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THE CHEROKEE REMOVAL: A BRIEF HISTORY WITH DOCUMENTS (BEDFORD CULTURAL EDITIONS)
negotiator who supported the attempts of the government
and the missionaries to “civilize” the Indians. The policy
of changing the cultures of the Indians, turning them into
plow farmers who produced surplus crops for sale in the
marketplace, was the only way, Cass and many others
believed, that the Indians could survive. If they remained
“uncivilized,” they would perish.
Lewis Cass Justifies
Removal
By the mid-1820s, Lewis Cass, governor of Michigan
Territory between 1813 and 1831, had become widely
regarded as one of the best informed, most experienced,
and highly thoughtful experts in the country on U.S.-
Indian policy and the histories and cultures of the tribes.
As superintendent of Indian affairs, an office all territorial
governors held, he was certainly familiar with the details
of U.S. relations with the Indians of the Great Lakes.
He had toured the region, visited many tribes in their
home countries, and arranged several treaties with them.
He also was reputed to be a hardheaded, tough, but fair
Cass made his reputation outside of government circles
through a series of essays published in national magazines.
The North American Review, one of the nation’s leading
literary journals, published several of his essays. Written as
extended reviews of books and articles about Indians, Cass
used these essays to put forth his opinions about Indian
policy and U.S. relations with the tribes. His most significant
essay appeared in the January 1830 issue of the North
American Review in the guise of a commentary on the
publication of several letters, addresses, and resolutions in
support of removal. Cass’s essay, fifty-nine pages in length,
was the first extended pro-removal document to appear in
the popular press, written by an expert, since the election
of Andrew Jackson, the publication of the “ William Penn”
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THE CHEROKEE REMOVAL: A BRIEF HISTORY WITH DOCUMENTS (BEDFORD CULTURAL EDITIONS)
essays, and the passage of Georgia’s legislation to extend its
civil and criminal jurisdiction into the Cherokee Nation.
17
Lewis Cass
Removal of the Indians
What does Cass think of the “civilization” policy now? To
what does he attribute its failure? Notice Cass’s claims to
expertise, his tone, his range of arguments, and his use of
evidence. What do his readers who are not experts learn
from him? How does he explain and justify Indian removal?
How does he deal with the reputation of the Cherokees as
a “civilized” people? And how does all of this lead him to
interpret the political and territorial rights of the Cherokees
and all other tribes east of the Mississippi?
January 1830
Francis Paul Prucha, Lewis Cass and American Indian
Policy (Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press,
1967), contains further information on Cass. A more recent
biography is Willard Carl Klunder, Lewis Cass and the
Politics of Moderation (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University
Press, 1996).
A barbarous people, depending for subsistence upon the
scanty and precarious supplies furnished by the chase,
cannot live in contact with a civilized community. As the
cultivated border approaches the haunts of the animals,
which are valuable for food or furs, they recede and seek
shelter in less accessible situations….
… From an early period, their rapid declension and
ultimate extinction were foreseen and lamented, and
various plans for their preservation and improvement
were projected and pursued. Many of them were
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THE CHEROKEE REMOVAL: A BRIEF HISTORY WITH DOCUMENTS (BEDFORD CULTURAL EDITIONS)
heretofore prevented, and yet prevents, the success of
these labors…..
carefully taught at our seminaries of education, in the
hope that principles of morality and habits of industry
would be acquired, and that they might stimulate their
countrymen by precept and example to a better course of
life. Missionary stations were established among various
tribes, where zealous and pious men devoted themselves
with generous ardor to the task of instruction, as well
in agriculture and the mechanic arts, as in the principles
of morality and religion…. Unfortunately, they are
monuments also of unsuccessful and unproductive
efforts. What tribe has been civilized by all this
expenditure of treasure, and labor, and care? …
We have made the inquiry respecting the permanent
advantage, which any of the tribes have derived from
the attempts to civilize them, with a full knowledge
of the favorable reports that have been circulated
concerning the Cherokees. Limited as our intercourse
with those Indians has been, we must necessarily draw
our conclusions respecting them from facts which have
been stated to us, and from the general resemblance they
bear to the other cognate branches of the great aboriginal
stock….
The cause of this total failure cannot be attributed to
the nature of the experiment, nor to the character,
qualifications, or conduct, of those who have directed it.
The process and the persons have varied, as experience
suggested alterations in the one, and a spirit of generous
self-devotion supplied the changes in the other. But
there seems to be some insurmountable obstacle in
the habits or temperament of the Indians, which has
That individuals among the Cherokees have acquired
property, and with it more enlarged views and juster
notions of the value of our institutions, and the
unprofitableness of their own, we have little doubt. And
we have as little doubt, that this change of opinion and
condition is confined, in a great measure, to some of
the half-breeds and their immediate connexions. These
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Removal of the Indians
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THE CHEROKEE REMOVAL: A BRIEF HISTORY WITH DOCUMENTS (BEDFORD CULTURAL EDITIONS)
are not sufficiently numerous to affect our general
proposition….
… But, we believe, the great body of the people are in
a state of helpless and hopeless poverty. With the same
improvidence and habitual indolence, which mark the
northern Indians, they have less game for subsistence,
and less peltry for sale. We doubt whether there is,
upon the face of the globe, a more wretched race than
the Cherokees, as well as the other southern tribes,
present….
representation; from promises never to be kept, and from
expectations never to be realized. The truth must finally
come, and it will come with a powerful reaction. We hope
that our opinion upon this subject may be erroneous.
But we have melancholy forebodings. That a few
principal men, who can secure favorable cotton lands,
and cultivate them with slaves, will be comfortable and
satisfied, we may well believe. And so long as the large
annuities received from the United States, are applied
to the support of a newspaper and to other objects,
more important to the rich than the poor, erroneous
impressions upon these subjects may prevail. But to
form just conceptions of the spirit and objects of these
efforts, we must look at their practical operation upon
the community. It is here, if the facts which have been
stated to us are correct, and of which we have no doubt,
that they will be found wanting.
We are as unwilling to underrate, as we should be
to overrate, the progress made by these Indians in
civilization and improvement. We are well aware, that
the constitution of the Cherokees, their press, and
newspaper, and alphabet, their schools and police, have
sent through all our borders the glad tidings, that the
long night of aboriginal ignorance was ended, and that
the day of knowledge had dawned. Would that it were
so. None would rejoice more sincerely than we should.
But this great cause can derive no aid from exaggerated
The relative condition of the two races of men, who yet
divide this portion of the continent between them, is a
moral problem involved in much obscurity. The physical
causes we have described, exasperated by the moral evils
for what we of the
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