You are required to work in a group to analyze real time data using Python. In this project you will read the real-life dataset from national or international data source on suitable domain. Set 7 objectives to analyze for the chosen data set using Python Pandas, Numpy, SciLearn etc. library. Write a well-structured report that contains executive summary and recommendations on your findings. Skills to be demonstrated: The selected dataset and derived ML Model challenge the student to demonstrate the following skills: • Ability to read data from external files and store data in a Pandas Data Frame • Analyze data Pre process by Sort data, Filter data, Group data, clean data etc. • Perform fundamental Machine Learning (Supervised or Unsupervised) techniques (Curve Fitting, Classification, Clustering and Deep Learning) • Train, optimize and test your model. • Visualize by appropriate plotting/charting Data Sources: Students are encouraged to select an appropriate dataset from any of the open data projects including: • USA Open Data Project:
https://www.data.gov
• European Open Data Project:
http://data.europa.eu/euodp/en/home
The dimensions of an appropriate dataset are at least 1000 rows by 10-20 “relevant” columns.
TENTH EDITION
INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIOLOGY
H E N RY L . T I S C H L E R
Framingham State College
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Introduction to Sociology,
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Henry Tischler
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Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09
What I know about society could fill a book.
What I don’t would fill the world.
Dedicated to my fellow travelers in the journey of life—
Linda, Melissa, and Ben.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents in Brief
Preface
xv
About the Author
xxi
A Word to the Student
PA R T
xxiii
O N E
The Study of Society
1
1 The Sociological Perspective 2
2 Doing Sociology: Research Methods 28
PA R T
3
4
5
6
7
T WO
Culture
Social Interaction
74
102
Social Groups and Organizations
120
Deviant Behavior and Social Control
T H R E E
138
Social Inequality
Social Class in the United States
174
174
Global Stratification 196
Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Gender Stratification
PA R T
12
13
14
15
50
50
Socialization and Development
PA R T
8
9
10
11
The Individual in Society
FO U R
216
246
Institutions
266
Marriage and Alternative Family Arrangements
Religion
294
Education
320
Political and Economic Systems
PA R T
266
F I V E
342
Social Change and Social Issues
364
16 Population and Urban Society 364
17 Health and Aging 392
18 Collective Behavior and Social Change 416
Glossary
437
References
Index
447
469
Practice Tests 485
Practice Test Answers
555
v
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface xv
About the Author xxi
A Word to the wStudent xxiii
PA R T
O N E
The Study of Society 1
CHAPTER
1 The Sociological Perspective 2
Sociology as a Point of View 4
The Sociological Imagination 5
Is Sociology Common Sense? 7
Sociology and Science 7
Sociology as a Social Science 7
The Development of Sociology 11
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) 11
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) 11
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) 12
Karl Marx (1818–1883) 13
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) 14
Max Weber (1864–1920) 16
The Development of Sociology in the United States 17
Theoretical Perspectives 19
Functionalism 19
Conflict Theory 19
The Interactionist Perspective 20
Symbolic Interactionism 20
Contemporary Sociology 22
Theory and Research 22
Summary 22
How Sociologists Do It If You Are Thinking About Sociology as a
Career, Read This 6
Day-to-Day Sociology Too Smart to Marry? 8
How Sociologists Do It Is There a Difference between Sociology
and Journalism? 10
Our Diverse Society Who Is at Most Risk for Suicide? 16
Sociology in Strange Places What Do People Do Online? 21
CHAPTER
2 Doing Sociology: Research Methods 28
The Research Process 29
Define the Problem 30
Review Previous Research 31
Develop One or More Hypotheses 32
Determine the Research Design 33
Define the Sample and Collect Data 35
Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions 39
Prepare the Research Report 41
Objectivity in Sociological Research 43
Ethical Issues in Sociological Research 43
Summary 45
How Sociologists Do It How to Spot a Bogus Poll 38
Day-to-Day Sociology Truth in the Courtroom versus Truth in the
Social Sciences 40
How Sociologists Do It How to Read a Table 42
Sociology in Strange Places Famous Research Studies You Cannot
Do Today 44
PA R T
T WO
The Individual in Society
50
CHAPTER
3 Culture 50
The Concept of Culture 51
Culture and Biology 52
Culture Shock 52
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism 53
Components of Culture 54
Material Culture 54
Nonmaterial Culture 55
The Origin of Language 57
Language and Culture 59
The Symbolic Nature of Culture 60
Symbols and Culture 60
Culture and Adaptation 62
Mechanisms of Cultural Change 62
Cultural Lag 63
Animals and Culture 63
Subcultures 64
Types of Subcultures 64
Universals of Culture 65
The Division of Labor 65
Marriage, the Family, and the Incest Taboo 66
Rites of Passage 66
Ideology 66
Culture and Individual Choice 67
Summary 70
Global Sociology Struggling to Accept the Jury System 54
Global Sociology Is There a Culture Clash between the United
States and Saudi Arabia? 58
Day-to-Day Sociology Symbols in Cyberspace 60
Sociology in Strange Places Doing Research in a War Zone 67
How Sociologists Do It The Conflict between Being a Researcher
and Being a Human Being 68
vii
viii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
4 Socialization and Development 74
Becoming a Person: Biology and Culture 75
Nature versus Nurture: A False Debate 76
Sociobiology 76
Deprivation and Development 79
The Concept of Self 80
Dimensions of Human Development 81
Theories of Development 83
Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) 83
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) 83
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) 84
Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) 84
Early Socialization in American Society 85
The Family 86
The School 86
Peer Groups 88
Television, Movies, and Video Games 90
Adult Socialization 92
Marriage and Responsibility 93
Parenthood 93
Career Development: Vocation and Identity 93
Aging and Society 94
Summary 95
Day-to-Day Sociology Can You Spot a Liar? 107
News You Can Use Laugh and the World Laughs
with You 110
CHAPTER
6 Social Groups and Organizations 120
Sociology in Strange Places Can Socialization Make a Boy into a
Girl? 77
Day-to-Day Sociology Does Day Care Create Unruly
Brats? 87
Our Diverse Society Win Friends and Lose Your Future: The Costs of
Not “Acting White” 89
Day-to-Day Sociology Television Made You the Designated
Driver 91
Global Sociology To Succeed in Japan, Give All the Credit to Your
Boss 94
CHAPTER
The Nature of Groups 121
Primary and Secondary Groups 122
Functions of Groups 124
Defining Boundaries 124
Choosing Leaders 124
Making Decisions 125
Setting Goals 125
Assigning Tasks 125
Controlling Members’ Behavior 125
Reference Groups 125
Small Groups 127
Large Groups: Associations 127
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft 128
Mechanical and Organic Solidarity 130
Bureaucracy 131
Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy: An Ideal Type 131
Bureaucracy Today: The Reality 132
The Iron Law of Oligarchy 132
Institutions and Social Organization 132
Social Institutions 133
Social Organization 133
Summary 134
Sociology in Strange Places Are You Really My Friend? Facebook
and Intimate Communication 123
How Sociologists Do It Can One Bad Apple Spoil the Whole
Group? 126
Day-to-Day Sociology The Strength of the Informal Structure in Job
Hunting 129
Our Diverse Society Limiting Technology to Save the
Community 130
5 Social Interaction 102
Understanding Social Interaction 103
Contexts 104
Norms 104
Ethnomethodology 106
Dramaturgy 106
Types of Social Interaction 107
Nonverbal Behavior 107
Exchange 109
Cooperation 109
Conflict 109
Competition 109
Elements of Social Interaction 110
Statuses 110
Roles 112
Role Sets 113
Role Strain 114
Role Conflict 114
Role Playing 115
Summary 115
Global Sociology Cross-Cultural Social Interaction Quiz
CHAPTER
7 Deviant Behavior and Social
Control
105
138
Defining Normal and Deviant Behavior 139
Making Moral Judgments 140
The Functions of Deviance 140
The Dysfunctions of Deviance 140
Mechanisms of Social Control 141
Internal Means of Control 141
External Means of Control: Sanctions 141
Theories of Crime and Deviance 143
Biological Theories of Deviance 143
Psychological Theories of Deviance 145
Sociological Theories of Deviance 146
The Importance of Law 150
The Emergence of Laws 150
Crime in the United States 152
Crime Statistics 153
Kinds of Crime in the United States 155
CONTENTS
Juvenile Crime 155
Violent Crime 156
Property Crime 156
White-Collar Crime 156
Victimless Crime 156
Victims of Crime 158
Criminal Justice in the United States 159
The Police 159
The Courts 160
Prisons 160
A Shortage of Prisons 165
Women in Prison 165
The Funnel Effect 166
Truth in Sentencing 166
Summary 167
How Sociologists Do It It’s the Little Things That Matter in
Preventing Crime 151
How Sociologists Do It: Serial Murderers and Mass Murderers 157
Sociology in Strange Places Are Peaceful Pot Smokers Being Sent
to Prison? 158
Global Sociology A Bad Country in Which to Be a Criminal 161
Sociology in Strange Places: The Continuing Debate Over Capital
Punishment: Does It Deter Murderers? 162
CHAPTER
9 Global Stratification 196
Stratification Systems 198
The Caste System 198
The Estate System 199
The Class System 200
Theories of Global Stratification 200
Modernization Theory 200
Dependency Theory 201
Global Diversity 201
World Health Trends 201
The Health of Infants and Children in Developing Countries 202
HIV/AIDS 204
Population Trends 204
Summary 211
Global Sociology How Countries Differ—Japan and Nigeria 198
Sociology in Strange places Life Chances of an Adolescent Girl in
Liberia 201
Global Sociology HIV/AIDS, Worldwide Facts 205
Global Sociology Where Are the Baby Girls? 209
CHAPTER
10 Racial and Ethnic Minorities 216
PA R T
T H R E E
Social Inequality
174
CHAPTER
8 Social Class in the United States 174
The American Class Structure 175
The Upper Class 176
The Upper-Middle Class 176
The Middle-Middle Class 176
The Lower-Middle Class 177
The Lower Class 177
Income Distribution 177
Poverty 179
The Feminization of Poverty 180
How Do We Count the Poor? 180
Myths about the Poor 182
Government Assistance Programs 183
The Changing Face of Poverty 183
Consequences of Social Stratification 184
Why Does Social Inequality Exist? 186
The Functionalist Theory 187
Conflict Theory 188
Modern Conflict Theory 189
The Need for Synthesis 191
Summary 192
Our diverse society How Much Are You Responsible for Your
Success? 178
How sociologists do it Where Do the Poor Live
Today? 183
Global Sociology Rich Countries with Poor
Children 185
Our diverse society How Easy Is It to Change Social
Class? 190
The Concept of Race 218
Genetic Definitions 218
Legal Definitions 219
Social Definitions 219
The Concept of Ethnic Group 221
The Concept of Minority 222
Problems in Race and Ethnic Relations 222
Prejudice 222
Discrimination 223
Institutional Prejudice and Discrimination 224
Patterns of Racial and Ethnic Relations 224
Assimilation 225
Pluralism 225
Subjugation 227
Segregation 228
Expulsion 228
Annihilation 228
Racial and Ethnic Immigration to the United States 230
Immigration Today Compared with the Past 230
Illegal Immigration 232
America’s Ethnic Composition Today 233
White Anglo-Saxon Protestants 234
African Americans 234
Hispanics (Latinos) 235
Asian Americans 238
Native Americans 240
A Diverse Society 241
Summary 241
Our Diverse Society How Many Minorities Are There? 223
Our Diverse Society Will English Continue to Be the Language of
the United States? 226
Global Sociology In the Future, Minorities Will Be the New
Majority 232
Sociology in Strange Places Hispanics, Racial Group? Ethnic Group?
Neither? 236
ix
x
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
11
Gender Stratification 246
Are the Sexes Separate and Unequal? 247
Historical Views 247
Religious Views 248
Biological Views 250
Gender and Sex 253
Sociological View: Cross-Cultural Evidence 253
What Produces Gender Inequality? 254
The Functionalist Viewpoint 254
The Conflict Theory Viewpoint 255
Gender-Role Socialization 255
Childhood Socialization 255
Adolescent Socialization 256
Gender Differences in Social Interaction 256
Gender Inequality and Work 258
Job Discrimination 259
Summary 261
Sociology in Strange Places Let Women Vote and You Will Get
Masculine Women and Effeminate Men 249
Our Diverse Society Why Do Women Live Longer Than Men? 252
Day-to-Day Sociology Speaking, Writing, or Blogging—Nowhere to
Hide Gender 258
Our Diverse Society Who Is a Better Boss? 260
PA R T
FO U R
Institutions
266
CHAPTER
12 Marriage and Alternative Family
Arrangements
266
The Nature of Family Life 268
Functions of the Family 268
Family Structures 269
Defining Marriage 270
Romantic Love 270
Marriage Rules 270
Marital Residence 271
Mate Selection 271
The Transformation of the Family 275
The Decline of the Traditional Family 276
Changes in the Marriage Rate 276
Cohabitation 277
Childless Couples 278
Changes in Household Size 278
Women in the Labor Force 279
Family Violence 279
Divorce 280
Divorce Laws 281
Child Custody Laws 283
Remarriage and Stepfamilies 284
Family Diversity 285
The Growing Single Population 285
Single-Parent Families 286
Gay and Lesbian Couples 288
The Future: Bright or Dismal? 289
Summary 289
Day-to-Day Sociology: Marriage and Divorce Quiz 274
How Sociologists Do It: Do 50 Percent of All Marriages Really End
in Divorce? 282
Sociology in Strange Places: Reluctant to Marry—The Men Who
Want to Stay Single 286
CHAPTER
13 Religion 294
The Nature of Religion 295
The Elements of Religion 296
Magic 298
Major Types of Religions 298
Supernaturalism 298
Animism 299
Theism 299
Monotheism 299
Abstract Ideals 300
A Sociological Approach to Religion 300
The Functionalist Perspective 300
The Conflict Theory Perspective 303
Organization of Religious Life 305
The Universal Church 305
The Ecclesia 305
The Denomination 305
The Sect 305
Millenarian Movements 306
Aspects of American Religion 307
Religious Diversity 307
Widespread Belief 307
Secularism 308
Ecumenism 308
Major Religions in the United States 308
Protestantism 310
Catholicism 311
Judaism 313
Islam 314
Social Aspects of Religious Affiliation 315
Summary 317
Our Diverse Society Who Is God? 297
Global Sociology The Worst Offenders of Religious Freedom 304
Day-to-Day Sociology Today’s Cult Might Be Tomorrow’s
Mainstream Religion 306
How Sociologists Do It Is Your Professor an Atheist? 309
Our Diverse Society Changing Religion Early and Often 311
Sociology in Strange Places Worshipping with a Few Thousand of
Your Friends 312
CHAPTER
14 Education 320
Education: A Functionalist View 321
Socialization 321
Cultural Transmission 322
Academic Skills 322
Innovation 325
CONTENTS
Child Care 325
Postponing Job Hunting 325
The Conflict Theory View 326
Social Control 326
Screening and Allocation: Tracking 327
The Credentialized Society 328
Issues in American Education 329
Unequal Access to Education 329
Students Who Speak English as a Second Language 331
High School Dropouts 331
Violence in the Schools 333
Home Schooling 333
Standardized Testing 334
Gender Bias in the Classroom 335
The Gifted 336
Summary 337
Answers to Key Thinkers 341
Sociology in Strange Places: When Race, Money, and Education
Collide 324
Global Sociology: Illiteracy is Common throughout the World 327
Day-to-Day Sociology: Is a College Degree Worth the
Trouble? 329
CHAPTER
15 Political and Economic Systems 342
Politics, Power, and Authority 344
Power 344
Political Authority 344
Government and the State 345
Functions of the State 345
Types of States 346
Autocracy 346
Totalitarianism 346
Democracy 347
Functionalist and Conflict Theory Views of the State 347
The Economy and the State 348
Capitalism 348
The Marxist Response to Capitalism 350
Socialism 350
The Capitalist View of Socialism 351
Democratic Socialism 351
Political Change 352
Institutionalized Political Change 352
Rebellions 352
Revolutions 353
The American Political System 354
The Two-Party System 354
Voting Behavior 354
African Americans as a Political Force 357
Hispanics as a Political Force 357
The Role of the Media 358
Special-Interest Groups 358
Summary 360
Day-to-Day Sociology Eat Your Fresh Fruit and Vegetables or Pay a
Fine 349
Global Sociology Does Suicide Terrorism Make Sense? 353
Sociology in Strange Places I Know It’s Not True, But I’m Not Voting
for Him Anyway 355
PA R T
FI V E
Social Change and Social Issues 364
CHAPTER
16 Population and Urban Society 364
Population Dynamics 365
Fertility 367
Mortality 367
Migration 368
Theories of Population 369
Malthus’s Theory of Population Growth 369
Marx’s Theory of Population Growth 370
Demographic Transition Theory 370
A Second Demographic Transition 371
Population Growth and the Environment 373
Sources of Optimism 376
Urbanization and the Development of Cities 376
The Earliest Cities 377
Preindustrial Cities 378
Industrial Cities 378
The Structure of Cities 379
The Nature of Urban Life 381
Social Interaction in Urban Areas 382
Urban Neighborhoods 382
Urban Decline 382
Homelessness 383
Future Urban Growth in the United States 384
Suburban Living 384
Exurbs 386
Summary 386
Answers to Key Thinkers 390
Sociology in Strange Places: Do Men Without Women Become
Violent? 372
Global Sociology What If the Population Problem Is Not Enough
People? 374
Day-to-Day Sociology: Pay For Something You Can Get For Free
and Hurt the Environment at the Same Time 375
CHAPTER
17 Health and Aging 392
The Experience of Illness 393
Health Care in the United States 394
Gender and Health 394
Race and Health 396
Social Class and Health 397
Age and Health 397
Education and Health 398
Women in Medicine 398
Contemporary Health Care Issues 400
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome 400
Health Insurance 401
Preventing Illness 402
xi
xii
CONTENTS
The Aging Population 404
Composition of the Older Population 406
Aging and the Sex Ratio 406
Aging and Race 406
Aging and Marital Status 406
Aging and Wealth 407
Global Aging 408
Future Trends 409
Summary 410
Global Sociology Women Live Longer than Men throughout the
World 395
Our Diverse Society Why Isn’t Life Expectancy in the United States
Higher? 398
Day-to-Day Sociology Marijuana: A Benign Drug or a Health
Problem? 399
How Sociologists Do It Can Your Friends Make You Fat? 403
Sociology in Strange Places The Discovery of a Disease 405
Our Diverse Society Stereotypes About the Elderly 408
Global Sociology Global Aging Quiz 409
CHAPTER
18 Collective Behavior and Social
Change
Types of Crowds 421
The Changeable Nature of Crowds 422
Dispersed Collective Behavior 422
Fads and Fashions 422
Rumors 424
Public Opinion 424
Mass Hysteria and Panic 425
Social Movements 426
Relative Deprivation Theory 426
Resource Mobilization Theory 427
Types of Social Movements 427
The Life Cycle of Social Movements 428
Globalization and Social Change 429
Social Change in the United States 430
Technological Change 431
The Workforce of the Future 431
Summary 432
Answers to Key Thinkers 436
Sociology in Strange Places: Predicting the Future of
Computers—1967 419
How Sociologists Do It: Coming Together but Staying Apart
Global Sociology: Big Profits from Small Hands 430
416
Society and Social Change 417
Sources of Social Change 418
Internal Sources of Social Change 418
External Sources of Social Change 420
Crowd Behavior and Social Change 420
Attributes of Crowds 421
Glossary 437
References 447
Index 469
Practice Tests 485
Practice Test Answers
555
419
Boxed Features
DAY TO DAY SOCIOLOGY
D
Too Smart to M
Marry? 8
Truth in the Courtroom versus Truth in the Social
Sciences 40
Symbols in Cyberspace 60
Does Day Care Create Unruly Brats? 87
Television Made You the Designated Driver 91
Can You Spot a Liar? 107
The Strength of the Informal Structure in Job
Hunting 129
Speaking, Writing, or Blogging—Nowhere to Hide
Gender 258
Marriage and Divorce Quiz 274
Today’s Cult Might Be Tomorrow’s Mainstream
Religion 306
Is a College Degree Worth the Trouble? 329
Eat Your Fresh Fruit and Vegetables or Pay a
Fine 349
Pay For Something You Can Get For Free and Hurt the
Environment at the Same Time 375
Marijuana: A Benign Drug or a Health Problem? 399
HOW SOCIOLOGISTS DO IT
H
If You Are Thinking About Sociology as a Career, Read
This 6
Is There a Difference between Sociology and
Journalism? 10
How to Spot a Bogus Poll 38
How to Read a Table 42
The Conflict between Being a Researcher and Being a
Human Being 68
Can One Bad Apple Spoil the Whole Group? 126
It’s the Little Things That Matter in Preventing
Crime 151
Serial Murderers and Mass Murderers 157
Where Do the Poor Live Today? 183
Do 50 Percent of All Marriages Really End in
Divorce? 282
Is Your Professor an Atheist? 309
Can Your Friends Make You Fat? 403
Coming Together but Staying Apart 419
SOCIOLOGY IN STRANGE PLACES
S
What Do People Do Online? 21
Famous Research Studies You Cannot Do Today 44
Doing Research in a War Zone 67
Can Socialization Make a Boy into a Girl? 77
Are You Really My Friend? Facebook and Intimate
Communication 123
Are Peaceful Pot Smokers Being Sent to Prison? 158
The Continuing Debate Over Capital Punishment: Does
It Deter Murderers? 162
Life Chances of an Adolescent Girl in Liberia 201
Hispanics—Racial Group? Ethnic Group?
Neither? 236
Let Women Vote and You Will Get Masculine Women
and Effeminate Men 249
Reluctant to Marry—The Men Who Want to Stay
Single 286
Worshipping with a Few Thousand of Your
Friends 312
When Race, Money, and Education Collide 324
I Know It’s Not True, But I’m Not Voting for Him
Anyway 355
Do Men Without Women Become Violent? 372
The Discovery of a Disease 405
Predicting the Future of Computers—1967 419
GLOBAL SOCIOLOGY
G
Struggling to Accept the Jury System 54
Is There a Culture Clash between the United States and
Saudi Arabia? 58
To Succeed in Japan, Give All the Credit to Your
Boss 94
Cross-Cultural Social Interaction Quiz 105
A Bad Country in Which to Be a Criminal 161
Rich Countries with Poor Children 185
How Countries Differ—Japan and Nigeria 198
HIV/AIDS, Worldwide Facts 205
Where Are the Baby Girls? 209
In the Future, Minorities Will Be the New
Majority 232
xiii
xiv
BOXED FEATURES
The Worst Offenders of Religious Freedom 304
Illiteracy is Common throughout the World 327
Does Suicide Terrorism Make Sense? 353
What If the Population Problem Is Not Enough
People? 374
Women Live Longer than Men throughout the
World 395
Global Aging Quiz 409
Big Profits from Small Hands 430
OUR DIVERSE SOCIETY
O
Who Is at Most Risk for Suicide? 16
Win Friends and Lose Your Future: The Costs of Not
“Acting White” 89
Limiting Technology to Save the Community 130
How Much Are You Responsible for Your
Success? 178
How Easy Is It to Change Social
Class? 190
How Many Minorities Are There? 223
Will English Continue to Be the Language of the United
States? 226
Why Do Women Live Longer Than Men? 252
Who Is a Better Boss? 260
Who Is God? 297
Changing Religion Early and Often 311
Why Isn’t Life Expectancy in the United States
Higher? 398
Stereotypes About the Elderly 408
Preface
A
s a freshman at Temple University, my first
experience with a college textbook was in my sociology
course. I dutifully read the assigned chapter during my
first week of class, hoping to become familiar with the
subject matter of this required course. The only problem was that I had no idea what the author was saying.
The writing level was advanced, the style dense, and the
book downright threatening, without photos or illustrations. After several hours of reading, I felt frustrated and
stupid, and I knew no more about sociology than when
I started.
If this was what college was going to be like, I was not
going to make it, I thought. I remember admitting reluctantly that I was probably not what guidance counselors in that day referred to as “college material.” I could
picture myself dropping out after the first semester and
looking for a job selling furniture or driving a cab. My
family would be disappointed, but my father was a factory worker, and there was no family history of college
attendance to live up to. I continued to struggle with
the book and earned a D on the midterm exam. After
much effort, I managed to finish the course with a C and
a burning disinterest in the field of sociology. I did not
take another sociology course for two years and, when
I did, it was “Marriage and the Family,” considered the
easiest course on campus.
I often wonder how I came from this inauspicious beginning to become a sociology professor, let alone the
author of a widely used introductory sociology textbook.
Then again, maybe it is not all that unusual, because that
experience continues to have an effect on me each day.
Those fifteen weeks helped develop my view that little is
to be gained by presenting knowledge in an incomprehensible or unnecessarily complicated way or by making yourself unapproachable. Pompous instructors and
intimidating books are a disservice to education. Learning should be an exciting, challenging, and eye-opening
experience, not a threatening one.
One of the real benefits of writing ten editions of this
textbook is that I have periodically examined every concept and theory presented in an introductory course. In
doing so, I have approached the subject matter through
a new set of eyes and have consistently tried to find better ways of presenting the material. As instructors, we
rarely venture into each other’s classrooms and hardly
ever do we receive honest, highly detailed, and constructive criticism of how well we are transmitting the
subject matter. In writing a textbook, we receive this
type of information, and we can radically restructure
or simply fine-tune our presentation. It is quite an edu-
cation for those of us who have devoted our careers to
teaching sociology.
● STUDENT-ORIENTED EDITION
Before revising this edition of Introduction to Sociology,
we surveyed dozens of instructors to find out what they
wanted in a textbook and what would assist them in
teaching sociology as well as satisfy student needs. The
tenth edition of this book reflects their significant input.
In the surveys for this and past editions, we learned that
both students and instructors were concerned about the
cost of textbooks. To contain costs, the book is softcover
instead of hardcover.
Instructors and students also wanted the book to
contain material that assisted in learning the material.
The book includes a full, built-in study guide that is as
extensive, if not more so, than those typically sold separately. In this way, students will be able to purchase the
combined textbook and study guide for considerably less
than the price of a typical textbook. In fact, the price for
this textbook/study guide combination will most likely
be lower than the used-copy price of a typical hardcover
introductory sociology textbook.
● PRESENTATION
At the end of my sophomore year, I was on academic
probation. I went to the college counseling center for
advice. A well-meaning counselor asked me what my
career goal was. I told him I wanted to be a college professor. To his credit he did not laugh or encourage me to
think of something more in keeping with my 1.91 GPA. I
might not have been good student, but I was fascinated
by what college had to offer. Where else could you be exposed to so much about a world that is so interesting?
Belatedly, I began to realize that a great deal of what is
interesting falls into the field of sociology. My goal in this
book is to demonstrate the vitality, interest, and utility
associated with the study of sociology. Examining society and trying to understand how it works is an exciting
and absorbing process. I have not set out to make sociologists of my readers (although if that happens I will be
delighted) but, rather, to show how sociology applies to
many areas of life and how it is used in day-to-day activities. In meeting this objective, I have focused on two
basic ideas: that sociology is a rigorous scientific discipline and that a basic knowledge of sociology is essential
for understanding social interaction in many settings,
xv
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PREFACE
whether they be work or social. To understand society,
we need to understand how it shapes people and how
people in turn shape society.
Each chapter in this book progresses from a specific
to a general analysis of society. Each part introduces increasingly more comprehensive factors necessary for a
broad-based understanding of social organization.
The material is presented through consistently applied learning aids. Each chapter begins with a chapter outline and learning objectives. Then, a thoughtprovoking opening vignette offers a real-life story of
the concepts being covered. Key terms are presented in
boldfaced type in the text. Key concepts are presented
in italicized type in the text. A chapter summary concludes each chapter. An integrated study guide follows
each chapter. A full glossary is in the back of the book
for further reference. A practice-test section completes
the book.
Great care has been taken to structure the book to
permit flexibility in the presentation of the material.
Each chapter is self-contained and, therefore, may be
taught in any order.
It has taken nearly two years to produce this revision.
Every aspect of this book has been updated, and a great
deal has been changed. The information is as current
and up to date as possible, and there are hundreds of
2007 through 2009 references throughout the book.
these are from real-life events to which students can relate, such as the scientific validity of the claim that there
are many child predators lurking on the Internet (Chapter 1), whether binge drinking is really a problem on college campuses (Chapter 2), socialization during Marine
Corps basic training (Chapter 4), the roles names play in
our identity (Chapter 6), the depiction of gender in Hollywood films (Chapter 11), the public’s views on whether
marriage should be a lifetime commitment (Chapter 12),
and the personal impact of prenatal screening (Chapter 17). Others deal with unusual circumstances that
remind students that there is a wide range of events to
which sociology applies. Examples include the eccentric
soprano Florence Foster Jenkins (Chapter 7), whites who
claim to be black (Chapter 10), and the role of proverbs
in education (Chapter 14).
● A COMPARATIVE AND CROSS-
Day-to-Day Sociology These boxed features examine
a trend or interesting sociological research that has
a connection to students’ lives. The instructor will be
able to discuss these with an eye toward showing the
relevance of sociology to everyday life. Included in this
section are such topics as “Too Smart to Marry?” “Truth
in the Courtroom versus Truth in the Social Sciences,”
“Symbols in Cyberspace,” “Does Day Care Create Unruly
Brats?” “Television Made You the Designated Driver,”
“Can You Spot a Liar?” “Laugh and the World Laughs
with You,” “The Strength of the Informal Structure in Job
Hunting,” and “Speaking, Writing, or Blogging—Nowhere
to Hide Gender,” “Marriage and Divorce Quiz,” “Today’s
Cult Might Be Tomorrow’s Mainstream Religion,” “Is
a College Degree Worth the Trouble?” “Eat Your Fresh
Fruit and Vegetables or Pay a Fine,” “Pay for Something
You Can Get For Free and Hurt the Environment at the
Same Time,” and “Marijuana: A Benign Drug or A Health
Problem?”
CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Sociology is a highly organized discipline shaped by several theoretical perspectives or schools of thought. It is
not merely the study of social problems or the random
voicing of opinions. In this book, no single perspective
is given greater emphasis; a balanced presentation of
both functionalist theory and conflict theory is supplemented whenever possible by the symbolic interactionist viewpoint.
The book has received a great deal of praise for being
cross-cultural in approach and for bringing in examples
from a wide variety of societies. Sociology is concerned
with the interactions of people wherever and whenever
they occur. It would be shortsighted, therefore, to concentrate on only our own society. Often, in fact, the best
way to appreciate our own situation is through comparison with other societies. I try to use the cross-cultural
focus as a basis for comparison and contrast with U.S.
society.
● FEATURES
Opening Vignettes
Each chapter begins with a lively vignette that introduces
students to the subject matter of the chapter. Many of
Theme Boxes
Thought-provoking boxed features bring sociological
concepts to life for students. This effective learning tool
presents sociological concepts in interesting real-life
contexts. There are more than thirty-five new boxes in
this edition. Other boxes that appeared previously have
been substantially changed. You will find five types of
boxes in this edition—Day-to-Day Sociology, How Sociologists Do It, Our Diverse Society, Sociology in Strange
Places, and Global Sociology.
How Sociologists Do It Social research is an important part of sociology. In this section, we present a
variety of studies that help expand our knowledge of
the social world. Included are “Is There a Difference
between Sociology and Journalism?” “If You Are
Thinking about Sociology as a Career, Read This,”
“How to Spot a Bogus Poll,” “How to Read a Table,”
“The Conflict between Being a Researcher and Being
PREFACE
a Human Being,” “Can One Bad Apple Spoil the Whole
Group?” “It’s the Little Things That Matter in Preventing
Crime,” “Serial Murderers and Mass Murderers,”
“Where Do the Poor Live Today?” “Do 50 Percent of All
Marriages Really End in Divorce?” “Is Your Professor
an Atheist?” “Can Your Friends Make You Fat?” and
“Coming Together but Staying Apart.”
Our Diverse Society Anyone studying sociology will
quickly become aware of the enormous amount of social
diversity. The United States with its extensive history of
immigration has become one of the most diverse countries in the world. How has this diversity expressed itself
in American society? In the “Our Diverse Society” boxes,
we explore this question when we look at such topics as
“Who Is at Most Risk for Suicide?” “Win Friends and Lose
Your Future: The Costs of Not ‘Acting White’,” “Limiting
Technology to Save the Community,” “How Much Are
You Responsible for Your Own Success?” “How Easy Is
It to Change Social Class?” “How Many Minorities Are
There?” “Will English Continue to Be the Language of
the United States?” “Why Do Women Live Longer Than
Men?” “Who Is a Better Boss?” “Who Is God?” “Changing
Religion Early and Often,” “Why Isn’t Life Expectancy in
the United States Higher?” and “Stereotypes about the
Elderly.”
Sociology in Strange Places These are discussions that
provide unusual examples of sociological studies or daily
events that can be understood more fully through the
sociological lens. With these boxes, we explore “What
Do People Do Online?” “Famous Research Studies You
Cannot Do Today,” “Doing Research in a War Zone,” “Can
Socialization Make a Boy into a Girl?” “Southerners Are
Really Friendly until You Disrespect Them,” “Are You Really
My Friend? Facebook and Intimate Communication,”
“Are Peaceful Pot Smokers Being Sent to Prison?” “The
Continuing Debate over Capital Punishment,” “Life
Chances of an Adolescent Girl in Liberia,” “Hispanics:
Racial Group? Ethnic Group? Neither?” “When Women
Vote, Men Will Become Effeminate and Women Will
Become Masculine,” “Reluctant to Marry: The Men Who
Want to Stay Single,” “Worshipping with a Few Thousand
of Your Friends,” “When Race, Money, and Education
Collide, “ I Know It’s Not True, But I’m not Voting for Him
Anyway,” “Do Men without Women Become Violent?”
“The Discovery of a Disease,” and “Predicting the Future
of Computers—1967.”
Global Sociology To highlight the cross-cultural nature
of this book, many chapters include a “Global Sociology”
box. These boxed features encourage students to think
about sociological issues in a larger context and explore
the global diversity present in the world. Included in
these boxes are such topics as “Struggling to Accept
the Jury System,” “Is There a Culture Clash between
the United States and Saudi Arabia?” “To Succeed in
Japan, Give All the Credit to Your Boss,” “Cross-Cultural
Social Interaction Quiz,” “A Bad Country in which to
Be a Criminal,” “Rich Countries with Poor Children,”
“How Countries Differ—Japan and Nigeria,” “HIV/AIDS,
Worldwide Facts,” “Where Are the Baby Girls?” “In the
Future, Minorities Will Be the New Majority,” “The Worst
Offenders of Religious Freedom,” “Illiteracy Is Common
throughout the World,” “Does Suicide Terrorism Make
Sense?” “What if the Population Problem Is not Enough
People?” “Women Live Longer than Men throughout the
World,” “Global Aging Quiz,” and “Big Profits from Small
Hands.”
Built-in Study Guide and Practice Tests
The study guide, by Jay Livingston of Montclair State
University, is fully integrated into the book. The study
guide is at the end of each chapter so students can review the material immediately, without having to search
for it elsewhere in the book. This encourages students
to see the study guide as an integral part of the learning
process.
The study guide provides ample opportunity to review the material with a variety of styles of review questions. All key terms and key sociologists are reviewed
with matching questions. Key concepts are revisited
with fill-in questions. Critical Thought exercises help
students contextualize concepts covered in the chapter. Often, Web site URLs are provided for students to
expand on their exploration of the topic. An answer key
is provided to allow students immediate review of their
answers.
Practice tests are in the back of the book to provide students with additional preparation for testing.
Whereas other practice tests are limited to recognition and recall items, these questions lead students to
engage in such higher-level cognitive skills as analysis,
application, and synthesis. The tests encourage students
to think critically and apply the material to their experiences. Again, an answer key is provided to allow students full review and preparation.
All of these tools will be very useful for students preparing for essay exams and research papers. The textbook also includes the important section, “How to Get
the Most out of Sociology,” which discusses how to use
the study guide, practice tests, and lecture material in
preparing for exams and getting the most out of the introductory sociology course.
● THE ANCILLARY PACKAGE
The primary objective of a textbook is to provide clear
information in a format that promotes learning. To assist the instructor in using Introduction to Sociology, an
extensive ancillary package has been developed to accompany the book.
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PREFACE
Instructor’s Resource Manual
Companion Web site
Created by Debra Heath-Thornton of Messiah College,
the instructor’s resource manual streamlines and maximizes the effectiveness of your course preparation, using such resources as brief chapter outlines, learning
objectives, key concepts and thinkers, detailed chapter
outlines, lecture/discussion suggestions, suggestions for
class activities, video suggestions, suggested resources,
Internet exercises, InfoTrac® College Edition exercises,
and other helpful resources for each of the chapters in
Introduction to Sociology.
The book’s companion site includes chapter-specific resources for instructors and students. For instructors, the
site offers a password-protected instructor’s manual,
Microsoft PowerPoint presentation slides, and more.
For students, there are a multitude of text-specific study
aids: tutorial practice quizzes that can be scored and
e-mailed to the instructor, Web links, InfoTrac College
Edition exercises, flash cards, MicroCase® Online data
exercises, crossword puzzles, Virtual Explorations, and
much more!
Test Bank
ABC® Videos for Introductory Sociology
Also included is a test bank by Debra Heath-Thornton.
Drawing from over a thousand of text-specific questions
makes it easy to create tests that target your course
objectives. The test bank includes 100 multiple-choice
questions and twenty to thirty true/false questions for
each chapter of the text, all with answer explanations
and page references to the text. Also included are 10
to 15 short-answer and five to ten essay questions for
each chapter.
ABC Videos feature short, high-interest clips from current news events as well as historic raw footage going
back 40 years. Perfect for discussion starters or to enrich your lectures and spark interest in the material
in the text, these brief videos provide students with a
new lens through which to view the past and present,
one that will greatly enhance their knowledge and understanding of significant events and open up to them
new dimensions in learning. Clips are drawn from such
programs as World News Tonight, Good Morning America,
This Week, PrimeTime Live, 20/20, and Nightline as well
as numerous ABC News specials and material from the
Associated Press Television News and British Movietone
News collections.
PowerLecture with ExamView®
PowerLecture instructor resources are a collection of
book-specific lecture and class tools on either CD or
DVD. The fastest and easiest way to build powerful,
customized media-rich lectures, PowerLecture assets
include chapter-specific Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentations, images, animations and video, instructor
manuals, test banks, useful Web links, and more. PowerLecture media-teaching tools are an effective way to
enhance the educational experience. ExamView features automatic grading and allows you to create, deliver, and customize tests and study guides (both print
and online) in minutes. See assessments onscreen exactly as they will print or display online. Build tests of
up to 250 questions, using up to 12 question types and
enter an unlimited number of new questions or edit existing questions.
WebTutor™
Jumpstart your course with customizable, rich, textspecific content within your Course Management
System.
• Jumpstart—Simply load a WebTutor cartridge into
your Course Management System.
• Customizable—Easily blend, add, edit, reorganize, or
delete content.
• Content—Rich, text-specific content, media assets,
quizzing, Web links, discussion topics, interactive
games and exercises, and more.
● ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The textbook and study guide manuscripts have been
written after an extensive survey of faculty at a wide variety of institutions. I am grateful for the thoughtful contributions of the following people who served as official
reviewers for this tenth edition:
William Egelman
Iona College
Carol Apt
South Carolina State University
Lynda Mae
Western Nevada Community College
Margaret E. Preble
Thomas Nelson Community College
Mark Miller
East Texas Baptist University
Rebecca Stevens
Mount Union College
I also wish to thank the many colleagues and reviewers of previous editions of Introduction to Sociology for
their many contributions and suggestions. I am grateful
for the thoughtful contributions of the following people:
PREFACE
Laura Dowd, University of Georgia; Nancy Feather, West
Virginia University; Hubert Anthony Kleinpeter, Florida
A&M University; Steven Patrick, Boise State University;
Craig T. Robertson, University of North Alabama; Laurie Smith, East Texas Baptist University; Patrick Ashton,
Indiana University–Purdue University; Froud Stephen
Burns, Floyd Junior College; Peter Chroman, College of
San Mateo; Mary A. Cook, Vincennes University; William D. Curran II, South Suburban College; Ione Y. Deollos, Ball State University; Stanley Deviney, University of
Maryland–Eastern Shore; Brad Elmore, Trinity Valley
Community College; Cindy Epperson, St. Louis Community College–Meramac; Larry Frye, St. Petersburg College; Richard Garnett, Marshall University; David A. Gay,
University of Central Florida; Daniel T. Gleason, Southern State College; Charlotte K. Gotwald, York College of
Pennsylvania; Richard L. Hair, Longview Community
College; Selwyn Hollingsworth, University of Alabama;
Sharon E. Hogan, Longview Community College; Bill
Howard, Lincoln Memorial University; Sidney J. Jackson, Lakewood Community College; Michael C. Kanan,
Northern Arizona University; Ed Kick, Middle Tennessee State University; Louis Kontos, Long Island University; Steve Liebowitz, University of Texas, Pan American;
Thomas Ralph Peters, Floyd College; David Phillips, Arkansas State University; Kanwal D. Prashar, Rock Valley
Community College; Charles A. Pressler, Purdue University, North Central; Stephen Reif, Kilgore College; Richard Rosell, Westchester Community College; Catherine
A. Stathakis, Goldey Beacom College; Doris Stevens,
McLennan Community College; Gary Stokley, Louisiana
Tech University; Elena Stone, Brandeis University; Judith C. Stull, La Salle University; Lorene Taylor, Valencia
Community College; Paul Thompson, Polk Community
College; Brian S. Vargus, Indiana University–Purdue
University Indianapolis; Steven Vassar, Minnesota State
University–Mankato; Peter Venturelli, Valparaiso University; J. Russell Willis, Grambling State University; and
Bobbie Wright, Thomas Nelson Community College.
At Montclair State University, I would like to thank
the following colleagues for their support of the book:
Jay Livingston, Gil Klagman, Benjamin Hadis, Janet Ruane, Laura Kramer, and Peter Freund.
A project of this magnitude becomes a team effort,
with many people devoting enormous amounts of time
to ensure that the final product is as good as it can possibly be. At Cengage, Chris Caldeira, the acquisitions editor, ushered this project through its many stages along
with Cheri Palmer, Melanie Cregger, Rachael Krapf, and
Lauren Keyes.
It was a privilege to have the support and assistance of
these very capable people. I am also grateful to all those
students and instructors who have shared with me their
thoughts about this book over the years. Please continue
to let me know how you feel about this book.
Henry L. Tischler
htischler@framingham.edu
xix
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About the Author
HENRY L. TISCHLER was born in Shanghai, China, and grew up in Philadelphia.
He received his bachelor’s degree from Temple University and his master’s and
doctorate degrees from Northeastern University. He pursued postdoctoral studies at
Harvard University.
His first venture into textbook publishing took place while he was still a graduate
student in sociology when he wrote the fourth edition of Race and Ethnic Relations
with Brewton Berry. The success of that book led to his authorship of ten editions of
Introduction to Sociology.
Tischler has been a professor at Framingham State College in Framingham,
Massachusetts, for more than three decades. He has also taught at
Northeastern University, Tufts University, and Montclair State University.
He continues to teach introductory sociology every year and has been
instrumental in encouraging many students to major in the field. His other
areas of interest are crime and deviant behavior and race and ethnicity.
Professor Tischler has been active in making sociology accessible to
the general population and hosted an author interview program on
National Public Radio. He has also written a weekly newspaper
column called “Society Today,” which dealt with a wide variety of
sociological topics.
Tischler divides his time between Boston and New York City
with his wife Linda, a senior writer at a national magazine.
The Tischlers are parents to Melissa, a business strategy
consultant, and Ben, a film producer.
©2000 Al Hirschfeld. Drawing reproduced by special
arrangement with the Margo Feiden Galleries Ltd., New York.
xxi
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A Word to the Student
How to Get the Most Out of Sociology
● EFFECTIVE STUDY: AN INTRODUCTION
Why should you read this essay? If you think you have
an A in your back pocket, perhaps you shouldn’t. Maybe
you are just not interested in sociology or about learning ways to become a really successful student. Maybe
you’re just here because an advisor told you that you
need a social science course. Maybe you feel, “Hey, a
C is good. I’ll never need this stuff.” If so, you can stop
reading now.
If you would like to do well in sociology—thereby becoming a more effective participant in society and social
life—and if you want to learn some techniques to help
you in other classes, too, this is for you. It’s filled with the
little things no one ever seems to tell you can improve
grades, make for better understanding of classes—and
might even make classes enjoyable for you. The choice is
yours: to read or not to read.
Be forewarned. These contents may challenge the
habits of a lifetime—habits that have gotten you this far
but ones that might endanger your future success.
This essay contains ways to help you locate major
ideas in your textbook. It contains many techniques that
will help you read your other course textbooks. If you
learn these techniques early in your college career, you
will have a head start on most other college students.
You will be able to locate important information, understand lectures better, and probably do better on tests. By
understanding the material better, you will not only gain
a better understanding of sociology but also find that
you are able to enjoy your class more.
● THE PROBLEM: PASSIVE READING
Do you believe reading is one-way communication? Do
you expect the author’s facts will become apparent if you
only read hard enough or long enough? (Many students
feel this way.) Do you believe the writer has buried critical material in the text somewhere and that you need
only find and highlight it to get all that’s important?
And do you believe that if you can memorize these highlighted details you will do well on tests? If so, then you
are probably a passive reader.
The problem with passive reading is that it makes
even potentially interesting writing boring. Passive reading reduces a chapter to individual, frequently unrelated
facts instead of providing understanding of important
concepts. It seldom digs beneath the surface, relying on
literal meaning rather than sensing implications. Because most college testing relies on understanding of
key concepts rather than on simple factual recall, passive reading fails to help students significantly to do well
in courses.
Key Features of the Study Guide
For each chapter you will find the following:
Key concepts matching exercise
Includes every major term defined in the chapter
Promotes association of major thinkers with their key
ideas or findings
Provides correct answers
Key thinkers/reserachers matching exercise
(where relevant)
Includes most important theorists or researchers
discussed in the text
Promotes association of major thinkers with their key
ideas or findings
Provides correct answers
Critical thinking questions
Promotes depth in reflecting on the material
Encourages creative application of the important
concepts to everyday life
Is presented in increasing levels of complexity,
abstraction, and difficulty
Provides help in preparing for essay exams and papers
Comprehensive practice test
Includes questions on all major points in the chapter
Includes true/false, multiple-choice, and essay
questions
Provides correct answers
● THE SOLUTION: ACTIVE READING
Active reading is recognizing that a textbook should provide two-way communication. It involves knowing what
aids are available to help understand the text and then
using them to find the meaning. It involves prereading
and questioning. It includes recording of questions, vocabulary learning, and summarizing. Still, with all these
techniques, it frequently takes less time and produces
significantly better results than passive reading.
This textbook—especially the study guide—is designed to help you become an active reader. For your
convenience, the study guide material related to each
chapter appears right after that chapter.
xxiii
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A WORD TO THE STUDENT
The corners of the study guide pages are edged in
color for easy reference. In the study guide, you will find
a variety of learning aids based on the latest research
on study skills. If you get into the habit of using the aids
presented here, you can apply similar techniques to your
other textbooks and become a more successful learner.
● EFFECTIVE READING: YOUR TEXTBOOK
As an active reader, how should you approach your textbook? Here are some techniques that you should consider for reading text chapters.
1. Think first about what you know. Read the title of
the chapter, then ask yourself what experiences
you have had that relate to the title. For example,
if the title is “Society and Social Interaction,” ask
yourself, “In what ways have I interacted with others in social situations? Have I ever been part of a
social group? If so, what do I remember about the
experience?” Answers to these questions personalize the chapter by making it relate to your experiences. They provide a background for the chapter,
which experts say improves your chances of understanding the reading. They show that you do know
something about the chapter so that its content
won’t be so alien.
2. Review the learning objectives. Not all textbooks
provide learning objectives as this one does, but,
where available, they can be a valuable study
aid. Learning objectives are stated in behavioral
terms—they tell you what you should be able to do
when you finish the chapter. Ask yourself questions
about the tasks suggested in each learning objective and then read to find the information needed
to accomplish that task. For instance, if a learning
objective states, “Explain how variations in the size
of groups affect what goes on within them,” then
you’ll want to ask yourself something like, “How do
groups vary in size?” and “How does each variation
affect interaction within the group?”
3. Prior to reading the textbook chapter, read the
chapter summary as an index to important terms
and ideas. The summary includes all the points you
need to find items in the chapter you know already.
You may be able to read more quickly through sections covering these items. Some items you might
not know anything about. This tells you where to
spend your reading time. A good rule: Study most
what you know least. Wherever it is, the summary
is often your best guide to important material.
4. Pay attention to your chapter outline. This textbook, like most other introductory college textbooks, has an outline at the beginning of each
chapter. If you do nothing else besides reading the
summary and going through this outline before
reading the chapter, you will be far ahead of most
students because you will be clued in on what is
important. The outline indicates the way ideas
are organized in the chapter and how those ideas
relate to one another. Certain ideas are indented
to show that they are subsets or parts of a broader
concept or topic. Knowing this can help you organize information as you read.
5. Question as you read. Turn your chapter title into
a question, then read up to the first heading to find
your answer. The answer to your question will be
the main idea for the entire chapter. In forming
your question, be sure it contains the chapter title.
For example, if the chapter title is “Doing Sociology: Research Methods,” your question might be
“What research methods does sociology use?” Or
“Why do you need to know about research methods to do sociology?” As you go through the chapter, turn each heading into a question, and then
read to find the answer. Most experts say that turning chapter headings into questions is a valuable
step in focusing reading on important information.
You might also want to use the learning objectives as questions; you know that these objectives
will point you toward the most important material
in a section. However, it is also a good idea to form
your own questions to get into practice for books
not containing this helpful aid. A good technique
might be to make your own question, then to check
it against the appropriate objective before reading.
In any case, use a question and then highlight your
answer in the text. This will be the most important
information under each heading. Don’t read as if
every word is important; focus on finding answers.
Guidelines for Effective Reading
of Your Textbook
1. Think first about what you know.
2. Review the learning objectives.
3. Prior to reading the textbook chapter, read the
chapter summary as an index to important
terms and ideas.
4. Pay attention to your chapter outline.
5. Question as you read.
6. Pay attention to graphic aids.
7. When in doubt, use clues to find main ideas.
8. Do the exercises in the Study Guide.
9. Review right after reading.
6. Pay attention to graphic aids. As you read, note
those important vocabulary words appearing in
bold type. Find the definitions for these words (in
this book, definitions appear in italics right next
to key words) and highlight them. These terms
will be important to remember. Your study guide
A WORD TO THE STUDENT
identifies all these important terms in the section
headed “Key Concepts.” A “Key Thinkers/Researchers” section, if applicable, identifies the sociologists
and other important thinkers worth remembering
in the chapter. Both the “Key Concepts” and “Key
Thinkers/ Researchers” sections are organized
as matching exercises. Testing yourself after you
read a text chapter (the answer key is at the end of
the chapter study guide) will tell you whether you
recognize the main concepts and researchers.
Pay attention to photos and photo captions.
They make reading easier because they provide a
visualization of important points in the textbook. If
you can visualize what you read, you will ordinarily
retain material better than people who don’t use
this technique. Special boxed sections usually give
detailed research information about one or more
studies related to a chapter heading. For in-depth
knowledge, read these sections, but only after
completing the section to which they refer. The
main text will provide the background for a better
understanding of the research, and the visualization provided by the boxed information will help
illuminate the text discussion.
7. When in doubt, use clues to find main ideas. It is
possible that, even using the questioning technique, there could be places where you are uncertain whether you’re getting the important information. You have clues both in the text and in the
study guide to help you through such places. In the
text, it helps to know that main ideas in paragraphs
occur more frequently at the beginning and end.
Watch for repeated words or ideas—these are clues
to important information. Check examples; any
point the author uses examples to document is
important. Be alert for key words (such as “first,”
“second,” “clearly,” “however,” “although,” and so on);
these also point to important information. Names
of researchers (except for those named only within
parentheses) will almost always be important. For
those chapters in which important social scientists
are discussed, you will find a “Key Thinkers/Researchers” section in your study guide.
8. Do the exercises in the study guide. Those exercises are designed as both an encouragement and
a model of active learning. The exercises are not
about mere regurgitation of material. Rather, you
are asked to analyze, evaluate, and apply what you
read in the text. By completing these exercises, you
are following two of the most important principles
articulated in this essay: You are actively processing the material, and you are applying it to your
own life and relating it to your own experiences.
This is a guaranteed recipe for learning.
9. Review right after reading. Most forgetting occurs
in the first day after reading. A review right after
reading is your best way to hold text material in
your memory. A strong aid in doing this review is
your study guide. If a brief review is all you have
time for, return to the learning objectives at the
beginning of the chapter. Can you do the things
listed in the objectives? If so, you probably know
your material. If not, check the objective and
reread the related chapter section to get a better
understanding.
An even better review technique is to complete—if you haven’t already done so—the exercises. Writing makes for a more active review, and
if you do the exercises, you will have the information you need from the chapter. If there are blanks
in your knowledge, you can check the appropriate
section of text and write the information you find
in your study guide. This technique is especially
valuable in classes requiring essay exams or papers
because it gives you a comprehensive understanding of the material as well as a sense of how it can
be applied to real-world situations.
For a slightly longer but more complete
review, do the “Key Concepts” and “Key Thinkers/
Researchers” matching tests. These will assure you
that you have mastered the key vocabulary and
know the contributions of the most important
researchers mentioned in the chapter. Because
a majority of test questions are based on understanding of vocabulary, research findings, and
major theories, you will be assuring yourself of a
testing benefit during your review.
It is also a good idea to review the “Critical Thinking” questions in the study guide. One
key objective of sociology—indeed, of all college
courses—is to help you develop critical thinking
skills. Although basic information can change from
year to year as new scientific discoveries are made,
the ability to think critically in any field is important. If you get in the habit of going beyond surface
knowledge in sociology, you can transfer these
skills to other areas. This can be a great benefit not
only while you’re in school but afterward as well. As
with the exercises section, these questions provide
the kind of background that is extremely useful for
essay exams.
What other methods would an active student use to
improve understanding and test scores in sociology? The
next several sections present a variety of techniques.
● FUNCTIONING EFFECTIVELY IN CLASS
To function effectively in class, you must, of course, be
there. Although no one might take attendance or force
you to be present, studies show that you have a significantly greater chance of succeeding in your class if you
attend regularly. Lecture material is generally impor-
xxv
xxvi
A WORD TO THE STUDENT
tant—and it is given only once. If you miss a lecture, inclass discussion, game, or simulation, there is no really
effective way to make it up.
Guidelines for Effective Functioning
in Class
1. Begin each class period with a question.
2. Ask questions frequently.
3. Join in classroom discussion.
Assuming you are present, there are two ways of
participating in your sociology class: actively and passively. Passive participation involves sitting there, not
contributing, waiting for the instructor to tell you what
is important. Passive participation takes little effort but
is unlikely to result in much learning. Unless you are
actively looking for what is significant, the likelihood
of finding the important material or of separating it effectively from what is less meaningful is not great. The
passive student runs the risk of taking several pages of
unneeded notes or of missing key details altogether.
Active students begin each class period with a question. “What is this class going to be about today?” They
find an answer to that question, usually in the first
minute, and use this as the key to important material
throughout the lecture or other activity. When there is a
point they don’t understand, they ask questions. Active
students know that many other students probably have
similar questions but are afraid to ask. Asking questions
allows you to help others while helping yourself.
Active students also know that what seems a small
point today can be critical to understanding a future lecture. Such items also have a way of turning up on tests.
If classroom discussion is called for, active students are
quick to join in. And the funny thing is, they frequently
wind up enjoying their sociology class as they learn.
● EFFECTIVE STUDYING
As you study your sociology text and notes, both the
method you use and the time picked for study will affect
comprehension. Establishing an effective study routine is
important. Without a routine, it is easy to put off study—
and put it off, and put it off . . . until it is too late. To be
most effective, follow these few simple steps.
Guidelines for Effective Studying
1. When possible, study at the same time and
place each day.
2. Study in half-hour blocks with five-minute
breaks.
3. Review frequently.
4. Don’t mix study subjects.
5. Reward yourself when you’re finished.
1. When possible, study at the same time and place
each day. Doing this uses psychological conditioning to improve study results. “Because it is 7:00
p.m. and I am sitting at my bedroom desk, I realize
it is time to begin studying sociology.”
2. Study in half-hour blocks with five-minute breaks.
Long periods of study without breaks frequently
reduce comprehension to the 40% level. That is
very inefficient. By using short periods (about 30
minutes) followed by short breaks, you can move
that comprehension rate into the 70% range. Note
that if 30 minutes end while you are still in the
middle of a text section, you should go on to the
end of that section before stopping.
3. For even more efficient study, review frequently.
Take about a minute at the end of each study session to review mentally what you’ve studied so far.
When you start the next study session, spend the
first minute or two rehearsing in your mind what
you studied in the previous session. This weaves a
tight webbing in which to catch new associations.
Long-term retention of material is aided by frequent review, about every two weeks. A 10-minute
review planned on a regular basis saves on study
time for exams and ensures that you will remember needed material.
Another useful way to review is to try to
explain difficult concepts or the chapter learning
objectives to someone else. One problem students
often have is that, while studying and reviewing
the material by themselves, they think they know
it only to have that knowledge desert them at the
time of the exam. Trying to explain something
to someone else forces us to be clear about key
points and to discover and articulate the relationship among the components of an idea. Ask your
friends or family to bear with you as you try to
explain the material. After all, they will learn something as well!
4. Don’t mix study subjects. Do all of your sociology
work before moving on to another course. Otherwise, your study can result in confusion of ideas
and relationships within materials studied.
5. Finally, reward yourself for study well done. Think
of something you like to do and do it when you
finish studying for the day. This provides positive
reinforcement, which encourages continued good
study.
● SUCCESSFULLY TAKING TESTS
Of course, tests are a payoff for you as a student. Tests
are where you can demonstrate to yourself and to the
instructor that you really know the material. The trouble
is, few people have learned how to take tests effectively.
And knowing how to take tests effectively makes a sig-
A WORD TO THE STUDENT
nificant difference in exam scores. Here are a few tips to
improve your test-taking skills.
Taking the Test
1. Don’t come early; don’t come late.
2. Be sure you understand all the directions before
you start answering.
3. Read through the test, carefully answering only
items you know.
4. Now that you’ve answered what you know, look
carefully at the other questions.
5. If you finish early, stay to check answers.
6. Don’t be distracted by other test takers.
7. When you get your test back, use it as a learning
experience.
● STUDYING FOR TESTS
1. Think before you study. All material is not of equal
value. What did the instructor emphasize in class?
What was covered in a week? A day? A few minutes?
Were any chapters emphasized more than others?
Which learning objectives did your instructor stress?
Review the “Key Thinkers/Researchers” and “Key
Concepts” sections in your study guide for important
people and terms. Which of these were given more
emphasis by your instructor? Use these clues to
decide where to spend most of your study time.
2. Begin study a week early. When you start early, if you
encounter material you don’t know, you have time
to find answers. If you see that you know blocks of
material already, you have saved yourself time in
future study sessions. You also avoid much of the
forgetting that occurs with last-minute cramming.
3. Put notes and related chapters together for study.
Integrate the material as much as possible, perhaps
by writing it out in a single, comprehensive format.
A related technique is to visualize the material on
the pages of the text and in your notes. You might
even want to think of a visual metaphor for some of
the key ideas. This way, you can see and remember
the connections between similar subjects or similar
treatments of the same subject. Grouping the material will also make your studying much more efficient.
As you study, don’t stop for unknown material.
Study what you know. Once you know it, go back
and look at what you don’t know yet. There is no
need to study again what you already know. Put it
aside and concentrate on the unknown.
Studying for the Tests
1.
2.
3.
4.
Think before you study.
Begin study a week early.
Put notes and related chapters together for study.
Take practice tests.
4. Take practice tests. When you have completed your
studying, take the appropriate practice test for
each chapter. These tests are grouped together at
the back of the book. Tests include true/false and
multiple-choice questions, with comprehensive or
thematic essays at the end. Each test is divided into
sections by major headings in the chapter. Within
each section, questions are presented in scrambled
order, as they are likely to be on the actual test.
Taking the practice test contains a double benefit.
First, if you get a good score on this test, you know
that you understand the material. Second, the
format of the practice test is very similar to that of
real tests. For this reason, you should develop confidence in your ability to succeed in course tests
from doing well on the practice tests. If your course
tests include essay questions, you should, in addition to the practice test essays, use the “Critical
Thinking” sections to prepare and practice focused,
in-depth answers.
● TAKING THE TEST
1. Don’t come early; don’t come late. Early people
tend to develop anxieties; late people lose test
time. Studies show that people who discuss test
material with others just before a test may forget
that material on the test. This is another reason
that arriving too early puts students in jeopardy.
Get there about two or three minutes early. Relax
and visualize yourself doing well on the test. After
all, if you followed the study guidelines discussed
previously, you can’t help but do well! Be confident;
repeat to yourself as you get ready for the test, “I
can do it! I will do it.” This will set a positive mental
tone.
2. Be sure you understand all the directions before
you start answering. Not following directions is
the biggest cause of lost points on tests. Ask about
whatever you don’t understand. The points you
save will be your own.
3. Read through the test, carefully answering only
items you know. Be sure you read every word
and every answer choice as you go. Use a piece of
paper or a card to cover the text below the line you
are reading. This can help you focus on each line
individually—and increase your test score.
Speed creates a serious problem in testing. The
mind is moving so fast that it is easy to overlook
key words such as except, but, best example, and
so on. Frequently, multiple-choice questions will
contain two close options, one of which is correct,
whereas the other is partly correct. Moving too fast
without carefully reading items causes people to
make wrong choices in these situations. Slowing
your reading speed makes for higher test scores.
xxvii
xxviii
A WORD TO THE STUDENT
4.
5.
6.
7.
The mind tends to work subconsciously on
questions you’ve read but left unanswered. As
you’re doing questions later in the test, you might
suddenly have the answer for an earlier question.
In such cases, answer the question right away.
These sudden insights quickly disappear and might
never come again.
Now that you’ve answered what you know, look
carefully at the other questions. Eliminate alternatives you know are wrong, and then guess. Never
leave a blank on a test. You might have only a 25%
chance when you guess on a four-item multiple
choice question, but you have a chance. And a
chance is better than no chance.
If you finish early, stay to check answers. Speed
causes many people to give answers that a moment’s hesitation would show to be wrong. Read
over your choices, especially those for questions
that caused you trouble. Don’t change answers
because you suddenly feel one choice is better
than others. Studies show that this is usually a
bad strategy. However, if you see a mistake or have
genuinely remembered new information, change
your answer.
Don’t be distracted by other test takers. Some people become very anxious because of the noise and
movement of other test takers. This is most apparent when several people begin to leave the room
after finishing their tests. Try to sit where you will
be least apt to see or interact with other test takers.
Usually this means sitting toward the front of the
room and close to the wall farthest from the door.
Turn your chair slightly toward the wall, if possible.
The more you insulate yourself from distractions
during the test, the better off you will be.
Don’t panic when other students finish their
exam before you do. Accuracy is always more
important than speed. Work at your own pace and
budget your time appropriately. For a timed test,
always be aware of the time remaining. This means
that if a clock is not visible in the classroom, you
need to have your own wristwatch.
Take as much of the available time as you need
to do an accurate and complete job. Remember,
your grade will be based upon the answers you
give, not on whether you were the first—or the
last—to turn in your exam.
When you get your test back, use it as a learning
experience. Diagnosing a test after it is returned to
you is one of the most effective strategies for improving your performance in a course. What kind
of material was on the test: theories, problems,
straight facts? Where did the material come from:
book, lecture, or both? The same kind of material
taken from the same source(s) will almost certainly
be on future tests.
Look at each item you got wrong. Why is it
wrong? If you know why you made mistakes, you
are unlikely to make the same ones in the future.
Look at the overall pattern of your errors. Did you
make most of your mistakes on material from the
lectures? Perhaps you need to improve your notetaking technique. Did your errors occur mostly on
material from the readings? Perhaps you need to
pay more attention to main idea clues and highlight text material more effectively. Were the questions you got wrong evenly distributed between
in-class and reading material? Perhaps you need
to learn to study more effectively and/or take steps
to reduce test anxiety. Following these steps can
encourage more efficient use of textbooks, better
note-taking, higher test scores, and better course
grades.
● A FINAL WORD
As you can see, the key to success lies in becoming an
active student. Managing time, questioning at the start
of lectures, planning effective measures to increase test
scores, and using all aids available to make reading and
studying easier are all elements in becoming an active
student. The study guide and practice tests for this textbook have been specially designed to help you be that
active student. Being passive might seem easier, but it is
not. Passive students spend relatively similar amounts of
time but learn less. Their review time is likely to be inefficient. Their test scores are more frequently lower—and
they usually have less fun in their classes.
Active students are more effective than passive ones.
The benefit in becoming an active student is that activity
is contagious; if you become an active student in sociology, it is hard not to practice the same active learning
techniques in English and math as well. Once you start
asking questions in your textbook and using your study
guide, you might find that you start asking questions in
class as well. As you acquire a greater understanding of
your subject, you might find that you enjoy your class
more—as well as learn more and do better on tests. That
is the real benefit in becoming an active learner. It is a
challenge I strongly encourage you to meet.
INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIOLOGY
Boston Filmworks
1
The Sociological Perspective
Sociology as a Point of View
The Sociological Imagination
How Sociologists Do It: If You Are Thinking
About Sociology as a Career, Read This
Is Sociology Common Sense?
Day-to-Day Sociology: Too Smart to Marry?
Sociology and Science
Sociology as a Social Science
How Sociologists Do It: Is There a Difference between
Sociology and Journalism?
The Development of Sociology
Auguste Comte
Harriet Martineau
Herbert Spencer
Karl Marx
Émile Durkheim
Our Diverse Society: Who Is at Most Risk for Suicide?
Max Weber
The Development of Sociology in the United
States
Theoretical Perspectives
Functionalism
Conflict Theory
The Interactionist Perspective
Symbolic Interactionism
Sociology in Strange Places: What Do People Do Online?
Contemporary Sociology
Theory and Research
Summary
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do
the following:
◗ Understand the sociological point of view and how it
differs from that of journalists and talk-show hosts
◗ Compare and contrast sociology with the other major
social sciences
◗ Describe the early development of sociology from its
origins in nineteenth-century Europe
◗ Know the contributions of sociology’s pioneers:
Comte, Martineau, Spencer, Marx, Durkheim, and
Weber
◗ Describe the early development of sociology in the
United States
◗ Understand the functionalist, conflict theory, and
interactionist perspectives
◗ Realize the relationship between theory and practice
W
arning!! Dangerous sexual predators are
stalking your children on the Internet.” The message is
repeated on television and in the newspapers. Parents
fear that they have no control over this national menace that threatens their children’s safety. These unseen
villains want to entice children out of their homes. They
lurk in online chat rooms where children and teenagers
congregate.
NBC even had a popular series called To Catch
a Predator, which lured these dangerous people to
locations, ostensibly to meet teens for sex, and were
promptly arrested. The host, Chris Hansen, claimed
“the scope of the problem is immense” and “seems to
be getting worse.” The host even went so far as to claim
that “one in five children has been sexually solicited by
a predator.”
The public has certainly accepted the belief that
online predators are a major threat. One survey found
that two-thirds of mothers of teens were more fearful
of online predators than of their teens driving drunk or
experimenting with drugs (McAfee, 2008).
Enough people thought it was a problem that fortynine state attorneys general created a task force to study
the issue. This appears to be a horrific, national problem. Or is it? What scientific research data do we have
about the problem?
In 2009, a 278-page report from the Berkman Center
for Internet and Society at Harvard University that
examined scientific data about online sexual predators
concluded that children and teenagers were unlikely to
be propositioned by adults online. Teenagers who do
meet adults for sexual encounters appear to be willing
participants who are already at risk because of poor
home environments, substance abuse, or emotional
problems. The report found that there was not a significant threat to children from online predators (Palfrey,
Sacco, Boyd, and DeBonnis, 2009).
Sociologist Janis Wolak studied the predator problem
at the Crimes Against Children Research Center at the
University of New Hampshire. She found that “Internetrelated sex crimes are a pretty small proportion of sex
crimes that adolescents suffer.” Wolak noted that sexual
assaults on teens actually fell 52% between 1993 and
2005.
What about Chris Hansen’s statement that one
out of five children is sexually solicited by a predator?
The claim is from a survey that asked teens if they had
received an unwanted sexual solicitation in the past
year. It turns out that most of these solicitations were
from other teens, not from adults. The teens did not view
them as serious or threatening. Many of them were the
equivalent of online flirting or joking.
The fear of online predators actually distracts us
from recognizing the real danger to children: parental abuse and neglect. The vast majority of crimes
against children are committed not by predators lurking in chat rooms but, instead, by the victim’s own
family. Hundreds of thousands of children are abused
and neglected each year by their parents and caregivers, and about 1,500 American children die from
abuse each year; the majority of the victims are under
four years old. The National Center for Missing and
Exploited Children notes the “danger to children is
greater from someone they or their family knows than
from a stranger” (Radford, 2006).
Despite the varying reasons for sexual abuse of children, no one is denying that this larger issue is a legitimate social problem with very serious consequences.
Is this sociology? Or, for that matter, is this what sociologists do when they study society? The answer would
have to be no.
We must remind ourselves that news and information is brought to us by people who make choices. Some
of their choices, inevitably, are better than others and
represent the perceptions of the reporters and editors
who produce the papers or news broadcasts (Murray,
Schwartz, and Lichter, 2001).
Far too seldomly, we realize that people often use
data to persuade and that statistics can be used as part
of a strategy to promote concern about a social problem.
Much of the information we read every day and mistake for sociology is actually an attempt by one group
or another to influence social policy. Other information
mistaken for sociology is actually an attempt to sell a
book or the efforts of television producers to present
entertaining programs.
With the constant bombardment of information
about social issues, we could come to believe that nearly
everyone is engaged in the study of sociology to some
3
PART 1
THE STUDY OF SOCIETY
● SOCIOLOGY AS A POINT OF VIEW
David Lees/Stone+/Getty Images
4
Sociology studies the interactions among different social
groups.
extent and that everyone has not only the right but also
the ability to put forth valid information about society.
This is not the case. Some people have no interest in putting forth true and objective information and are instead
interested in convincing us to support their position or
point of view. On other occasions, the “researchers” do
not have the ability or training to disseminate accurate
information about drug abuse, homelessness, welfare,
high-school dropout rates, white-collar crime, or a host
of other sociological topics.
Sociologists have different goals in mind when they
investigate a problem than do journalists or talk-show
hosts. A television talk-show host needs to make the
program entertaining and maintain high ratings, or the
show might be canceled. A journalist is writing for a
specific readership. This will certainly limit the choice of
topics as well as the manner in which an issue is investigated. On the other hand, a sociologist must answer
to the scientific community as she or he tries to further
our understanding of a topic. This means that the goal
is not high ratings but, rather, an accurate and scientific
approach to the issue being studied.
In this book, we ask you to go beyond popular sociology and investigate society more scientifically than you
did before. You will learn to look at major events, as well
as at everyday occurrences, a little differently and start
to notice patterns you might have never seen before.
After you are equipped with the tools of sociology, you
should be able to evaluate critically popular presentations of sociology. You will see that sociology represents
both a body of knowledge and a scientific approach to
the study of social issues.
Sociology is the scientific study of human society and
social interactions. As sociologists, our main goal is to
understand social situations and look for repeating patterns in society. We do not use facts selectively to create
a lively talk show, sell newspapers, or support one particular point of view. Instead, sociologists are engaged in
a rigorous scientific endeavor, which requires objectivity
and detachment.
The main focus of sociology is the group, not the individual. Sociologists attempt to understand the forces
that operate throughout society—forces that mold
individuals, shape their behavior, and, thus, determine
social events.
When you walk into an introductory physics class,
you might know very little about the subject and hold
few opinions about the various topics within the field.
On the other hand, when you enter your introductory
sociology class for the first time, you will feel quite familiar with the subject matter. You have the advantage of
coming to sociology with a substantial amount of information, which you have gained simply by being a member of society. Ironically, this knowledge also can leave
you at a disadvantage because these views have not
been gathered in a scientific fashion and might not be
accurate.
Over the years and through a variety of experiences,
we develop a set of ideas about the world and how it
operates. This point of view influences how we look at
the world and guides our attempts to understand the
actions and reactions of others. Even though we accept
the premise that individuals are unique, we tend to categorize or even stereotype people to interpret and predict
behavior and events.
Is this personalized approach adequate for bringing about an understanding of ourselves and society?
Although it might serve us quite well in our day-to-day
lives, a sociologist would answer that it does not give us
enough accurate information to develop an understanding of the broader social picture. This picture becomes
clear only when we know something about the society in
which we live, the social processes that affect us, and the
patterns of interaction that characterize our lives.
Let us take the issue of domestic violence. Figure 1-1
shows that we could examine the issue in a variety of
ways. If we knew a woman who was the victim of domestic violence, we would have personal information about
the experience. If she were willing to discuss her experience with us, we would know more about domestic violence at a specific case level. Although this information
is important, it is not yet sociology and is closer to the
personalized, common-sense approach to understanding society. Sociology tries to move beyond that level of
understanding.
If we rely on our own experiences, we are like the blind
men of Hindu legend trying to describe an elephant: the
CHAPTER 1
I know a woman
who was the
victim of domestic
violence.
I hear about laws
passed in Texas to
punish perpetrators
of domestic violence.
Personalized approach
I read about the
causes of domestic
violence.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
I do research on the
social characteristics
of perpetrators of
domestic violence.
Sociological approach
FIGURE 1.1 Levels of Social Understanding: Domestic Violence
first man, feeling its trunk, asserts, “It is like a snake”; the
second, trying to reach around the beast’s leg, argues,
“No, it is like a tree”; and the third, feeling its solid side,
disagrees, saying, “It is more like a wall.” In a small way,
each person is right, but not one of them is able to understand or describe the whole elephant.
If we were to look for recurring patterns in domestic
violence, we would now be doing what sociologists do.
A sociologist examining the issue might be interested in
the age, socioeconomic level, and ethnic characteristics
of the victims of domestic violence. A sociologist might
compare these characteristics with the characteristics
of victims of other types of violence: “Are there differences?” they ask. “If so, what kinds and why?”
While studying sociology, you will be asked to look
at the world a little differently from the way you usually
do. Because you will be looking at the world through
other people’s eyes—using new points of view—you
will start to notice things you might never have noticed
before. When you look at life in a middle-class suburb,
for instance, what do you see? How does your view differ from that of a poor, inner-city resident? How does
the suburb appear to a recent immigrant from Mexico,
China, or India? How does it appear to a burglar? Finally,
what does the sociologist see?
Sociology asks you to broaden your perspective on
the world. You will start to see that people act in markedly different ways not because one person is sane and
another is crazy. Rather, it is because they all have different ways of making sense out of what is going on in the
world around them.
These unique perceptions of reality produce varying
lifestyles, which in turn produce different perceptions of
reality. To understand other people, we must stop looking at the world from a perspective based solely on our
own individual experiences.
The Sociological Imagination
Although most people interpret social events on the basis
of their individual experiences, sociologists step back
and view society more as an outsider than as a personally
involved and possibly biased participant. For example,
although we assume that most people in the United States
marry for love, sociologists remind us that the decision
to marry—or not to marry—is influenced by a variety of
social values taught to us since early childhood.
That is, we select our mates based on the social values
we internalize from family, peers, neighbors, community leaders, and even our movie heroes. Therefore, we
are less likely to marry someone from a different socioeconomic class, from a different race or religion, or from
a markedly different educational background. Thus, as
we pair off, we follow somewhat predictable patterns. In
most cases, the man is older, earns more money, and has
a higher occupational status than the woman.
These patterns might not be evident to the two people who are in love with each other; indeed, they might
not be aware that anything other than romance played
a role in their choice of a mate. As sociologists, however,
we begin to discern marriage patterns.
We might note that marriage rates vary in different
parts of the country, that the average age of marriage
is related to educational level, and that social class is
related to marital stability. These patterns (discussed in
Chapter 12) show us that forces are at work that influence marriage but might not be evident to the individuals who fall in love and marry.
C. Wright Mills (1959) described the different levels
on which social events can be perceived and interpreted.
He used the term the sociological imagination to refer
to this relationship between individual experiences and
forces in the larger society that shape our actions The
sociological imagination is the process of looking at all
types of human behavior patterns and finding previously unseen connections among them. We see similarities among individuals with no direct knowledge of one
another, and we find that subtle forces mold people’s
actions. Like a museum-patron who draws back from
a painting in order to see how the separate strokes and
colors form subtly shaded images, sociologists stand
back from individual events in order to see why and how
they occurred. In so doing, they discover patterns that
govern our social existence.
The sociological imagination focuses on every aspect
of society and every relationship among individuals. It
studies the behavior of crowds at sports events; shifts in
styles of dress and popular music; changing patterns of
5
6
PART 1
THE STUDY OF SOCIETY
HOW SOCIOLOGISTS DO IT
H
IIf You Are Thinking About Sociology as a Career, Read This
Speaking from this side of the career-decision hurdle,
I can say that being a sociologist has opened many
doors for me. It gave me the credentials to teach at
the college level and to become an author of a widely
used sociology text. It also enabled me to be a newspaper columnist and a talk-show host. Would I recommend this field to anyone else? I would, but not
blindly. Realize before you begin that sociology can
be an extremely demanding discipline and, at times,
an extremely frustrating one.
As in many other fields, the competition for jobs in
sociology can be fierce. If you really want this work,
do not let the herd stop you. Anyone with motivation,
talent, and a determined approach to finding a job will
do well. However, be prepared for the long haul: To get
ahead in many areas, you will need to spend more than
four years in college. Consider your bachelor’s degree
as just the beginning.
Jobs which involve advanced research or teaching
at the college level often require a PhD, which means
at least four to six years of school beyond the BA.
Now for the job possibilities. As you read through
these careers, remember that right now your exposure
to sociology is limited (you are only on Chapter 1 in
your first college sociology text), so do not eliminate
any possibilities right at the start. Spend some time
thinking about each one as the semester progresses
and you learn more about this fascinating discipline.
Most people who go into sociology become teachers. You will need a PhD to teach in college, but often
a master’s degree will open the door for you at the
two-year college or high school level.
Second in popularity to teaching are nonacademic research jobs in government agencies, private
research institutions, and the research departments of
private corporations. Researchers perform many functions, including conducting market research, public
opinion surveys, and impact assessments. Evaluation
research, as the last field is known, has become more
popular in recent years because the federal government now requires environmental impact studies on
all large-scale federal projects. For example, before a
new interstate highway is built, evaluation researchers
attempt to determine the effect the highway will have
on communities along the proposed route.
This is only one of many opportunities available
in government work. Federal, state, and local governments in policy-making and administrative functions also hire sociologists. For example, a sociologist
employed by a community hospital provides needed
data on the population groups being served and on the
health-care needs of the community. Further, sociologists working in a prison system can devise plans to
deal with the social problems that are inevitable when
people are put behind bars. Here are a few additional
opportunities in government work: community planner, correction officer, environmental analyst, equal
opportunity specialist, probation officer, rehabilitation counselor, resident director, and social worker.
A growing number of opportunities also exist in
corporate America, including market researchers,
pollsters, human resource managers, affirmative
action coordinators, employee assistance program
counselors, labor relations specialists, and public
information officers, just to name a few. These jobs
are available in nearly every field from advertising to
banking, from insurance to publishing.
Although your corporate title will not be “sociologist,” your educational background will give you the
tools you need to do the job and do it well, which, to
corporations, is the bottom line.
Whether you choose government or corporate
work, you will have the best chance of finding the job
you want by specializing in a particular field of sociology while you are still in school. You can become a
crime and corrections specialist or become knowledgeable in organizational behavior before you enter
the job market. Many demographers, who compile
and analyze population data, have specialized in
urban sociology or population issues. They may then
also be equipped to help a community respond to
neighborhood and environmental concerns. Keep in
mind that many positions require a minor or some
course work in other fields such as political science,
psychology, ecology, law, or business. By combining
sociology with these fields, you will be well prepared
for the job market.
What next? Be optimistic and start planning. As
the American Sociological Association observed, few
fields are as relevant today and as broadly based as
sociology. Yet, ironically, its career potential is just
beginning to be tapped. Start planning by reading the
Occupational Outlook Quarterly (it is available online)
published by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, as
well as academic journals to keep abreast of career
trends. Then study hard and choose your specialty.
With this preparation, you will be well prepared when
the time comes to find a job.
CHAPTER 1
courtship and marriage; the emergence and fading of different lifestyles, political movements, and religious sects;
the distribution of income and access to resources and
…