistic explanations of motivation
Human qualities
How did the cognitive revolution affect the study of motivation?
Set the stage
Lost sight of motivational, volitional, and emotional explanations for human behavior
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3.6: Evaluate how thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior
Point 1 – How does cognition play a central role in behavior?
Refer to Figures 3.3—A-C: Rat Maze Used to Study Cognitive Mapping.
How did Tolman and his students demonstrate that the rats had created cognitive maps?
3.6.1: The Cognitive Revolution in Motivation
3.6.1: Analyze the cognitive revolution in motivation
Point 1 – The cognitive revolution
New theorists in the 1970s focused on ideas such as goals, attributions, expectations, plans, self-beliefs, and self-concept.
There was a greater focus on how humans are different from animals by using humans and goal-setting versus animals in mazes.
Point 2 – How did the cognitive revolution affect the study of motivation?
Many theories, such as expectancy-value theory, still influence the field today.
Motivation was broken into pieces and landed in different psychological subfields.
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Figure 3.3: Rat Maze Used to Study Cognitive Mapping
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3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science (1 of 2)
3.7: Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation science
The rise of motivation science
Dynamic psychology
Purposive psychology
The fall of motivation science
Behaviorism
Cognition
3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era
3.7.1: Describe motivation in the modern era
Motivation in the modern era
Rapidly increasing in popularity
Motivation and Emotion
1990 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation
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3.7: Analyze the causes that have popularized motivation science
Point 1 – The rise of motivation science
Discuss the major milestones in motivational psychology during the 20th century.
Point 2 – The fall of motivation science
In the 1950s and 1960s, behaviorism and cognition scattered motivation throughout subfields, but in the 1980s, motivation began to grow in popularity again.
3.7.1: Motivation in the Modern Era
3.7.1: Describe motivation in the modern era
Point 1 – Motivation in the modern era
A recent survey conducted by the Society for the Study of Motivation found that 43% of articles in a top journal used motivation-related keywords.
Motivation is growing again among scientists, scholars, and society.
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3.7: The Fall and Rise of Motivation Science (2 of 2)
3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence
3.7.2: Explain the reason motivation science has returned to the forefront
Why is motivation growing in popularity?
Popularity of evolutionary and cross-cultural psychology
Technological advances in neuropsychology and psychophysiology
Recognition of motivation’s practical applications
3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation
3.7.3: Describe the New Look of motivation
What characteristics are associated with modern motivation?
Interdisciplinary
Complex
Relies on midrange theories
Goal-focused
Driven by willpower
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3.7.2: Reasons for Motivation’s Resurgence
3.7.2: Explain the reason motivation science has returned to the forefront
Point 1 – Why is motivation growing in popularity?
Both evolutionary and cross-cultural psychology highlight the importance of motives, values, and emotions in guiding behavior.
New technology, like fMRIs, can determine brain activities when experiencing an emotion.
Science has become more translational and application to everyday people.
3.7.3: The New Look of Motivation
3.7.3: Describe the New Look of motivation
Point 1 – What characteristics are associated with modern motivation?
Modern motivation depends on its alliance with other subfields in psychology, and even fields beyond psychology.
Modern approaches to motivation embrace its complexity.
Human and animal behaviors are complex and influenced by many different factors.
A goal is a cognitive representation of a future outcome that the organism is committed to approach or avoid. Why do modern researchers prefer the concept of goals over instinct or drive?
Motivation researchers are focused on the ways that human behavior is driven by conscious, volitional attempts to exert self-control.
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Summary: Psychological Origins of Motivation
Will as a psychological origin of motivation
How the concept of instinct played a role in the understanding of motivation
The aspects of the concept of drive as it relates to motivation
The psychological theories of personality and the differences in motivation
The role incentives play in regard to motivation
How thoughts or cognitions play a central role in explaining behavior
The causes that have popularized motivation science
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Early psychological approaches to motivation concerned will. Wundt believed involuntary actions that do not require will evolved from voluntary actions. James thought behavior is sometimes a function of ideo-motor action. He distinguished two types of will: volition and nolition. Lange conducted the first experiment in the study of motivation with a stimulus (bell) and anticipated response. Ach conducted the first experiment on will, discovering it must be stronger than a habit. Hillgruber established the difficulty law of motivation.
Instincts were one form of determinism. James created a list of instincts, while McDougall argued that all human behavior is a result of basic animal urges. He also argued that instincts influence cognition by focusing attention toward particular objects.
Drive is initiated by need deprivation and aversion. Every behavior is interpreted as an attempt to reduce drive and behaviors that are accompanied by a drive reduction are strengthened. Freud proposed three drives: sex, death, and self-preservation. Hall argued that drive was nonspecific arousal and that the intensity of an organism’s behavior is determined by drive multiplied by habit.
Murray developed a list of 24 needs and then developed the Thematic Apperception Test to measure individual differences in need strength. Maslow developed a need hierarchy and argued that an individual could not move up to a higher level without fulfilling the level below it.
Behavioral psychologists examine the role of incentives. Thorndike developed the Law of Effect, while Tolman proposed the concepts of latent learning and expectancy-value theory.
The cognitive revolution changed the study of motivation by focusing on cognition and ignoring other explanations for behavior.
Motivation is now more popular than ever, but has experienced rises and falls over time. The “New Look” is characterized by its interdisciplinary approach, recognition of its complexity, its focus on midrange theories, and its emphasis on goals.
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