prewriting
Study Guide
Advanced Composition
Copyright © 2015 by Penn Foster, Inc
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Printed in the United States of America
10/18/2016
All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service
marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be
regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.
Note: Students cannot take ENG300 until or unless they
take English Composition. Students need to show proof
of the prerequisite before they take this course.
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1
LESSON ASSIGNMENTS
13
LESSON 1: A REVIEW OF THE WRITING PROCESS
17
LESSON 2: PLANNING A RESEARCH PAPER AND
37
EVALUATING SOURCES
LESSON 3: FINDING SOURCES, TAKING
NOTES
,
51
AND SYNTHESIZING
LESSON 4: DRAFTING, REVISING, AND FORMATTING 67
A RESEARCH PROJECT
LESSON 5: DEFINITION:
85
EXPLAINING WHAT YOU MEAN
LESSON 6: READING AND WRITING
107
ABOUT LITERATURE
LESSON 7: COMPARISON AND CONTRAST:
137
SHOWING SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
LESSON 8: ARGUMENTS
161
SELF-CHECK ANSWERS
183
APPENDIX
213
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to your Advanced Composition course. In this
course, you’ll practice research and writing skills by develop-
ing papers that require you to use sources and correctly cite
them using MLA formatting. You’ll learn to look at writing
with a critical eye—a skill you can apply to your own work,
as well as to the reading you do for research or in your daily
activities. You’ll apply these skills to your own writing
through editing and revising.
COURSE
OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of the course is to use research to
plan, organize, develop, and edit a variety of papers with
clarity and precision using standard MLA formatting.
When you complete this course, you’ll be able to
n Use the writing process to write essays using different
patterns of development
n Apply an appropriate rhetorical style to an audience
and purpose
n Write effective thesis statements
n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate
detail, supporting evidence, and transitions
n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements
n Develop critical reading skills
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
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Note: For Lesson 7, you’re required to read one novel that has
been turned into a movie and to watch that movie. The list of
movies made from books is extensive and includes To Kill a
Mockingbird, The Princess Bride, and Girl with a Pearl Earring.
(A short story or children’s book isn’t an appropriate selection.
You must read a full-length novel.)
n Use Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and
documentation style to reference secondary source mate-
rial correctly and appropriately
n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source
material correctly and appropriately
n Use the conventions of standard written American
English to produce correct, well-written essays
COURSE MATERIALS
The following materials are part of this course:
1. This study guide, which contains
n An introduction to your course
n A lesson assignments
page
, which outlines the
study assignments in your textbook
n Self-checks and answers to help you assess your
understanding of the materia
l
2. Your course textbook, Successful College Writing, which
contains your assigned readings, as well as additional
quizzes, essay assignments, as well as additional quizzes
and essay assignments.
Instructions to Students2
YOUR TEXTBOOK
Your primary text for this course is Successful College
Writing, 6th edition, by Kathleen T. McWhorter. Begin
reviewing the text by reading the table of contents on
pages xxvii–xlv. Then follow the study guide for directions
on required reading assignments. Note the following features
of your text:
n The “Quick Start” features at the beginning of each
chapter are short introductions designed to help you
get a head start on the
material.
Make sure you work
through the exercises, even though they won’t be
formally evaluated.
n The organization within chapters includes major head-
ings and subheadings that break down each chapter’s
content into manageable sections. Exercises and model
essays are also important parts of every chapter.
n Modern Language Association and American
Psychological Association (APA) style guides for citing
and documenting your research. These can be found
beginning on page 616 in Chapter 24.
n A grammar handbook that includes information and
exercises on the foundational elements of writing,
such as grammar, sentence structure, punctuation
and word choice.
Instructions to Students 3
YOUR STUDY GUIDE
This study guide is intended to help you get more out of the
material in
your textbook.
It’s not a substitute for reading
your text. The material for this course is divided into eight
lessons. Each lesson contains one or more assignments.
Here’s a good procedure to follow:
1. Read the introduction to each assignment in this
study guide.
2. Read the required sections in the textbook, keeping you
r
s
tudy guide handy as you read. If the study guide refers
to a specific figure in the textbook, pay particular atten-
tion to that item.
3. After you read the material in the textbook, return to this
study guide and use the assignment summaries to quiz
yourself on the material you’ve read. Use the headings
in the outline to ask yourself
questions.
4. When you feel confident that you understand the mate-
rial for a particular assignment, complete the self-check
in this study guide and compare your answers to those
given at the end of this study guide. Do not submit the
self-checks for grading.
5. When you’ve completed all the assignments for a
particular lesson, review the material and complete
the examination, quiz, and/or essay exam(s) for
that lesson. Submit each written project for grading
and evaluation as soon as you complete it.
6. Complete each lesson in this manner.
Instructions to Students4
Instructions to Students 5
A STUDY PLAN
This study guide contains your lesson assignments, quizzes,
exams, and essay exams for the eight lessons you’ll complete
for this course. The self-checks at the end of each assign-
ment will help you assess your understanding of the material
so you’ll know whether you should move on to the next
assignment or review the material before continuing.
Study pace. You have a study time limit for the semester
but not one specific to Advanced Composition. You must
pace yourself wisely through the semester’s courses to meet
the expiration date, allowing sufficient time for reading,
prewriting, drafting, revising, and grading. Generally, you
should allot at least two weeks for each lesson, with some
taking longer than that. You must complete each exam in the
correct order.
The goal of this course is to help you grow as a writer by
building on your strengths and improving your weaknesses
with each assignment. Therefore, this course emphasizes the
process approach to writing. Ideally, you’ll submit each exam,
quiz, and prewriting and essay project in order after you’ve
received your evaluation of the previous lesson, so that you
can apply the instructor’s feedback to your next writing proj-
ect. You must successfully complete the prewriting exams for
Lessons 6 and 7 before you submit the essay exams. While
you’re waiting for evaluations, you should begin to work on
the next lesson’s assignments. If you have other courses
available for study, you may work on those materials while
taking this English course and submit any completed exams.
Organization. To keep your work for this course organized,
create clearly labeled files in your word processing program.
We recommend you create a primary file folder named
“Advanced Composition.” Within that folder, create separate
folders, such as “Self-Checks” and “Course Notes.” Also cre-
ate a folder for each written exam (Lessons 5, 6, 7, and 8),
where you’ll keep files of your research notes, rough drafts,
and final draft. Establish a clear naming system for each file
so you don’t confuse early drafts with your final version of an
essay. When you reopen a rough draft, immediately click
Instructions to Students6
Save As and add the date before further revision. That way
you won’t lose anything you may delete but later wish you
had kept.
Required video lectures. There are three required videos
for the course posted on your student portal. Each video
includes information that will help you to complete your
assignments successfully.
Exam submissions. Use the following guidelines when
submitting your exams:
n Multiple-choice quizzes and examinations: You’ll submit
your answers for these exams online.
n Written essays and prewriting projects (Lessons 5, 6, 7,
and 8): Unless the individual essay or project instruc-
tions specify otherwise, papers must be typed double-
spaced using a standard, 12-point font (Times New
Roman or Calibri are good examples) and left justifica-
tion. Use 1-inch margins on all sides. Each page must
have a header in the proper format, containing student
name, student number with exam number, page
number, mailing address, and email address.
Jane Doe 23456789—50050400
987 Nice Street
My Town, AZ 34567 janedoe@yahoo.com
Name each document using your student number first,
then the six-digit lesson number, and finally your name
(for example, 23456789_500504_Jane Doe). Save each as
“File Type: Rich Text Format” regardless of the word process-
ing program you use. Follow the instructions in the textbook
on pages 614–615 to ensure your paper is properly format-
ted. Use “Instructor,” rather than an instructor’s name.
The course is Advanced Composition ENG 300. Don’t
use headings in the body of your paper.
Instructions to Students 7
Exams can be submitted online from the student portal using
the Take Exam button next to the lesson number on the stu-
dent portal. Check to be sure that the document you’ve
uploaded is the one containing your final work for evaluation.
Evaluation. Evaluation usually occurs within seven business
days of receipt. Exams are scored according to the parame-
ters of the exam assignment using the Advanced Composition
Course Rubric, which is located in the Appendix of this study
guide with a complete explanation of evaluation criteria and
skill levels. Instructors may write feedback on both the essay
and the evaluation chart. To read the instructor’s comments,
download the Instructor Feedback file. Be sure to save this
file to your computer since it’s available on your student
portal for just a brief time.
Evaluation Process
Your instructors will score each writing assignment by apply-
ing the rubric contained in this section to evaluate how well
your work illustrates both the basic and advanced traits of
good writing in various research settings (see Appendix).
Although the basic techniques of writing aren’t taught in this
course, you’re required to produce good writing. If you’re
unsure of something, return to the textbook to fine-tune your
skills. For general information, scan your textbook’s table of
contents for a chapter breakdown and page numbers. For
specific characteristics, use the textbook’s index.
On the chart in the Appendix, each trait is broken into three
skill levels explaining what writing at each level looks like
and to what extent the writing shows the listed trait. Each
skill level is assigned a score that corresponds to the appro-
priate letter grade within the Penn Foster College grading
scale. (For information about the grading scale, see the
Student Handbook.) As such, these scores don’t represent an
amount awarded from a possible range of points. Instead,
each score value is constant. That means if
your writing
exhibits the given characteristics, you automatically earn the
designated score for that trait and skill level. Papers with
inconsistencies among skill levels will be scored according to
the middle ground. For example, you may have spelled and
punctuated everything with excellent style but your grammar
Instructions to Students8
is poor. The evaluator will average the score of high
Skill
Realized for Conventions with the score of low Skill
Emerging
for the score on Conventions. The three levels of skill assess-
ment are defined as follows:
n Skill Emerging describes writing that either doesn’t have
the trait or that lacks controlled, deliberate application.
Writing with traits at this level earns a D or an F.
n Skill Developing refers to writing which shows general
competence in the trait but which lacks finesse or depth
of understanding in application. Traits in this range earn
a low B or a C.
n Skill Realized indicates the writing demonstrates the trait
effectively and creatively, earning an A or a high B.
When evaluating your paper, the instructor first reads
through your essay to become familiar with its content and
flow. He or she then works through the essay, evaluating
both problem areas and strengths related to the rubric. Next,
he or she fills out a blank evaluation chart identifying where
your writing falls within each trait, relying on the descrip-
tions in the Appendix to provide the full explanation of the
traits your writing displays. Consequently, while reviewing
your evaluated exam, refer to the following rubric.
Instructions to Students 9
Thesis: Focus for Audience and Purpose
The thesis establishes a clearly defined, analytic focus unique to the assigned topic, purpose,
and audience.
Development and Structure of Ideas in Relation to Thesis
Using applicable pattern(s) of development, the writer explores in depth the relationship between
thesis, assertion, and evidence. The opening engages the reader with the thesis. The body para-
graphs develop the thesis in a controlled fashion. The discussion closes with a sense of finality
reinforcing the thesis.
Incorporation of Source Material
Paraphrases, summaries, and direct quotations are aptly integrated with the writer’s style for the
purpose and audience. Sources are relevant and reliable.
Overall Organization of Writing
Transitional words and connective phrasing guide the reader through the relationships between
ideas. Each paragraph contains one idea that supports the thesis. The supporting sentences
connect to/develop the paragraph’s focus.
Word Choice and Presentation Style
The writer shows a consistent point of view, captivating the reader with skillful, precise language
for the purpose and audience. The essay is graceful and easy to read aloud with a natural, pleas-
ant rhythm through varied sentence length and structures.
MLA Citation
Using the MLA citation style, the writer accurately documents the required number of sources.
Conventions
According to standard written American English, the writer correctly applies spelling, punctuation
(including sentence structure), and grammar. These choices make the writing professional and
easy to understand. The writing meets the required length and overall submission format for
the assignment.
The instructor may provide further comments or explanation
about a particular strength or weakness within a trait, but
primarily you’ll depend on the information given in your
study guide. In light of that feedback, you should reexamine
your paper and review the textbook to learn ways to
strengthen that trait the next time you write. With each
exam, your goal is to craft your writing more deliberately
and skillfully.
Retakes. Students are required to complete all assigned
work, including a retake for any first-time failing attempt on
an exam. The evaluation of any first-time failing exam will
include a Required Retake form. That form must then be
included with your retake exam submission to ensure proper
handling. If the assigned work isn’t provided, submissions
will be evaluated according to the criteria but additional
points will be deducted for not following the instructions. In
addition, please review school policy about retakes in the
Student Handbook (available online).
Plagiarism policy. Carefully review the plagiarism policy in
the Student Handbook (available online). The first submission
that departs from this policy earns a grade of 1 percent. If it’s
a first-time submission, you may retake the exam (per retake
procedures). A second plagiarized submission will earn a
final grade of 1% and will be reported to the Academic
Review Board.
Instructions to Students10
ACADEMIC SUPPORT AND
ONLINE RESOURCES
Penn Foster’s digital library offers students access to online
resources in all major disciplines and courses offered at Penn
Foster, as well as one of the most comprehensive academic
databases available today, Expanded Academic ASAP.
Penn Foster’s librarian is available to answer questions about
research and to help students locate resources. You can find
the librarian in The Community, by using the Contact an
Instructor link in your student portal, or the Ask a Librarian
link in the library.
Grammarly.com is offering discounts to Penn Foster students
who register for a year of service. For a discounted fee, Penn
Foster students have unlimited access to the Grammarly’s
grammar, spell, and punctuation check, as well as the pla-
giarism check. For students who have limited experience with
research writing, Grammarly could be the helping hand you
need to negotiate the research papers in your future. To register
for Grammarly, please contact your English instructor.
Other Resources
Other online resources for grammar, punctuation, sentence
structure, and mechanics include the following:
Instructions to Students 11
Daily Grammar: http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.shtml
Blue Book of Grammar and Mechanics: http://www.grammarbook.com/
Guide to Grammar and Writing, sponsored by Capital Community College Foundation:
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm
Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index2.htm
http://www.grammarbook.com/
http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.shtml
Instructions to Students12
NOTES
Lesson 1: A Review of the Writing Process
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 1 Pages 18–21 Pages 73–95
Assignment 2 Pages 22–24 Pages 118–137
Assignment 3 Pages 25–28 Pages 138–158
Assignment 4 Pages 29–32 Pages 159–173
Assignment 5 Pages 33–36 Pages 174–193
Examination 500520 Material in Lesson 1
Lesson 2: Planning a Research Project
and Evaluating Sources
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 6 Pages 38–43 Pages 558–565
Assignment 7 Pages 44–49 Pages 565–573
Examination 500497 Material in Lesson 2
Lesson 3: Finding Sources, Taking Notes,
and Synthesizing
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 8 Pages 52–55 Pages 575–581
Assignment 9 Pages 56–58 Pages 581–586
Assignment 10 Pages 59–66 Pages 586–596
Examination 500498 Material in Lesson 3
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Lesson Assignments14
Lesson 4: Drafting, Revising, and Formatting
a Research Paper
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 11 Pages 68–70 Pages 598–603
Assignment 12 Pages 71–76 Pages 603–612
Assignment 13 Pages 77–79 Pages 612–616
Assignment 14 Pages 80–84 Pages 616–638
Watch the “Using and Citing Sources” Lecture
Quiz 500496RR
Examination 500499 Material in Lesson 4
Lesson 5: Definition: Explaining What You Mean
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 15 Pages 86–88 Pages 263–277, 283–286
Assignment 16 Pages 89–91 Pages 297–311, 318–320
Assignment 17 Pages 92–95 Pages 400–413
Assignment 18 Pages 96–100 Pages 429–457
Essay Examination: 50050400 Essay: Extended Definition
Lesson 6: Reading and Writing About Literature
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 19 Pages 108–109 Pages 658–662
Assignment 20 Pages 110–112 Pages 662–673
Assignment 21 Pages 113–119
Pages 674–678
Assignment 22 Pages 120–121 Pages 679–688
Watch the “Figurative Language: Analyzing Poetry” Lecture
Quiz 500500RR
Prewriting Examination: 50050200 Prewriting: Literary Analysis
Essay Examination: 50050300 Essay: Literary Analysis
Lesson 7: Comparison and Contrast
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 23 Pages 138–140 Pages 365–378
Assignment 24 Pages 141–143 Pages 378–388, 394-396
Assignment 25 Pages 144–147 Pages 459–488
Watch the “Using Comparison and Contrast: Analyzing a Novel”
Lecture
Quiz 500522RR
Prewriting Examination: 50050500 Prewriting: Comparison
and Contrast
Essay Examination: 50050600 Essay: Comparison and Contrast
Lesson 8: Arguments
For: Read in the Read in the
study guide: textbook:
Assignment 26 Pages 162–165 Pages 500–512
Assignment 27 Pages 166–168 Pages 512–525
Assignment 28 Pages 169–172 Pages 526–551
Assignment 29 Pages 172–173
Pages 552–555
Essay Examination: 50050700 Essay: Argument
Lesson Assignments 15
Note: For Lesson 7, you’re required to read one novel that has been
turned into a movie and to watch that movie. The list of movies
made from books is extensive and includes To Kill a Mockingbird, The
Princess Bride, and Girl with a Pearl Earring. (A short story or children’s
book isn’t an appropriate selection. You must read a full-length novel.)
Note: To access and complete any of the examinations for this study
guide, click on the appropriate Take Exam icon on your student
portal. You should not have to enter the examination numbers.
These numbers are for reference only if you have reason to
contact Student CARE.
NOTES
Advanced Composition16
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Lesson 1: A Review of the
Writing Process
INTRODUCTION
In this section, you’ll practice some of the basic writing skills
you’ve learned in other courses, such as English Composition
or another English course. Because you’re expected to know
how to put together balanced sentences and cohesive para-
graphs, this review won’t be teaching you how to use the
basic tools of writing. Instead, it reminds you to use the skills
you have and gives you some practice before asking you to
put them to use in your lesson exam.
OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, you’ll learn how to
n Use active reading methods to understand and interpret text
and graphics
n Identify bias and recognize the difference between fact and
opinion
n Develop effective thesis statements and support them with
appropriate evidence
n Develop unified paragraphs using supportive details
n Use transitions to express coherent ideas
n Use methods of organization in writing, including topic sen-
tences and supporting details
n Apply appropriate techniques of revision and organization to
your writing
n Apply the rules of standard written American English for punc-
tuation and spelling
ASSIGNMENT 1: THINKING
CRITICALLY ABOUT TEXT
AND VISUALS
Read the assignment in this study guide. Then read pages 73–95
in your textbook. Then, test your progress using the self-check.
Introduction
As you may recall, there are two parts to the reading process.
First, you must comprehend what the author says, and second,
you must figure out what the author means. Interpreting the
author’s use of words and their connotations or symbolism isn’t
always as straightforward as it may seem. No matter how schol-
arly an article seems, you must approach it with a critical eye.
Sorting out facts and opinions or generalizations and valid con-
clusions comes easier with practice. You’ll become more skillful
in active reading the more you use it.
Reading Highlights
Pages 74–88
Succeeding in college and, ultimately, in your career depends
heavily on developing the skills necessary to read and think
critically about texts and visuals. It’s important to understand
what an author means, as well as what he or she writes, to
determine whether there’s more going on in a text than meets
the eye. You need to make inferences (reasonable guesses based
on the available facts and information) to draw logical connec-
tions between what the writer states and what he or she
implies. You’ll need to look closely at the available evidence, or
note whether there’s no evidence to support either the author’s
points or your inferences and decide what that means for the
information he or she is attempting to convey. You’ll need to
distinguish facts from opinions to determine if you can rely
upon the author, and analyze his or her language to ensure
that you aren’t being manipulated by connotations, figurative
language, euphemisms, and doublespeak. Finally, look for any
Advanced Composition18
Lesson 1 19
generalizations and assumptions the author makes. If you
have doubts about the author’s claims, you’ll want to check
other more reliable sources.
Pages 88–95
This section offers you some helpful tips on making sense of
visuals, such as photographs or computer-generated images,
as well as charts and graphs designed to illustrate relation-
ships among observable datasets. For most readers,
interpreting visuals poses two basic challenges. First, you
may get stuck on a particularly engaging image; you can get
distracted from the flow of the written text. Second, you may
simply tend to skip over or ignore the image. Instead, you
should stop, look, and reflect on the image consciously.
Then, as you study the image, reflect on its message and how
it relates to the text. Always assume that the image is there
to enhance the author’s narrative. Table 4.2 on page 89 of
your textbook provides some helpful guidelines for analyzing
photographs.
When it comes to graphics such as charts, graphs, or com-
plex tables and figures, readers may be inclined to scan the
graphic without analyzing it. That’s not a good idea. A better
idea can be illustrated by how you should read text material
related to mathematics. When you get to an equation, stop.
Study it until you actually understand what it means. Apply
that same principle to tables, charts, and graphs. Table 4.3
on page 91 of your textbook offers a handy reference for
understanding common types of graphics, while Table 4.4 on
page 92 provides useful guidelines for analyzing graphics.
Advanced Composition20
Self-Check 1
At the end of each section of Advanced Composition, you’ll be asked to pause and check
your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check” exercise.
Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Please com-
plete Self-Check 1 now.
1. Read the following passage from the essay “Civil Disobedience,” written by Henry David
Thoreau in 1849, and answer the following questions.
This American government—what is it but a tradition, though a recent one, endeavoring to
transmit itself unimpaired to posterity, but each instant losing some of its integrity? It has not
the vitality and force of a single living man; for a single man can bend it to his will. It is a sort
of wooden gun to the people themselves. But it is not the less necessary for this; for the peo-
ple must have some complicated machinery or other, and hear its din, to satisfy that idea of
government which they have. Governments show thus how successfully men can be imposed
on, even impose on themselves, for their own advantage. It is excellent, we must all allow.
Yet this government never of itself furthered any enterprise, but by the alacrity with which it
got out of its way. It does not keep the country free. It does not settle the West. It does not
educate. The character inherent in the American people has done all that has been accom-
plished; and it would have done somewhat more, if the government had not sometimes got in
its way. For government is an expedient by which men would fain succeed in letting one
another alone; and, as has been said, when it is most expedient, the governed are most let
alone by it. Trade and commerce, if they were not made of India rubber, would never manage
to bounce over the obstacles which legislators are continually putting in their way; and, if one
were to judge these men wholly by the effects of their actions, and not partly by their inten-
tions, they would deserve to be classed and punished with those mischievous persons who put
obstructions on the railroads.
a. What reasonable inference can you make about the author’s opinion of the American gov-
ernment? In composing your inference, use three adjectives that the author would use to
describe American government.
b. Which specific words or phrases in the selection provide hints regarding his attitude
toward American government?
c. What details are particularly revealing about American government?
2. Complete Exercise 4.6 on page 80 of your textbook.
3. Turn to Exercise 4.7 on page 81 of your textbook and answer question 1.
4. Complete Exercise 4.9 on page 82 of your textbook
(Continued)
Lesson 1 21
Self-Check 1
5. Read “American Jerk: Be Civil, or I’ll Beat You to a Pulp” on pages 49–50. Complete Exercise
4.11 on page 84 of your textbook.
6. The following topic sentence is an opinion. Which one of the answers gives a fact that sup-
ports this topic sentence?
Although boxing can be a great way to keep in shape, it’s too dangerous for young
adults to pursue boxing seriously.
a. Approximately fifteen to twenty percent of long-term boxers experience the disease
dementia pugilistica, or “punch-drunk syndrome,” which causes loss of memory, speech
impairments, and difficulties in moving.
b. Boxing has a long history and was even selected by the ancient Greeks as an Olympic
event.
c. The violence of boxing makes it unpleasant to watch.
d. Although homicide, suicide, and cancer are among the leading causes of death for
American teenagers, more teens die in automobile accidents each year than from any
other cause.
7. The following topic sentence is an opinion. Which one of the answers gives a fact that sup-
ports this topic sentence?
If you want to get the most out of your reading, it’s important to read actively by
taking notes, underlining, and carefully focusing on the material rather than rushing
through it.
a. It’s now possible to multitask on public transportation, waiting at the doctor’s offices, and-
while at the gym.
b. A Stanford study has suggested that reading with close attention, rather than just for
pleasure, sends blood to many areas of the brain that are important in thinking and deci-
sion making.
c. The only kind of reading students should skim is material they already understand.
d. Some teachers recommend that students practice quickly skimming to determine if a
bookwill be helpful for their research.
Check your answers on page 175 of this study guide.
Advanced Composition22
ASSIGNMENT 2: DEVELOPING
AND SUPPORTING A THESIS
Read the assignment in this study guide. Then, read pages
118–137 in your textbook. Check your progress by completing
the self-check
exercises.
Introduction
You may recall from previous writing courses that a thesis
statement serves as a unifying principle for an essay or an
article. It summarizes the key idea you want to convey, high-
lights your approach to the topic, and stimulates the reader
to follow your thought process. It must accomplish those
feats in a clear, tightly focused way, however. Otherwise,
you—and your reader—can become lost in a confusing,
vague, or overly broad tangle of ideas.
Reading Highlights
Pages 119–124
A thesis statement is the main point of an essay. It tells you
what the essay is about and what the author’s position is on
the chosen topic. Although a thesis statement is usually
short, comprised of one or two sentences, creating an effec-
tive statement typically requires a good deal of synthesizing
ideas and details that you discovered during the prewriting
process. The following guidelines for writing effective thesis
statements can be found on pages 122–124.
n Make an assertion.
n Be specific.
n Focus on a central point.
n Offer an original perspective on your topic.
n Avoid making an announcement.
n Use the thesis to preview the organization of your essay.
Lesson 1 23
Pages 125–
131
A thesis must be supported by evidence; otherwise it will be
considered a generalization or opinion. There are many differ-
ent kinds of evidence you can use to back up your thesis and
give it substance. Common types of evidence include exam-
ples, explanation of a process, advantages and disadvantages,
comparison and contrast, historical background, definitions,
and explanation of causes and their effects, among others.
Study Table 6.1 on page 126, which shows you the types of
evidence that can be used to support a specific working the-
sis: Namely, “Acupuncture, a form of alternative medicine, is
becoming more widely accepted in the United States.” Figure
6.2, on page 129, offers an example of a worksheet you might
use to organize evidence to support your thesis.
Pages 131–137
Read and analyze the essay “Internet Addiction” by Greg
Beato. As you read, take note of the strategies and the evi-
dence the author uses to poke fun at overblown concerns
about Internet addiction, calling attention to expensive treat-
ments and dire predictions from the 1990s, when the
Internet was too slow to do much harm. Note also how he
shifts his tone and presents evidence that suggests that,
while the likelihood of serious social problems resulting from
Internet addiction are unlikely, some form of Internet obses-
sion could affect society because of the number of people
spending so much of their lives online.
Advanced Composition24
Self-Check 2
1. You’ve been researching adult illiteracy in the United States and have a 14-page draft that
includes two pages about how widespread the problem is, six pages analyzing the causes of
the problem, and six pages evaluating possible solutions and proposing one you feel would be
effective. Write a brief evaluation of the appropriateness of each of the following thesis state-
ments in terms of what you’ve already written.
a. Adult illiteracy poses the greatest threat to America today.
b. Adult illiteracy in America has many causes, but it can be eliminated.
c. How can the problem of adult illiteracy in America be effectively addressed?
d. Subsuming a myriad of causal factors, adult illiteracy manifests itself throughout contem-
porary American society.
2. From the following, choose the best working thesis for a research paper about the impact of
governmental policies on the way hospitals provide health care.
a. U.S. government policies on health care have changed during the past 20 years resulting
in hospitals that currently function as oligopolies.
b. U.S. government policies on health care differ greatly from those of Asian nations due to
the different social and economic structures underlying the government.
c. U.S. government policies on health care should be changed to reflect citizens’ current
concerns.
3. Read the following thesis statements and decide whether they’re effective. Mark each one as
either effective or not effective. If the statement isn’t effective, revise it to make it so.
a. The American economy should provide jobs, fair wages, and police instances of
discrimination in hiring.
b. The point I want to emphasize is that sex education in public schools can reduce the rate
of teenage pregnancies.
c. A healthy exercise program must be based on a person’s level of fitness.
d. I learned a lot about nature from hiking.
4. Read (or reread) George Beato’s essay, “Internet Addiction.” Then turn to page 135 and
respond to the three questions under
“Analyzing the Writer’s Technique.”
5. Read (or reread) George Beato’s essay, “Internet Addiction.” Then turn to page 135 and
respond to the three questions under “Thinking Critically about the Reading.”
Check your answers with those on page 176.
Lesson 1 25
ASSIGNMENT 3: DRAFTING
AN ESSAY
Read the assignment in this study guide. Then, read pages
138–158 in your textbook. Check your progress by answering
the self-check exercises.
Introduction
To make a point with your essay, you obviously must get
people to read it. A strong introduction will grab your readers’
attention and let them know what to expect. As you make
your points, effective illustrations can help readers follow
your argument and influence their thinking toward your
point of view. Your ending should tie it all up in a conclusion
that completes your argument, reflects your thesis, and
leaves your audience thinking.
Reading Highlights
Pages 138–140
The introductory section of this chapter examines a general
structure of an essay. Figure 7.1 on page 139 presents an
overview of the entire process of writing an essay, from
prewriting to editing and proofreading the final draft. Figure
7.2 on page 140 offers a graphical illustration of the main
features of an essay, which include
n A title that states your topic in a way that generates
readers’ interest
n An introduction that presents your narrowed topic,
states your thesis, offers background, and endeavors to
capture and hold readers’ interest
n The body, which is typically composed of four or more
paragraphs that support and explain your thesis using
evidence
n A conclusion that draws your essay to a close by reaf-
firming your thesis without simply restating it
Advanced Composition26
Pages 140–146
This section looks at various methods of organizing evidence
within the body of an essay. Among the most common strate-
gies are
n “Most-to-least” or “least-to-most,” through which evidence
is presented according to importance or relevance to the
thesis
n Chronological order, in which supporting details are pre-
sented in the order in which they occurred—an
organizational method often used in narrative essays
n Spatial order, often used in descriptive essays, presents
details in terms of location
This section also discusses different ways in which you might
approach creating an outline for your essay. Once you’ve
determined the organizational method. Informal outlines
(sometimes referred to as scratch outlines) are shorthand
summaries of each paragraph using key words and/or
phrases. Formal outlines typically use numbers and letters to
organize paragraphs in a logical order that begins with a gen-
eral statement, under which specific details are listed. Formal
outlines may be composed of either sentences or topics and
subtopics. Some writers prefer to use a graphic organizer. A
sample is presented in Figure 7.3 on page 147.
Pages 146–152
This section examines strategies for writing a strong intro-
ductions, effective conclusions, and titles that present the
topic in a way that captures readers’ attention and suggests
your approach.
Pages 152–156
Chapter 7 concludes with two essays, which illustrate the
principles of organizing an essay discussed in the chapter.
The “Students Write” essay (pages 152–154), “No Place Left
for Privacy,” is the first draft of an essay by Latrisha Wilson.
The process though which she established her working thesis
was covered in Chapter 6. The second essay, “Black Men and
Lesson 1 27
Public Space,” by Brent Staples (pages 154–156), is a narra-
tive in which the author recounts a number of incidents in
which his blackness inspired such fear that he was afraid for
his own safety, explains how he tries to set his “victims” at
ease, and touches on his feelings of anger at so often being
mistaken for a criminal.
Advanced Composition28
Self-Check 3
Study the following paragraph, and then complete items 1–4.
How did a handful of Spanish conquistadors overcome a Mexican empire comprising a popula-
tion in the millions? The mighty, literate, and culturally sophisticated Aztec society of Mexico
may have appeared invincible. But two factors seem paramount in their conquest. First, the
Europeans had superior weaponry. Second, and perhaps of much greater interest, subtle cul-
tural factors were involved. Ancient prophecies recorded by Aztec priests foretold the arrival of
a bearded god, an incarnation of the mighty Quetzalcoatl, arriving in the Aztec year Reed I
(1516)—exactly when Hernando Cortez arrived. Had Cortez been viewed as a demonic, rather
than a divine, apparition, superior weaponry wouldn’t have saved the Spaniards from Aztec
fury. Cortez took practical advantage of his temporary “godliness” to gather indigenous allies
against the hated Aztecs. Meanwhile, to hasten the success of the Spanish conquest, both
Aztecs and their oppressed populations began to succumb to European diseases like typhoid,
measles, and cholera.
1. Does the first sentence of this paragraph engage the reader? Explain your view in a
few sentences.
2. Create a thesis statement for an essay based on the para
graph.
3. Read this concluding paragraph; then note which two tips for writing a conclusion were used.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire of Mexico was aided by one of the great ironies of
history, the myth of the return of the bearded god Quetzalcoatl. Yet, as we revisit this terrible
drama, we are reminded of a broader fact and a wider context: Similar tragedies still occur
today when Western civilization encroaches on ancient indigenous cultures.
4. Which one of the following titles would be best? Why did you reject the others?
a. They Expected a God and Got a Grandee
b. Cortez and the Prophecy that Betrayed the Aztecs
c. An Empire Falls for a Fable
5. Having read or reread the essay by Brent Staples on pages 154–156, turn to page 157. Under
“Analyzing the Writer’s Technique,” respond to all five items.
Check your answers with those on page 180.
Lesson 1 29
ASSIGNMENT 4: WRITING
EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS
Read the assignment in this study guide. Then, read pages
159–173 in your textbook. Check your progress by answering
the self-check exercises.
Introduction
You’ve no doubt studied paragraph writing before. However,
to prepare for your writing assignments, it won’t hurt to
review the process. In some ways, the same skills used for
writing paragraphs also apply to research writing. Your text-
book effectively presents the steps you need to take to write
a strong paragraph (pages 159-161). Remember, a paragraph
is likely to be well crafted if it
n Addresses only one topic. The topic sentence should
clearly relate to and
support the thesis statement.
n Develops the idea set for the topic sentence by providing
appropriate details including definitions, analysis, and
evidence
n Employs transitions and repetitions to help readers fol-
low the logical flow of ideas through the paper
To review paragraph structure, study Figure 8.1 on page 161.
Reading Highlights
Pages 161–164
Keep in mind that the topic sentence of a paragraph is equiv-
alent to a thesis in an essay. Just as each topic sentence
should support the thesis of an essay, the supporting details
and the concluding or transitional sentence closing a para-
graph should support the topic sentence. Make sure you fully
understand the following principles:
Advanced Composition30
n A topic sentence should be focused. That is, it should tell
the reader what the paragraph is about while expressing
the author’s point of view, possibly while making a point
about the topic. Avail yourself of the material offered in
your text, and especially the comparisons between
focused and unfocused topic sentences.
n A topic sentence may be used to preview the organization
of the paragraph. Again, your text samples will help you
grasp that idea.
n The topic sentence of a paragraph should support the
thesis of your essay. If it doesn’t, you’ve gone off on a
tangent; you’ve jumped the track that should lead from
your introduction to your conclusion.
n A topic sentence should be strategically placed. As you
may know at this point, that means that a topic sentence
is sometimes best placed early in the paragraph or even
at the end of the paragraph.
Pages 164–168
To write a unified, well-developed paragraph, you must have
supporting details. You can use the process of crafting your
supporting details to detect related topics that don’t support
your topic sentence. If a detail doesn’t support your topic, it
will lead your reader astray. By the same token, practice in
writing supporting details will help you avoid generalizations
in lieu of concrete specific details. Keep in mind that you
want to focus on the who, what, when, where, how, and why
of your topic. Also keep in mind that concrete examples and
illustrations are more likely to keep your reader engaged. Be
sure to study the five tips for writing concrete specific details
on pages 167–168 of your text.
Lesson 1 31
Pages 169–173
Good writing should flow. One paragraph should lead com-
fortably and logically to the next paragraph. A good example
is a well-written and well-directed screenplay. In a well-edited
movie, transitions allow the viewer to follow the plot. The
next time you watch a movie, study the way one scene is
crafted to lead into the next. Are you able to follow the action
smoothly or does it leave you confused? Effective transitions
will keep your reader engaged with your topic. Study the list
of commonly used transitions on page 169 in your textbook
to match types of prose connections with useful and appro-
priate transitions.
This section includes a draft of “The Value of Volunteering,”
an essay by Robin Ferguson, on pages 171–173. Study it to
see how effectively Ferguson uses transitions and repetitions.
Advanced Composition32
Self-Check 4
Revise each of the following sentences using the specified guideline.
1. Use who, what, when, where, and how questions: Bats hunt at night because they have built-
in sonar.
2. Name people, places, or objects: Waiting for the bus, my brother stood at the corner holding a
furled umbrella.
3. Use active verbs: Seeing the taxi pull up outside, Miranda went to the door to greet
her husband.
4. Use descriptive language that appeals to the senses: I enjoy the view from Walker Point.
Read the following paragraph; then answer questions 5–8 using the sentence numbers
given in the instructions.
(1) The two primary schools of behavioral psychology are classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. (2) There are three keys to understanding these perspectives. (3) First, both
perspectives focus on behavior, not consciousness, thoughts, or subjective feelings. (4)
Second, both perspectives aim at ways to change or modify a subject’s behavior. (5) Third,
both perspectives attempt to predict future behaviors based on providing specific techniques
for modifying present behavior. (6) A key to understanding and differentiating the two schools
of behaviorism is recognizing that both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are
based on a few basic concepts. (7) These concepts, such as “conditioned response,” “operant,”
or “partial reinforcement,” must be carefully learned. (8) Once they are, you’ll be fairly well
informed about how behaviorists view human behavior and how they conduct their research.
5. List the transitional expressions used in sentences 3, 4, and 5.
6. Describe the type of connection these terms provide in the sentences.
7. Write a summary that condenses these three sentences into a single sentence. Remove or add
words as necessary.
8. Expand sentence 8 to summarize the content of the paragraph.
Check your answers with those on page 181.
Lesson 1 33
ASSIGNMENT 5: REVISING
CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 174–193 in your
textbook. To gauge your progress, complete the self-check.
Introduction
Mark Twain once said, “The time to begin writing an article is
when you have finished it to your satisfaction. By that time
you begin to clearly and logically perceive what it is you
really want to say.” He wasn’t kidding. Researching and writ-
ing an essay is a process of discovery that begins when you
choose your topic and doesn’t end until you’ve revealed to
your reader what you’ve learned. It’s only after you read your
“finished” paper that you know whether you’ve succeeded.
Reading Highlights
Pages 175–176
While researching and drafting your paper seem to be the
most time-consuming tasks, make sure you don’t rush
through the revision process. If you look at Figure 9.1 on
page 175, “An Overview of the Writing Process,” you’ll see
that much analysis and reworking is in order. If you let your
paper “rest” for a day or two, you may discover on the first
reading that your conclusion doesn’t match your thesis. You
may also find that your organization or transitions need work
or that you need more detail to support an area. Fixing these
flaws takes time, and sometimes even additional research, so
allow at least a week to thoroughly analyze and revise your
paper.
Pages 176–177
This section briefly examines some useful techniques of
revision. While they may be familiar to you, you may not
have tried all of them. Give particular attention to the
following points.
Advanced Composition34
n Allow your draft to rest before you read it for revision,
so you’ll see it with fresh eyes.
n Read your draft aloud to get the sense of its flow and
coherence. If you stumble or can’t follow the logic, it
needs rewriting.
n Print or type your draft. Working with a “hard copy”
makes it easier to appraise the writing objectively.
n Draw a graphic organizer (see the sample on page 177)
or outline.
Pages 177–181
Asking key questions will give you a clear picture of whether
your essay needs minor or major revision. Use a flowchart
like the one in Figure 9.3 on page 179 to analyze your para-
graphs and your essay as a whole to list revisions you need
to make. The following are some further suggestions for
reviewing points of analysis:
n Write a sentence or two describing your audience and
make sure all the elements of your paper address that
group.
n State the purpose of your paper in a single sentence; a
carefully crafted thesis statement should have summed
up that purpose.
n Make sure your title, introduction, and conclusion effec-
tively address your thesis.
n Use a flowchart like the one shown in Figure 9.4 on page
181 to evaluate your entire essay.
Pages 182–184
This section is concerned with finding a good reviewer who
can give feedback on your writing. If you’re studying at home,
you won’t have classmates with whom to get together and
read assignments, but if you have email contact with fellow
students, you may want to network with them that way.
Otherwise, ask a family member or friend to read and review
your essay using the questions and suggestions listed in
these pages as a guide. Once again, evaluate each of your
paragraphs using the flowchart on page 179.
Please note Penn
Foster’s Code of
Conduct, Academic
Dishonesty, and
Plagiarism policies.
Review your student
handbook before you
share your work with
another student.
Lesson 1 35
Pages 184–187
This section on using your instructor’s comments includes
the rough draft of an essay about guerilla street art. It’s
marked up by highlights linked to editorial comments. Once
you’ve read the rough draft and comments, study the six tips
on pages 186–187 to think about how to use an instructor’s
comments to improve your essays.
Page 187
This section provides some helpful comments about consider-
ing your learning style. To assess your learning style, read
pages 30–37 of Chapter 2.
Pages 188–192
Under the “Students Write” section, you’ll consider the revi-
sions Latrisha Wilson adopted to improve her essay, “No
Place Left for Privacy.” She used a graphic organizer for that
purpose, so you’ll want to study Figure 9.6 on pages 188–190
to see just what she revised and why. You’ll then take a
guided tour through Ms. Wilson’s final draft.
Editing and Proofreading for
C onventions
All areas of life operate according to certain codes or rules.
Readers expect academic essays to reflect the rules or con-
ventions governing such writing. When a writer fails to polish
a paper so it follows these customs, readers will not only be
disappointed but also will lose confidence in the writer, and
they may not understand what the writer is trying to commu-
nicate. The conventions of writing include correct and
appropriate grammar, diction, punctuation, capitalization,
sentence structure, and spelling. For this course, your papers
must follow the conventions of standard American English.
If you need to refresh your understanding of these conven-
tions, make use of the various resources available to you.
Part 7 of your textbook (pages 721–814) provides a useful ref-
erence to common grammatical and punctuation questions.
Advanced Composition36
You may also refer back to the academic support and online
resources on pages 11–12 of this study guide. Links to other
applicable websites are available at the Library Services link
on your student page.
Before moving on to Lesson 2, please complete the examina-
tion for Lesson 1.
Self-Check 5
1. Complete exercise 9.1 on page 186 of your textbook.
2. In “Working Together” on page 193, respond to all five
questions.
Check your answers with those on page 182.
37
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Lesson 2: Planning a
Research Paper and
Evaluating Sources
INTRODUCTION
The writer Isaac Asimov is said to have written many of his
popular-science books without doing any research. But
Asimov was a professor of biochemistry and vice president of
Mensa International, an organization for people with excep-
tionally high intelligence. While most of us use the reservoir
of knowledge and experience in our minds when we write, it’s
unlikely that the average person can write competently and
extensively using only that mental filing cabinet. Even if you
think you know something—for example, a quote you memo-
rized long ago—when you check it against the original, it may
not be precisely as you remembered it. That’s why we use
sources to check, and while we’re checking, we may find
additional information that’s relevant to our topics.
Research papers aren’t busy work. You’ll learn not only how
to think, write, and organize, but also how to pay attention to
detail, communicate your ideas to others, and find support
for your ideas. The skills used in developing a research paper
are all transferable to the job market.
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n Develop a feasible topic
n Describe techniques for choosing and narrowing a topic
n Frame useful research questions
n Establish a working thesis statement
n Explain the difference between primary and secondary sources
n Evaluate the relevance and reliability of sources
n Read actively and critically to analyze sources
Advanced Composition38
ASSIGNMENT 6: USING SOURCES
AND PLANNING YOUR
RESEARCH PROJECT
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 558–565 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
People in any society depend on each other for sustenance of
all kinds. That’s definitely true in the world of scholars.
Those who acquire and express ideas through the written
word rely on many resources, and they understand the need
to acknowledge the work of other thinkers and writers. Like
Isaac Asimov, they may have assimilated a lot of general
knowledge and made conclusions of their own; but anytime a
writer borrows ideas or words directly from another person,
that person must be cited as the source for those ideas.
Complete freedom to choose a topic might make the job of
planning a research paper harder, not easier. A writing
assignment will usually be accompanied by some limits to
work within and some description of what’s expected, so
begin planning your paper by defining the assignment. First,
think about the objective of the paper. A good place to start
is with the verbs—what are they asking you to do? Verbs like
describe, persuade or convince, or compare and contrast tell
you what you need to accomplish with the paper, as well as
what primary pattern of development to apply. Once you have
your objective clearly in mind, you’ll be able to explore appro-
priate sources.
Reading HIghlights
Pages 558–561
When should you use sources to find information you don’t
know? The simple answer is when they help you achieve your
purpose with your audience. In most cases, making a point
Lesson 2 39
and drawing a conclusion require information and examples.
You’ll also need to use sources to turn general statements
into compelling specific bits of information. Depending on the
nature of your essay, sources are also used to provide histor-
ical background, context, or technical information, as well as
to support opinions with facts. Exploring different sources
can also help you to synthesize your ideas, understand your
topic in more detail, and discover contrasting points of view
that might lend fresh insight to your thesis.
Review Figure 22.1 on page 559, which shows you the steps
involved in writing a paper using sources. This chapter’s
skills are outlined in detail. The basic steps in selecting, nar-
rowing, and discovering ideas for a research topic are similar
to methods used in any other essay writing. They include
preliminary reading, prewriting, and viewing your topic from
different perspectives.
Pages 561–565
In this section, you’ll study five practical guidelines for
choosing an appealing and feasible topic. Consider what
these recommendations mean to you.
After defining the assignment, and perhaps above all, it
makes sense to choose a topic that interests you. However, in
actual experience, some topics may seem interesting at first
glance but then seem less interesting as you learn more. In
other cases, a random idea or topic may catch your attention
while you’re exploring on the Internet or in an online catalog
at the library. That’s why seeking out an interesting topic
requires an open mind, as the following scenario shows.
Think through it carefully, because it will reappear as this
lesson proceeds.
Suppose your composition teacher requires you to develop a
paper with some connection to Central Africa, leaving the
details to your interests. You’re interested in what motivated
Joseph Conrad when he wrote The Heart of Darkness. The
novel contrasts the mentality of Westerners to the apparently
random savagery of Central Africa, where nature seems to
overwhelm the order and reason of civilization. You do some
Internet searching, but as you do, you find that English grad-
uate students and scholars of all kinds have written
Advanced Composition40
mountains of material on this topic. Not only would the topic
be unmanageable, it’s also unlikely that you could come up
with a fresh perspective on the topic.
However, you do find that the film Apocalypse Now is based
on Conrad’s book. Now you may be on to something. But
soon the same problem arises. You’ll have to know Conrad
literary criticism inside out to write anything fresh and
engaging about the film.
So your search continues.
Then, skimming a page on Central Africa, you discover that
civil war and mass murder in the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) (formerly Zaire) involve international corporate
interest in a mineral called columbite-tantalite, popularly
known as coltan. You’ve never heard of coltan, but a quick
Internet search reveals that coltan is essential to the produc-
tion of cell phones and other electronic products. Quickly
searching some more, you find that the topic yields sources,
the topic is fresh and current (but not too new, since there’s
information available), and it seems manageable.
As you know, a reasoned approach to narrowing and discov-
ering ideas about a topic is preliminary reading, prewriting,
and viewing your topic from different perspectives. You’re
interested in the coltan issue, and so far, in your preliminary
reading, you’ve unearthed the following facts:
n Coltan is a mineral that combines niobium and tanta-
lum. Tantalum is a rare metal that’s a crucial component
of the transistors used in cell phones and in some other
technological contexts.
n As the demand for coltan has soared, so has its price in
international markets.
n Roughly 80 percent of the global supply of coltan is
found in the far eastern highland regions of the
Democratic Republic of Congo.
n The Democratic Republic of Congo is the third-largest
African nation. Its capital, Kinshasa, is near the mouth
of the Congo River, far to the west of the highland region.
Lesson 2 41
n The government centered at Kinshasa oversees a land of
poverty and political corruption.
n The coltan mining region borders Uganda, Rwanda, and
Burundi.
n A brutal civil war, characterized by rape, torture, and
random murder, disrupts the entire coltan mining
region.
n The violence of the civil war is strongly related to the
smuggling of coltan from the DRC.
n International interests, out of Belgium and other nations,
will buy the coltan wherever they can get it.
n Efforts by the United Nations and other nations to con-
tain the violence have had little or no success.
n The mining is creating extensive environmental
destruction.
n The habitat of the endangered Eastern Lowland Gorilla is
being destroyed by the mining operations.
At this point, you can think about different perspectives on
the general topic of coltan mining. Different points of view
and, therefore, different narrowed topics can be explored by
using research questions. For example,
n What’s the history of Western colonialism in this region?
n What are the uses of coltan?
n What cultural and sociological impacts does coltan min-
ing bring about?
n What’s the economic importance of coltan locally and
globally?
n Who benefits from the use of coltan?
n What’s the environmental impact of coltan mining?
n What parties are responsible for coltan smuggling, and
how are they involved in the civil war (to what
advantage)?
Advanced Composition42
Clearly, addressing all of those aspects of the coltan issue
would be unmanageable within the limits of a relatively brief
research paper. You’ll need to create a working thesis that
helps you narrow your topic. Reviewing all of your questions,
you decide to concentrate on the environmental issue. You
write, “Regional conflicts in Africa are threatening the last
habitat of the rare Eastern Lowland Gorilla.”
To develop this thesis, you have to confine yourself to sum-
marizing the coltan issue while focusing on the Eastern
Lowland Gorilla and its threatened habitat. Now you need
new research questions for your narrowed topic. They might
include
n What’s the Eastern Lowland Gorilla’s habitat like?
n How is the mining affecting it?
n How long has the habitat destruction been going on?
n Can the damage be reversed?
n How else can the gorillas be protected?
Lesson 2 43
Self-Check 6
Use this background material to complete the self-check. Keep your answers in a self-
check file or a separate notebook.
n According to Queensland’s Environmental Protection Agency, more than 90 percent of the
species that have existed on Earth are now extinct.
n Natural habitats and particular species have been affected by human activity, sometimes lead-
ing to the extinction of a species (bison, mountain lions, and gray wolves are nearly wiped
out).
n Over millions of years, many species died out when they couldn’t adapt to an environment
altered by climate change.
n Natural selection is the process by which species develop traits favorable to survival within a
particular habitat.
1. Review the material about using questioning to explore your topic from different perspectives
under “Try Prewriting” on pages 563–564. Narrow the topic “extinction of animal species” by
listing one or more questions each from the perspective of biology, geology, history, and
economy.
2. After reviewing the material on pages 564–565, create a working thesis and at least three
research questions to address one of the perspectives further.
Check your answers with those on page 183.
Advanced Composition44
ASSIGNMENT 7: CONSIDERING
SOURCE TYPES AND
EVALUATING SOURCES
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 565–573 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
Before you begin your search for sources, make sure you
have a copy of your working thesis and your research ques-
tions in front of you. Refer to it each time you locate a
potential source, and make sure it’s relevant to your topic
before you print or copy any articles or borrow any books.
While you may not want to take time to thoroughly read each
piece, at least look in a book’s index or table of contents to
see if your topic is covered and scan any item you believe you
need. The information you find might be a repetition of some-
thing you already have, it may be out of date, or it may be
too general for your needs. Select only those sources that
you’re likely to use before closely reading the
source.
An Internet search engine may be your favorite place to find
information quickly, but don’t depend too heavily on the arti-
cles you find there. A lot of the best, in-depth information for
a research paper is found only in print sources. Make sure
you consult your library’s “search engine”—the reference
librarian. He or she can show you where to find excellent
sources online as well as in print. Make a point of choosing
at least a few print sources, particularly when you need
prim
ary sources.
The school’s library
provides access to
many print sources
online through the
Expanded Academic
ASAP periodical data-
base. Use the library
link from your home-
page at the school’s
website.
PENN
FOSTER
Virtual
Library
Lesson 2 45
Reading Highlights
Pages 565–569
The sources you select for your research will fall into two
distinct categories. Primary sources come “from the horse’s
mouth.” That is, the information is available in a first-person
document or recording, rather than a quote or interpretation
by another person. Such sources are considered extremely
reliable. Primary sources include letters, novels, speeches,
diaries, the writings of scientists and philosophers, and many
other types of text or records. It may be a personal account of
a battle or an interview with a celebrity.
The following are some examples of primary sources:
n A letter from James Madison to his wife Dolley
n Abraham Lincoln’s second inaugural address
n Nineteen Eighty-Four, a novel by George Orwell
n A diary kept by a soldier during the Korean War
n The poetry of Emily Dickinson
n A radio broadcast from a reporter observing the destruc-
tion of the Hindenburg
n Albert Einstein’s published papers on the special theory
of relativity
Secondary sources either support or comment on primary
sources. They may serve your purpose better than primary
sources if you’re looking for authority to back up an argu-
ment. If an original manuscript of a play is the primary
source, then a critical essay discussing the work is the sec-
ondary source. An author interested in the life of Samuel
Adams would consult as many primary sources (actual writ-
ings by Adams himself) as he or she could before writing a
biography of Adams. If you used the resulting biography as a
source for your paper, that would be a secondary source. The
author may have quoted the primary sources and collected
facts from them, but he or she also went on to interpret and
draw conclusions from the material.
Advanced Composition46
Even when using primary sources, you must be careful of
translations. For example, Plato’s dialogues have been trans-
lated differently by different scholars; Emily Dickinson’s
poems were arbitrarily edited in early editions. You may have
to do further research to determine the professional reputa-
tion of the translator or editor. Also be careful with websites;
it’s often difficult to verify the credentials of a website’s
author(s).
The following are examples of secondary sources:
n Ken Burns’ documentary, The Civil War
n An Encyclopedia Britannica article on Freud’s theories
n Rome: The Biography of a City by Christopher Hibbert
Sources can also be categorized by type. Scholarly sources,
for example, include articles and books written by academics
and scientific researchers. Reference works are compilations
of facts, data, and other sorts of information, among which
can be considered encyclopedias, dictionaries and the-
sauruses. Popular sources encompass a wide range of
materials, such as newspapers, magazines, and general
interest works of nonfiction. Table 22.1 on page 568 offers a
handy comparison between scholarly journals and popular
sources.
Page 569
When is a source relevant? Use common sense. If the source
helps you answer one of your research questions, it’s rele-
vant. But remember to consider your audience, your thesis,
and the timeliness of your source.
Your audience and your purpose—the way you intend to
develop your thesis—will affect the sources and information
you choose to review and to include in your paper. Suppose
you’re looking at the pros and cons of DNA testing in crime
investigations. A scientific work in population genetics might
be too technical for your audience. A mainstream magazine
article on how DNA testing is used in novels or television pro-
grams may be biased and misleading. Your most relevant
sources will be articles from law enforcement agencies or civil
rights organizations that focus on this issue.
Lesson 2 47
Also remember that the world changes quickly, particularly
in respect to technology. When evaluating a source, you may
find that it’s simply out of date. On the other hand, older
sources may be helpful if you’re researching the historical
background of an issue.
Pages 570–571
How can you decide if a source is reliable? Your text offers
you four guidelines. In general, scholarly sources are more
factual and balanced than general-interest sources. Some
news sources are considered reliable—the New York Times
has a better reputation than a supermarket tabloid, and a
website that ends in .edu is more reliable than a blog. A good
source names the author, so you can check his or her cre-
dentials. But even among scientists and scholars, judgments
and opinions differ. You may have to check facts and other
opinions to tell whether an article is biased, but be aware of
your own biases, too.
The techniques for evaluating Internet sources aren’t much
different from those used for evaluating print sources. The
main difference is that the accuracy, purpose, and timeliness
of Internet sources can be somewhat difficult to evaluate. If
you can’t verify a fact or a site’s credibility, it’s best not to
use it.
Pages 571–573
When reviewing sources for a research paper, you’ll need to
examine them critically, using many of the same techniques
for analyzing writing that you reviewed in Lesson 1. For
example, you’ll need to distinguish between fact and opinion
and examine the source author’s use of language. Look for
generalizations, assumptions, and omissions, and scrutinize
the material for signs of bias, which may not be immediately
apparent.
Before moving on to Lesson 3, please complete the examina-
tion for Lesson 2.
Advanced Composition48
Self-Check 7
1. Write a brief paragraph differentiating primary and secondary sources, and give one example
of each. Then, in a second paragraph, describe the advantages and disadvantages of second-
ary sources.
2. In a paragraph, explain the difference between relevant and reliable sources to support the
thesis of a research paper or essay. Use examples to support your ideas.
3. List three questions you could use to evaluate the accuracy of an Internet source.
4. Which of the following will probably contain the most objective data?
a. A report with charts documenting hourly wage rates by an occupational group
b. A memoir about working in a coal mine
c. An editorial in the Washington Post
d. A letter rebutting an article in a medical journal
5. You may consider an article from an Internet source reliable if the article
a. first appeared in a print source or publication.
b. contains the author’s name and the publication date.
c. provides documented information.
d. is published by a national association.
6. Label each of the following statements as fact (F), opinion (O), or expert opinion (EO).
a. A Gallup poll indicated that 60 percent of respondents agree that it’s better to marry
someone who shares similar interests.
b. According to Dr. Howard Gardner of Harvard University, there are at least eight different
kinds of intelligence.
c. The Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee offer unsurpassed opportunities for landscape
photography.
d. The attention span of adults is about 20 minutes.
e. Denver, the so-called Mile-High City, is the site of a U.S. government mint.
(Continued)
Lesson 2 49
Self-Check 7
7. Label each of the following as fact (F) or generalization (G). Explain your choice, and indicate
what kind of support or documentation would be necessary for you to evaluate each state-
ment’s accuracy.
a. Most people who live in San Francisco hold far-left political views.
b. Jupiter’s atmosphere is rich in methane.
c. People in many nations opposed the invasion of Iraq.
d. The average summer temperature in Seattle is 72 degrees Fahrenheit.
8. In one or two short paragraphs, identify and explain what assumption or assumptions you find
in the following paragraph.
I love man as my fellow; but his scepter, real or usurped, extends not to me, unless the rea-
son of an individual demands my homage; and even then the submission is to reason, and not
to man. In fact, the conduct of an accountable being must be regulated by the operations of
its own reason; or on what foundation rests the throne of God?
—Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), excerpt from A Vindication of the Rights of Women
(Second Revised Edition, 1792)
Check your answers with those on page 184.
Advanced Composition50
NOTES
51
L
e
s
s
o
n
3
L
e
s
s
o
n
3
Lesson 3: Finding Sources,
Taking Notes, and
Synthesizing
INTRODUCTION
Many students have been trained to think that the first thing
they need to do when they have a research assignment is to
visit libraries, log onto the Internet, or interview other people
in search of information. But you yourself are an important
source of information—in fact, you should be the first source
of ideas for your research project. No matter what subject or
topic you’re researching, you probably have some knowledge
or ideas about it. That’s why we covered the various ways to
generate ideas, consider different perspectives from which to
view topics, and develop research questions—all before you
looked for any source material.
This lesson guides you through the next phase of the
process—locating, choosing, and using sources to develop
and support your narrowed topic (your working thesis). We
begin at the library, a resource often neglected today because
Google searches are so easy. For an academic research
paper, however, the library is your most essential tool and
should act as the starting point for your search process. Use
your local library (and, in particular, the reference librarian)
as well as virtual libraries, such as the college’s library (click
the Library Services link on your student page) or others
including the following sites:
Internet Public Library: http://www.ipl.org
The WWW Virtual Library: http://vlib.org
http://vlib.org
http://www.ipl.org
Advanced Composition52
ASSIGNMENT 8:
USING LIBRARY SOURCES
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 575–581 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Reading Highlights
Pages 575–577
The best way to learn your way around a library is to take an
actual tour of the library. Ask for a map or floor plan at the circu-
lation desk. Take some time to look around. Locate the stacks, the
periodical section, and the microfiche and microfilm resources.
Talk to the reference librarians about the types of resources they
offer. Ask about the library’s website and how to link to the library
catalog or databases to which the library subscribes. You might
even take a tour of the library’s website. Figure 23.2 shows an
example of a university library home page.
Be sure to study Figure 23.1 on page 575. It will guide you
through the steps involved in researching your topic.
Carefully study the material under “An Overview of Library
Sources.” Refer to it often as you learn to locate useful
library sources.
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n Use keywords, library catalogs, databases, and periodical
indexes to locate sources in the library
n Locate and evaluate sources on the Internet
n Take effective notes from sources
n Explain techniques for gathering citation information
n Correctly paraphrase information taken from sources
n Properly incorporate direct quotations
n Explain how to synthesize information from sources
n Discuss approaches to field research
Lesson 3 53
Pages 578–579
Quite often, library resources such as catalogs and journals
are located on databases. To search efficiently, remember to
use keywords to access information in a database of any
kind. Suppose you enter the word “Napoleon” into a com-
puter linked to a database and click Go or Search. The
keyword will bring up a list of resources that contain the
word “Napoleon”—probably hundreds or thousands of them.
If you’ve already narrowed your topic, add the area of your
focus, such as “unification” or “Napoleonic Code,” to limit the
number of sources to those most likely to be useful. Each
database links keywords to subject matter in different ways;
your reading will help you understand some of those
differences.
In general, keywords are words or phrases related to your
topic. If you’ve used search engines like Google or Yahoo,
you’re already familiar with the concept. You’ll need to keep
in mind that library resource databases often categorize
information under subject headings. The issue here for a
researcher is the fact that subject headings, like substance
abuse or financial services, may be quite distant from key-
words you might use to look for information on an Internet
search engine. When information is arranged under subject
headings, you might want to use a strategy suggested in your
text. For example, if your topic is the causes of residential
segregation, you could look enter key words or subject head-
ings like urban racial segregation, mortgage red-lining, or
urban renewal.
When searching databases for topics or sources, it helps to be famil-
iar with Boolean operators. Boolean searches use words like and,
not, and or to limit or expand search results to focus or broaden your
search. Reference librarians are experts in the use of Boolean opera-
tors, so ask them to show you how it’s done.
Advanced Composition54
Pages 579–581
You can use a library catalog to locate books and, in many
cases, periodicals, newspapers, government documents, and
electronic sources (websites). The illustrations in Figures 23.3
and 23.4 on pages 580 and 581 of your textbook show sam-
ple search pages and search results. However, your library’s
format and procedures for accessing the library’s catalog may
differ. Check the menus on the monitor screen to help you
get started, but always ask for help if you don’t know how to
begin or can’t find what you want on the menus.
Libraries may subscribe to both general and specialized data-
bases. The former, such as Academic Search Complete, offers
access to the full text of thousands of articles on a wide
range of subjects. You have access to several databases
through the Library Services link on your student portal.
Specialized periodical indexes and abstracts generally list
technical and academic articles within a specific academic
discipline, such as art history, biology, or education.
Entries are usually accompanied by an abstract, which pro-
vides a useful summary of the article along with other
pertinent information. Full-text articles may be directly
accessed if they’re offered in HTML. Articles in PDF files
require Adobe Acrobat Reader or similar programs to view or
print the material. Make sure you have this free download on
your computer.
Reference books include general-interest encyclopedias, spe-
cialized encyclopedias, dictionaries, specialized dictionaries,
atlases, and almanacs. If you want to look up a fact, read a
concise discussion of the history of a topic, or find basic
background information, use a reference book. In addition to
reference books for the general reader, specialized reference
books offer more academic and detailed discussions.
Lesson 3 55
Self-Check 8
1. Access http://www.vt.edu/ and study the homepage. Then answer these
questions.
a. Where are Virginia Tech Extended Campus facilities located?
b. Click the Libraries link at the top of the page (there’s another one at the bottom of the
page, as well). This will take you to a slightly different page, on which you’ll find a search
box. Click the Addison tab. Select “Author” from the Keyword drop-down menu. Then
enter “Freud, Sigmund” and click Search. You’ll open a list of sources for Sigmund Freud.
Scroll down to the book Civilization and Its Discontents. Where is it located in the Newman
Library? What is this book’s call number? Who translated and edited this work, and who
was the publisher?
c. Click on the link for this entry. Explore the information available in this area. What are
the subject categories for this book?
Check your answers with those on page 186.
Advanced Composition56
ASSIGNMENT 9:
INTERNET RESEARCH
AND FIELD RESEARCH
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 581–586 in
Chapter 22 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-
check to gauge your progress.
Introduction
Electronic media have radically transformed the way people
transmit, store, and access information. You’re probably
familiar with the Internet and sites like Twitter and YouTube.
However, this assignment will show you how to locate
Internet sources you can use to write a serious essay or a
research report. Internet sources include listservs, news-
groups, and the web. While much of this material may sound
familiar, reading it can help you understand more about the
Internet and how to find your way around.
Reading Highlights
Pages 581–583
The Web was originally designed to allow scientists and aca-
demics to share information. Today, the Web links millions of
websites across the globe and facilitates quick communication,
commerce, and information access. Websites are accessed
through online web browsers, such as Firefox, Microsoft
Internet Explorer, or Google Chrome. Each website is identified
by a uniform resource locator (URL) with three parts.
http://www.vt.edu/about/index.html
1 2 3
Part 1, http, stands for hypertext transfer protocol and will be
a part of most Web addresses. Part 2 identifies the server
where the website is hosted. Opening it should lead to a site’s
homepage. Part 3 identifies a cyber-path to the location of a
particular web page.
Countries have exten-
sions, such as .uk for
the United Kingdom
and .jp for Japan. For
some purposes, the
website’s country of
origin may be a factor
in how useful it is.
Lesson 3 57
Part 2 is the key element to examine. It identifies the server
where the site’s information is stored and explains extensions—
the tag that identifies the type of entity publishing the site. For
research purposes, .edu and .gov are usually the most reliable,
although reputable news, medical, and business organizations
may have a different tag, such as .org or .com. You must be
more careful with those, because some may contain seriously
slanted information. If you access them, read the content care-
fully and critically to determine their worth to your topic.
Be sure to note the list of search engines on page 582, along
with handy tips on how to use keywords. Keep in mind that dif-
ferent search engines often provide different responses to key
words. For that reason, it may make sense to check out key-
word responses on more than one search engine.
Locating useful Internet sources demands care and good judg-
ment. Because some of the material on the Web is inaccurate,
biased, invented, or merely entertaining, you must make an
effort to identify authoritative websites. When you find good
sites, you can bookmark them, but remember to keep a sepa-
rate list of the sites from which you copied or printed
information for your in-text citations and works-cited page.
Review the lists of news sites and government document sites
on pages 582–583, which can be handy starting points for
research.
Page 583
Listservs and newsgroups connect groups of people through
particular servers. College listservs, for example, may inform
faculty members of the Biochemistry Department about
upcoming events, grade deadlines, and so on. Newsgroups
may serve as discussion forums among people, such as the
editorial staff of a daily newspaper or the sales representa-
tives of a company or industry.
Pages 584–586
For many writers, field research yields results that can’t
be found in published sources. This section examines the
proper techniques of three forms of field research: interviews,
surveys, and direct field observation.
Advanced Composition58
Self-Check 9
Questions 1–7: Indicate whether the questions are true or false.
1. An article in Reader’s Digest on carpal tunnel syndrome, written by a chef who has the ail-
ment, is an accurate source for a paper on carpal tunnel.
2. Information found on a .gov website is likely to be accurate.
3. Any information published on the Web undergoes a stringent review process.
4. A website called http://members.aol.com/~sstevens/mywebsite.html is probably not a reli-
able source for factual information.
5. All information found on the Web has an author listed.
6. An article by the National Rifle Association on the importance of gun ownership will proba-
bly present all sides of the issue.
7. A book written in 1988 discussing demographics in China is likely to be the most appropri-
ate source for a paper on the 2003 SARS disease outbreak.
To answer the following questions, imagine that you’ve been assigned an art history paper
on female artists in history, and you chose Artemisia Gentileschi, born in Rome in 1593. To
learn more about Artemisia, choose a search engine and type in her name. Explore at least
three websites that are, in your judgment, reliable for this assignment. Look for both biog-
raphical information and examples of her work, and then answer the following questions.
8. Who was Artemisia’s first art teacher?
9. What was the name of her first dated and signed painting?
10. What event scarred her life when she was 19 years old?
11. Which of her paintings is considered a reaction to that event?
12. Other than Orazio, which baroque artist’s influence is seen in Artemisia’s work?
13. What criteria did you use to choose reliable websites?
Check your answers with those on page 186.
Lesson 3 59
ASSIGNMENT 10: WORKING
WITH SOURCES
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 586–596 in
Chapter 22 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-
check to gauge your progress.
Introduction
In this section, you’ll study techniques for gathering citation
information from sources, taking notes, paraphrasing,
recording direct quotations, evaluating and synthesizing your
sources, and writing an annotated bibliography. You’ll also
learn what constitutes plagiarism and how to use sources
ethically and responsibly. Learning the art of correct para-
phrasing and the procedures for using a direct quotation are
crucial to writing a research report or a thoughtful essay, so
make careful notes on these procedures.
Reading Highlights
Pages 586–587
Extracting information from sources must be systematic.
Some people prefer using index cards (see Figure 23.5 on
page 587 for an example). Others create computer files
organized for taking notes, writing out quotations, and making
comments. Still others may take advantage of computer-based
citation (or reference managers). Keep in mind that the advan-
tage of note cards is that you can arrange them according to
the points you wish to make, and they can be easily
rearranged if you find something new and worthwhile toward
the end of your search for information. But whichever
method you choose, be sure to mark each page with its
source, both for citation purposes and in case you have to
revisit the material for additional information.
Another possibility is printing or photocopying material and
then underlining and writing margin notes directly on the
copies. Annotations are an important step toward being able
to synthesize sources and draw conclusions of your own
Advanced Composition60
about your topic. In many ways, a personal comment is a
type of freewriting. When a bit of information captures your
attention, you need to write down the connection to your nar-
rowed topic and your thoughts while they’re fresh. Finally,
such annotation helps you put your ideas together as you go,
thereby providing a great deal of the writing needed for your
paper. Just be sure you keep careful track of which ideas
and information come from sources and which are your own
personal comments.
Page 588
When you take information from sources, you’ll note it in one
of the following ways, each of which must include correct
documentation of the source:
n Direct quote
n Summary
n Paraphrase
n Combination of quote with summary or paraphrase
Pages 588–589
In business and professional research projects, it’s often the
job of the researcher to read through a source, or a number
of sources, and summarize the findings for a CEO or other
individual. That person depends on the researcher to accu-
rately convey the essence of the information—but not waste
time by presenting more than what’s necessary. The same
principle applies to the summarizing notes for the research
papers you’ll write.
Although summary notes convey the same information as the
source you’re working with, it shortens or condenses the
wording, sometimes drastically. It restates, in just a few sen-
tences, the ideas that are contained in a paragraph, a few
paragraphs, or even several pages. For instance, you might
need to summarize background information so your reader
has an understanding of the context of an issue you’re
reporting on or give some history to clarify a problem you’ve
Lesson 3 61
uncovered. The following are the six basic steps to take
as you read through several pages of a source you want
to summarize:
1. Underline the main ideas or key facts related to your
purpose.
2. Cross out details and facts that aren’t important to your
purpose.
3. Scan through what you’ve underlined from beginning to
end and then set the source aside.
4. Write down the main ideas in your own words without
looking at the source.
5. Scan the underlined material again to verify the facts
you’ve included in your summary.
6. Condense the main ideas into one sentence or a few
sentences, depending on how much of the information
you need for your research project.
Carefully study the five guidelines for writing summary notes
offered on page 588 in your textbook, and bookmark the page
for future reference. Also remember that even though your
summary notes are written in your words, you must cite the
source if you use all or part of a summary from your notes
when writing your paper. In the next lesson, you’ll learn dif-
ferent ways to integrate each of the note-taking methods into
your actual paper. For now, include careful, detailed source
information for any note that you make when researching.
Pages 589–591
As with summaries, paraphrasing restates an author’s ideas
in your own words. Whereas a summary greatly condenses
the facts and ideas, a paraphrase keeps the same basic order
of information. Paraphrases are useful for many reasons. As
a student, if you can read a passage and put it into your own
words, then you can be sure you understand that passage.
Being able to write a good paraphrase also shows that you
grasp the material well enough to translate the ideas into
your own words. As a writer, paraphrasing helps you avoid
using too many direct quotes and encourages you to phrase
the information in your own individual writing style. Finally,
Advanced Composition62
since most sources use language that’s not distinctive
enough to quote directly, paraphrases simply convey the
information you need to cover.
Incorrect paraphrasing, when your own phrasing and sen-
tence structure are too close to the author’s, is considered
plagiarism, a subject that will be discussed in more detail in
Chapter 24. To avoid plagiarizing, set the source aside and
work completely from what you remember of the passage,
writing as if you were explaining the main idea to someone.
Plagiarism often occurs when you haven’t taken enough time
to understand the material. If you find yourself doing any of
the following, you’re in danger of plagiarizing while trying to
paraphrase:
n Going back and forth between a source and your writing
n Using a thesaurus to insert a different word here or there
within a sentence
n Changing the form of the words, such as a verb to a
noun (“clarify” to “clarification”)
n Putting the same words in different order
A direct quote is simply a unique phrase or sentence that you
copy directly from the source, word for word. You indicate a
direct quote by using quotation marks around the phrase,
sentence, or sentences that you’ve taken from the source,
along with the source citation—which often consists of the
page number of the source in parentheses. If you’re including
a direct quote within you own sentence, the citation is usually
placed in parentheses at the end of the sentence. Use this
style of punctuation not only in your paper, but also as you
take notes, so you don’t inadvertently plagiarize. If you didn’t
use quotation marks, you could mistake a quote for a sum-
mary you wrote yourself. Even with the citation information,
you would have committed plagiarism, because you didn’t
indicate that you were using the author’s exact wording.
For further practice on writing paraphrases, visit the
Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/619/02/.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/619/02/
Lesson 3 63
A quote must exactly reproduce the author’s words, including
spelling and punctuation, even if they’re outdated or incor-
rect. As you record a quotation in your notes, don’t delete
any words or change any word forms, even if you don’t think
you’ll use that part of the quote or know you’ll have to
change a present tense verb to a past tense. Instead, record
it exactly, so you have the complete, accurate quotation
before you when you’re ready to include it in your paper.
Techniques for adjusting quotations to fit your sentence will
be discussed in Chapter 24.
Pages 591–592
As you go through your research, it’s imperative to keep a
detailed record of all the information you need in order to
accurately cite your source. Figure 23.6 on page 592 offers a
sample worksheet that simplifies the task of keeping track of
your sources for further research or proper citation.
Pages 592–595
Researching your working thesis often unearths additional
relevant sources. What’s more, you may discover information
that affects how you planned to develop your working thesis.
If you’re making personal comments or annotations while
researching, you’re better able to determine if you’re getting
sidetracked or need to revise your thesis. Modify your work-
ing thesis as you go to save time and avoid disappointment.
Throw away ideas for which you aren’t finding support, or
adjust your direction based on a surprising discovery.
For example, say your working thesis is that a woman raised
in a family where the head of the household is a professional
in a given field is more likely to pursue a career in that field,
but you then discover credible information from more than
one source that indicates the impact of parent or guardian
occupation doesn’t affect a woman in terms of career choice,
but it does have an impact on overall grades at the high
school and college levels, regardless of career goal. Your
revised thesis might say that a woman raised with a parental
figure who is a professional in his or her field is more likely
to get good grades and pursue a career as a professional in a
Advanced Composition64
field of her choice. Making such decisions and changes as
you go also helps you group similar ideas and details from
different sources, thereby accomplishing the first steps in
sorting and synthesizing your information. Use the exploratory
questions on page 593 to guide you in revising your working
thesis both while you’re researching and as you prepare to
draft your paper.
You can begin arranging your ideas by choosing categories
from among your sources, as shown on pages 593. A graphic
organizer, such as the one in Figure 23.7 on page 595, is also
a useful tool for grouping your sources. A list of pros and
cons is a third way to organize ideas, which is especially use-
ful for arguments or a compare-and-contrast approach.
Note: It’s sometimes useful to use more than one approach to
the process of synthesis.
Pages 595–596
Occasionally, instructors may ask you to provide an anno-
tated bibliography for a research paper. In such cases, in
addition to providing the relevant publication information,
you’ll follow each citation with a brief summary of each
source. You can see a sample of an annotated bibliography
on page 596.
Before moving on to Lesson 4, please complete the examina-
tion for Lesson 3.
Lesson 3 65
Self-Check 10
Questions 1–4: Read the sample source, in which the underlined passages indicate quota-
tions to be used in the exercises. The sentences have been numbered to identify them. The
material appears on page 12 of the source. Once you finish reading, complete each of the
sentences, inserting the appropriate quote from the sample source. Be sure to use the
proper form and punctuation for in-text citations.
(1) I love man as my fellow; but his scepter, real or usurped, extends not to me, unless the rea-
son of an individual demands my homage; and even then the submission is to reason, and not
to man. (2) In fact, the conduct of an accountable being must be regulated by the operations
of its own reason; or on what foundation rests the throne of God?
(3) It appears to me necessary to dwell on these obvious truths, because females have been
insulated, as it were; and, while they have been stripped of the virtues that should clothe
humanity, they have been decked out with artificial graces that enable them to exercise a
short-lived tyranny. (4) Love, in their bosoms, taking place of every nobler passion, their sole
ambition to be fair, to raise emotion instead of inspiring respect; and this ignoble desire, like
the servility in absolute monarchies, destroys all strength of character. (5) Liberty is the
mother of virtue, and if women be, by their very constitution, slaves, and not allowed to
breathe the sharp invigorating air of freedom, they must ever languish exotics, and be reck-
oned beautiful flaws in nature.
—Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), excerpt from A Vindication of the Rights of Women
(Second Revised Edition, 1792)
1. (Sentence 1) Wollstonecraft asserts that while she loves her fellow man
__________________________________ has no sway over her.
2. (Sentence 3) The author argues that people’s capacity to guide their lives through reason
is among ______
__________________________.
3. (Sentence 3) It’s in that context that she deplores the narrow restrictions of women’s pre-
scribed social roles, proclaiming that women are ________________________ designed to
attract, manipulate, and ____________________________ over the men in their lives.
4. (Sentence 5): Declaring that ___________________, Wollstonecraft argues that if women
are _________________, then they’re precluded from ever inhaling the
__________________________.
(Continued)
Advanced Composition66
Self-Check 10
Read the following passage carefully. Then write three research questions to begin your
search for material for an essay based on some aspect of the events described in the para-
graph.
In Britain, the July election of 1945 drove the Conservative party from power. It seems the
Brits had had their fill of “blood, toil, tears, and sweat.” Churchill resigned as Prime Minister
and became leader of the opposition. In the spring of 1946, Sir Winston traveled to Fulton,
Missouri to deliver a speech in the auditorium at Westminster College. In his address, he
warned that an “iron curtain” had fallen across Europe. He argued that the English-speaking
peoples had a common bond that would unite them in common defense against the looming
threat of the Soviet Union under Stalin. Indeed, his speech provided a narrative that would
shape the views of an entire generation. That was no mean feat. The state of the world was
by no means clear in the spring of 1946. Europe’s economy was mainly rubble and ashes.
Even as George Catlett Marshall prepared a plan to restore Europe’s economy, Stalin’s Soviet
Union was showing its colors and defining its intent. After so much blood and horror, another
kind of darkness rose across Eastern Europe. Just as, in March of 1942, it was not at all clear
how the war would turn out, in the spring of 1946, it was not at all clear what direction the
world would take.
5. ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Check your answers with those on page 186.
Lesson 4: Drafting,
Revising, and Formatting
a Research Project
INTRODUCTION
In this section, you’ll learn how to actually write your
research paper. Once you’ve selected and narrowed your
topic, prepared your thesis statement, and collected and
organized your notes, it’s time to write the first draft. If the
first steps are completed properly, the writing should be
fairly straightforward. You arrange your notes according to
the pattern of development you’ve chosen and begin writing.
As you present your ideas, you may generate more questions
requiring some additional research or find a gap in your
logic, but you can easily fix these problems at this stage.
Once you’re satisfied with your draft, you can edit and
proofread to correct any technical errors.
67
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4
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s
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4
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n Explain how to select a thesis topic
n Develop an effective thesis statement
n Provide effective support for your thesis statement
n Organize the first draft of a research paper
n Integrate sources into an essay or research paper
n Use formatting, editing, and proofreading techniques to revise
your work
n Describe the MLA style for in-text citations and a Works Cited
page
Advanced Composition68
ASSIGNMENT 11: ORGANIZING
YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT AND
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 598–603 in
Chapter 23 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-
check to gauge your progress.
INTRODUCTION
You know how to select a topic and complete your research.
Now you’re ready to see how everything comes together into a
first draft. The better job you do of organizing your notes and
sources, the easier it is to put them together into an essay or
research paper. In this assignment, you’ll review effective
techniques for sorting out your research and developing your
ideas as you work on your first draft.
READING HIGHLIGHTS
Pages 600–601
Before you start drafting a research project, you need to
think about how to organize it. In other courses—English
Composition or another English course—you probably stud-
ied patterns of development, so you have some idea of how to
choose a pattern that suits your thesis and your audience.
You’ve defined the assignment and gone through the process
of collecting and synthesizing sources. The next step is to
arrange your notes according to the categories and subcate-
gories you identified while evaluating and synthesizing your
sources. The illustration on page 601 lists several possibili-
ties, depending on the method you used to document your
sources. Finally, you’ll need to create an outline or a graphic
organizer to arrange your ideas and reference the sources
you’ll use in your project.
Lesson 4 69
Pages 601–603
Lesson 3 introduced the important distinction between para-
phrasing and plagiarism. This section examines the issue in
further detail, explaining the difference between accidental
and deliberate plagiarism. Either type of plagiarism carries
heavy sanctions, which may include failure of the course,
expulsion from the institution, or, in some cases, legal action.
It’s simply unacceptable to copy someone else’s work and try
to pass it off as your own. The box at the bottom of page 602
spells out the criteria for determining whether or not material
has been plagiarized. Notice that simply omitting quotation
marks from an attributed direct quote is a form of plagiarism.
Page 603 contains a list of steps you can take to avoid plagia-
rism, as well as a general guideline for deeming what to
document.
TIP: Table 24.1 on page 604 offers a brief summary of examples that
can help you determine whether or not to document certain types of
material.
Advanced Composition70
Self-Check 11
1. Review the material on pages 594–595 that discusses how a student might use a graphic
organizer to synthesize sources for a paper. Using the graphic organizer on page 595 as a
guide, create an outline of a paper on the subject choosing a simpler approach to living. The
outline may be informal, formal, or constructed in the form of a graphic organizer. You may
also wish to review the material on pages 144–147 to help you with this exercise.
Questions 2–3: Read the sample source material and complete the instructions that follow
to practice avoiding plagiarizing and actively engaging with source material.
2. Read the following passage.
The Chihuahua is a challenging dog to have as a pet. The Chihuahua is not only devoted,
sweet-tempered, and exceedingly cute, but also stubborn, feisty, and prone to destructive
behaviors like digging and chewing. Because of the Chihuahua’s diminutive size (two to
seven pounds), many owners don’t understand at first how much trouble this type of dog
can be. Too many Chihuahuas start out as darling puppies who are lavished with attention
and end up as untrained adults, unceremoniously dropped off at the dog pound.
a. Write a paraphrase of the passage.
b. Write a one-sentence summary of it.
c. Write a personal comment about the paragraph.
3. Read this passage taken from the study guide to Readings in World Civilizations, by
Elizabeth Signorotti Miklus, page 53.
As Britain’s empire spread, so too did its sports. Prior to the Civil War, cricket was the most
popular team sport in the United States, but cricket had a competitor, another stick and ball
game, known variously as “base,” “goal ball,” or “base ball.” In 1845 Alexander Cartwright
suggested that the group of men with whom he played baseball—on a vacant lot in New York
City—organize a club, charging dues, creating rules of conduct and play, and levying fines for
those who violated the rules. After the end of the Civil War, cricket no longer held its popular
place, but baseball did. Conditions, then, were highly favorable for the emergence of a team
sport, an American team sport, to replace the British sport of cricket.
a. Write a paraphrase of the passage.
b. Write a one-sentence summary of it.
c. Write a personal comment about the paragraph.
Check your answers with those on page 187.
Lesson 4 71
ASSIGNMENT 12: DRAFTING
YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 603–612 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
Writing a research paper is an opportunity to learn about a
subject you’re interested in. By reading what others have dis-
covered about your topic (researching), you find out not only
facts, but also opinions on what the ideas mean and what
can be deduced from them. Because part of your supporting
evidence depends on what others have observed, said, and
concluded, you need to know how to integrate the ideas
you’ve decided to use into a cohesive, readable paper. You also
have to give credit to the sources in a way that’s methodical
and understandable.
Reading Highlights
Pages 603–606
Your textbook has made drafting your research paper a step-
by-step process that’s easy to follow. Many of the nine steps,
like following an introduction-body-conclusion format, keep-
ing your audience in mind, or incorporating in-text citations,
should seem both familiar and reasonable by this time. You
may want to bookmark this page for reference when you’re
actually writing your assignments.
As you draft your research paper, keep the following points
in mind:
n You’re still in the process of discovery and synthesis, so
if you find yourself deviating from your plan to pursue a
new thought, follow your instincts to see where they
lead. Such sidetracks at this stage often produce the
most powerful and convincing writing.
Advanced Composition72
n Focus on your own thoughts and analysis instead of the
sources. The initial draft should reflect your unique plan
of development for the thesis, not what others say. Once
you know what you think, you can choose the informa-
tion that supports your ideas. If you string together
quotation after quotation, readers won’t hear your
voice—just a series of facts and opinions.
n As you interact with and integrate source information,
your mind will trigger additional connections to your the-
sis and to other points you’ve made or will make. Jot
down notes in the margin of your draft as you go so you
don’t lose the ideas.
n If you can’t explain information from a source in relation
to your thesis, then set it aside rather than force it into
your draft. You may think of an explanation later or, more
likely, realize that the information wasn’t appropriate.
n Once your draft is complete, revisit your working thesis
and modify it to fit what you actually wrote, particularly
in relation to the conclusions you’ve drawn at the end.
Drafting a research paper involves cycling back through vari-
ous steps in the process. For example, when you notice that
a key point you want to make doesn’t have enough support-
ing material, you’ll have to do further research to locate that
information. Of course, that research may lead you to develop
other points or to reorganize your ideas.
Pages 606–611
As you learned in the previous lesson, there are three ways of
extracting information from sources—paraphrasing, summa-
rizing, and direct quotation. All three methods must be
documented through appropriate citations.
Several different approaches may be used for in-text cita-
tions. By reading the textbook’s examples, you’ll see how to
introduce sources into your paper and apply Modern
Language Association (MLA) style. As a rule, when you first
mention a source, it’s best to use a signal phrase that pro-
vides some background information to the reader. For
example, “Frost, whose research into victim-blaming is well
Lesson 4 73
known, is considered an authority on this issue . . .” Signal
phrases are important for direct quotes, summaries, and par-
aphrases to indicate not only that the information isn’t your
own, but also that your source is an authority on the subject.
You’re attributing that information to the owner of it.
Paraphrases, summaries, or direct quotations must also be
integrated into the flow of your paper. A lead-in or transi-
tional phrase that puts each borrowed idea into the context
of your thesis will help your reader make the connection
between the two. Note the examples of properly integrated or
not integrated quotations on page 607. Also, study the set of
verbs on page 608, which can help you introduce source
material. Be sure to use the right verb to fit the context.
Remember, however, that a research paper isn’t a patchwork
of other people’s ideas, where you use introductions or tran-
sitional phrases to pin it all together. Instead, it’s a uniform
whole in which the parts are woven together to create a new
piece of cloth (your report). The strong thread that holds
everything together is your own thinking.
A reminder that bears repeating: Always make sure your own
words set up and guide the reader into understanding the
connection between the quote, summary, or paraphrase and
the logical flow of your argument or discussion. If you drop a
direct quote into a research paper without placing it in the
context of your own words, it may lose its impact or, worse,
be misunderstood. When you explain how the quote relates
to the topic, you show how that opinion or line of thinking
supports or develops your purpose. That way, you make sure
readers use the information to support your conclusions, not
draw their own, which may be far different than what you
intended.
Advanced Composition74
Self-Check 12
1. Which of the following sentences correctly attributes a quote?
a. Branscomb argues, “It’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without con-
tributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of
netiquette” when joining a listserv (7).
b. Branscomb argues that “it’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without con-
tributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of
netiquette” when joining a listserv. (7)
c. Branscomb argues that it’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without con-
tributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of
netiquette when joining a listserv (7).
d. Branscomb argues that it’s a good idea to lurk (i.e., read all the messages without con-
tributing anything) for a few weeks, to ensure that you don’t break any of the rules of
netiquette when joining a listserv.
2. Which of the following sentences is properly punctuated as a quote integrated into text?
a. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability
to attend to more than one thing at a time, Ideally, each individual would cultivate a
repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how
to embed activities and types of attention one within another (Bateson 97).
b. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability
to attend to more than one thing at a time: “Ideally, each individual would cultivate a
repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how
to embed activities and types of attention one within another.” (Bateson)
c. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability
to attend to more than one thing at a time: “Ideally, each individual would cultivate a
repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how
to embed activities and types of attention one within another” (Bateson 97).
d. The modern world requires both the ability to concentrate on one thing and the ability
to attend to more than one thing at a time: “Ideally, each individual would cultivate a
repertoire of styles of attention, appropriate to different situations, and would learn how
to embed activities and types of attention one within another.” (97)
(Continued)
Lesson 4 75
Self-Check 12
Read the following text from a source. Then evaluate the paraphrases according to the
material you’ve studied.
A key factor in explaining the sad state of American education can be found in overbureaucratiza-
tion, which is seen in the compulsion to consolidate our public schools into massive factories and
to increase to mammoth size our universities even in underpopulated states. The problem with
bureaucracies is that they have to work hard and long to keep from substituting self-serving sur-
vival and growth for their original primary objective. Few succeed. Bureaucracies have no soul, no
memory, and no conscience. If there is a single stumbling block on the road to the future, it is the
bureaucracy as we know it.
—Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture, Anchor Publishing, 1977, p. 219
3. Which one of the following examples most effectively paraphrases the source?
a. According to Edward T. Hall, American education is overly bureaucratic. This is manifest in
the increasing size of educational institutions, even in small states. Bureaucracies are bad
because they tend to work to promote their own survival and growth rather than that of
the institution, as was their initial objective. Most bureaucracies fail because they have a
conscience or a soul. I believe that bureaucracies are the biggest stumbling block on the
road to the educational future (219).
b. Bureaucratization has proved to be a major stumbling block on the road to our educational
future. American institutions have become factories that are more conducive to the growth
of bureaucratic procedures than to the growth of the students who attend them.
Bureaucracies have to work long and hard to keep from promoting their own survival
rather than the educational goals that were their primary objective (219).
c. Bureaucratization has proved to be a major stumbling block on the road to our educational
future. American institutions have become factories that are more conducive to the growth
of bureaucratic procedures than to the growth of the students who attend them. This
means that, as Edward T. Hall says in his book, Beyond Culture, today’s educational institu-
tions “have no soul, no memory, and no conscience.”
d. In his book, Beyond Culture, Edward T. Hall discusses the problems posed by the increasing
bureaucratization of American educational institutions. Hall maintains that overbureaucrati-
zation is one of the key factors governing the state of education in America today. He
points to the tendency of bureaucracies to promote their own need both to remain stable
and expand to the exclusion of all else. That tendency, he believes, is responsible for the
fact that many public schools more closely resemble factories than educational institutions.
In Hall’s words, “Bureaucracies have no soul, no memory, and no conscience” (219).
(Continued)
Advanced Composition76
Self-Check 12
Choose the best answer for the following questions.
4. True or False? Citing sources within the context of your presentation requires the use of
parenthetical citations.
5. True or False? Using an introduction before a quote helps establish the credibility of your
source.
6. Which of the following represents the correct in-text citation for using the following direct
quote in a primary source by Henry David Thoreau? “The progress from an absolute to a
limited monarchy, from a limited monarchy to a democracy, is a progress toward a true
respect for the individual.”
a. Nothing else is needed. It’s correct as it stands since the quote is in quotation marks.
b. You must indicate all source information in a parenthetical citation.
c. You need to introduce the quote as having been written by Thoreau or use his name in
parentheses after the quotation.
d. You should list the information about Thoreau only on the works-cited page.
7. Which of the following is the correct MLA in-text citation of a Viktor Yushchenko quote
found within an article written by Olena Horodetska without page numbers?
a. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s
new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free.”
b. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s
new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free”
(qtd in Horodetska).
c. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s
new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free.”
(Qtd by O. Horodetska).
d. According to Viktor Yushchenko, as he faced near-certain victory to become Ukraine’s
new president, “For 14 years we have been independent. Now we have become free”
Check your answers with those on page 189.
Lesson 4 77
ASSIGNMENT 13: REVISING
YOUR FIRST DRAFT
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 612–616 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
The first draft of a paper is something like a first coat of
paint. Up to this point, how you wrote your questions, per-
sonal comments, and ideas wasn’t very important, as long as
you understood them. But once you begin to revise your
rough draft, writing style becomes very important. When
applied to written reports, style means the way you use
words, sentences, ideas, and structure in your writing. It cov-
ers different techniques you need to consider when revising
your presentation before giving it to your audience. Characteristics
of style include clarity, conciseness, coherence, usage, voice,
tone, and unbiased language.
For further assistance with these concepts, review the gram-
mar and style manual in Part 7 of your textbook. You can
also go to Penn Foster’s Library Resources for more links to
writing resources. You can visit the academic support and
online resources listed on pages 11–12 of this study guide
as well.
As your text suggests, give the first draft of your paper some
“breathing time” before you return to it for assessment and
revision. Let the paint dry; then go back and do it over.
Check each detail to be sure you’ve done the best job you
can. Sometimes that will mean reorganizing sentences or
paragraphs to clarify your ideas. After you’ve revised it to
your satisfaction, let it rest again before the final revision
and proofreading.
Advanced Composition78
Reading Highlights
Pages 612–614
Revision should proceed in two steps. First, assess the paper
overall, marking the deficiencies, revising your thesis, and
conducting any additional research. Second, rewrite sen-
tences and paragraphs to improve your wording, select more
effective examples, and make the paper easier to read. Every
sentence of your final draft should support your thesis and
lead directly to your conclusion. Use Figure 24.4 on pages
613–614 as a guide to revising your paper, and bookmark the
page for future reference.
Pages 614–615
The text provides seven guidelines for formatting an academic
paper. You must apply these guidelines within the context of
the submission requirements on page 6 of this guide. You
may not use headings in any of your research papers for this
course. Instead, be sure that you use appropriate connective
phrasing and transitional devices to guide your readers
through the ideas you’re presenting.
Pages 615–616
When you’re ready for the final editing and proofing, refer to
this section of the text before you begin. It’s too easy to read
what you think you wrote, rather than what’s actually on the
page; therefore, let your brain rest for a day or more before
you approach it for the final review. Use the guidelines in the
text for editing and proofreading your paper.
Lesson 4 79
Self-Check 13
1. Make the sentence clearer: The sincere belief of all of those who are members of the board
was that the company should move to take action on the issues about which they had
talked.
2. Make the sentence more precise: The city of San Francisco has many opportunities for
leisure activities.
3. Rewrite the sentence using active rather than passive voice: A decision was reached by
members of the board.
4. Make the tone better suited to a formal presentation: The employees are pretty together
and know their stuff.
5. Correct language that shows a stereotype: An employee usually feels more confident about
his new job after he’s completed his training.
6. Correct the informal, nonspecific language: Lots of times in many years, different profes-
sional people who were interested in making education better have asked me what we
know about how people learn so we can use it to make education better.
7. Make the sentence clearer: With the lid off the reactor core was exposed, allowing radioac-
tive isotopes to escape.
8. Make the sentence clearer: We propose to provide the above engineering services hourly
based on the following estimates.
For the following sentences, replace the idioms with appropriate academic phrasing and
correct any other problem in style.
9. Janice put her finger on the source of the problem.
10. Tom was of two minds whether to take on another part-time job so close to the final
examinations.
11. There were doubts as to whether the company’s dealings were above board.
12. As usual, the shortage of money proved to be the main stumbling block.
Check your answers with those on page 189.
Advanced Composition80
ASSIGNMENT 14: DOCUMENTING
YOUR SOURCES: MLA STYLE
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 616–638 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
This assignment is unique. It covers the 22 pages of your
text’s guide to using the MLA style in documenting sources,
giving you a good sense of the MLA approach to in-text cita-
tions and listing Works Cited in a research paper. This
section isn’t meant to be read and remembered—you’ll use it
as a reference when you complete your writing assignments.
The MLA style is standard for English courses at every level,
from secondary to postgraduate, and also for other humani-
ties disciplines, such as art history, philosophy, and women’s
studies.
Reading Highlights
Pages 616–617
There are two acceptable forms for writing MLA in-text cita-
tions: attribution and parenthetical citation. The attribution
method mentions the author’s name early in a sentence or
paragraph, placing page numbers in parentheses at the end
of the sentence or paragraph. A parenthetical citation
includes the author’s last name and page number(s) at the
end of a sentence.
Pages 617–620
Read the examples for specific cases of authorship and vol-
umes. Note the instructions for Internet sources given on
page 620. When you cite an Internet source, be sure to give
the reader enough information in your list of Works Cited to
locate the source. If there’s no author, use a shortened ver-
sion of the title.
Lesson 4 81
Pages 620–631
Study these guidelines for your Works Cited list. List only the
sources cited in your paper. Alphabetize the list using
authors’ last names and put the list on a separate page at
the end of your paper. When you prepare your list, carefully
follow the instructions given on these pages and look closely
at the examples in the book. Every space and punctuation
mark gives information, so the format has to be followed
exactly.
Book attributions can vary quite a bit, and that variety is
illustrated for you on these pages. Pay special attention to
the following:
n Books with two or more authors
n Government publications
n Edited books or anthologies
n Citations from an introduction, preface, foreword, or
afterword
n Translated books
n An article or chapter within a compilation
n Two or more works by the same author(s)
The diagram at the top of page 623 clarifies the format, espe-
cially for visual learners. Study Figure 24.5, “Where to Find
Documentation Information for a Book,” on page 622. As an
exercise, look at several different books to see where you
would find documentation data for each one.
Each article in periodicals, Internet sources, and other
sources requires specific citations. The color-coded formatting
guides will be very helpful in setting up your works-cited
pages.
Advanced Composition82
Recommended Exercises
Check your work against the examples in the text.
1. Using the guide to listing articles and periodicals on
pages 625–627, pick up several magazines and write out
correct citations for several of the articles.
2. Referencing page 627, do the same exercise using schol-
arly journal articles.
3. Read the coded guides and examples on pages 628–631.
Practice writing proper citations for two or three sources
from the Internet and/or other sources.
Pages 632–638
Read the “Students Write” essay by Nicholas Destino. Study
each of the margin comments to reinforce your understand-
ing of the material in this assignment. If you find yourself
engrossed in the paper’s content, read it through and then
go back and examine the margin boxes.
Before moving on to Lesson 5, watch the video lecture
“Using and Citing Sources” on your student portal and
complete multiple-choice quiz 500496RR. Then complete
the examination for Lesson 4.
Reminder: Are you reading or have you read the book you chose in
preparation for Lesson 7?
Lesson 4 83
Self-Check 14
Questions 1 and 2: Choose the properly formatted citation.
1. Book citation
a. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation, New York Knopf, 1993.
b. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. New York. Knopf, 1993.
c. Brinkley, Alan, The Unfinished Nation. Knopf. 1993.
d. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. Knopf, 1993.
2. Internet citation
a. Sherman, Chris. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL.” SearchEngineWatch,
24 Aug. 2004. watch.com/searchday/arti
cle.php/3398511.
b. Sherman, Chris. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL.” SearchEngineWatch.
24 Aug. 2004,
c. Sherman, Chris. Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL. SearchEngineWatch,
24 Aug. 2004.
d. Sherman, Chris. Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL. SearchEngineWatch.
24 Aug. 2004. Accessed 4 Sept. 2004 http://searchenginewatch.com/searchday/arti-
cle.php/3398511.
3. A works-cited page for your research presentation includes
a. only those sources you referenced by in-text citation.
b. only those sources you quoted directly.
c. all the sources you read while researching.
d. all the sources you obtained as “hits” through an Internet search.
(Continued)
Advanced Composition84
Self-Check 14
4. Which of the following illustrates the correct MLA works-cited format for a book with two
authors?
a. John Jones and Mary Smith, 23 Days to a Promotion, Jackson: Last-Month Publishing
House,
1969.
b. Jones, John, and Mary Smith, 23 Days to a Promotion, 1969, Last-Month Publishing
House.
c. Jones, John, and Smith, Mary. 23 Days to a Promotion. Last-Month Publishing House,
1969.
d. Jones, John, and Mary Smith. 23 Days to a Promotion. Jackson: Last-Month Publishing
House, 1969.
5. True or False? By correctly citing your sources of information and documenting them on
the works-cited page, you meet academic standards and avoid charges of plagiarism.
6. Which of the following is a correct MLA entry for an Internet article?
a. Olena Horodetska, “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election,” Reuters. Dec 27,
2004. www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=7185173.
b. Horodetska, Olena, “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election,” Reuters, Dec 27,
2004. Dec 30, 2004.
http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=7185173.
c. Horodetska, Olena. “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election.” Reuters,27 Dec.
2004, www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=7185173.
d. Olena Horodetska. “Yushchenko Certain Victor in Ukraine Election.” Reuters. 27 Dec.
2004. Accessed 5 June 2005.
http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=7185173.
Check your answers with those on page 190.
Lesson 5: Definition:
Explaining What You Mean
INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, you’ll review several patterns of development
for writing, including description, illustration, classification,
and definition. You’ve likely studied these patterns in other
courses such as English Composition.. The aim of this lesson
is twofold: to prepare you for writing the extended definition
essay examination at the end of this lesson, and to help you
hone your skills for writing the essays that accompany
Lessons 6–8. As you review the material in each assignment,
note how each pattern of development serves specific pur-
poses, as well as how they can be effectively combined to
write more complex and interesting essays.
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OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n Explain and apply the principles of descriptive writing
n Define the characteristics of illustration and apply them to writ-
ing projects
n Explain the characteristics of classification and division
n Use classification and division in your writing
n Discuss the use of definition as a writing technique
n Employ simple and extended definitions in your essays
Advanced Composition86
ASSIGNMENT 15: DESCRIPTION
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 263–277 and
283–286 in your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check
to gauge your progress.
Introduction
Descriptive writing can create a vivid impression of a person,
place, or thing in the reader’s mind. Unlike other patterns of
development, descriptive writing immerses the reader in a
rich experience of the subject though using language that
appeals directly to the senses. The goal of descriptive writing
is to show rather than tell, and the best descriptive writing
engages all of the senses—not only sight, but also hearing,
touch, smell, and taste.
Reading Highlights
Pages 264–269
Effective descriptive writing activates the imagination through
using active verbs, modifiers that accentuate sensory detail,
connotation, and figurative language. These elements must
be used with care, however. Relying too heavily on descriptive
language can obscure the point you’re trying to convey, clut-
tering a passage with too much information instead of
providing a clear, concrete picture. When using descriptive
language, bear in mind the dominant impression you wish to
create.
Pages 269–274
Read Rachel Maizes’ essay “Bad Dog,” looking closely at the
highlighted areas, which point out different characteristics
of descriptive writing used throughout. When you’ve finished
reading, look at the sample graphic organizer in Figure 13.1
on page 272, which offers a handy illustration of the develop-
ment of a descriptive essay. Then read Mary Roach’s essay
“You Are Your Bike,” and review the graphic organizer (Figure
13.2 on page 275) that traces how the different descriptive
elements are used.
Lesson 5 87
Pages 274–276
This brief section offers helpful suggestions for integrating
description into an essay. The key points are to
n Include only relevant details
n Keep the description focused
n Make sure the description fits the essay’s tone and point
of view
Pages 276–277
This section provides tips for thinking critically while you
read a descriptive essay. Although it’s aimed toward reading
and responding to someone else’s descriptions, the questions
can also be useful when evaluating your own writing.
Pages 283–286
Read the “Students Write” essay by Ted Sawchuck. Notice
that the topic of his essay, “Heatstroke with a Side of Burn
Cream,” appears only in the first sentence of the second
paragraph. Like Rachel Maize’s essay, the author’s topic sen-
tences and other elements have been highlighted, which
allows you to see how the author integrates thematic and
descriptive elements along with other patterns of development.
Advanced Composition88
Self-Check 15
Review the essay by Ted Sawchuck on pages 283–286 to complete the two self-check
exercises.
1. Under “Analyzing the Writer’s Technique,” respond to all four items.
2. Under “Thinking Critically about Description,” respond to all four items.
Check your answers with those on page 190.
Lesson 5 89
ASSIGNMENT 16: ILLUSTRATION
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 297–311 and
318–320 in Chapter 14 of your textbook. Be sure to complete
the self-check to gauge your progress.
Introduction
Writers use illustration to make a general idea specific, clarify
an unfamiliar concept, and engage a reader’s interest. As
with descriptive language, however, illustration is most effec-
tive when used selectively. Examples must be appropriate
and serve to reinforce your argument or support your thesis.
This section reviews the use of illustration as a tool that can
help readers follow your argument and influence their think-
ing toward your point of view.
Reading Highlights
Pages 298–302
Illustration is generally used to support a generalization.
Carefully review the explanations and examples provided in
the text in preparation for reading and evaluating the essays
included in this assignment. As you read the essays in this
chapter, notice that using a generalization by itself isn’t an
appropriate writing technique—a generalization must be
developed using a pattern of development, such as illustra-
tion, to provide specifics showing how the generalization
reflects your purpose.
Pages 302–306
Read the essay “The Brains of the Animal Kingdom” by Frans
de Waal (pages 302–305). When you’ve finished reading,
review the characteristics of illustration described earlier in
the chapter. Then study the sample graphic organizer on
page 306 and consider how you might use it as a visual
guide for analyzing de Waal’s essay.
Advanced Composition90
Pages 306–309
As you read Martin Gottfried’s essay “Rambos of the Road,”
note how he uses specific examples to illustrate what he calls
“auto macho,” or road rage. After you’ve finished reading the
essay, study the tips provided in “Integrating Illustration into
an Essay” (pages 308-309).
Pages 309–311
This section provides useful guidelines for reading actively
and thinking critically for reading an illustration essay. For
example, while you’re reading, highlight the main ideas and
consider whether the examples clarify, illustrate, or explain
those ideas. Also, consider how the essay is organized. Are
the examples arranged in order of importance, in chronologi-
cal order or spatial order, or are they organized by some
other method? Reflect on the emotional impact of the exam-
ples used in an illustration essay, and consider whether the
examples offered are relevant and representative. Think
about what other kinds of evidence might have been used to
build a stronger case.
Pages 318–320
Read the “Students Write” essay “Conforming to Stand Out: A
Look at American Beauty,” by Nick Ruggia. Like the essays
you read in Assignment 14, select portions of the text have
been highlighted to point out the organizational elements as
well as the illustrations the author uses to support his the-
ses. You might also want to check out the Works Cited page
that follows the essay for a good idea of how the author refer-
ences the evidence he’s gathered as part of his research.
Lesson 5 91
Self-Check 16
Review the essay by Nick Ruggia on pages 318–319 to complete the two self-check
exercises.
1. Under “Analyzing the Writer’s Technique,” respond to all three items.
2. Under “Thinking Critically about Illustration,” respond to all four items.
Check your answers with those on page 191.
Advanced Composition92
ASSIGNMENT 17:
CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION
Read the following assignment. Then study pages 400–413 in
textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge your
progress.
Introduction
In your everyday life, you probably find it helpful and even
comforting to keep things organized. By classifying objects,
chores, and even the food we eat into recognizable groups or
dividing large entities into manageable segments, we make
sense of and keep track of the various parts of our lives.
Classifying or dividing a topic for an essay can help you
organize your thoughts and ideas before you begin a draft, or
it can be the pattern of development you use to inform your
readers about your topic. In this assignment you’ll review the
principles of classification and division and look at how clas-
sification and division can be effectively combined with other
patterns of development. While each method of organization
can be effective on its own, combining two or three will give
your essay more depth and allow for more sophisticated
approaches to your subject matter.
Reading Highlights
Page 401
Classification is the sorting of items into specific categories
for ease of identification. It seems people are compelled to
sort things: clothing, office supplies, and library books are
generally grouped together in ways that help us find and use
them more efficiently. Even people are sorted into groups by
family, job title, or personality type. If we divide a large
group, such as a business, into smaller categories, like
departments, we call that division.
Lesson 5 93
Pages 401–403
Your text discusses the characteristics of the classification or
division essay on these pages. First, remember your readers
and be sure that your categories make sense to them. Use a
single principle for classification or division. For example, if
your topic was stars, you could classify them by brightness,
color, and mass, but if you divided them, it would be by
types of stars. Each element classified or sorted into parts
should be fully explained. An essay that employs classifica-
tion or division frames the parts and pieces with a thesis,
which identifies the topic.
Pages 403–407
Read the essay “My Secret Life on the McJob: Fast Food
Managers” by Jerry Newman. In his essay, Newman uses
illustration to both engage his readers and differentiate the
management styles of different store managers. As you enjoy
reading this essay, consider the following questions:
n What was the most common managerial style the author
encountered?
n What was the most common work attitude of mechanical
managers?
n Why do you suppose relationship managers were so
rare?
n Which of these managerial types is characterized by
quickly letting employees know what is expected of
them?
After you’ve read the essay, study the sample graphic organ-
izer in Figure 17.1 on page 407.
Pages 408–410
Read “The Language of Junk Food Addiction: How to ‘Read’ a
Potato Chip” on pages 408–410 and study Figure 17.2 on
page 410 to see how the article is illustrated in a graphic
organizer.
Advanced Composition94
Pages 411–413
Study the material on integrating classification or division
into an essay. Then take a close look at the guidelines for
actively reading and thinking critically about a classification
or division essay. You’ll find these guidelines useful when
studying or writing a classification or division essay.
Lesson 5 95
Self-Check 17
Read the following passage carefully, then answer the questions.
How Are Rocks Different from Minerals?
Geologists know the difference between rocks and minerals. Minerals are natural chemical
compounds, and their variety is enormous. They’re sometimes classified according to their
chemical properties. The Dana classification system includes the silicate, carbonate, sulfate,
oxide, and element classes, among others. For instance, a very common mineral in the silicate
class, quartz, is mainly composed of silicon dioxide. The element class comprises metals and
intermetallic elements, such as silver and gold.
In contrast, the three basic kinds of rocks are classified in terms of how they were formed.
Igneous rocks are hardened magma—the molten rock found beneath Earth’s crust.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from layers of sand, clay, or the remains of marine creatures.
Compressed by the weight and pressure of ocean depths, sand can become sandstone, clay
can become shale, and the skeletons of marine animals may be transformed into limestone.
Finally, metamorphic rocks can originate from either igneous or sedimentary rocks. Over bil-
lions of years, convulsions of the Earth’s crust have pushed igneous or sedimentary rocks
deep into our planet’s subsurface to be transformed (metamorphosed) by unimaginable heat
and pressure. Over millions of years, granite may be transformed into some form of gneiss or
schist—rocks that are often found in the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Limestone may be
transformed into marble, shale into slate, and sandstone into glittering quartzite.
1. If the paragraphs are part of a short essay, what is a possible working thesis for the
essay?
2. Outline the classifications and divisions in the essay.
Check your answers with those on page 192.
Advanced Composition96
ASSIGNMENT 18: DEFINITION
Read the following assignment. Then, read pages 429–457 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
Please replace with: As you move from classification and divi-
sion to definition, you can probably see the links between
these two patterns of development. In your essay for this les-
son, you’ll develop an extended definition of the term family
or friend. You’ll explore your own definition of the word you
choose, and then use classification and/or division to incor-
porate formal definitions to show how the definition of the
term has changed over a specific time period in response to
one or more specific social, cultural, and/or historical factors.
Reading Highlights
Pages 429–433
A definition, which explains the meaning of a term or con-
cept, should be given directly and then may be explored
through illustrations and examples. For example, “Voice over:
In a film or video, dialog spoken off camera, generally in the
context of a series of visual images” is a direct definition. An
extended definition explores the meaning of a topic more
completely. The essay by Jan Goodwin, which you’ll read as
part of this assignment, offers an extended definition through
explanations of who “freegans” are and how they live. In an
extended definition essay, you can expect to find one or more
characteristics, including
n A brief explanation of the term: “Arachnid: A family of
creatures within the Arthropod phylum, which includes
spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs.”
n Specificity and focus: In Jan Goodwin’s essay “Freegans”,
the focus is on urban foragers and their place in society.
Lesson 5 97
n A point: An extended definition makes its point by elabo-
rating on the definition. “With their compound eyes,
treacherous webs, and grasping mandibles, spiders are
seen by some as prototypes of some alien menace.”
n Varying or mixed patterns of development: You might
compare and contrast spiders and horseshoe crabs or
discuss the evolution of spiders from ancestors of the
horseshoe crab. Other approaches would be to use
details and distinguishing characteristics, such as com-
pound eyes, treacherous webs, and grasping mandibles,
or repudiate misconceptions—“Spiders play a vital role in
curtailing the populations of insect pests.”
Pages 434–438
Once you’ve reviewed the textbook’s examination of the char-
acteristics of extended definitions, read Jan Goodwin’s essay,
“Freegans: They Live on What We Throw Away.” Afterwards,
study the sample graphic organizer for an Extended
Definition Essay on page 438.
Pages 438–440
Read the essay by Mike Crissey, “Dude, Do You Know What
You Just Said?” As you read, imagine creating a graphic
organizer for the essay. Then study Figure 18.2 to see if your
thoughts and ideas on that objective match up with the
organizer offered in your text.
Pages 441–443
Pay close attention to the section “Integrating Definition into
an Essay,” because the instructions establish four kinds of
terms you should define no matter what the essay’s purpose
or pattern of development is. The need to define technical
and abstract terms may be obvious, particularly for an audi-
ence unaware of the jargon.
Though it’s not discussed in your textbook, another element
to writing an extended definition for an academic paper is to
study its etymology, which refers to the origin and history of
the word. For example, as detailed in Merriam-Webster’s
Advanced Composition98
Online Dictionary, the term etymology comes from the Greek
words etumos, meaning “true,” and logia, meaning “word”
and “reason,” to indicate a word’s literal meaning and source.
This fourteenth-century term worked its way from Greek into
the English language by passing through Latin, Anglo-
French, and Middle English.
Unabridged dictionaries will provide the most information,
usually including the time period the word came into com-
mon use, the language(s) in which some form of it was used,
and the root word(s) for each of its parts. With some, you
may have to identify the root word for a term and then look
up that root word in the dictionary for the origin’s definition.
Be sure to read the section or appendix in the dictionary that
explains how to read the etymological information to gain full
use of this resource tool.
Why would anyone want to incorporate this type of informa-
tion into a definition paper? Sometimes a term’s etymology is
so basic, such as when the root word means exactly the
same as the term, no purpose is served by discussing it. On
the other hand, the word’s original meaning can often shed
new light on its current use and deepen your understanding.
Consider the term plagiarize, which involves using someone
else’s work and ideas as your own. Originally, the word came
from the Latin and Greek where it meant “kidnapping,” as
well as netting or trapping game (Merriam-Webster). Supplying
this etymological information in your definition can help you
portray the angry shock an author feels when his or her work
is kidnapped or taken hostage by another person. In addi-
tion, it can be used to underscore the criminal connotations
associated with plagiarism, thereby supporting the severe
punishments imposed for such an act.
In addition to examining the types of terms that require defi-
nition in an extended definition essay, this section also offers
guidelines for reading actively and thinking critically about
extended definition essays.
Pages 443–448
Because your essay exam for this lesson will be based on
extended definition, carefully study the steps outlined in the
guided writing assignment section in this chapter. The topic
Lesson 5 99
for your exam will be assigned, but you may find it useful to
practice using one of the topics suggested in this guided writ-
ing section. Pay special attention to the editing, proofreading,
and revision tips on pages 447–448.
Pages 449–456
The “Readings: Extended Definition in Action” section begins
with a “Students Write” essay by Kate Atkinson, “Guerilla
Street Art: A New Use of Public Space” (pages 449–451). Note
the highlighted words and passages in the essay while you
analyze the reading. The second essay, “Dating on the Autism
Spectrum” by Emily Shire (pages 452–455), demonstrates the
integration of extended definition with other patterns.
Advanced Composition100
Self-Check 18
1. Refer to the paragraphs on rocks and minerals in Self-Check 17 to answer the following
questions.
a. Look up the term metamorphosis in a standard college dictionary and write out several
different definitions. Which one would apply to rocks?
b. Using Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary at http://www.merriam-webster.com/,
investigate the etymology of metamorphosis. (Be sure to look up the term meta- as well.)
How does the information you find help you better understand the definition?
c. What words or concepts are defined in the paragraphs?
d. How does the discussion of rocks and minerals combine definition with classification?
Reread Kate Atkinson’s essay, “Guerilla Street Art” (pages 449–451).
2. Turn to page 451 and respond to all three items under “Analyzing the Writer’s Technique.”
3. Respond to all five items under “Thinking Critically About Definition” (pages 451–452).
Check your answers with those on page 193.
Before continuing on to Lesson 6, please complete the essay examinations for
Lesson 5.
Lesson 5: Extended
Definitio
n Essay
OBJECTIVES
For this exam, you will
n Use the writing process to write an essay using extended
definition
n Write an effective thesis statement
n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate
detail, supporting evidence, and transitions
n Develop critical reading skills
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
n Use Modern Language Association citation and docu-
mentation style to reference secondary source material
correctly and appropriately
n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source
material correctly and appropriately
n Use the conventions of standard written American
English to produce correct, well-written essays
INTRODUCTION
As our culture evolves, the language we use to express our-
selves changes too. To fully understand the world in which
we live, it’s important to fully comprehend the depth and
breadth of the words that we use to describe it. Words that
have more than definition or more than one meaning enrich
not only our vocabulary, but also our lives.
Topic: Write a 1,500–1,700 word extended definition essay
using either the word friend or the word family that analyzes
the word’s historical, social, and/or cultural evolution.
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Graded Project
Purpose: To make a specific, unified, and original point
about how the definition of friend or family has changed
over a particular period of time due to one or more specific
historical, social, and/or cultural factors.
Methods: To use at least four secondary sources to support
your extended definition of the term you choose, including
1. An etymological dictionary
2. A standard or traditional dictionary
3. An article from Expanded Academic ASAP
Audience: Junior and senior-level distance education stu-
dents enrolled at Penn Foster College
THE WRITING PROCESS
Prewriting
1. Before you decide on the specific word you’ll write your
essay about, take time to freewrite what you think the
word means to you. This exercise should help you to
decide which word you have more of your own ideas
and opinions about and give you a good place to start.
Explore where your definition comes from, and how it
departs from the etymological definition.
2. Once you’ve chosen your word, either friend or family,
review the model definition essays in your textbook,
Goodwin’s “Freegans” (434) and Crissey’s “Dude” (438).
3. Return to your freewriting to add additional information
a.
Research
i. Standard definitions of the word (431)
ii. Etymological dictionaries
1. www.Etymonline.com
2. www.oed.com
iii. Traditional dictionaries
1. www.merriam-webster.com
2. www.dictionary.com
102
iv. Expanded Academic ASAP
1. Expanded Academic ASAP is a subscription-
only database available in Penn Foster’s digi
tal library. You can access the database by
clicking on the Library Services link in your
Student Portal. See the “Academic Support
and Online Resources” section in the intro
duction to this study guide.
b.Use negation to explain what your word doesn’t
mean and to address misconceptions (433).
4. Review your freewriting to write a thesis statement that
makes a claim about your word based on all of the con-
tent you’ve developed.The thesis statement should make
a debatable point about how the word has evolved over
time due to historical, social, and cultural changes.
5. Prepare a graphic organizer or outline (438) to organize
your main points before you begin writing your essay.
Consider using other patterns of development as you
plan your body paragraphs to illustrate meaning, offer
contrasts, and provide examples (432–433).
Drafting
6. Use your outline or graphic organizer to draft your essay.
a. Introduce the term, provide any necessary back-
ground information, and include your thesis
statement in your introduction.
b. Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence
that supports your thesis.
i. Remember that topic sentences are never ques-
tions or quotations.
c. Use transitions to end paragraphs and to guide
readers to the next idea.
Graded Project 103
Revision
7. Use the chart on pages 447–448 in your textbook to help
you revise your essay.
a. Consider your essay from the readers’ perspective.
i. Do you have a thesis statement?
ii.Have you adequately identified the distinguishing
characteristics of your term?
b. Employ the recommended revision strategies if
you’ve answered no to any of the questions on the
flowchart.
SUBMIT YOUR EXAM
Ensure your exam follows the proper format for submission:
n 1-inch margins on all sides
n 12 pt. Times New Roman font
n Double spacing
1. Use the header function in your word-processing pro-
gram to enter your personal identification and exam
information:
Student Name ID Number 50050400
Street Address
City, State, ZIP
Email Address
2. Save your exam with the file name:
IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName
3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format
(.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it
will be returned ungraded.
Graded Project104
Graded Project 105
4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to
you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments
by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade
and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you
have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor.
To submit your essay exam, follow these steps:
1. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu.
2. Log in to your student portal.
3. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re
working on.
4. Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to the
school!
Tip: Review the evaluation rubric on the following page before
submitting your essay.
http://www.pennfoster.edu
Graded Project106
Skill
Realized
Skill
Developing
Skill
Emerging
Not
Shown
Thesis: Audience, Purpose, and Topic
How well does the thesis establish a clearly
defined, analytical focus unique to the
assigned topic, purpose, and audience?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Development
How insightfully and convincingly does the
writer analyze the historical, social, and/or
cultural evolution of the word family or friend
to make a claim about the meaning of the
word? Does the student clearly support the
claim through balanced use of assertions,
evidence, and analytic explanation?
25 23 21 19 17 10 0
Incorporation of Source Material
How logically and effectively are para-
phrases, summaries, and direct quotations
from varied, relevant, and reliable sources
integrated with the writer’s style for purpose
and audience?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
How well did the writer incorporate the
etymology of the word into the essay?
5 4.5 4 3 1 0
Organization
How gracefully does the writer incorporate
transitional words and connective phrasing
with appropriate paragraphing to guide the
reader through the presentation?
15 14 13 12 11 6 0
Style and Voice
How energetically and consistently does
the writer interact with both the topic and
audience while using varied, concrete,
active diction? To what extent does the
writer achieve a natural, pleasant rhythm,
particularly through sentence fluency?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
MLA Citation
Did the writer accurately and correctly at
least 4 sources using MLA citation style,
both in-text and on the list of Works Cited?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Conventions
At what level does the writer demonstrate
correct and effective standard written
American English?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Format and Length
Did the paper meet the required
length (1,500-1,700 words) and
formatting requirements?
5 4.5 4 3 1 0
EXTENDED DEFINITION RUBRIC
Lesson 6: Reading and
Writing about Literature
INTRODUCTION
Regardless of genre or discipline, the purposes of academic
writing are to inform, to communicate feelings and ideas, or
to persuade. Analyzing the purpose of another writer’s work
or writing to achieve your purpose requires effective critical
thinking skills. After all, if you’re going to praise or criticize
another’s opinions or try to persuade readers to agree with
yours, you must understand the topic and have something
worthwhile to say about it. In this lesson you’ll practice ana-
lyzing ideas and look at additional ways to integrate pertinent
ideas into an essay.
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OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n Develop a general approach to reading literature
n Explain the language of literature
n Analyze short stories and poetry
n Write a thoughtful analysis of a song
Advanced Composition108
ASSIGNMENT 19: A GENERAL
APPROACH TO READING
LITERATURE; UNDERSTANDING
THE LANGUAGE OF LITERATURE
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 658–662 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
Sometimes students dread reading literature for a class, only
to be surprised to find that a novel by Steinbeck or a poem
by Jimmy Santiago Baca reaches them on a level they never
imagined possible. This assignment offers a few ideas that
can make reading literature a more satisfying experience. It
also takes a close look at the kinds of language you’re likely
to encounter when you read a literary work.
Reading Highlights
Pages 658–659
Read the “Writing Quick Start” introduction about the poet
Gwendolyn Brooks; then read “The Bean Eaters” on page
659. Read it at least twice before proceeding to the brief
analysis at the bottom of page 659.
Pages 660–661
These pages offer five guidelines for reading literature. They
point out that reading literature requires a different approach
from everyday reading, but it’s worth the effort. Developing a
deep understanding and appreciation of a work of literature
often requires multiple readings, as well as some extra time
and effort, to comprehend the unique and creative ways an
author uses language and to digest the different elements the
author uses. In particular, you may need to reread a poem,
Lesson 6 109
short story, or novel to fully grasp and articulate the work’s
theme, a large or general issue that’s shared by or significant
to most people.
Pages 661–662
Lesson 5 briefly touched upon some of the common types of
figurative language, which you’ve probably studied in other
English courses. But as you grow as a reader and a student,
the ideas you encounter through simile and metaphor
become more mature and complex. The explanations and
examples in the text review the terms and demonstrate the
use of each. Literary works also use personification, in which
human characteristics are attributed to objects or animals,
and symbols, which stand for ideas or themes. Irony plays
tricks with words to expose the opposite of what you may
expect.
Self-Check 19
1. What is the difference between a simile and a metaphor? Provide your own invented examples
for each.
2. In what way could an empty and abandoned house be a symbol? Use your imagination and
write out three possible examples.
3. Complete Exercise 25.1 on page 662.
Check your answers with those on page 194.
Advanced Composition110
ASSIGNMENT 20: ANALYZING
SHORT STORIES
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 662–673 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
In Lesson 5, you reviewed important critical reading and
thinking skills as they applied to reading descriptive and
illustrative essays. Together with the guidelines for reading
literature and the discussion of literary language offered in
the previous assignment, you’re well on your way to analyz-
ing works of narrative fiction. This assignment offers two
short stories for you to read, as well as a detailed examina-
tion of elements commonly found in short stories and novels.
Reading Highlights
Pages 662–667
Like most literature, a short story requires more than one
reading to comprehend because the story isn’t only about
what happens; it’s also about the ideas presented by the
author. The reading strategies offered in this assigned read-
ing section will help you understand and interpret the
author’s meaning through his or her use of setting, charac-
ters, point of view, figures of speech, and other literary
devices. These strategies apply to novels and movies, as well.
Use the reading strategies you learned on pages 660–661 in
your textbook as you read “The Secret Lion” by Alberto Ríos.
First, establish the literal meaning of the story: ensure that
you know what’s happening and where, and who the charac-
ters are, as well as their relationships to each other. Then
read the story a second time to see if any patterns develop
that could help you achieve a better understanding of the
title.
Lesson 6 111
Pages 667–671
Study the elements of narrative fiction on these pages, focus-
ing on short stories. The setting of a narrative includes the
time, the place, and the situation. Imagine script instructions
from a screenplay to get the idea. “It’s 1864. The place is a
Pennsylvania town called Gettysburg. Over three hot days in
July, we observe the Battle of Gettysburg from the perspec-
tive of many of the major players on both sides.” Or, “It’s
October, 1934. Two hobos, Cal and Big Bill, ride the rails in
search of a meal or a warm, dry barn.” Character is revealed
by action (and reaction) and dialogue; often the narrator is
one of the characters. The point of view is simply the per-
spective from which a story is told. A story may be told in the
first person (“I was late arriving for my appointment with
Johnny Black”) or the narrator can be an omniscient third-
person observer who describes the unfolding of the drama
and knows the thoughts of the characters. A good plot
involves a sequence of events that engage the reader in some
way; usually, plot depends on some kind of conflict.
All these elements work together to express the theme of the
story, which is the point the writer is trying to make. Themes
often involve a message about human experience or the
human condition. Study the questions in the sample work-
sheet on page 671, which will help you as you write your
essay analyzing a book and a movie at the end of Lesson 7.
Pages 672–673
Read Kate Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour,” a richly descrip-
tive narrative that ends with an ironic twist. Pay attention to
the structure of the story and the interaction of the characters.
Advanced Composition112
Self-Check 20
Reread “The Story of an Hour” beginning on page 672, then complete questions 1–4.
1. In what general time period does the story take place? How much time elapses from its begin-
ning to its end?
2. Who is the main character? What physical characteristics does he or she have? Do his or her
physical traits have any impact on the plot?
3. Does the main character change in the course of the story? In what way?
4. What is the theme of the story? How do you know?
Check your answers with those on page 195.
Lesson 6 113
ASSIGNMENT 21:
ANALYZING POETRY
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 674–678 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
For some students, analyzing poetry may present a challenge,
if only in overcoming a faulty perception of what poetry is.
Although written poetry is less familiar to many of us than,
say, song lyrics, they’re closely related. If you think of poetry
as lyrics, then you might accept that sometimes you have to
hear—or read—them several times before you connect all the
ideas and understand what the writer is saying. Study the
information on analyzing a poem, because at the end of this
lesson you’ll be asked to write an essay about a song, which,
as mentioned, is similar in many ways to a poem.
Reading Highlights
Pages 674–678
Even if you don’t read poetry for pleasure, try to appreciate
the many elements a poet puts together to deliver his or her
message. Poetry gains its power from communicating feeling
and intuition through creative use of language. Ordinary, lit-
eral, “left-brained” language works for logical or practical
purposes, and sometimes even for narratives. Insights into
values, emotions, or questions of existence are better
expressed indirectly through concise images, tone, and levels
of meaning. Use the guidelines discussed on pages 674–675
and the 10 questions on pages 675–676 to help you analyze
the poems by Robert Frost and Marilyn Nelson offered in this
section.
Advanced Composition114
Analyzing Poetry
To give you a bit more practice in analyzing poetry, this study
guide offers a closer examination of the elements of poetry, as
well as two additional poems for you to read and analyze.
As mentioned earlier, analyzing a poem is much like under-
standing thoughtful song lyrics. The more you listen to a
song, the more you “catch,” and after hearing it several
times, you realize what the entire message or story is. Many
popular songs use symbols or allusions that resonate with
their audience. For instance, just a place name, like Aruba or
the Twin Towers, can provide the time and mood the writer
wants to invoke. Poets try to express ideas concisely, using
clear ideas that evoke not only an image, but also a feeling.
Note that images appeal to all of the five senses, not just
sight.
When you read a poem, start by reading it through twice. In
fact, don’t expect to understand it until you’ve read it several
times. In the first reading, you’ll just begin to see where the
poet is going by the time you reach the end. On the second
reading, you’ll see how the earlier ideas develop and are
related to the later ones. With each subsequent reading, more
of the poet’s message will become evident.
To convey meaning, poets use certain mechanical elements in
addition to themes, emotion, and figures of speech. Rhyme,
meter, and even spelling and punctuation add substance,
depth, and sometimes ambiguity to a poem.
The Poet’s Tools
When you first read the two poems given later in this section,
you may not realize that each has a rhyme scheme, because
if you follow the punctuation, as you should, you probably
won’t hear it. Read the poems through twice, and then read
each one aloud.
Next, begin looking for the rhyme scheme. Remember that
rhymes aren’t necessarily perfect, and some lines may not
have a rhyming partner. For instance, in Arnold’s poem
“Dover Beach” on page 117 of this study guide, lines 21 and
Lesson 6 115
26 end in “Faith” and “breath” respectively. He may have
intended them as a half rhyme. In Dickinson’s poem on page
119 of this study guide, “soul” and “all” offer a half (or slant)
rhyme, but the first line, which ends with “feathers,” doesn’t
rhyme with any other line. While poets sometimes use rhyme
to emphasize words, in this case it may be the lack of rhyme
that makes “feathers” stand out.
Next, look for other mechanical points of interest. While you
won’t necessarily refer to them in your literary analysis, poets
use these tools to add interest, emphasis, and mood to a
poem. Whenever you come across such elements, remember
that the poet deliberately employed the sounds as well as the
words. Also remember that not all poems are deadly serious—if
a series of words or rhymes seem playful or funny, chances
are they were meant to be just that. The following are just a
few of the poetical devices a poet can use to evoke a specific
emotion:
Alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the initial sound in
a series of words. (See line 8 of “Dover Beach.”)
Assonance. In assonance, the vowel sound repeats. (In “Dover
Beach,” see the rhymes of the lines with the ite sound:
tonight, light, flight.)
Consonance. Consonance uses repeating consonant sounds,
usually at the beginning and ends of words, but sometimes
in combination with sounds within a word. (See lines 4 and
12 of “Dover Beach.”)
Internal rhyme. When words within a line or sentence rhyme,
it’s called internal rhyme. Like end rhymes, internal rhyme
may be imperfect.
End Rhyme. When rhymes occur at the end of lines of a
poem, it’s called end rhyme.
Two other elements of poetry are rhythm and meter. Rhythm
refers to how the words sound as they’re read. Meter is the
pattern used to create the rhythm. Meter is measured in feet
per line; each foot is represents a stressed syllable and one or
two unstressed syllables. Some of these patterns are stan-
dard and have names, the most familiar being iambic
pentameter, which uses one unstressed and one stressed syl-
lable for each foot, with five feet to the line. Shakespeare
often wrote in iambic pentameter, such as at the end of his
classic Sonnet 18:
Advanced Composition116
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
Reading the lines aloud gives you a very clear idea of the
meter that was written into the poem. When you read the
Emily Dickinson poem, pay close attention to the meter in
each line. Note how the first line’s meter—like its lack of
rhyme—doesn’t match the rest of the poem.
Why should you examine the mechanics of a poem? For one
thing, the words the poet stresses through rhyme or meter
will help you pick out what’s important. Also, by paying
attention to the details, you’ll discover relationships between
lines and words that you might not notice otherwise. For
instance, rhyming words that appear in the first lines and are
repeated at the end of the poem may have particular signifi-
cance; or, like the odd lines in the Dickinson poem, a
different sound or meter may signal importance. Finally, the
closer you look and the more ways and the more times you
read the poem, the more likely you are to grasp its full mean-
ing. Although song lyrics add the dimension of rhythm and
meter through a musical score, the songwriter considers
these same mechanics.
Analyzing a Poem
Now that you have a good idea of what you’re looking for,
study the following poems by Matthew Arnold and Emily
Dickinson. Later, you’ll have a chance to write your own ana-
lytical or critical ideas about the poems.
Matthew Arnold. Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) was a promi-
nent poet of the Victorian era. He traveled and lived in
upper-class social circles, maintaining relationships with
English and French literary figures of the time. He was
closely involved with issues of education and, for much of his
life, was the Inspector of Schools for England. He was consid-
ered unpretentious and outgoing, even though much of his
poetry reflected an aura of romantic melancholy characteris-
tic of many intellectuals of his age. As his poem “Dover
Beach” suggests, he had some doubts about the future of
civilization.
Lesson 6 117
Dover Beach
The sea is calm tonight,
The tide is full, the moon lies fair
Upon the straits; on the French coast the light
Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand,
Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay. 5
Come to the window, sweet is the night air!
Only, from the long line of spray
Where the moon meets the moon-blanched land,
Listen! You hear the grating roar
Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling, 10
At their return, up the high strand,
Begin, and cease, and then again begin,
With tremulous cadence slow, and bring
The eternal note of sadness in.
Sophocles long ago 15
Heard it in the Aegean, and it brought
Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow
Of human misery; we
Find also in the sound a thought,
Hearing it by this distant northern sea. 20
The Sea of Faith
Was once, too, at the full, and round earth’s shore
Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled. But now I only hear
Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar, 25
Retreating, to the breath
Of the night wind, down the vast edges drear
And naked shingles of the world.
Ah, love, let us be true
To one another! for the world, which seems 30
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
So various, so beautiful, so new,
Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
And we are here as on a darkling plain 35
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
Where ignorant armies clash by night.
Advanced Composition118
Here’s some background on the poem: The beach to which
Arnold refers in the title is, as you might guess, the famous
“white cliffs of Dover,” where the speaker describes its beauty
to his love. Sophocles, a Greek poet and playwright, was the
author of Antigone (441 BCE) and Oedipus the King (425 BCE),
tragedies based on deep flaws in the characters and, by
implication, in human nature. The “Sea of Faith” (third
stanza) refers to Christendom before the Protestant
Reformation of the sixteenth century.
Using the mechanical tools discussed earlier, highlight the
lines you think are most significant. Think about the mean-
ing of the words, and make sure you look up anything you
don’t understand. Then put into words the message you
believe the poet was trying to convey.
Emily Dickinson. Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) was well edu-
cated as a young woman, but after that lived her entire life in
the family home in Amherst, Massachusetts. She wrote hun-
dreds of poems, but only a few of them were published
during her lifetime, and most weren’t discovered until after
her death. Her style of punctuation and use of slant rhymes
was unconventional in her day, but she put great thought
into the mechanics of each poem, and each idiosyncratic
device had a purpose. Most of her poems didn’t have titles.
Often referred to as the “Belle of Amherst,” Dickinson is now
recognized as one of America’s most outstanding poets.
Lesson 6 119
This poem was part of a larger piece titled “Life.” It can be
considered an extended metaphor, with the bird representing
hope and all the images relating to that idea. The little bird is
a resident of the human soul and always offers comfort, no
matter how strong the storm.
“Hope” is the thing with feathers—
That perches in my soul—
And sings the tune without the words—
And never stops—at all—
And sweetest—in the Gale—is heard—
And sore must be the storm—
That could abash the little bird
That kept so many warm—
I’ve heard it in the chillest land—
And on the strangest Sea—
Yet, never, in Extremity,
It asked a crumb—of Me.
Self-Check 21
1. Identify the central metaphor in Dickinson’s poem.
2. In “Dover Beach,” what does the metaphor “. . . naked shingles of the world” represent?
3. What is personification? Give one example from Arnold’s poem.
4. What is the meaning of the last two lines of Dickinson’s poem? Offer additional critical
comments on the poem’s ending.
Check your answers with those on page 195.
Advanced Composition120
ASSIGNMENT 22:
LITERARY ANALYSIS
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 679–688 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
When you write a research paper, you look up information
and opinions that will support your thesis. You should apply
the same process to writing a literary analysis. Once you’ve
taken a position on the meaning or importance of an element
in a poem or song and developed your thesis, you can begin
the research process. If you need to refresh your understand-
ing of the research process, make use of the various resources
available to you. Refer back to the academic support and online
resources on pages 11-12 of this study guide. Links to other
applicable websites are available at the Library Services link
on your student page.
Once you’ve thoroughly analyzed a poem (or song) and
decided on a thesis, you can search for authoritative sources
to back you up. Your reference librarian can help you find
appropriate sources. Then you’ll integrate the information
into your paper as support for your ideas, just as you would
any sources for a research paper. Be sure to use proper
citation.
Reading Highlights
Pages 679–685
Here, you’ll find basic information on literary analysis.
Literary analysis doesn’t mean simply summarizing a work.
Analysis must provide a critique of the work, considering its
elements (such as tone, language, and the effect of rhyme, if
any) and interpreting the work to reveal its context and mes-
sage. Study this section carefully, as it will come in handy as
you complete the prewriting and essay examinations for
Lesson 6.
Lesson 6 121
Pages 686–688
Read the “Students Write” essay, “The Keeping of ‘The Secret
Lion,’” by Andrew Decker. As you’ll see, it’s a literary analysis
of the short story you read in Assignment 20. Note the high-
lighted sections that point out the different elements Decker
uses to support his thesis, as well as the way he focuses his
analysis on one aspect of the story. Also, be sure to look at
the Works Cited page at the end of the essay.
Self-Check 22
1. Reread “The Keeping of ‘The Secret Lion’” and respond to all three items under “Analyzing
the Writer’s Technique” on page 688.
Check your answers with those on page 196.
Before moving on to Lesson 7, watch the video lecture “Figurative Language:
Analyzing Poetry” on your student portal and complete multiple choice quiz
500500RR. Then complete the prewriting and essay exams for Lesson 6.
Advanced Composition122
NOTES
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Lesson 6: Prewriting:
Literary Analysis
OBJECTIVES
For this exam, the student will
n Use the writing process to draft and revise an essay
n Write an effective thesis statement
n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements
n Develop critical reading skills
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
n Use Modern Language Association citation and
documentation style to reference secondary source
material correctly and appropriately
INTRODUCTION
In 2017, there aren’t too many students who claim to like
poetry. But when was the last time you went a day without
music? The fact is, music has always been more like poetry
than many people realize, and if you can understand and
appreciate the language and meaning of a song, then it
wouldn’t be too hard to read and understand a poem. In
this assignment, you’ll apply the techniques of reading
poetry to song lyrics to explore the richness and appeal
of figurative language.
Topic: Analyze the use of figurative language in a song
Purpose: To show how the song’s use of figurative language
contributes to its appeal to its listeners
Method:
n To prepare an outline or graphic organizer that will
serve as the foundation for a 1,200–1,500 word essay
Graded Project124
n To begin the research process by preparing an annotated
bibliography in Modern Language Association citation
and documentation format that consists of at least
five sources:
n 1 primary source: the song lyrics
n 4 secondary sources: song reviews, critiques, articles
about the album, profiles of the singer and/or song-
writer that focus on the music and lyrics (not the
individual’s personal life)
Audience: Junior and senior-level distance education
students enrolled at Penn Foster College
THE WRITING PROCESS
Plan and Prewrite
1. Watch the Literary Analysis lecture notes video on your
student portal. This video reviews the essay require-
ments and the main elements of a literary analysis.
2. Review the sample literary analysis prewriting on Katy
Perry’s “Firework” on your student portal/in your course
resources/in your study guide. Please note that you
may not use the song “Firework” for your paper.
3. Make a list of songs you might write about. Remember
that the song needs to employ figurative language, so
you’ll most likely need to spend some time online looking
up the lyrics to ensure that you choose a song with
enough figurative language to eventually write 1,200–
1,500 words about.
4. Choose one song from your list to write about.
5. Develop the content for your outline or graphic organizer
by first freewriting about your song:
a. What is the song about?
b. How does the song convey that subject?
i. Does it use an straightforward, literal language?
If so, you may want to return to your list and
choose another.
ii.Does it employ figurative language?
Graded Project 125
iii. What types of figurative language can you identify?
Review page 661–663 in your textbook and the
Literary Analysis lecture notes video on your
student portal.
c. What does the figurative language represent?
6. Is the song popular? Why do listeners find it appealing?
Research
7. Your lyrics are your primary source and count as one
source on your annotated bibliography and toward the
research requirement for your essay. Be sure that you
have carefully noted where you found them, either online
or in print.
8. You’ll need a minimum of four other sources. These
sources should focus on the song’s popularity, appeal,
and significance in its cultural context.
a. If you’ve chosen a contemporary song, that would
mean analyzing why audiences have made it so
popular—or perhaps reviled—today.
b. If you’ve chosen an older song, you might explore
why it was significant in its own time period and/or
why it’s still meaningful today.
c. You don’t need to choose a song from the Billboard
charts for this assignment. You may have chosen a
song that’s significant to a particular audience but
doesn’t have widespread popularity. You can still
focus on what makes the song meaningful to those
who listen to it.
9. Go to the library. Your Penn Foster digital library
provides resources that will help you to meet the
research requirements for your essay, but keep in mind
that research in a library, even a digital one, isn’t like
searching online. To learn more, visit the
Penn Foster
Library site.
10. Search online, but remember that you’ll need to evaluate
your sources carefully; review pages 569–573 in your
textbook. Some examples of appropriate sources follow.
a. Reviews by music critics
b. Profiles by journalists and other professional writers
c. Articles about the time period, cultural events, and
social norms
Prepare Your Annotated
Bibliography
Review page 595–597 in your textbook for specific informa-
tion and a sample annotated bibliography. You should also
review MLA format for citation and documentation (616–638).
a. Annotations are three to five sentence summaries of sources
that follow the citation. Make note of content that is rele-
vant to your topic and that will support your assertions.
b. Ensure that your citations are correct by checking them
against the MLA section in your text.
Prepare Your Outline/Graphic Organizer
You may choose to submit either a formal outline or a
graphic organizer for this assignment. Your outline or graphic
organizer should be sufficiently detailed to illustrate your
plan for your essay. In other words, it should be as detailed
as possible. Reread page 144–146 in your textbook on
graphic organizers and outlines.
1. This assignment (both prewriting and essay) requires you
analyze the use of figurative language in a song, and
then illustrate that song’s cultural appeal and/or signifi-
cance to its listeners. Please review page 305–306 in
your textbook for the characteristics of an illustration
essay and a sample graphic organizer.
2. Be sure to state your main points, secondary points, and
supporting evidence. Include any references to secondary
sources as well, and use MLA parenthetical citation to
link them to your annotated bibliography.
3. Revise your work to ensure that your thesis statement,
main points, evidence, and secondary sources all work
together to address the purpose of the assignment.
Graded Project126
Graded Project
ASSIGNMENT CHECKLIST
For this assignment, you must submit your
n Song lyrics
n Outline or graphic organizer
n Annotated bibliography
SUBMIT YOUR EXAM
Ensure your exam follows the proper format for submission:
n 1-inch margins on all sides
n 12 pt. Times New Roman font
n Double spacing
1. Use the header function in your word-processing program
to enter your personal identification and exam information:
Student Name ID Number Exam Number
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Email Address
2. Save your exam with the file name:
IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName
3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format
(.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it
will be returned ungraded.
4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to
you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments
by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade
and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you
have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor.
127
Graded Project128
To submit your essay exam, follow these steps:
1. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu.
2. Log in to your student portal.
3. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re
working on.
4. Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to
the school!
Tip: Review the evaluation rubric on the following page before
submitting your exam.
http://www.pennfoster.edu
Graded Project 129
Pass Fail
Thesis, Ideas, and Content
n The thesis makes a focused claim that can be sustained in a longer essay.
n The writer analyzes the literary devices that are used in the song to create
its meaning or theme.
n The writer analyzes the influence, impact and/or importance of the
song’s message.
Organization
n Ideas are logically arranged and help move paper forward.
n Each proposed main point is focused on one aspect of the topic and helps
support the thesis statement.
n Secondary source information is incorporated to support the claim of
impact/popularity of the song.
Style and Voice
n Maintains a consistent point of view on topic
n Proposed evidence will engage readers’ interest in the topic.
Bibliography
n Properly formatted using MLA guidelines.
n Provided a minimum of six potential outside sources for research that
could be used in the essay.
n Effectively summarized the purpose of each source and analyzed its rele-
vance to the topic in at least three sentences
Conventions
n The outline/organizer has been spell-checked and proofread to check for
errors in word choice and typos.
n The assignment is reasonably free of errors that interfere with a reader’s
ability
to understand the content.
Format
n The prewrite is developed as an outline or graphic organizer.
n It includes all required information in a properly formatted header.
LITERARY ANALYSIS PREWRITING RUBRIC
Graded Project130
NOTES
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Lesson 6: Essay:
Literary Analysis
OBJECTIVES
For this exam, the student will
n Use the writing process to draft and revise an essay
n Write an effective thesis statement
n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate
detail, supporting evidence, and transitions
n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
n Use Modern Language Association citation and docu-
mentation style to reference secondary source material
correctly and appropriately
n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source
material correctly and appropriately
n Use the conventions of standard written American
English to produce correct, well-written essays
INTRODUCTION
For this assignment, you’ll use the outline or graphic organ-
izer you created in the prewriting assignment to create a full
analysis of figurative language in a song of your choice.
Topic: Analyze the use of figurative language in a song
n You’ll develop your essay from the outline or graphic
organizer you wrote for your previous assignment. Don’t
switch your topic; use your instructor’s feedback to
refine your ideas and to write your essay.
Graded Project132
Purpose: To write a 1,200–1,500 word essay that analyzes
the figurative language and literary devices in a song to show
how those elements contribute to the song’s appeal to its
audience
Audience: Junior and senior-level distance education stu-
dents enrolled at Penn Foster College
THE WRITING PROCESS
Drafting
1. You’ve received feedback on your prewriting assignment
that should help you to develop your essay. Review your
outline or graphic organizer to ensure that you under-
stand the instructor’s comments and recommendations.
2. Reread
a. Chapter 7, Drafting an Essay
b. Chapter 8, Writing Effective Paragraphs
3. As you begin to draft the ideas you included in your out-
line or graphic organizer, follow the guidelines for writing
your
a. Title (pages 151–152)
b. Introduction (pages 147–150)
c. Conclusion (pages 150–151)
4. The content of each paragraph should be confined to the
information introduced in the topic sentence and should
develop that topic logically based on the plan you provided
in your outline or graphic organizer.
5. Review Chapter 24 on incorporating research into your
essay. Be sure to
a. Introduce borrowed content
b. Properly punctuate quotations
c. Provide in-text, or parenthetical, citations for
secondary sources in MLA format
d. Use MLA format for your list of works cited
Graded Project 133
Revising
1. Review Chapter 9 on “Revising Your Content and
Organization.”
2. Use the checklist on page 179 to check your essay and
revise the elements to which you answered “no.”
3. Use the checklist on page 181 to check to your para-
graphs to ensure that they are logically developed and
organized effectively. Revise the elements to which you
answered “no.”
ASSIGNMENT CHECKLIST
For this assignment, you must submit your
n Song lyrics
n Essay
n List of works cited
n
Annotated Bibliography
Please save all your work in one document; don’t upload
separate documents for review. Use page breaks between
your song lyrics and essay. Your list of works cited should
also be a separate page. Review the sample MLA-style essay
on page 632–638 in your textbook.
SUBMIT YOUR EXAM
Ensure your exam follows the proper format for submission:
n 1-inch margins on all sides
n 12 pt. Times New Roman font
n Double spacing
Graded Project134
1. Use the header function in your word-processing pro-
gram to enter your personal identification and exam
information:
Student Name ID Number Exam Number
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Email Address
2. Save your exam with the file name:
IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName.
3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format
(.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it
will be returned ungraded.
4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to
you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments
by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade
and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you
have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor.
To submit your essay exam, follow these steps:
1. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu.
2. Log in to your student portal.
3. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re
working on.
4. Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to
the school!
Tip: Review the evaluation rubric on the following page before
submitting your essay.
http://www.pennfoster.edu
Graded Project 135
Evaluation for exam number: Skill
Realized
Skill
Developing
Skill
Emerging
Not
Shown
Thesis: Audience, Purpose, and Topic
Does the thesis make a claim about the
significance of the song that alludes to
both the figurative language it employs
and its impact on its audience?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Development
How insightfully and convincingly does
the writer analyze each example of the
song’s poetic devices in terms of correct
identification and explanation of terms
for given line(s), tying the use of each
to the song’s theme?
20 19 18 17 16 8 0
Incorporation of Source Material
How logically and effectively are para-
phrases, summaries, and direct quotations
from varied, relevant, and reliable sources
employed to support the thesis statement
and illustrate the assertions made about
the song itself?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Organization
How gracefully does the writer incorporate
transitional words and connective phrasing
with appropriate paragraphing to guide the
reader through the presentation?
15 14 13 12 11 6 0
Style and Voice
How energetically and consistently does
the writer interact with both the topic and
audience while using varied, concrete,
active diction? To what extent does the
writer achieve a natural, pleasant rhythm,
particularly through sentence fluency?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
MLA Citation
Did the writer accurately and correctly
document at least three required sources
using the MLA citation style both in-text
and on the list of Works Cited?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY RUBRIC
(Continued)
Graded Project136
Evaluation for exam number: Skill
Realized
Skill
Developing
Skill
Emerging
Not
Shown
Annotated Bibliography
Did the writer give five sources, including
the two cited in the paper? Was each
annotation at least three sentences long?
How well did the writer summarize the
source’s purpose, analyze its usefulness
for the paper, and reflect on a unique
aspect of the source?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Conventions
At what level does the writer demonstrate
correct and effective standard written
American English?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Format and Length
Did the paper meet the required
length (1200-1500 words) and
formatting requirements?
5 4.5 4 3 1 0
Lesson 7:
Comparison and Contrast:
Showing Similarities
and Differences
INTRODUCTION
Now that you’ve had some hands-on experience with literary
analysis, you’re ready to apply what you’ve learned on a more
advanced level. The critical reading and thinking skills you
developed while analyzing figurative language and other ele-
ments in short stories, poetry, and song lyrics can be applied to
longer narrative fiction as well. As you recall, when you write
about literature, you need to develop an original point of view
on a text. One common approach to writing about literature is
comparison and contrast. Integrating other patterns of develop-
ment—such as cause and effect—can help build your case.
Because you’ll be using evidence to support your analysis, the
essay you write at the end of this lesson will require you to use
secondary sources to support your ideas.
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OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n Explain point-by-point organization for comparison
and contrast
n Characterize subject-by-subject organization for comparison
and contrast
n Explain the use of causal analysis to show how one action or
event leads to another
n Define cause-and-effect as a pattern of development, and apply
its techniques
n Write an essay comparing and contrasting a novel and a movie
made from the novel.
Note: At the end of this lesson, you’ll use the novel and movie you
chose when you started the course to write a literary analysis that
compares and contrasts the novel and the film version.
Advanced Composition138
ASSIGNMENT 23: REVIEWING
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 365–377 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
Stanley is evil; Livingston is good. That’s sharp contrast.
While both Stanley and Livingston enjoy fishing, Stanley ties
his own flies and fishes in sparkling mountain streams, while
Livingston uses a bamboo pole and earthworms at the local
fishing hole. That’s comparison and contrast. To compare is
to show similarities; to contrast is to show differences. You
make these judgments in your daily life without thinking
about it, comparing two people’s personalities or your current
television with an older one. We compare the advantages and
disadvantages of renting or buying and the nutritional value
and cost of one food compared to another. As you study the
use of contrast and comparison in a paper, think about how
this pattern might be used with other patterns, such as defi-
nition.
Reading Highlights
Pages 366–369
Carefully review the characteristics of comparison or contrast
essays. Key points for this pattern of development are
n A clear purpose
n A specific basis of comparison
n A fair appraisal
Comparison or contrast makes a point. Why would a writer
compare white pine trees to Douglas fir trees? Perhaps he’s
comparing and contrasting their relative virtues as Christmas
trees. Why would a writer compare and contrast jogging and
walking as aerobic exercise? Perhaps she wants to compare
Lesson 7 139
the two with respect to the age and physical condition of peo-
ple who jog or walk. If a writer is a long-distance runner, he
or she might wish to praise the endorphin highs of the three-
mile jog as opposed to the milder joys of walking. Details and
sensory impressions provide the flavor of any effective com-
parison or contrast.
Pages 370–378
College-level writing has two basic approaches to comparison
and contrast. The point-by-point approach is illustrated by
“Amusing Ourselves to Depth: Is The Onion Our Most
Intelligent Newspaper?” on pages 370–372. As you read it, try
to locate the points of comparison or contrast. The piece by
Ian Frazier, on pages 375–377, demonstrates the subject-by-
subject approach, in which the author compares the romantic
days of pay phones with today’s hectic cell-phone lifestyle. The
graphic organizers on pages 373–374 offer examples of point-
by-point and subject-by-subject approaches. Compare and
contrast the two samples to see how they’re different. After
reading Ian Frazier’s essay, turn to Figure 16.3 on page 378
and study it to see how subjects are framed and presented by
the author. Then turn back to page 377 and study the four
tips for integrating comparison and contrast into a paper.
Reviewing these key ideas several times is a good way to rein-
force them so they become second nature. Are you informing
or persuading your audience? Do you need to take a stand on
an issue? Be sure that your thesis reflects your purpose and
choose the method of development that would best present
your ideas to your audience.
Advanced Composition140
Self-Check 23
1. Analyze the essay “Dearly Disconnected” (pages 375–377) for its subject-by-subject organ-
ization. State the topic of the essay, noting what’s being compared and contrasted.
Summarize the subjects of paragraphs 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8, identifying a thematic idea that
stands out. For instance, the “seediness and sadness” of pay phones is characterized in
paragraph 5.
2. Identify two bases of comparison for this topic: advantages and disadvantages of integrat-
ing public school classrooms by gender. Write a working thesis statement for each of them,
one pro and the other one con.
Check your answers with those on page 136.
Lesson 7 141
ASSIGNMENT 24: READING
ACTIVELY AND THINKING
CRITICALLY
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 378–388 and
394–396 inyour textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check
to gauge your progress.
Introduction
As a pattern of development, comparison and contrast may
be used on its own or in combination with other patterns,
such as narration, argument, or definition. First, you must
decide the purpose of your essay, and then choose the best
approach. By reading the examples and studying the guide-
lines for writing and the flowchart for revision, you’ll be
preparing to write an effective essay of your own.
Reading Highlights
Pages 378–380
Review the guidelines for actively reading and thinking criti-
cally about comparison and contrast essays. Key points for
analysis include
n Understanding the main point
n Identifying the basis of comparison and the main points
of comparison
n Questioning the assumptions and opinions of the author
n Examining the organization and how it affects the pres-
entation of ideas
n Determining whether important points of comparisons
have been omitted
Advanced Composition142
Pages 380–385
Look closely at the steps involved in the “Guided Writing
Assignment,” as comparison and contrast will be the domi-
nant pattern of organization you’ll be using to write the essay
at the end of Lesson 7. Then examine the flowchart for revi-
sion on pages 383–385.
Pages 385–388
Even if you’ve already read this student essay, “Border Bites”
by Heather Gianakos, read it again, this time applying your
sharpened skills to reading more critically.
Pages 394–396
In the essay by Abigail Zuger, “Defining a Doctor, with a
Tear, a Shrug, and a Schedule,” you’ll consider the use of
comparison and contrast combined with other patterns of
development. Along with Giankos’ essay, you’ll be analyzing
this essay for your self-check for this assignment.
Lesson 7 143Lesson 7 143
Self-Check 24
Review the essay “Border Bites” by Heather Gianakos on pages 385–388, then complete
items 1–3.
1. From Gianakos’s concluding paragraph, summarize the contrast she makes between
Southwestern and Mexican food.
2. What are the author’s points in paragraphs 1, 3, and 4?
3. What nutrition-oriented information in this comparison could be used for another
comparison/contrast approach to this topic?
Review the essay by Abigail Zuger on pages 394–396, then complete items 4 and 5.
4. Zuger uses three patterns of development other than comparison and contrast. Identify them
by paragraph and summarize how each is used.
5. Does the author use a point-by-point approach or a subject-by-subject approach? Is it effec-
tive? Why or why not?
Check your answers with those on page 197.
Advanced Composition144
ASSIGNMENT 25: REVIEWING
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 459–488 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
You get into your car, put the key in the ignition, and dis-
cover to your dismay that the car won’t start. As you look at
the fuel indicator on the dashboard, you see that your gas
tank is empty. That’s a simple description of the relationship
between cause and effect, a type of deduction that we make
on a daily basis, sometimes without realizing it. As a pattern
of essay development, cause and effect—sometimes referred
to as casual analysis—examines the relationships between
events or experiences in greater detail. The approach you
take could examine both causes and events, or focus more
specifically on one or the other aspect of the cause and effect
relationship. An essay that focuses on causes usually empha-
sizes the reasons something occurred. In an effect essay, the
emphasis is weighted more heavily on the consequences of an
event, situation, or choice. As you approach writing your
essay comparing and contrasting a novel and a film version,
you may find yourself discussing cause and effect in terms of
impact of the choices made by the people involved in the film.
Reading Highlights
Pages 460–463
Carefully review the characteristics of causal analysis. The
key points to bear in mind are
n The different types of cause and effects relationships
n A clear thesis statement
n Logical organization
n Detailed explanation of cause and effect relationships
Lesson 7 145
In many cases, causal analysis is sometimes intended as an
argument that supports a set of observations, identifying a
particular cause or sequence of causes. In other cases, a
causal analysis is intended to inform readers, to challenge
their expectations, or even to surprise readers.
Pages 463–467
Even if you’ve read it before, study Maria Konnikova’s “Why
Summer Makes Us Lazy.” As you read the essay, look closely
at the highlighted areas, which clearly indicate the different
elements the author uses to develop her analysis. After read-
ing the essay, study the three different graphic organizers on
pages 466–467, which illustrate three different approaches to
organizing cause and effect essays.
Pages 468–471
Read Adam Alter’s essay, “How Labels Like Black and
Working Class Shape Your Identity,” which describes the
effects of arbitrarily assigning labels influence behavior.
Afterwards, review the graphic organizer in Figure 19.4 on
page 471.
Pages 470–473
Review the suggestions for integrating cause and effect into
essays based on other patterns of development, which you
may find helpful while writing your compare and contrast
essay at the end of Lesson 7. These suggestions highlight the
importance of
n Using transitions
n Keeping the analysis simple
n Emphasizing why cause and effect is important in dis-
cussing your main point
The guidelines for reading actively and thinking critically
encourage you to pay close attention to details, particularly
when identifying the relationships between causes and
effects. If you include any kind of casual analysis in your
own writing, remember to offer enough evidence to clearly
Advanced Composition146
establish causal relationships. Also, beware of common
errors, such as confusing chronology with causation and
mistaking correlation with causation.
Pages 474–480
Scan the “Guided Writing Assignment.” Look through all of it,
but pay special attention to the editing, proofreading, and
revision tips on pages 478–480.
Pages 480–488
Read the “Students Write” essay, “Is Sharing Files Online
Killing Music?” by Jonathan Adamczak. Note that the
author’s thesis identifies a single cause that leads to multiple
consequences, and that in the body of his essay he presents
both negative and positive effects. (Also, study the Works
Cited page at the end of the essay.) Then read Jurriaan
Kamp’s “Can Diet Help Stop Depression and Violence?” which
uses evidence from several studies about the positive effects
of dietary changes.
Lesson 7 147
Self-Check 25
Read or reread Adam Alter’s essay on pages 468–470 to answer questions 1–3.
1. In addition to cause and effect, what other patterns of development does Alter use in his
essay?
2. At what points in the essay does Alter use transitions to move from one point to the next?
3. Identify some examples of descriptive language Alter uses in his essay.
4. Read or reread Jonathan Adamczak’s essay on pages 480–483; then turn to page 484 and
respond to all three all three items under “Analyzing the Writer’s Technique.”
Check your answers with those on page 198.
Before moving on to Lesson 8, watch the video lecture “Using Comparison and
Contrast: Analyzing a Novel” on your student portal and complete multiple
choice quiz 500501RR.
Note: To complete the quiz, you may wish to review pages 667–671, which you
studied in Lesson 6, Assignment 20.
After completing the quiz, proceed to the prewriting and essay exams for
Lesson 7.
Advanced Composition148
NOTES
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Lesson 7: Prewriting:
Comparison and Contrast
Objectives:
For this exam, students will
n Use the writing process to draft and revise a comparison
and contrast essay
n Write an effective thesis statement
n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements
n Develop critical reading skills
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
n Use Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and
documentation style to reference secondary source mate-
rial correctly and appropriately
Introduction
For decades, the film industry has adapted beloved books
into movies. When a book is adapted into a film, the story
reaches a wider audience and provides a new perspective on
the text. In this assignment, you will use comparison and
contrast techniques to reveal the ways the plot, characters,
and theme of a story are impacted as elements of the narra-
tive change.
Topic: To compare and contrast a book and a film based on
that book
Purpose: To show how the changes made affect the story’s
plot, characters, and theme in significant ways
Method:
n To prepare an outline or graphic organizer that will serve
as the foundation for an 1,800–2,000 word comparison
and contrast essay
Graded Project150
n To begin the research process by preparing a bibliogra-
phy in Modern Language Association citation and
documentation format that consists of at least six
sources
n 2 primary sources: the book and the film
n 4 secondary sources: book and film reviews, cri-
tiques, articles about the book and film, profiles of
the author and/or the director and actors that focus
on the content of the work.
Audience: Junior and senior-level distance education stu-
dents enrolled at Penn Foster College
The Writing Process
Plan and Prewrite
1. Watch the Comparison and Contrast lecture notes video
on your student portal. This video reviews the essay
requirements and comparison and contrast techniques.
2. Read the book and watch the film you’ve chosen to write
about.
3. Develop the content for your outline/graphic organizer
by freewriting about the changes you’ve noticed. Review
pages 366–369 of your textbook and identify a few bases
of comparison:
a. Are there scenes omitted or added? How does this
affect the sequence of events?
b. What is the central conflict of the book? The film?
How do the author and the director present the con-
flict? Are the stakes higher in one or the other?
c. Is the main character’s personality different in the
film? How is it different? How does it affect the way
we understand his/her character?
i. Is the narrator of the story the same? Does any
element of the story change because we can’t be in
the narrator’s head at all times? How does this
change our understanding of the characters or the
story?
Graded Project 151
d. How is theme revealed throughout the book and the
film?
4. Now that you’ve compared and contrasted the book and
the film, freewrite on what the significance of these
changes are to help you develop your ideas for the thesis
statement.
5. Work through the Guided Writing Assignment for
Comparison and Contrast prewriting on page 381 of your
textbook. This assignment will help you determine your
purpose and focus for your comparison and contrast
essay.
Research
1. The book and the film are your primary sources and
count as two sources in your bibliography and toward
the research requirement for your essay. Be sure that
you have carefully noted where you found them, either
online or in a physical copy/in print.
2. You’ll need a minimum of four other sources. These
sources can be reviews, articles, and interviews related
to the
book and film.
3. Go to the library. Your Penn Foster digital library pro-
vides resources that will help you to meet the research
requirements for your essay, but keep in mind that
research in a library, even a digital one, isn’t like searching
online. To learn more, visit the Penn Foster Library site.
Use Expanded Academic ASAP, which is a subscrip-
tion-only database available in Penn Foster’s digital
library. You can access the database by clicking on
the Library Services link in your Student Portal. See
the “Academic Support and Online Resources” sec-
tion in the introduction to this study guide.
4. Search online, but remember that you’ll need to evaluate
your sources carefully; review pages 569–573 in your
textbook. The following are examples of quality sources.
a. Reviews by book and film critics
Graded Project152
b. Interviews with the author and/or the director and
actors
c. Profiles by journalists and other professional writers
Prepare Your Outline/Graphic Organizer
You may choose to submit either a formal outline or a
graphic organizer for this assignment. Your outline or graphic
organizer should be sufficiently detailed to illustrate your
plan for your essay. In other words, it should be as detailed
as possible.Reread page 144–146 in your textbook on graphic
organizers and outlines.
1. This assignment (both prewriting and essay) requires you
analyze the significance of the differences between the
book and the film. Please review pages 372–374 in your
textbook for the characteristics of a comparison and
contrast essay and two sample graphic organizers.
2. Be sure to state your main points, secondary points, and
supporting evidence. Include any references to second-
ary sources as well, and use MLA parenthetical citation
to link them to your annotated bibliography.
3. Revise your work to ensure that your thesis statement,
main points, evidence, and secondary sources all work
together to address the purpose of the assignment.
Assignment Checklist
For this assignment, you must submit your
n Outline or graphic organizer
n Bibliography
Submit Your Exam
Ensure your exam follows the proper format for submission:
n 1-inch margins on all sides
n 12 pt. Times New Roman font
n Double spacing
Graded Project 153
1. Use the header function in your word-processing pro-
gram to enter your personal identification and exam
information:
Student Name ID Number Exam Number
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Email Address
2. Save your exam with the file name:
IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName.
3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format
(.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it
will be returned ungraded.
4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to
you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments
by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade
and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you
have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor.
SUBMITTING YOUR PROJECT
To submit your essay exam, follow these steps:
1. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu.
2. Log in to your student portal.
3. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re
working on.
4. Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to
the school!
Tip: Review the evaluation rubric on the following page before
submitting your exam.
http://www.pennfoster.edu
Graded Project154
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
PREWRITING EXAM RUBRIC
Pass Fail
Thesis, Ideas, and Content
n The thesis makes a focused claim about the types of differences
between the chosen book and movie and the significance or effect
of those differences.
n The outline/organizer provides a close reading of book and film using
comparison and contrast patterns of development to identify differences
between the two mediums.
n Each main point includes evidence to prove the differences between the
book and the film exist.
n The main points analyze the significance of the differences between the
book and film.
Organization
n Ideas are logically arranged and help move paper forward.
n Each proposed main point is focused on one aspect of the topic and helps
support the thesis statement.
n Secondary source information including reviews and articles is used to
support claims made about the significance of the differences to the story.
Style and Voice
n Maintains a consistent point of view on topic
n Proposed evidence will engage readers’ interest in the topic.
Bibliography
n Properly formatted using MLA guidelines.
n Provided a minimum of six potential outside sources for research that
could be used in the essay.
Conventions
n The outline/organizer has been spell-checked and proofread to check for
errors in word choice and typos.
n The paper is reasonably free of errors that interfere with a reader’s ability
to understand the content.
Format
n The prewrite is developed as an outline or graphic organizer.
n It includes all required information in a properly formatted header.
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Lesson 7: Essay:
Comparison and Contrast
Objectives:
For this exam, students will
n Use the writing process to draft and revise a comparison-
and-contrast essay
n Write an effective thesis statement
n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate
detail, supporting evidence, and transitions
n Identify, define, and analyze literary elements
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
n Use Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and
documentation style to reference secondary source mate-
rial correctly and appropriately
n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source
material correctly and appropriately
n Use the conventions of standard written American
English to produce correct, well-written essays
Introduction
For this essay, you will use the outline or graphic organizer
created in the previous prewriting exam to create a full essay
comparing and contrasting a book with the film based on
that book.
Topic: To compare and contrast a book and a film based on
that book
n You’ll develop your essay from the outline or graphic
organizer you wrote for your previous assignment. Don’t
switch your topic; use your instructor’s feedback to
refine your ideas and to write your essay.
Graded Project156
Purpose: To write an 1,800–2,000 word essay that uses com-
parison and contrast techniques to show how the changes
made affect the story’s plot, characters, and theme in signifi-
cant ways.
Audience: Junior and senior-level distance education stu-
dents enrolled at Penn Foster College
The Writing Process
Drafting
1. You’ve received feedback on your prewriting assignment
that should help you to develop your essay. Review your
outline or graphic organizer to ensure that you under-
stand the instructor’s comments and recommendations.
2. Reread
a. Chapter 7, Drafting an Essay
b. Chapter 8, Writing Effective Paragraphs
3. As you begin to draft the ideas you included in your out-
line or graphic organizer, follow the guidelines for writing
your
a. Title (pages 151–152)
b. Introduction (pages 147–150)
c. Conclusion (pages 150–151)
4. The content of each paragraph should be confined to the
information introduced in the topic sentence and should
develop that topic logically based on the plan you pro-
vided in your outline or graphic organizer.
5. Review the Guided Writing Assignment for Comparison
and Contrast drafting on page 382 of your textbook. This
assignment will help you determine your organization
and write your first draft of your comparison and con-
trast essay.
6. Review Chapter 24 on incorporating research into your essay.
Be sure to
a. introduce borrowed content
b. properly punctuate quotations
Graded Project 157
c. provide in-text, or parenthetical, citations for secondary
sources in MLA format
d. use MLA format for your list of works cited.
Revising
1. Review Chapter 9, Revising Your Content and Organization
2. Use the checklist on page 179 to check your essay and
revise the elements to which you answered “no.”
3. Use the checklist on page 181 to check to your paragraphs
to ensure that they’re logically developed and organized
effectively. Revise the elements to which you answered
“no.”
4. Review the Guided Writing Assignment for Comparison and
Contrast revision on page 383 of your textbook.
Assignment Checklist
For this assignment, you must submit your
n Essay
n List of works cited
Submit Your Exam
Ensure your exam follows the proper format for submission:
n 1-inch margins on all sides
n 12 pt. Times New Roman font
n Double spacing
1. Use the header function in your word-processing pro-
gram to enter your personal identification and exam
information:
Please save all your work in one document; don’t upload separate
documents for review. Your list of works cited should also be a sepa-
rate page. Review the sample MLA-style essay on pages 632–638 in
your textbook.
Graded Project158
Student Name ID Number Exam Number
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Email Address
2. Save your exam with the file name:
IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName.
3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format
(.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it
will be returned ungraded.
4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to
you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments
by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade
and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you
have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor.
SUBMITTING YOUR PROJECT
To submit your essay exam, follow these steps:
1. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu.
2. Log in to your student portal.
3. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re
working on.
4. Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to the
school! If you choose to mail the project, here’s the correct
mailing address:
Penn Foster
Attn: Student Service Center
925 Oak Street
Scranton, PA 18515-0001
Tip: Review the evaluation rubric on the following page before
submitting your essay.
http://www.pennfoster.edu
Graded Project 159
Novel/Movie: Skill
Realized
Skill
Developing
Skill
Emerging
Not
Shown
Thesis: Audience, Purpose, and Topic
How well does the thesis establish a clearly
defined, analytical focus unique to the
assigned topic, purpose, and audience?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Development
How effectively does the writer present evi-
dence that illustrates the similarities and
differences between the book and the movie?
Did the writer draw conclusions about the
significance of the changes were made in the
adaptation of the book to the movie?
30 25 20 19 17 10 0
Incorporation of Source Material
How logically and effectively are para-
phrases, summaries, and direct quotations
from varied, relevant, and reliable sources
integrated with the writer’s style for purpose
and audience.
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
How well did the writer incorporate ele-
ments from the primary sources (the
book and the movie) into the essay?
5 4.5 4 3 1 0
Organization
How gracefully does the writer incorporate
transitional words and connective phrasing
with appropriate paragraphing to guide the
reader through the presentation?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Style and Voice
How energetically and consistently does
the writer interact with both the topic and
audience while using varied, concrete,
active diction? To what extent does the
writer achieve a natural, pleasant rhythm,
particularly through sentence fluency?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
MLA Citation
Did the writer accurately and correctly at
least 6 sources using MLA citation style,
both in-text and on the list of Works Cited?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Conventions
At what level does the writer demonstrate
correct and effective standard written
American English?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Format and Length
Did the paper meet the required
length (1,800-2,000 words) and
formatting requirements?
5 4.5 4 3 1 0
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ESSAY RUBRIC
Graded Project160
NOTES
161
L
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8
L
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8
Lesson 8: Arguments
INTRODUCTION
Arguments are part of daily life. Whether a person is passion-
ate about his or her point of view or simply wants to make a
point, the proper approach to persuasion or argument makes
all the difference in whether a point of view is accepted by
others. Some arguments, such as who is the all-time best
quarterback or whether German cars are superior to
American cars, are merely opinion. But when it comes to
public-policy issues, like capital punishment or civil rights,
and personal-fulfillment issues, like where to live or how to
spend leisure time, differences in viewpoint can be examined
through sound and reasoned arguments. As an educated citi-
zen, you’ll benefit from learning the art of persuading others
to your point of view.
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this lesson, you’ll be able to
n List the basic parts of an
argument
n Describe effective strategies for reading an argument
n Explain the analytical skills used in critically evaluating an
argument
n Identify strategies for writing effective argument essays
Advanced Composition162
ASSIGNMENT 26: THE ELEMENTS
OF ARGUMENT
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 501–512 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
You might win a personal argument by sheer force of person-
ality or persistence, but a written argument takes planning
and organization to ensure your points are made and your
strategy is effective. Your written argument requires you to
make a claim and then prove it by providing reliable sources
that support your point of view. You’ll need to employ reliable
methods of persuasion to convince your readers, including
evidence and reasons, but you might also appeal to their
emotions, needs, and values to win them over to your way of
thinking on your topic.
Reading Highlights
Pages 501–506
The basic parts of an argument include
n An issue
n A claim
n Support
The following is an example of a well-constructed argument:
I think the town council should insist that the hedge at the
corner of Grove Street and Second Avenue be trimmed (1).
That hedge obstructs drivers’ vision and constitutes a hazard
(2). And that’s not just my opinion; the police have recorded
seven accidents at that corner over the last two months (3).
The issue is framed (1), a claim is made (2), and support is
offered for the claim (3). Figure 20.1 on page 503 offers an
example of a graphic organizer for an argument essay.
Lesson 8 163
Make sure you understand the three types of claims and the
various types of support presented. When you write an argu-
ment, your thesis statement will generally frame your claim.
In some cases, your claim may be implied. (However, you
must include your thesis in the argument essay you’ll write
for this lesson’s exam.)
Without solid support, however, an argument is just an
unsubstantiated opinion. Support for a claim can be based
on reasons, evidence, or appeals to emotion, needs, or values.
By using the proper approach for your audience and backing
your claim with solid information and ideas, you can build a
strong argument. You can practice recognizing the elements
of an argument by seeing if you can find claims and support
in advertisements as you read and watch television. Be espe-
cially alert for appeals, which are the basis of most
advertising.
Pages 506–507
Every argument, by its nature, has opposing points of view.
By anticipating other points of view as you write your argu-
ment, you can refute them as part of your essay. You can
acknowledge an opposing view by admitting the part that has
some merit or showing how the opposition is weak or insuffi-
cient. The keystone of an effective argument is its conclusion.
A strong finish will leave your reader with a final impression
of your argument and its strength.
Pages 507–512
Read Quinne Sember’s “Organ Donation: A Life-Saving Gift,”
paying careful attention to the highlighted areas the margin
annotations, which point out the author’s thesis and the
basic parts of the argument. Afterwards, read Brian Palmer’s
essay, “Tipping Is an Abomination.” As you read it, try to
identify the different elements of his argument. Then check
your evaluation against the graphic organizer for Palmer’s
essay, which appears in Figure 20.2 on page 515.
Advanced Composition164
Self-Check 26
1. Create a graphic organizer for the essay “Organ Donation: A Life-Saving Gift” on pages 507–
510.
Questions 2–6: Reread Brian Palmer’s essay, “Tipping is an Abomination,” and analyze it
by answering the following questions:
2. What does Palmer mean when he says that tipping is an abomination?
a. Tipping is a good source of extra income for restaurant workers.
b. Tipping has something to do with the digestive system.
c. Tipping is too complex for large groups of people dining together.
d. Tipping is a disgraceful custom.
3. According to Palmer, what are two primary negative consequences of tipping?
a. Tipping perpetuates racism and doesn’t incentivize hard work.
b. Tipping perpetuates sexism and doesn’t incentivize promotions.
c. Tipping perpetuates capitalism and doesn’t incentivize revolution.
d. Tipping perpetuates ageism and doesn’t incentivize early retirement.
4. According to Palmer, why do restaurant owners like the custom of tipping?
a. Tipping is the best way to reward hard work.
b. Tipping allows owners to pay their employees less.
c. Tipping allows an equitable distribution of tips among all the restaurant employees.
d. Tipping creates a class system at the restaurant that owners can manipulate.
5. What is a “tip credit”?
a. A tax benefit that allows restaurants to pay employees less than minimum wage
b. A tip charged directly to the customer’s credit card
c. A surcharge that makes up for insufficient tips
d. A tax credit for people making under $15,000 per year
(Continued)
Lesson 8 165
Self-Check 26
6. What does Palmer propose as one solution to the problem of tipping?
a. Encourage larger tips so that the dishwashers and bussers can have a share.
b. Abolish the tip credit on both state and federal levels.
c. Learn to live with the problem of tipping.
d. Make tipping illegal.
Check your answers with those on page 199.
Advanced Composition166
ASSIGNMENT 27: STRATEGIES
FOR READING ACTIVELY AND
THINKING CRITICALLY
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 512–525 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
Introduction
Although it’s easy to react emotionally when you read an
argument you don’t agree with, remember that in analyzing
it, you’re looking for a valid claim supported by acceptable
reasons and evidence. Even if you disagree with the claim,
you might recognize that the argument is sound. If the
author has strong credentials and is published in a reliable
periodical, such as a professional journal or a respected
newspaper, the argument also has more credibility. Before
you reject an argument, make sure you have sufficient
knowledge on the subject to judge it fairly.
Reading Highlights
Pages 512–514
Be prepared to read an argument at least twice and pay
attention to the title, the author, and the publication. If
you’re not familiar with the topic or the author, do a little
research to gain some insight into the topic, the publication
in which the essay or article appeared, and the author’s cre-
dentials. More than once a humorist like Dave Barry, who’s
mentioned in your text, has received letters rebuking him for
his foolish notions, when in fact he was using exaggeration
and sarcasm to make his point. While you’re reading, test
your understanding by taking notes, creating a graphic
organizer, or writing a summary.
Lesson 8 167
Pages 516–518
To do a proper job of analyzing an argument, you have to
identify the writer’s purpose, the audience, the claim, and the
support for the claim. Support may include factual evidence,
appeals, or a mixture of the two. You also must assess the
writer’s credibility based on his or her credentials, as well as
the essay itself. An author strengthens his or her credibility
by adequately addressing opposing views—that is, by includ-
ing a refutation in his or her argument.
Look for emotional appeals that are either glaringly obvious if
poorly presented or effectively manipulative if done well.
Much political and commercial rhetoric is characterized by
deceptive claims and appeals based on emotional appeals.
Study Table 20.1 on page 517 for examples of unfair emo-
tional appeals. Also, be on the alert for logical errors, such as
rhetorical fallacies, or errors in reasoning. Make sure you
study the types of faulty reasoning in Table 20.2 on page
518, because one of these mistakes in an essay can destroy
any credibility the writer may have. Unless you’re aware of
these tactics, however, they may seem to make sense when
presented skillfully.
Pages 518–525
To apply your skills, you’ll read and analyze two essays. The
first essay, by Peter Bregman, opposes the values of multi-
tasking and offers six bulleted points to support his thesis.
The second essay, by David Silverman on pages 522–524,
defends multitasking and offers four counterarguments that
oppose Bregman’s thesis. For now, simply read the essays.
You’ll analyze the essays in your self-check.
Advanced Composition168
Self-Check 27
1. Turn to page 521 of your text, after the Bregman essay. Respond to all four items under
“Thinking Critically about Argument.”
2. Turn to page 524 of your text, after the Silverman essay. Respond to all five items under
“Analyzing the Writer’s Technique.”
3. Using Table 20.1 on page 517 as a reference, identify the unfair appeal to emotion in each
of the following statements.
a. Folks, you all know me. I’ve stood up for your best interests ever since eighth grade,
when I was student council president.
b. These single mothers—and I bet you’ve known a few—often work two or three jobs and
can hardly feed their kids, much less spend time reading to their kids when they come
home exhausted at the end of the day.
c. Why would Jake Cleaver give a fig about your low wages and long hours? He was born
with a silver spoon in his mouth. He pays his gardeners less than minimum wage!
d. Oprah Winfrey is against the war, which proves my brother is right.
Check your answers with those on page 200.
Lesson 8 169
ASSIGNMENT 28:
WRITING ARGUMENTS
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 526–551 in
your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-check to gauge
your progress.
You’ve learned to identify the elements of an argument; now
turn your attention to the art of writing arguments. As you’ve
gathered by now, a properly conceived argument makes a
point; the sharper the point, the better the argument. An
effective argument also provides logical, coherent, evidence-
based support for a specific claim. These are issues to bear in
mind as you approach the process of preparing, organizing,
and writing an argument essay—your final examination essay
for this course.
Reading Highlights
Pages 527–529
The key to preparing a good argument is making sure you
have an issue that’s controversial enough to engage readers.
Once you have your topic and have narrowed and defined
your focus, you can work on your claim. Study the material
about narrowing a general idea to a specific claim on pages
528–529 in your textbook.
Pages 529–531
A good argument requires sound evidence that’s not only rel-
evant, but also well integrated into the organization of your
argument. Convincing evidence requires rigorous logic. Be
sure you understand the difference between inductive and
deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning gathers evidence that points to a conclu-
sion. The following is an example:
n Evidence: The polar ice caps are melting.
n Evidence: Glaciers around the world are melting.
Advanced Composition170
n Evidence: The hottest years on record have occurred over
the last decade.
n Conclusion: Global warming is a real and pressing issue.
Deductive reasoning begins with a major premise, proceeds
to a minor premise, and then to a conclusion. Here’s an
example:
n Major premise: All birds have functional or vestigial
feathered wings.
n Minor premise: Song sparrows have wings.
n Conclusion: Song sparrows are birds.
This is a rather simple example of a syllogism, which is the
basic form of a deductive argument. Study the examples in
your text.
Pages 531–532
Audience analysis is a major part of preparing an argument.
Are you approaching an agreeing, neutral, or disagreeing
audience? It can be challenging to sway an audience that’s
neutral or on the fence. For the disagreeing audience, your
text suggests finding some kind of common ground between
your position and the opposing position of your audience. For
example, “I know we seem poles apart on the immigration
issue, but I think we can agree that we want to live in a fair
and just nation.” Humor and wit can also help soften a cool
or unreceptive audience.
Pages 532–534
If your argument doesn’t stir a bit of passion in you, it’s
unlikely to move the emotions of your audience. Your objec-
tive in a compelling argument is to move hearts and minds in
favor of your argument by appealing to your audience’s needs
and values. On the other hand, a sound argument can be
made better by recognizing opposing points of view, whether
you acknowledge, accommodate, or refute them.
Lesson 8 171
Pages 534–539
You’ll have a chance to see the characteristics of effective
argument skillfully employed in the essay “Second Chances,
Social Forgiveness, and the Internet” by Amitai Etzioni and
Radhika Bhat. As you read this essay, study the highlights
and margin notes to see how different elements of argument
are used.
Pages 539–543
Before you proceed further, study the sample graphic organ-
izer in Figure 21.2 on page 540, which you may find helpful
in sorting out the parts of an argument essay you plan to
write. Then read William Safire’s essay “Abolish the Penny”
on pages 541–542. Safire is a master of the art of editorial
writing, but don’t be sidetracked by his wit. Look for the
familiar elements of an argument. Afterwards, study the
graphic organizer on page 543, which offers a visual guide to
the organization of his essay.
Pages 544–551
Because your final exam will be an argument essay, carefully
study the steps outlined in the guided writing assignment
section in this chapter. The topic for your exam will be
assigned, but you may find it useful to practice using one of
the topics suggested in this guided writing section.
Self-Check 28
1. Turn to Exercise 21.1 on page 528. Choose two of the five issues for your response.
2. Turn to Exercise 21.2 on page 529. Choose two of the five issues for your response.
3. Turn to Exercise 21.3 on page 532. For one of the three claims, discuss arguing it before
three kinds of audiences, as specified in the instructions.
4. Turn to Exercise 21.4 on page 534. Reviewing the three claims given in Exercise 21.3,
identify opposing viewpoints and discus your approach to acknowledging, accommodating,
or refuting them. Respond to all three claims.
Check your answers with those on page 201.
ASSIGNMENT 29: ANALYZING AND
RESPONDING TO ARGUMENTS
Read the following assignment. Then read pages 552–555 in
Chapter 21 of your textbook. Be sure to complete the self-
check to gauge your progress.
Introduction
In this assignment, you’ll begin by reading a fascinating stu-
dent essay by James Sturm called “Pull the Plug on Explicit
Lyrics.” Your objective, made evident in the self-check, will be
pursuing an extensive analysis of the piece that will help you
better understand how to analyze and respond to an
argument.
Lesson 8 173
Reading Highlights
Pages 552–555
Before you begin reading Sturm’s essay, “Pull the Plug on
Explicit Lyrics,” considerer the title and take a moment to
ask yourself a couple of questions. Should middle-school stu-
dents have access to music with explicit lyrics? What does
the title reveal about the author’s viewpoint? As you read and
reread the essay, study the highlights and annotations that
point out the author’s thesis statement, his reasoning, his
use of transitions, and his accommodation of opposing view-
points. As you read, make notations as you think about your
feelings and reactions to the essay. Finally, feel free to think
about your personal experience and attitudes about present-
day popular music. In what ways have vulgar or suggestive
lyrics either attracted or repulsed you?
After you’ve completed the self-check, proceed to the
essay examination for Lesson 8.
Self-Check 29
The self-check exercises for this Assignment can be found on page 555.
1. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique: Respond to items 1 and 3.
2. Thinking Critically about Argument: Respond to all five items.
3. Responding to the Reading: Respond to all three items.
Check your answers with those on page 203.
Advanced Composition174
NOTES
175
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Lesson 8: Essay: Argument
Objectives
n Use the writing process to write an argumentative essay
n Write an effective thesis statement
n Develop paragraphs using topic sentences, adequate
detail, supporting evidence, and transitions
n Develop critical reading skills
n Use responsible research methods to locate appropriate
secondary sources
n Use Modern Language Association (MLS) citation and
documentation style to reference secondary source mate-
rial correctly and appropriately
n Quote, paraphrase, and summarize secondary source
material correctly and appropriately
n Use the conventions of standard written American
English to produce a correct, well-written essay.
Introduction
The widespread accessibility of modern technology has given
us many new possibilities. We’re now able to obtain informa-
tion more quickly and easily than ever before. We can keep in
touch family and friends online and make friends with people
we may never meet. We’re able to program destinations into
navigation systems and follow spoken directions without ever
consulting a map. However, many believe that this constant
access to different kinds of technology makes us more dis-
tracted, less able to communicate meaningfully with each
other, and generally less capable.
Topic: To write a 2,200–2,500 word argument essay in which
you identify one facet of modern technology that’s debatable
or controversial because people may or may not rely on it too
much
Graded Project176
Purpose: To persuade your audience that this particular
facet of modern technology either should or shouldn’t be lim-
ited due to people’s reliance on it
Methods: To use at least six secondary sources to support
your argument including
1. A minimum of three articles from Expanded Academic
ASAP
2. A minimum of three secondary sources that you have
evaluated according to the guidelines in your textbook
(569–573).
Audience: Junior and senior-level distance education stu-
dents enrolled at Penn Foster College
The Writing Process
Prewriting
1. Since you’re working with a very broad subject, technol-
ogy, you need to narrow it down to a manageable level.
a. Review Chapter 5, “Prewriting,” in your textbook,
specifically Choosing and Narrowing a topic (98–
107).
b. Reread Chapter 21 in your textbook, “Writing
Arguments,” to help you choose a sufficiently narrow
topic for your argument essay (526–529)
i. Your argument should make a claim.
ii.Your argument may also call for action.
2. Use one of the techniques from Chapter 5 (freewriting,
brainstorming, clustering, and so on) to develop your ideas
for a topic.
a. Remember, technology is too broad to write about in a
short essay, so you need to focus on a specific facet of
technology.
3. When you have a list of possible topics for your essay,
choose one or two to explore in detail with more freewrit-
ing or brainstorming (107–117).
Graded Project 177
a. Write as much as possible based on what you know,
think, believe to be the case, or have heard about
your topic.
b. What do you think should be done to address the
issues you’ve raised?
4. Draft a “tentative claim” (545) that represents your point
of view on the topic. Because an argument essay also
acknowledges the opposing point of view (533–34), draft
a claim that represents the alternative point of view and
brainstorm reasons and evidence you know, think,
believe to be the case, or have heard about this side of
the issue.
Research
1. Your research is integral to your argument essay; how-
ever, it plays only a supporting role. At this point, only
after you have gathered content in the prewriting
process, should you begin the research process, because
a. Your use of secondary sources should be limited.
b. Secondary sources provide evidence to support your
claims.
c. You shouldn’t allow secondary sources to take over
your argument.
2. Use your prewriting to guide your research. Look for evi-
dence that will help to confirm what you know, clarify
your point of view, or correct your mistaken beliefs.
3. Go to the library. Your Penn Foster digital library provides
resources that will help you to meet the research require-
ments for your essay, but keep in mind that research in a
library, even a digital one, is not like searching online. To
learn more, visit the Penn Foster Library site.
4. Keep careful notes on your sources and a working
bibliography in order to avoid plagiarism.
Graded Project178
Organizing
1. Use the graphic organizer on page 540 to organize your
argument before you begin drafting.
a. Identify each reason clearly and provide related sup-
porting evidence so that you can see your argument
in outline form.
b. The outline will help you to identify the parts of your
argument that don’t fit your thesis statement, where
you need more evidence, and where you can reor-
ganize points to make the overall essay more
persuasive.
Drafting
1. When you’ve completed your graphic organizer or out-
line, follow your plan to draft your essay.
a. Use topic sentences to state your reasons, develop
the body of each paragraph logically using the evi-
dence you found in your research
2. Review Chapter 24 on incorporating research into your
essay. Be sure to
a. introduce borrowed content
b. properly punctuate quotations
c. provide in-text, or parenthetical, citations for all
secondary sources in MLA format
d. use MLA format for your list of works cited
3. Use transitions to help guide you readers to your next
point and to move smoothly throughout the argument
Revising
1. Review the Flowchart for Revising an Argument Essay
(550–551) in your textbook.
2. Use the revision strategies to revise any parts of the
essay where you answered “no.”
Graded Project 179
3. Be sure that you’ve edited and proofread (549) your
entire essay.
Assignment Checklist
1. Argument essay, including list of works cited
Submit Your Exam
Ensure your exam follows the proper format for submission:
n 1-inch margins on all sides
n 12 pt. Times New Roman font
n Double spacing
1. Use the header function in your word-processing pro-
gram to enter your personal identification and exam
information:
Student Name ID Number Exam Number
Street Address
City, State, Zip
Email Address
2. Save your exam with the file name:
IDNumber_ExamNumber_LastName_FirstName
3. Save your exam in either MS Word or Rich Text Format
(.rtf). If an instructor can’t open the file you submit, it
will be returned ungraded.
4. When your exam has been evaluated and returned to
you, you will be able to review the instructor’s comments
by clicking on the View Project button next to the grade
and downloading the Instructor Feedback File. If you
have trouble viewing the file, please contact an instructor.
Graded Project180
SUBMITTING YOUR PROJECT
To submit your essay exam, follow these steps:
1. Go to http://www.pennfoster.edu.
2. Log in to your student portal.
3. Click on Take Exam next to the lesson you’re
working on.
4. Follow the instructions provided to complete your exam.
Be sure to keep a backup copy of any files you submit to the
school! If you choose to mail the project, the following is the
correct mailing address:
Penn Foster
Attn: Student Service Center
925 Oak Street
Scranton, PA 18515-0001
Tip: Review the evaluation rubric on the following page before
submitting your essay.
http://www.pennfoster.edu
Graded Project 181
Skill
Realized
Skill
Developing
Skill
Emerging
Not
Shown
Thesis: Audience, Purpose, and Topic
How well does the thesis establish a clearly
defined position on the assigned topic?
Does the thesis appeal to the purpose,
and appeal to the audience?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Development
How insightfully and convincingly does the
writer apply the appropriate development
methods to explore the thesis through asser-
tions, evidence, and analytic explanation?
25 23 21 19 17 10 0
Incorporation of Source Material
How logically and effectively are para-
phrases, summaries, and direct quotations
from varied, relevant, and reliable sources
integrated with the writer’s style for purpose
and audience?
10 9 8 7.5 7 4 0
Organization
How gracefully does the writer incorporate
transitional words and connective phrasing
with appropriate paragraphing to guide the
reader through the presentation?
15 14 13 12 11 6 0
Style and Voice
How energetically and consistently does
the writer interact with both the topic and
audience while using varied, concrete,
active diction? To what extent does the
writer achieve a natural, pleasant rhythm,
particularly through sentence fluency?
15 14 13 12 11 6 0
MLA Citation
Did the writer accurately and correctly
document the required number of sources
following MLA citation style both in-text
and Works Cited?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Conventions
At what level does the writer demonstrate
correct and effective standard written
American English while also meeting the
required length and submission format for
the assignment?
10 9 8 7.5 7 3 0
Format and Length
Did the paper meet the required
length (2,000-2,500 words) and
formatting requirements?
5 4.5 4 3 1 0
ARGUMENT ESSAY RUBRIC
Graded Project182
NOTES
Self-Check 1
1. a. A reasonable inference is that the author thinks the
American government is inefficient, intrusive, and
useless.
b. Some phrases that show the author’s attitude are:
“losing some of its integrity,” “has not the vitality or
force,” “a sort of wooden gun,” “how successfully men
can be imposed on,” repetition of “It does not,” “obsta-
cles which legislators are continually putting in their
way.”
c. Details might include: a single man can bend it to his
will; it hasn’t accomplished freedom, settlement of the
West, or education; it stands in the way of trade and
commerce.
2. Exercise 4.6
1. Simile; tone could be bemused or horrified, depending
on the context; “ungainly struggle” and “huge awkward
chicken, torn, squawking” create the impression that
the person isn’t quite human.
2. Simile; tone is descriptive, cautionary; the phrase “like
antelope fleeing before fire on the slope” links with “red
rages” to create a sense of foreboding.
3. Metaphor; tone is lofty, formal; “summer’s day,” “tem-
perate” convey the impression of sensuous beauty.
3. Exercise 4.7
1. a. Illegal alien” sounds more negative; “undocumented
immigrant” sounds more neutral. “Illegal” emphasizes
breaking the law and alien sounds a bit scary, while
“undocumented” sounds neutral and “immigrant” even
a little positive. “Undocumented immigrant” is
euphemistic in that the person has documents but for
another country: the person hasn’t been granted entry
to the country he or she is in.
4. Exercise 4.9
Possible answers: Outraged: “every citizen in this city
should protest the destruction of an entire block of his-
toric buildings to build upscale condominiums.” Joyful:
183
A
n
s
w
e
r
s
A
n
s
w
e
r
s
“At last, this city can celebrate the replacement of bro-
ken-down eyesores with respectable, useful, beautiful
housing.” Nostalgic: “soon every building on one of the
oldest blocks in the city will be relegated to memory in
the name of progress.”
5. Exercise 4.11
Schwartz assumes that readers have the literary knowl-
edge to understand his allusions to Dickens but also
that readers aren’t sticklers for formal language (“screw
him”). He assumes that his readers are politically correct
or at least sensitive to that concept, but he also assumes
that they aren’t in “minority groups, the disabled, and
the disadvantaged” because he writes about “the feelings
of” those groups. He assumes that his readers have
enough money to own cars, computers, and cell phones.
Finally he assumes his readers will agree with him
because he refers to them repeatedly as “we.”
6. a
7. b
Self-Check 2
2 a. Although it’s a direct, active opinion statement refer-
ring to the topic of adult illiteracy in America, there
are a couple of problems with this as a thesis. First,
calling adult illiteracy the “greatest threat” to America
today is a very large claim. What about all the other
serious problems confronting us? There’s no need to
make such a large claim, which may only distract
your reader with thoughts of other problems. Second,
the focus of your draft isn’t the threat that illiteracy
poses—you’ve got only about one page out of 14 about
how widespread the problem is (maybe for your intro-
duction) and nothing about its consequences (economic,
social, political, and so on). Clearly, that’s not what your
paper is about. (If it’s what you want your paper to be
about—or what your reader expects your paper to be
about—you’ve got some major revising to do.) Instead,
what your draft does discuss at length are causes and
Self-Check Answers184
possible solutions, but your thesis doesn’t let your
reader know that.
b. This sentence identifies the topic of the paper as adult
illiteracy and indicates that there are many causes,
which the reader will naturally expect you to explain
(and you do, for about half of your draft). Then comes
the “but,” a logical link to the opposite of “causes,”
which would be “solutions” or something of the sort.
Instead, the sentence continues “but it can be elimi-
nated.” This wording seems to do the same job as
“solutions”—in fact, asserting that adult illiteracy can
actually be eliminated is a strong positive statement
indeed. What’s more, just as your draft addresses the
causes of illiteracy, it goes on to discuss its elimination
by evaluating solutions and proposing one you feel
would be effective. Since this sentence prepares your
reader for exactly the paper you’re delivering, it works
as a thesis sentence for your paper.
c. The topic is certainly clear here: adult illiteracy in
America. Also, this sentence goes on to focus on how
this problem may “be effectively addressed,” which is
one good way to prepare the reader for your evaluation
of possible solutions and proposal of one you feel
would be effective. However, you devote almost equal
space to analyzing the causes of the problem and need
to let your reader know that.
There’s another problem with using this sentence as
your thesis statement. It’s not a statement, but a
question, and that’s not what your reader ordinarily
expects of a thesis. A question can be a very good way
to “get the ball rolling” in an introduction, inviting your
reader to get involved and think about the topic before
you state your opinion in the thesis statement. On the
other hand, questions merely hint at an opinion and
might be misinterpreted.
Self-Check Answers 185
Self-Check Answers186
d. This sentence does speak about the topic of adult illit-
eracy in America. There are problems, however, with
what it says about the topic and how it says it.
“Subsuming a myriad of causal factors” is trying to
impress the reader with its long, unusual, and techni-
cal-sounding words. This style makes the reader work
hard to understand what the writer is saying (and
usually indicates the writer has nothing to say or is
afraid to express an opinion directly and clearly).
“Causal factors” uses two words to say “causes.” And
there are a “myriad” of them; “myriad” is a fine old-
fashioned word that literally means “ten thousand,”
but is typically used to mean “a very large number”—
an exaggerated way of saying “many.” Evidently these
many causes are “subsuming.” “Subsume” is a rather
technical term meaning that one large category
includes smaller ones. For example, “popcorn” and
“potato chips” are both subsumed under the category
of “snack foods.” The first part of the sentence there-
fore means that adult illiteracy includes many causes.
But does it “include” many causes, or does it result
from many causes? Saying that adult illiteracy “sub-
sumes” many causes is quite fuzzy. The writer
probably would never have written “Adult illiteracy
includes many causes,” because in such familiar lan-
guage the idea doesn’t really make sense, but the
“fancy” language disguised that, at least from the
writer.
Now we know that the first part of the sentence talks
(not very clearly) about the causes of adult illiteracy—
the six pages of your draft. The rest of the sentence,
however, goes on to say that adult illiteracy “manifests
itself throughout contemporary American society.”
Your draft has only a page on how widespread adult
illiteracy is (not even that it manifests itself throughout
our society); what’s more, the second major part of
your draft, evaluating solutions to the problem and
proposing the best one, isn’t mentioned at all in this
sentence.
Self-Check Answers 187
If you used this sentence as your thesis statement,
your reader would expect a paper explaining the
causes of adult illiteracy and describing how adult illit-
eracy can be found throughout American society. The
paper you did write, about causes and solutions,
would be unexpected and unappreciated.
2. The first statement (a) is the best thesis, since it’s the
most focused and specific. It focuses the argument on
the hospital as an oligopoly (a certain type of economic
structure) and also implies that the writer will explain
how changed policy has influenced hospital economics.
The other two are too broad and difficult to research.
The second (b) would require identifying particular Asian
nations. In the third one (c), who are the citizens men-
tioned? All U.S. citizens? If so, is there valid evidence
that represents all citizens’ concerns?
3. a. Not effective—there are too many points covered and
the phrasing is awkward. How can the economy police
anything? The focus should be on one point.
Suggested revision: The American economy can be
healthy only when jobs provide fair wages in correla-
tion with the cost of living.
b. Not effective—the statement makes an announcement.
Suggested revision: Sex education in public schools
can reduce the rate of teenage pregnancies.
c. Effective—no revision needed.
d. Not effective—the statement is general and lacks detail.
Suggested revision: My years hiking the Appalachian
Trail taught me to respect the natural world.
4. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Sample thesis: “It’s easy to mock, but Internet addiction is
long-standing and threatens our culture in many ways.”
This thesis is an assertion; it’s specific; it focuses on one
central point; it avoids making an announcement; it’s sup-
portable.
2. Beato writes for a general, middle-aged audience with the
purpose of illustrating the destructiveness of Internet
addiction and thus uses news-like examples
3. Answers will vary.
5. Thinking Critically about the Reading
1. Many of Beato’s sources are trustworthy and reliable—
credible newspapers, a Harvard-affiliated hospital, uni-
versity research, as well as the APA’s diagnostic
manual; however, he also cites a Google search with-
out naming his sources.
2. Realistic, gently mocking.
3. Example: “On a pound-for-pound basis….” (page 134).
He supports this idea with only a hypothetical scenario
(Steve Jobs) and generalizations about the culture
(“who… Already doesn’t check his email more often
than necessary?”)
Self-Check 3
1. The sentence poses an intriguing question that might
engage readers and encourage them to read further.
2. The Spanish conquest of Mexico succeeded in part
because the Aztec people were convinced that Hernando
Cortez was an incarnate god.
3. The conclusion reiterates the thesis, but in a widened
context. It suggests the relevance of the thesis, since the
conquest of Mexico foretold similar tragedies that con-
tinue to occur.
4. b. Title “a” is vague and doesn’t capture the thesis. Also,
many readers may not know what a “Grandee” is. Title
“c” uses alliteration, which may be catchy and might
Self-Check Answers188
engage a reader’s interest, but it’s also vague and
doesn’t represent the content of the essay.
5. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Staples’s opening paragraph is surprising, especially if
readers are aware that he’s a respected journalist. The
anecdote effectively draws readers into the essay.
2. “It was in the echo… to alter public space in ugly
ways” (paragraph 2). Staples supports his thesis with a
series of personal experiences, not in chronological order.
He includes details about each incident, such as location
and ways people avoided him.
3. Effective supporting details include the description of
his “first victim” and the description of himself through
her eyes.
4. Answers will vary, but you may find Staples’s conclu-
sion powerful because of the shift from amusing to
serious with the final sentence, an analogy that rein-
forces the fear with which he lives.
5. Staples’s method of organization is least-to-most; he opens
with relatively benign examples, building up to incidents
that were dangerous for him (paragraphs 8 and 9). He
could have used a chronological organization.
Self-Check 4
1. Among nocturnal hunters, bats are unique in their abil-
ity to sense objects and judge distances through built-in
sonar.
2. Waiting for the crosstown bus at the corner of Elm and
Main, my brother John stood holding his furled
umbrella.
3. Seeing the taxi pull up outside, Miranda’s heart raced
and tears streamed down her face as she ran to the door
to embrace her husband.
4. The view from Walker Point embraces sky and rolling
hills that fade like dreams as they recede into the hazy
distance.
Self-Check Answers 189
5. First, Second, and Third
6. The terms provide a logical connection for concepts in a
series.
7. Both classical and operant conditioning focus on study-
ing behavior, as opposed to subjective consciousness,
changing behavior, and anticipating future behaviors.
8. When people master the basic concepts of classical con-
ditioning and operant conditioning, they’ll understand
how both schools of behaviorism view human behavior
and conduct research.
Self-Check 5
1. Some of the changes that Atkinson made include:
n Paragraph 1: she combined the last two sentences of
the draft to make a stronger thesis statement.
n Paragraph 2: she opted to keep the examples of wheat
pasting and yarn bombing, but mentioned these in her
topic sentence so the examples made sense.
n Paragraph 3: she replaced the word “propaganda” with
political activism and added a source citation.
n Paragraph 4: she changed the topic sentence so that
the paragraph is now about the appeals of street art;
the paragraph is expanded.
n Paragraph 5: she moved the information about appeals
to paragraph 4 so that this paragraph stays focused
on secrecy.
n Paragraph 6: she clarified her final sentence.
2. Answers will vary depending on the paragraphs chosen.
Examples using the paragraph 2 include:
Topic sentence: For a quarter of an hour, the investiga-
tors from the lab of Larry Rosen, a psychology professor
at California State University-Dominguez Hills, marked
down once a minute what the students were doing as
they studied.
Organization: The paragraph is organized spatially.
Transition: For a quarter of an hour
Self-Check Answers190
Self-Check Answers 191
Action verbs: marked, counted, noted
Descriptive language: Sitting unobtrusively at the back of
the room
Self-Check 6
1. Sample questions:
Biology: What is the biological process of species extinc-
tion? How often do species go extinct? What is the theory
of natural selection?
Geology: How has Earth’s natural environment changed
over billions of years? What events or changes in the
environment may have brought about massive extinction
of species?
History: What human historical trends have affected
species habitats?
Economy: What economic trends or forces may have
encouraged the destruction of animal species?
2. Sample working thesis: Although many factors have con-
tributed to the extinction of species over the millions of
years of Earth’s history, in our era human activities are
a major contributor to species extinction.
Possible research questions:
What are the most common natural causes of species
extinction?
n What impacts have humans had on natural habitats?
n Which are most harmful?
n In what ways might these impacts have led to species
extinction?
n How deliberate or accidental were these impacts and
can they be reversed?
n How are humans impacted by species extinction?
n What measures may be taken to protect endangered
animal species?
Self-Check Answers192
Self-Check 7
1. Primary sources are original works. They include poems,
novels, academic works, letters, diaries, films, and so
forth. Secondary sources draw on, summarize, criticize,
and/or interpret primary sources. For example, letters
exchanged by James and Dolley Madison might be used
as primary sources for a paper on James Madison. A
secondary source for the same paper could be a biogra-
phy of Madison.
Secondary sources may save time, since the interpreta-
tions and summaries of original sources can give you an
overview of a topic or of primary sources that may be dif-
ficult to comprehend. But the limitation of secondary
sources is that they’re interpretations from a particular
point of view. When time permits and they’re available,
it’s best to consult primary sources and come to your
own conclusion.
2. A source is relevant if it can answer a research question
while supporting the thesis. However, a relevant source
may or may not be reliable. A source is reliable (or is
more likely to be reliable) if it has a good reputation.
Major daily newspapers, such as the Washington Post, or
periodicals like Newsweek, may fall into this category.
Scholarly works may be considered reliable if they’re
from a peer-reviewed journal. An author with expertise in
his or her field may be considered reliable. However,
regardless of the source, you must be cautious if an
author’s statements seem biased, incomplete, or inade-
quately supported by fact-based information.
3. Does the site offer a bibliography or list of works as
sources for the Internet article? Can the accuracy of the
information be verified elsewhere? Am I accessing the
complete document? (If not, establish that you can
access the full text of the original.)
4. a
5. c
6. a. F
b. EO
Self-Check Answers 193
c. O
d. O
e. F
7. a. G—The statement doesn’t define “most people.” You
could evaluate credible poll data on political attitudes
to determine the validity of this assertion.
b. F—This is likely to be a fact, depending on its source.
Standard references in astronomy could be consulted
to verify the statement.
c. G—The term “many nations” is vague, as is “people.”
National and international news sources would be
needed to verify the truth and/or significance of this
statement.
d. F—This could be easily verified through the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency or local meteorologists.
8. Possible response: There are four identifiable assump-
tions in the first sentence: First, loving one’s fellow man
isn’t the same thing as offering him homage simply due
to his sex. Second, it isn’t clear that male dominance is
inherent; it may be imposed and unjust. Third, homage
is due another person (male or female) only to the extent
that he or she is capable of reason. Implicit in the third
assumption is the fourth assumption: the faculty of rea-
son is a virtue deserving of recognition and credit.
In the second sentence it’s assumed that a person is
accountable for any virtues gained through the exercise
of reason. We’re responsible for our choices, reasoned or
unreasoned. Further, it’s assumed that man’s capacity
for reason is the foundation of our relationship to God.
Self-Check Answers194
Self-Check 8
1. a. Virginia, Dominican Republic, Switzerland
b. Newman 3rd floor; BF173.F682 1961; James Strachey;
New York: W. W. Norton, c1961
c. Psychoanalysis, Social Psychology, Civilization
Self-Check 9
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
6. False
7. False
8. Her father, Orazio Gentileschi
9. Susanna and the Elders
10. She was raped by her art teacher.
11. Judith Slaying Holofernes
12. Caravaggio
13. You checked the domain name for clues to its origin,
including its extension (.edu, .org, etc.); you read care-
fully and critically to be sure the information was
presented professionally and could be verified with other
sources; you saw no indications that the information was
merely opinion or unchecked facts; at least one of your
sources was affiliated with a university, museum, or
other reliable, academic resource.
Self-Check 10
1. Wollstonecraft asserts that while she loves her fellow
man, “his scepter, real or usurped” has no sway over her
(12).
Self-Check Answers 195
2. The author argues that people’s capacity to guide their
lives through reason is among “obvious truths” (12).
3. It’s in that context that she deplores the narrow restric-
tions of women’s prescribed social roles, proclaiming that
women are “decked out with artificial graces” designed to
attract, manipulate, and “exercise a short-lived tyranny”
over the men in her life (12).
4. Declaring that “Liberty is the mother of virtue,”
Wollstonecraft argues that if “women [are], by their . . .
constitution, slaves,” then they’re precluded from ever
inhaling “the sharp invigorating air of freedom” (12).
5. Possible research questions:
n What important events surrounded the period during
which Winston Churchill was prime minister of Great
Britain?
n What was the content and context of the speech
Churchill gave at Fulton, Missouri?
n Why did Churchill’s “iron curtain” metaphor attract so
much attention?
n How did the American public describe or view the
uncertainties of 1946?
n What was the intent and nature of the Marshall Plan?
Self-Check 11
1. The following is a sample of the first seven paragraphs of
an informal graphic organizer
Thesis: Voluntarily choosing simplicity creates a happier,
more manageable life.
Paragraph 1: Definitions
— Streamlining your life (Remy)
—Going back to basics (Walker)
Paragraph 2: Background
—Merck survey results
Self-Check Answers196
Paragraph 3: Benefits of simplicity
— Adds value (Remy)
Paragraph 4: Benefits of simplicity
— Brings peace of mind (Parachin)
Paragraph 5: Benefits of simplicity
— Creates a sense of community (Parachin)
Paragraph 6: Benefits of simple activities
— Are soothing (Walker)
Paragraph 7: Benefits of simple activities
— Add balance (Remy)
2. a. Paraphrase: The Chihuahua can make a loyal and
charming pet, but it has several qualities that make it
a difficult dog to own. Even though the Chihuahua is a
small dog, it can be willful and can cause damage
because it likes to dig and chew. Chihuahua owners
may find their puppies cute, but those who can’t han-
dle the behavior of the grown dogs often abandon them
at animal shelters.
b. Summary: Because of its appearance, the Chihuahua’s
difficulty as a pet is often underestimated.
c. Personal Comment: Your answer should include some
opinion about this type of dog and whether you
learned something you didn’t know before, as well as
questions like, How many Chihuahuas are left at ani-
mal shelters? Are they adopted quickly? Are adopted
dogs likely to stay with their new owners?
3. a. Paraphrase: The British Empire brought its popular sports
to much of the world. In the United States just before the
Civil War, cricket was enjoyed more than any other team
sport until, known by a number of names, baseball gained
popularity. Alexander Cartwright formed the first baseball
club in 1845. The club charged dues, developed rules, and
inflicted penalties. By the time the Civil War ended, base-
ball replaced cricket as the most popular team sport.
Self-Check Answers 197
b. Summary: By the end of the Civil War, the American
sport of baseball had replaced the British sport of
cricket as America’s most popular team sport.
c. Personal Comment: Your answer should include a com-
ment about what surprised you in this information
and a question you have about it.
Self-Check 12
1. a
2. c
3. d
4. False
5. True
6. c
7. b
Self-Check 13
1. The board members believed that the company should
take action on current issues.
2. The city of San Francisco offers hiking, swimming, sail-
ing, and fishing.
3. The members of the board reached a decision.
4. The employees are organized and knowledgeable.
5. Most employees feel more confident about their new jobs
after completing their training.
6. Over the last 75 years, psychologists and educators
interested in educational improvement have sought to
use what is known about the process of learning to
design better educational programs.
7. Removing the lid exposed the reactor core, allowing
radioactive isotopes to escape.
8. The following hourly wage scales provide our estimated
costs for the requested engineering services.
Self-Check Answers198
9. Janice identified the source of the faulty electrical connection.
10. Tom was uncertain about the wisdom of taking another
part-time job so close to the final examinations.
11. The mayor and financiers doubted the legality and hon-
esty of ACE Company’s dealings.
12. As expected, the shortage of campaign money proved to
be the primary obstacle to Jane Doe’s bid for the state
senate seat.
Self-Check 14
1. d
2. b
3. a
4. d
5. True
6. c
Self-Check 15
1. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Sawchuck portrays the dominant impression that the
kitchen radiates chaos, danger, and pressure—all diffi-
cult working conditions. The dominant impression that
the staff works “maniacally” is stated out right in para-
graph 2; elsewhere, it’s strongly implied.
2. Strong examples of sensory language include active
verbs such as “turned sideways, nearly falling” and
“I…bellow…and spin” (1); comparisons such as “prison
cell” (3); visual imagery such as, “my bandanna fre-
quently restrains ice cubes” (4); and longer passages,
such as the description of the slippery, grimy floors (6).
3. Not hearing orders is compared to playing tennis with
the disappearing ball (5); moving is like skating (6);
restaurant work is “like speaking a foreign language”
(8); getting behind is “being in the weeds” (9). Each
Self-Check Answers 199
comparison is strong, but Sawchuck develops the
“weeds” comparison.
4. Other patterns of development include process, defini-
tion, and illustration. These patterns help convey a full
and vivid picture of kitchen work.
2. Thinking Critically about Description
1. The restaurant name and workers’ names are all omit-
ted, but Sawchuk gives enough detail for readers to
feel they are there.
2. Sawchuck’s tone is sarcastic and darkly humorous;
note the hyperbolic, tongue-in-cheek comparisons.
3. “Gushing sweat” is colloquial language, so its impact is
more direct than formal language would be. Sawchuck
is consistent in using slang—“suck it up” (paragraph
9) and “futzes” (8); more formal word choices would
squelch the casual and humorous tone.
4. Answers will vary.
Self-Check 16
1. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Ruggia’s three main examples of the “drastic lengths”
women in America go to in order to achieve physical
perfection include the drive to be thin, the popularity
of plastic surgery, and the fad of body art. Examples of
celebrities balance his discussion of the impact of body
art trends on Matt. Some may find that his last exam-
ple of “Americans’ obsession with physical appearance”
is more an example of self-expression that a negative
or dangerous behavior.
2. Ruggia combines two factual and scholarly sources
with one cultural source (Pew Research Center’s “A
Portrait of ‘Generation Next’”) and one popular source
(the Toronto Star article). This blend ensures reliable
information and adds cultural relevance.
3. He could have used evidence from the local news or
personal examples.
Self-Check Answers200
2. Thinking Critically about Illustration
1. Ruggia explains his statistics for emotional effect: “mil-
lions of women struggling with food disorders”
(paragraph 2) and “5.2 million reconstructive plastic
surgeries” (paragraph 3). He uses examples for a fact:
“enormous fake breasts” (paragraph 3) and “even sin-
gle quote alternative single quote piercings are now
accepted: Amy Winehouse” (paragraph 4). Ruggia con-
veys the superficiality and prevalence of eating
disorders and body art.
2. The phrase connotes the artificiality of the blonde
bombshell stereotype.
3. Ruggia could have interviewed celebrities or body art
aficionados to give their perspective, or he might have
quoted popular magazines to show how these maga-
zines portray body art trends.
4. It’s supported by the claims that a fear of aging and a
desire to be attractive drive body modifications. Since
we all get older and generally less attractive, misery is
inevitable. But evidence supporting the claim that fear
of aging drives body modification could be stronger.
Self-Check 17
1. Possible thesis: Unlike minerals, which are natural
chemical compounds, rocks are categorized by the ways
in which they’re formed.
2. Classification: Minerals
Divisions: Only two given—quartz and feldspars
Classification: Rocks
Divisions: Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
Self-Check 18
1. a. Your definitions will vary, but the definition that
applies to rocks should refer to a change in its consti-
tution caused by pressure, heat, and water, making it
more compact and more highly crystalline.
b. Answers will vary, though should include that meta- in
this situation means “change” and that the root word
morphë means “form.” This word combination is also
seen in the Greek metamorphoun, to transform. Rocks
are classified by the way they form (morphë). In the
process of metamorphosis, the igneous or sedimentary
forms actually change form; they transform into a dif-
ferent kind of rock.
c. Minerals, element class, igneous rocks, magma, sedi-
mentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks
d. The passage classifies minerals by their chemical prop-
erties and rocks by how they were formed; each
paragraph includes scientific names and terms that
needed to be defined for the reader.
2. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. It’s art taken “out of its traditional context”; it’s art
that uses “public space to create controversy and
intrigue”; it makes our free and accessible to a broad
audience” (paragraph 1).
2. Title: introduces a new term; introduction: offers sev-
eral examples that prove the topic’s relevance;
conclusion: summarizes why guerrilla street art can be
considered art
3. Judgment: “crude or offensive descriptions” (paragraph
4); technical: “wheat pasting” (paragraph 2); abstract:
“iconic image” (paragraph 3); controversial: “guerrilla
street art” (paragraph 1)
3. Thinking Critically about Definition
1. Atkinson appreciates gearless street art. The essay is
therefore more favorable than it would be if he saw it as
an illegal act only or as an actor produces artless work.
Self-Check Answers 201
2. Atkinson might have included an article from an art
magazine or website. The sources she uses emphasize
that are subject is popular and political rather than
illegal, academic, or concerning the established art
world.
3. “Vibrancy” connotes positive energy; “blossoming” con-
notes positive growth. Both support the affirmative
tone.
4. The term is a euphemism if it means something rawer
than the words of suggest. “Guerilla” can connote
either activity that’s illegal and difficult to stop or
activity that can be romanticized. If the latter, it’s
euphemistic. More direct language: unapproved street
art.
5. Similarities: posted in the same locations; unsolicited
by the venues; without official permission; may be eye-
catching and beautiful, promote a cause, be
self-serving, irritate neighbors, be costly to remove.
Differences: primary purpose is pragmatic and com-
mercial rather than non-pragmatic and aesthetic.
Self-Check 19
1. A simile describes one thing as like another, with the
word like or as linking the two: for example, “the fine
lace was like a morning mist encircling her face.” By con-
trast, a metaphor lets some object, place, or thing stand
for another object, place, or thing, as in the line “All the
world’s a stage” from Shakespeare’s play As You Like It.
2. A dilapidated and abandoned house could stand for futil-
ity or the impermanence of life and possessions. It could
stand for happier days now long gone or it could represent
menace if terrible things are thought to have occurred
there. If the house is associated with a person or family,
it could represent the character of a person who once
lived there, an empty heart, or a sense of abandonment.
3. Answers will vary.
Self-Check Answers202
Self-Check Answers 203
Self-Check 20
1. The story takes place in the late nineteenth century, dur-
ing the time the author lived and wrote. From its title we
can infer that the action took place in a single hour.
2. The main character is Mrs. Louise Mallard. She’s young
and fair with “white slender hands”; also, she has heart
disease. Her weak heart gives out, not at the shock of her
husband’s death, but at the shock of seeing him alive.
3. Louise realizes that with her husband dead, she’ll be free,
able to live for herself alone, a thought that fills her with
joy. She changes from a somewhat passive, conventional
wife to a woman who suddenly has dreams of her own.
4. The theme is of a woman’s self-discovery and her feelings
when she experiences sudden independence—radical
ideas in 1894.
Self-Check 21
1. The metaphor compares “Hope” to “the thing with feathers”
that stands for the human soul.
2. The shore exposed by receding surf could represent the
world as it is, laid bare of pretense or illusion.
3. Personification is giving some kind of human character-
istic to objects, ideas, or qualities. In “Dover Beach,” the
contrast of hopeful (as opposed to menacing) perceptions
of the ocean is comparing the cycle of the tides with the
rise and fall of human experiences.
4. “It” refers to the “little bird” that’s Dickinson’s metaphor
for hope. The lines may mean that hope asks nothing of
her when she suffers some extremity or that hope isn’t
indifferent to our suffering. It asks nothing of us because
it feeds itself and, thereby, asks not a “crumb” of us.
Self-Check 22
1. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Examples of narrator’s shift in perception: fascination
with taboos of sex and profanity (paragraphs 3–4);
water from the sewage plant disrupts the boys’ swim-
ming (paragraph 7); realization that “heaven” is really
a golf course (paragraph 8). All three are effective
examples and together are sufficient.
2. The introduction announces the specific claim (that
shifts in perception facilitated the narrator’s initiation
into adolescence by teaching him the value of secrets);
could be more developed. Second paragraph provides
background for the essay, quoting the “secret line”
passage and associating it with adolescence. First two
paragraphs could possibly be combined, with the the-
sis moved to the end of that section. Conclusion:
analyzes the boys’ desire to protect themselves emo-
tionally; relates well to reflect the introduction.
3. Paragraphs 2, 4, 7, and 8 are well developed.
Paragraph 1 could use more background information
before the thesis is introduced. Paragraphs 3 and 5
need specific details from the work support such gen-
eral statements as “these changes are confusing yet
enticing” (paragraph 3) and “In the eyes…as is the
ball” (paragraph 5).
Self-Check 23
1. The topic is telephones, comparing and contrasting pay
phones and cell phones. In paragraphs 1 and 2, the subject
could be summarized as “love and luck.” It describes how
the author and his wife-to-be managed to communicate
using a pay phone. The theme of paragraph 4 is the
author’s relationship to pay phones throughout his life. The
narrative shifts to cell phones in paragraph 7. He describes
how cell phones are replacing pay phones as a new toy tak-
ing the place of an old, beat-up one. In paragraph 8, he
comments on the manner in which people use cell phones
and the cell phone’s relationship to the modern world.
Self-Check Answers204
2. Bases of comparison could be as follows:
n Advantage: development of social skills; disadvantage:
academic performance of girls.
n Thesis 1: Integrating public school classrooms by gen-
der develops important social skills for both boys and
girls, since the sexes must interact on a daily basis.
n Thesis 2: Integrating public school classrooms by gen-
der may be a disadvantage to girls since studies show
that boys are more assertive and are called on by
teachers more often.
Self-Check 24
1. Southwestern cuisine is heavy on fried or grilled beef,
while Mexican food is based on richly seasoned corn and
tomato recipes.
2. Paragraph 1: Southwestern and Mexican cuisine overlap,
but the differences are due to divergent cultural traditions.
Paragraph 3: Corn meal was and is basic to Mexican cui-
sine, while Anglos made tortillas with wheat flour.
Paragraph 4: Meat is included in both Southwestern and
Mexican cuisine, but the meats are prepared differently
and served in different ways in the two traditions.
3. Given today’s concern with obesity and excess fat in our
diets, you could compare and contrast the cooking meth-
ods (fried, grilled, or slow-cooked), the amount of meat
and fat in each style of cooking, and the use of vegeta-
bles and seasonings in each type of cooking.
4. Zuger uses narrative of personal experience in paragraph
1, in which she describes a meeting with two interns. In
paragraph 6 she describes feeling like she was in a
“medieval morality play,” and in paragraph 12 she
describes her inability to alter the perspectives of her
interns. She uses description in paragraph 2, describing
the attire of her two interns, the man and the woman. In
paragraph 5 she describes the divergent attitudes of her
two interns. The third type is argument, used in para-
graphs 8–12: The author argues for a new, more humane
Self-Check Answers 205
and collaborative approach to medicine based on short-
ening interns’ work hours.
5. The author uses a point-by-point approach, which is
effective because it allows her to make a series of obser-
vations and analyses of two interns and their two
conflicting approaches to medicine. For example, she
lines up a series of points to compare and contrast the
two interns and another series of points that forcefully
argue her reasons for shortening intern work hours. If
she had used a subject-by-subject approach, it would
have been more difficult to clearly compare and contrast
the two individuals and move on to her argument about
the hours interns are required to work.
Self-Check 25
1. Comparison and contrast (paragraphs 3 and 6); illustra-
tion is used throughout as a tool for introducing
elements demonstrating cause and effect relationships,
particularly in paragraphs 3, 4, 6, and 7. He also uses
third-person narrative patterns in paragraphs 3–5 and
paragraphs 8 and 11.
2. “In contrast…” (paragraph 3); “Four years before…”
(paragraph 6); “The next phase…” (paragraph 7); “When
the new school year arrived…” (paragraph 8).
3. “Laden with the baggage” (paragraph 3); “forced to drink
from paper cups” (paragraph 4); “meek shadows of their
potential selves” (paragraph 5); “swamped” (paragraph
10).
4. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Adamczak’s purpose is to report and analyze, rather than
argue or narrate, although he does urge musicians “to
embrace creative challenges” in his conclusion.
2. Adamczak uses illustration throughout the essay’ he also
occasionally uses comparison and contrast, as in para-
graph 5 when he contrasts recording music digitally with
recording music on vinyl.
3. The introduction straightforwardly lays out what the
Self-Check Answers206
Self-Check Answers 207
essay will be about, which would allow readers to trust
the writer. By including advice to musicians, the con-
clusion ends on a forward-looking note.
Self-Check 26
1. The following is a graphic organizer for the essay “Organ
Donation: A Life-Saving Gift”:
Title: Organ Donation: A Life-Saving Gift
Introduction: Defines organ donation
Claim: Organ, eye, and tissue donation has the potential
to enhance or save the lives of many people
Body:
Reasons and Evidence:
—Large numbers of people are waiting for organs
—Over 100,000 on waiting lists
—7048 who died in 2009 while waiting
—Medical advances depend on donations
—Learned of connection between Epstein-Barr virus and
MS through research on a donated corpse
Emotional Appeals:
—A fellow donor’s own 4-year-old daughter lived because
of a donated heart and blood
Opposing Viewpoints:
—Misconceptions about donation
—Hospital won’t work to save the lives of organ donors
—The corpse will be disfigured, so the family can’t have
an open-casket funeral
—Donation is against their religion
—In Judaism, altruistic intent and therapeutic expecta-
tion are often exceptions to religious laws.
Conclusion: Alert family to your wish to donate, sign the
back of your driver’s license, add your name to a
donor registry.
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. a
6. b
Self-Check 27
1. Thinking Critically about Argument
1. His tone is conversational: “I know, I know” (paragraph
1); “I swear” (paragraph 3); “You might think you’re
different” (paragraph 5); “Don’t laugh” (paragraph 6).
2. His reference to “research” is vague and might leave
students wondering whether his research is credible.
However, publications such as the Harvard Business
Review have fact checkers, so writers don’t always
need to specify sources, unlike academic papers.
3. The connotation is “childlike, playful.”
4. “Smoking anything” is a euphemism for
using marijuana.
2. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Silverman makes a claim of fact: “multitasking isn’t
just an addiction for the short-attention-spanned
among us; it’s crucial to survival in today’s workplace”
(paragraph 2).
2. The computer analogy is effective because most of the mul-
titasking he is talking about involves computers.
3. Evidence that multitasking works in other environ-
ments than offices—such as in schools, homes, or
blue-collar jobs—would broaden the appeal of
Silverman’s argument.
4. Readers will understand his point but may object that
Self-Check Answers208
it doesn’t apply to them.
5. Silverman is writing for white-collar managers—home-
makers, students, and blue-collar workers may find
his advice inapplicable.
3. a. Plain folks: I’m just a simple person; I’m just like you.
b. Appeal to pity
c. Ad hominem: This is an attack on the person, which
may be unrelated to his actual stance on the issue of
low wages and long hours.
d. Appeal to false authority: Winfrey isn’t an authority on
war, international relations, or government policy.
Self-Check 28
1. 1. Answers will vary. As an example, a sample response
for “Moral implications of state-operated lotteries” might
include The lottery in your home state; analysis of how
the lottery is promoted in one state. The background
information for the limited topic might include how many
states have lotteries; how much money is raised; moral
objections to state lotteries.
2. 1. a. Answers will vary. As an example, two thesis state-
ments for “controlling pornography on the Internet”
might be
* While many parents approve of government control of
pornography on the Internet, such controls may violate
the First Amendment right to free speech.
* Pornography is so readily available to children on the
Internet that the government must pass legislation
tocontrol it.
3. 1. Answers will vary. As an example, a response to the
first prompt may resemble the following answers:
a.Urge readers to call school boards to insist on sex
education classes.
Self-Check Answers 209
Self-Check Answers210
b.Contrast statistics on teen pregnancy for schools
with sex education classes versus schools without
such classes; cite expert opinion in favor of sex ed;
narrate testimonials from teens who have benefited
from sex education classes.
c.Appeal to the common desire to protect teens but
argue that they should be protected from pregnancy
and sexual disease, not from information; cite per-
suasive facts and statistics.
4. Answers will vary. For the first prompt from Exercise
21.3 on page 532, some possible opposing arguments are
as follows:
Sex education may expose children to information par-
ents may wish to withhold until the children are older.
Response: Accommodate by proposing parental waivers
or refute by arguing that students need to be informed
about sex during adolescence when many begin to exper-
iment with it.
Sex education sends the signal that sex is acceptable
behavior for teens. Response: Acknowledge the position
or accommodate it by noting that most teens experiment
with sex and therefore should help protect themselves
against disease and pregnancy by participating in the
program.
Self-Check 29
1. Analyzing the Writer’s Technique
1. Sturm’s thesis statement clearly states his position on
the issue of explicit song lyrics. It suggests that Sturm
will present negative effects as reasons to support his
thesis. The thesis statement does not mention lack of
government regulation or critiques of Sturm’s position.
3. Sturm doesn’t offer a precise definition of “explicit
lyrics.” He does offer examples of content of explicit
lyrics in paragraph 4. Readers may need a more pre-
cise definition to agree or disagree with the author’s
position.
Self-Check Answers 211
2. Thinking Critically about Argument
1. Sturm regards explicit lyrics as harmful and detrimen-
tal to children. Possible words and phrases to highlight
include hateful content (paragraph 3); repulsive ideas
(4); and music that fuels negative and harmful
thoughts (5).
2. Sturm uses both fact and opinion, but the essay relies
heavily on opinion. Facts: 2. Opinions: 3–5.
3. Sturm’s audience is generally public, possibly parents
of children under 16.
4. “Explicit music” is a euphemism for lyrics about sex or
violence.
5. Sturm appeals to the need to protect the innocent and
values of gentleness and social constraint.
3. Answers will vary.
Self-Check Answers212
NOTES
213
APPENDIX
A
D
V
A
N
C
E
D
C
O
M
P
O
S
IT
IO
N
C
O
U
R
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B
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IC
S
k
il
l
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e
a
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e
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k
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e
v
e
lo
p
in
g
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k
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E
m
e
r
g
in
g
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k
il
l
N
o
t
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h
o
w
n
T
h
e
s
is
:
F
o
c
u
s
f
o
r
A
u
d
ie
n
c
e
a
n
d
P
u
r
p
o
s
e
T
h
e
t
h
e
s
is
e
s
ta
b
li
s
h
e
s
a
c
le
a
rl
y
d
e
fi
n
e
d
f
o
c
u
s
f
o
r
th
e
a
s
s
ig
n
e
d
t
o
p
ic
,
p
u
r-
p
o
s
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,
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n
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u
d
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n
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e
.
1
0
T
h
e
w
ri
te
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e
s
ta
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is
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9
T
h
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p
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a
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q
u
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to
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m
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7
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.
3 If
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a
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,
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tr
a
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p
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.
0 T
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ti
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o
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p
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t
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ly
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re
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u
rp
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s
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,
to
p
ic
,
a
n
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u
d
ie
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c
e
.
Appendix214
D
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v
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lo
p
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n
t
a
n
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S
tr
u
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tu
r
e
o
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(s
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,
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2
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p
p
o
rt
in
g
e
v
id
e
n
c
e
p
ro
–
v
id
e
s
c
o
n
v
in
c
in
g
d
e
ta
il
s
a
n
d
e
x
a
m
p
le
s
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
a
p
p
ro
p
ri
a
te
ly
in
c
o
rp
o
ra
te
s
s
tr
a
te
g
ie
s
fr
o
m
p
a
t-
te
rn
(s
)
o
f
d
e
v
e
lo
p
m
e
n
t
w
it
h
in
t
h
e
r
e
q
u
ir
e
d
p
a
t-
te
rn
.
2
3
T
h
e
p
a
p
e
r
is
m
o
s
tl
y
s
y
m
–
m
e
tr
ic
a
l
fr
o
m
in
tr
o
d
u
c
ti
o
n
t
o
b
o
d
y
t
o
c
o
n
c
lu
s
io
n
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
a
tt
e
m
p
ts
i
n
te
–
g
ra
ti
n
g
o
th
e
r
p
a
tt
e
rn
s
w
it
h
in
t
h
e
p
ri
–
m
a
ry
o
n
e
t
o
lo
g
ic
a
ll
y
p
re
s
–
e
n
t
c
o
n
c
lu
s
io
n
s
,
b
u
t
la
c
k
s
fi
n
e
s
s
e
.
T
h
e
a
s
s
e
rt
io
n
s
a
re
g
e
n
e
ra
ll
y
th
o
u
g
h
tf
u
ll
y
e
x
p
lo
re
d
i
n
re
la
ti
o
n
t
o
t
h
e
s
u
p
p
o
rt
in
g
e
v
id
e
n
c
e
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
a
tt
e
m
p
ts
fr
e
s
h
n
e
s
s
b
u
t
s
o
m
e
ti
m
e
s
a
t
th
e
e
x
p
e
n
s
e
o
f
a
n
a
ly
ti
c
p
u
rp
o
s
e
.
2
1
T
h
e
p
a
p
e
r
p
ro
v
id
e
s
a
ra
th
e
r
m
e
c
h
a
n
ic
a
l
b
e
g
in
n
in
g
,
m
id
d
le
,
a
n
d
e
n
d
u
s
in
g
t
h
e
p
ri
m
a
ry
p
a
t-
te
rn
o
f
d
e
v
e
lo
p
m
e
n
t
a
lo
n
g
w
it
h
a
fe
w
i
n
e
ff
e
c
–
tu
a
l
s
tr
a
te
g
ie
s
fr
o
m
o
th
e
r
p
a
tt
e
rn
s
.
A
s
s
e
rt
io
n
s
a
re
p
re
s
e
n
t
b
u
t
t
e
n
d
t
o
b
le
n
d
w
it
h
s
u
p
p
o
rt
–
in
g
d
e
ta
il
s
,
p
a
rt
ic
u
la
rl
y
w
h
e
n
g
o
in
g
fr
o
m
g
e
n
e
ra
l
to
s
p
e
c
if
ic
.
S
o
m
e
e
x
a
m
–
p
le
s
a
re
n
’t
fu
ll
y
r
e
a
li
z
e
d
in
r
e
la
ti
o
n
t
o
th
e
t
h
e
s
is
,
th
o
u
g
h
m
o
s
t
a
re
r
e
le
v
a
n
t.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
m
a
y
a
tt
e
m
p
t
o
ri
g
in
a
l
d
is
–
c
u
s
s
io
n
,
b
u
t
it
la
c
k
s
c
o
n
s
is
–
te
n
t
ra
ti
o
n
a
l
d
e
p
th
.
1
9
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
a
tt
e
m
p
ts
t
o
p
ro
v
id
e
a
b
e
g
in
n
in
g
,
m
id
d
le
,
a
n
d
e
n
d
,
b
u
t
w
it
h
a
n
i
n
c
o
m
p
le
te
o
r
il
lo
g
ic
a
l
p
u
rp
o
s
e
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r’
s
a
tt
e
m
p
t
to
u
s
e
t
h
e
p
ri
–
m
a
ry
p
a
tt
e
rn
o
f
d
e
v
e
lo
p
–
m
e
n
t
la
c
k
s
p
o
li
s
h
a
n
d
in
s
ig
h
t.
S
o
m
e
s
p
e
c
if
ic
d
e
ta
il
s
a
re
g
iv
e
n
b
u
t
w
it
h
o
rd
in
a
ry
a
n
a
ly
s
is
i
n
a
n
a
w
k
w
a
rd
o
r
im
p
re
c
is
e
b
a
l-
a
n
c
e
,
s
o
m
e
ti
m
e
s
d
u
e
t
o
i
rr
e
le
–
v
a
n
t
c
o
n
te
n
t.
T
h
e
t
h
in
k
in
g
is
c
o
m
m
o
n
t
o
m
o
s
t
p
e
o
p
le
a
n
d
l
a
c
k
s
d
e
p
th
.
1
7
T
h
e
r
e
a
d
e
r
is
n
’t
q
u
it
e
s
u
re
w
h
e
re
th
e
d
is
c
u
s
s
io
n
b
e
g
in
s
,
e
x
p
a
n
d
s
,
a
n
d
c
lo
s
e
s
.
E
v
e
ry
th
in
g
s
e
e
m
s
t
o
h
a
v
e
t
h
e
s
a
m
e
l
e
v
e
l
o
f
im
p
o
rt
a
n
c
e
.
T
h
e
re
a
re
f
e
w
id
e
n
ti
fi
a
b
le
a
s
s
e
rt
io
n
s
,
w
h
il
e
t
h
e
s
u
p
–
p
o
rt
in
g
e
x
a
m
p
le
s
l
a
c
k
s
u
ff
ic
ie
n
t,
r
e
l-
e
v
a
n
t
d
e
ta
il
s
o
r
a
n
a
ly
s
is
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
in
c
lu
d
e
s
s
o
m
e
a
c
c
u
ra
te
b
u
t
a
ls
o
u
n
n
e
e
d
e
d
a
n
d
u
n
re
la
te
d
in
f
o
rm
a
ti
o
n
,
o
ft
e
n
r
e
p
e
a
t-
in
g
s
im
il
a
r
id
e
a
s
a
n
d
m
a
k
in
g
i
n
a
p
–
p
ro
p
ri
a
te
c
o
n
c
lu
s
io
n
s
.
T
h
e
r
e
a
d
e
r
is
le
ft
w
it
h
m
a
n
y
q
u
e
s
ti
o
n
s
.
1
0
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
u
s
e
s
s
k
e
tc
h
y
a
n
d
i
rr
e
le
v
a
n
t
a
n
d
/o
r
in
a
c
–
c
u
ra
te
d
e
ta
il
s
w
it
h
v
a
g
u
e
e
x
a
m
p
le
s
t
h
a
t
s
e
e
m
u
n
re
–
la
te
d
t
o
t
h
e
p
u
rp
o
s
e
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
o
ft
e
n
m
is
in
te
rp
re
ts
o
r
d
o
e
s
n
’t
d
is
c
u
s
s
i
n
fo
r-
m
a
ti
o
n
i
n
re
la
ti
o
n
t
o
t
h
e
th
e
s
is
.
T
h
e
w
ri
ti
n
g
r
a
m
–
b
le
s
w
it
h
n
o
c
le
a
r
p
a
tt
e
rn
o
r
s
tr
a
te
g
ie
s
u
s
e
d
t
o
a
c
h
ie
v
e
f
o
c
u
s
.
0 T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
d
o
e
s
n
’t
e
n
g
a
g
e
t
h
e
re
a
d
e
r
o
r
c
o
n
–
v
e
y
a
s
e
n
s
e
o
f
p
u
rp
o
s
e
o
r
im
p
o
rt
a
n
c
e
.
W
h
a
t
in
fo
rm
a
–
ti
o
n
i
s
in
c
lu
d
e
d
i
s
li
s
te
d
i
n
u
n
re
–
la
te
d
,
in
a
c
c
u
ra
te
fa
s
h
io
n
t
o
t
h
e
th
e
s
is
.
T
h
e
in
fo
rm
a
ti
o
n
fa
il
s
t
o
e
s
ta
b
–
li
s
h
a
c
le
a
rl
y
d
e
fi
n
e
d
f
o
c
u
s
fo
r
th
e
a
s
s
ig
n
e
d
to
p
ic
,
p
u
r-
p
o
s
e
,
a
n
d
a
u
d
ie
n
c
e
.
Appendix 215
I
n
c
o
r
p
o
r
a
ti
o
n
o
f
S
o
u
r
c
e
M
a
t
e
r
ia
l
P
a
ra
p
h
ra
s
e
s
,
s
u
m
m
a
ri
e
s
,
a
n
d
d
ir
e
c
t
q
u
o
ta
ti
o
n
s
a
re
a
p
p
ro
p
ri
a
te
ly
in
te
g
ra
te
d
w
it
h
t
h
e
w
ri
te
r’
s
s
ty
le
fo
r
th
e
p
u
r-
p
o
s
e
a
n
d
a
u
d
ie
n
c
e
.
S
o
u
rc
e
s
a
re
re
le
v
a
n
t
a
n
d
re
li
a
b
le
.
1
0
R
e
le
v
a
n
t,
r
e
li
–
a
b
le
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
te
ri
a
l
is
in
te
g
ra
te
d
lo
g
ic
a
ll
y
a
n
d
p
e
rc
e
p
ti
v
e
ly
,
p
a
rt
ic
u
la
rl
y
i
n
d
if
fe
re
n
ti
a
te
d
u
s
e
o
f
p
a
ra
–
p
h
ra
s
e
,
s
u
m
m
a
ry
,
a
n
d
q
u
o
te
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
p
ro
–
v
id
e
s
a
c
o
m
p
e
te
n
t
b
le
n
d
,
in
te
r-
p
re
ti
n
g
a
n
d
a
p
p
ly
in
g
v
a
li
d
s
o
u
rc
e
i
n
fo
r-
m
a
ti
o
n
a
c
c
u
ra
te
ly
a
n
d
e
le
g
a
n
tl
y
.
9
S
o
u
rc
e
u
s
e
te
n
d
s
t
o
w
a
rd
im
b
a
la
n
c
e
,
w
it
h
s
o
m
e
o
v
e
ru
s
e
o
f
o
n
e
s
o
u
rc
e
i
n
fa
v
o
r
o
f
a
n
o
th
e
r.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
te
n
d
s
to
u
s
e
p
a
ra
–
p
h
ra
s
e
o
r
q
u
o
te
s
t
o
p
ro
–
v
id
e
b
a
s
ic
fa
c
tu
a
l
in
f
o
r-
m
a
ti
o
n
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
in
t
e
r-
p
re
ts
s
o
u
rc
e
s
a
c
c
u
ra
te
ly
b
u
t
u
n
e
v
e
n
ly
.
S
o
u
rc
e
s
a
re
m
o
s
tl
y
r
e
le
–
v
a
n
t
a
n
d
re
li
a
b
le
.
In
te
g
ra
ti
o
n
w
it
h
s
ty
le
i
s
c
le
a
rl
y
a
tt
e
m
p
te
d
b
u
t
w
it
h
i
n
c
o
n
s
is
–
te
n
t
re
s
u
lt
s
.
8 T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
c
le
a
rl
y
f
a
v
o
rs
o
n
e
s
o
u
rc
e
b
u
t
w
it
h
o
u
t
c
le
a
r
r
e
a
s
o
n
–
in
g
f
o
r
th
a
t
c
h
o
ic
e
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
a
tt
e
m
p
ts
t
o
u
s
e
p
a
ra
–
p
h
ra
s
e
,
s
u
m
m
a
ry
,
o
r
d
ir
e
c
t
q
u
o
te
a
p
p
ro
p
ri
a
te
ly
.
M
o
s
t
c
o
n
n
e
c
–
ti
o
n
s
s
e
e
m
lo
g
ic
a
l,
b
u
t
th
e
w
ri
te
r
o
ft
e
n
d
o
e
s
n
’t
m
a
k
e
t
h
e
c
o
n
n
e
c
ti
o
n
s
e
v
id
e
n
t
o
r
d
o
e
s
s
o
w
it
h
s
o
m
e
a
w
k
–
w
a
rd
n
e
s
s
.
F
o
r
th
e
m
o
s
t
p
a
rt
,
th
e
w
ri
te
r
d
if
–
fe
re
n
ti
a
te
s
a
m
o
n
g
f
a
c
t,
h
e
a
rs
a
y
,
a
n
d
o
p
in
io
n
.
S
o
u
rc
e
c
h
o
ic
e
s
a
re
g
e
n
e
ra
ll
y
r
e
le
–
v
a
n
t
b
u
t
m
a
y
la
c
k
r
e
li
a
b
il
it
y
.
7
.5
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
c
o
n
s
is
te
n
tl
y
fa
il
s
t
o
c
le
a
rl
y
d
if
fe
re
n
ti
a
te
a
m
o
n
g
s
o
u
rc
e
s
,
s
o
m
e
ti
m
e
s
a
p
p
ly
in
g
o
p
in
–
io
n
a
s
f
a
c
t
(o
r
v
ic
e
v
e
rs
a
).
M
u
c
h
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
te
ri
a
l
s
e
e
m
s
t
a
c
k
e
d
in
to
p
la
c
e
in
s
te
a
d
o
f
fl
o
w
in
g
n
a
tu
–
ra
ll
y
w
it
h
t
h
e
a
n
a
ly
s
is
.
S
o
m
e
c
h
o
ic
e
s
o
f
in
fo
rm
a
ti
o
n
s
h
o
w
l
a
c
k
o
f
u
n
d
e
rs
ta
n
d
in
g
a
b
o
u
t
m
a
te
–
ri
a
l.
M
o
s
t
o
f
th
e
s
o
u
rc
e
s
a
re
r
e
le
v
a
n
t
o
r
re
li
a
b
le
,
b
u
t
s
o
m
e
a
re
q
u
e
s
ti
o
n
a
b
le
a
n
d
i
n
te
rf
e
re
w
it
h
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
7 F
o
r
m
o
s
t
o
f
th
e
e
s
s
a
y
,
th
e
re
a
d
e
r
h
a
s
o
n
ly
a
v
a
g
u
e
id
e
a
o
f
w
h
a
t
s
o
u
rc
e
s
a
re
b
e
in
g
u
s
e
d
.
In
fo
rm
a
ti
o
n
i
s
s
ti
ff
ly
,
il
lo
g
i-
c
a
ll
y
,
a
n
d
u
n
c
le
a
rl
y
p
re
–
s
e
n
te
d
.
T
h
e
s
o
u
rc
e
s
a
re
o
u
td
a
te
d
o
r
a
re
t
o
o
g
e
n
–
e
ra
l
fo
r
th
e
p
u
rp
o
s
e
.
P
a
ra
p
h
ra
s
in
g
,
s
u
m
m
a
ri
z
in
g
,
a
n
d
d
ir
e
c
t
q
u
o
ta
ti
o
n
s
a
re
u
s
e
d
r
e
g
a
rd
–
le
s
s
o
f
im
p
o
rt
a
n
c
e
o
f
in
fo
rm
a
ti
o
n
,
w
it
h
o
n
ly
m
in
o
r
d
if
fe
r-
e
n
ti
a
ti
o
n
b
e
tw
e
e
n
f
a
c
t
a
n
d
o
p
in
io
n
.
3 T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
d
o
e
s
l
it
tl
e
t
o
d
if
fe
re
n
ti
a
te
a
m
o
n
g
f
a
c
t,
h
e
a
rs
a
y
,
a
n
d
o
p
in
io
n
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
d
o
e
s
li
tt
le
t
o
i
d
e
n
–
ti
fy
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
te
ri
a
l
a
n
d
re
g
u
la
rl
y
a
p
p
li
e
s
i
t
in
c
o
n
s
is
te
n
tl
y
,
il
lo
g
ic
a
ll
y
,
o
r
in
a
c
c
u
ra
te
ly
.
0 P
a
ra
p
h
ra
s
e
s
a
n
d
s
u
m
–
m
a
ri
e
s
a
re
p
ri
m
a
ri
ly
p
la
–
g
ia
ri
z
e
d
b
e
c
a
u
s
e
o
f
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
a
n
d
w
o
rd
c
h
o
ic
e
.
Appendix216
O
v
e
r
a
ll
O
r
g
a
n
iz
a
t
io
n
o
f
W
r
it
in
g
T
ra
n
s
it
io
n
a
l
w
o
rd
s
a
n
d
c
o
n
n
e
c
ti
v
e
p
h
ra
s
in
g
g
u
id
e
t
h
e
re
a
d
e
r
th
ro
u
g
h
t
h
e
re
la
ti
o
n
s
h
ip
s
b
e
tw
e
e
n
id
e
a
s
.
E
a
c
h
p
a
ra
g
ra
p
h
c
o
n
ta
in
s
o
n
e
id
e
a
t
h
a
t
s
u
p
–
p
o
rt
s
t
h
e
th
e
s
is
.
T
h
e
s
u
p
p
o
rt
in
g
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
c
o
n
n
e
c
t
to
a
n
d
d
e
v
e
lo
p
th
e
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
’s
f
o
c
u
s
.
1
5
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
p
ro
g
re
s
s
e
s
w
it
h
l
o
g
ic
a
l,
e
ff
ic
ie
n
t
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
a
n
d
s
e
q
u
e
n
c
in
g
s
o
th
a
t
d
e
ta
il
s
f
it
n
a
tu
ra
ll
y
w
h
e
re
p
la
c
e
d
.
T
ra
n
s
it
io
n
s
a
n
d
c
o
n
n
e
c
–
ti
v
e
p
h
ra
s
in
g
w
e
a
v
e
t
h
e
p
a
rt
s
i
n
to
a
c
o
h
e
s
iv
e
,
m
e
a
n
in
g
fu
l
w
h
o
le
.
1
4
O
v
e
ra
ll
s
tr
u
c
–
tu
re
i
s
l
o
g
ic
a
l
a
n
d
s
tr
o
n
g
,
b
u
t
w
it
h
in
a
fe
w
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
s
a
s
u
p
p
o
rt
in
g
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
m
a
y
n
o
t
b
e
c
le
a
rl
y
c
o
n
n
e
c
te
d
t
o
re
la
te
d
s
e
n
–
te
n
c
e
s
.
W
ri
te
r’
s
a
tt
e
m
p
t
to
w
a
rd
m
o
re
c
o
m
p
le
x
t
r
a
n
–
s
it
io
n
s
o
r
c
o
n
n
e
c
ti
v
e
p
h
ra
s
in
g
m
a
y
n
o
t
b
e
e
ff
e
c
–
ti
v
e
b
u
t
d
o
e
s
n
’t
n
e
g
a
te
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
1
3
B
o
d
y
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
s
t
e
n
d
to
b
e
w
e
a
k
ly
c
o
n
n
e
c
te
d
t
o
th
e
t
h
e
s
is
,
b
u
t
o
v
e
ra
ll
s
e
q
u
e
n
c
in
g
i
s
c
le
a
r
e
n
o
u
g
h
to
m
o
v
e
t
h
e
re
a
d
e
r
fr
o
m
p
o
in
t
to
p
o
in
t.
A
f
e
w
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
s
m
a
y
ru
n
t
o
g
e
th
e
r
o
r
c
o
n
ta
in
in
fo
rm
a
ti
o
n
i
n
th
e
w
ro
n
g
p
la
c
e
,
b
u
t
th
e
n
e
c
e
s
s
a
ry
e
le
–
m
e
n
ts
a
re
p
re
s
e
n
t,
a
n
d
th
e
e
rr
o
rs
m
in
im
a
ll
y
in
te
rf
e
re
w
it
h
th
e
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
1
2
P
a
ra
g
ra
p
h
s
a
re
i
n
c
o
n
s
is
–
te
n
t
in
p
la
c
e
m
e
n
t,
d
e
v
e
lo
p
m
e
n
t,
a
n
d
c
o
n
n
e
c
–
ti
o
n
t
o
t
h
e
p
u
rp
o
s
e
w
it
h
m
e
c
h
a
n
ic
a
l
tr
a
n
s
it
io
n
s
o
r
c
o
n
n
e
c
ti
v
e
p
h
ra
s
in
g
t
h
a
t
o
n
ly
m
in
i-
m
a
ll
y
h
e
lp
s
lo
g
ic
a
l
c
o
n
–
n
e
c
ti
o
n
s
b
e
tw
e
e
n
id
e
a
s
.
1
1
M
o
s
t
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
s
c
o
n
ta
in
m
o
re
th
a
n
o
n
e
m
a
in
i
d
e
a
w
it
h
c
o
n
fu
s
in
g
o
r
in
c
o
m
p
le
te
lo
g
ic
a
l
p
ro
–
g
re
s
s
io
n
.
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
c
o
n
–
ta
in
s
h
a
rd
-t
o
-f
o
ll
o
w
le
a
p
s
f
ro
m
p
o
in
t
to
p
o
in
t.
If
u
s
e
d
,
tr
a
n
–
s
it
io
n
s
fr
e
q
u
e
n
tl
y
d
e
tr
a
c
t
fr
o
m
o
r
h
id
e
l
o
g
ic
a
l
re
la
ti
o
n
s
h
ip
s
.
6 Id
e
a
s
a
n
d
d
e
ta
il
s
a
re
s
tr
u
n
g
to
g
e
th
e
r
ra
n
–
d
o
m
ly
w
it
h
in
a
c
c
u
ra
te
tr
a
n
s
it
io
n
s
a
n
d
l
it
tl
e
o
r
n
o
c
o
n
n
e
c
ti
v
e
w
o
rd
i
n
g
.
P
a
ra
g
ra
p
h
in
g
is
m
is
s
in
g
o
r
is
t
o
o
f
re
–
q
u
e
n
t.
P
a
ra
g
ra
p
h
s
a
re
m
o
s
tl
y
u
n
fo
c
u
s
e
d
a
n
d
d
is
o
rg
a
n
–
iz
e
d
.
0 T
h
e
p
a
p
e
r
s
h
o
w
s
n
o
lo
g
ic
a
l
p
a
ra
–
g
ra
p
h
in
g
.
T
ra
n
s
it
io
n
u
s
e
is
n
’t
p
re
s
e
n
t
o
r
is
i
ll
o
g
ic
a
l
a
n
d
i
m
m
a
te
–
ri
a
l
to
t
h
e
d
is
c
u
s
s
io
n
.
Appendix 217
W
o
r
d
C
h
o
ic
e
a
n
d
P
r
e
s
e
n
t
a
t
io
n
S
t
y
le
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
s
h
o
w
s
a
c
o
n
–
s
is
te
n
t
p
o
in
t
o
f
v
ie
w
,
c
a
p
ti
–
v
a
ti
n
g
t
h
e
re
a
d
e
r
w
it
h
s
k
il
lf
u
l,
p
re
–
c
is
e
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
fo
r
th
e
p
u
r-
p
o
s
e
a
n
d
a
u
d
ie
n
c
e
.
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
i
s
g
ra
c
e
fu
l
a
n
d
e
a
s
y
t
o
r
e
a
d
a
lo
u
d
w
it
h
a
n
a
tu
ra
l,
p
le
a
s
a
n
t
rh
y
th
m
th
ro
u
g
h
v
a
r-
ie
d
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
le
n
g
th
a
n
d
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
s
.
1
5
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
c
o
n
v
e
y
s
m
e
a
n
in
g
i
n
a
n
a
c
ti
v
e
,
p
u
r-
p
o
s
e
fu
l,
a
n
d
c
o
n
v
in
c
in
g
to
n
e
.
W
o
rd
s
a
re
a
c
c
u
ra
te
a
n
d
l
iv
e
ly
,
a
p
p
e
a
li
n
g
t
o
th
e
a
u
d
ie
n
c
e
w
it
h
l
it
tl
e
j
a
r-
g
o
n
a
n
d
n
o
s
la
n
g
.
L
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
i
s
m
o
s
tl
y
p
o
w
e
r-
fu
l
w
it
h
w
e
ll
-c
h
o
s
e
n
,
c
re
a
ti
v
e
w
o
rd
c
o
m
b
in
a
ti
o
n
s
.
S
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
s
c
o
n
tr
ib
u
te
t
o
lo
g
ic
a
n
d
c
la
ri
ty
.
1
4
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
te
n
d
s
t
o
b
e
o
v
e
rl
y
f
o
rm
a
l
b
u
t
is
p
ri
m
a
–
ri
ly
i
n
t
h
e
a
c
ti
v
e
v
o
ic
e
.
W
ri
te
r
d
e
li
b
e
r-
a
te
ly
u
s
e
s
c
o
m
p
e
ll
in
g
,
e
n
e
rg
e
ti
c
w
o
rd
s
.
A
f
e
w
c
h
o
ic
e
s
m
a
y
n
o
t
b
e
b
e
s
t
fo
r
th
e
c
o
n
–
t
e
x
t
b
u
t
d
o
n
’t
d
im
in
is
h
u
n
d
e
rs
ta
n
d
–
in
g
.
T
h
e
c
h
o
ic
e
o
f
s
o
m
e
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
s
c
re
–
a
te
s
m
in
o
r
la
p
s
e
s
f
ro
m
a
n
a
tu
ra
l
rh
y
th
m
b
u
t
w
it
h
o
u
t
d
e
tr
a
c
ti
n
g
fr
o
m
t
h
e
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
A
lt
h
o
u
g
h
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
s
te
n
d
t
o
w
a
rd
c
o
o
rd
in
a
ti
o
n
,
th
e
w
ri
te
r
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
fu
ll
y
a
tt
e
m
p
ts
c
o
m
p
le
x
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
.
1
3
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r’
s
v
o
ic
e
i
s
u
n
e
v
e
n
,
s
o
m
e
ti
m
e
s
s
tr
o
n
g
a
n
d
o
th
e
r
ti
m
e
s
t
e
n
ta
ti
v
e
o
r
g
e
n
e
ra
l.
T
h
e
p
o
in
t
o
f
v
ie
w
s
h
if
ts
i
n
s
p
o
ts
b
e
tw
e
e
n
k
e
e
p
in
g
f
o
r-
m
a
l
d
is
ta
n
c
e
a
n
d
l
a
p
s
in
g
in
to
a
c
o
n
v
e
r-
s
a
ti
o
n
a
l
to
n
e
.
L
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
i
s
fu
n
c
ti
o
n
a
l,
w
it
h
s
li
p
s
i
n
to
c
li
c
h
é
,
b
u
t
th
e
w
ri
te
r
g
e
ts
th
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
a
c
ro
s
s
a
c
c
u
–
ra
te
ly
.
T
h
e
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
i
s
m
o
re
m
e
c
h
a
n
ic
a
l
th
a
n
r
e
fi
n
e
d
,
w
it
h
s
o
m
e
m
in
o
r
c
h
o
p
p
y
a
n
d
a
w
k
w
a
rd
p
a
s
s
a
g
e
s
c
a
u
s
e
d
b
y
o
v
e
ru
s
e
o
f
c
o
o
rd
in
a
ti
n
g
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
.
1
2
S
o
m
e
s
h
if
ts
i
n
p
o
in
t
o
f
v
ie
w
d
o
n
’t
i
n
te
rf
e
re
w
it
h
m
e
a
n
in
g
b
u
t
c
a
u
s
e
t
h
e
re
a
d
e
r
to
p
a
u
s
e
.
F
a
m
il
ia
r
w
o
rd
s
c
o
m
m
u
n
ic
a
te
b
u
t
d
o
n
’t
d
is
–
ti
n
g
u
is
h
t
h
e
w
ri
ti
n
g
.
L
e
s
s
c
o
m
m
o
n
w
o
rd
s
t
e
n
d
t
o
b
e
i
n
a
c
c
u
–
ra
te
ly
a
p
p
li
e
d
.
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
m
a
y
u
s
e
s
y
n
–
o
n
y
m
s
t
o
a
v
o
id
r
e
d
u
n
–
d
a
n
c
y
,
b
u
t
th
e
c
h
o
ic
e
s
d
o
n
’t
a
d
d
p
re
c
is
io
n
.
T
h
e
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
s
s
h
o
w
m
in
im
a
l
v
a
ri
e
ty
,
a
n
d
o
v
e
ru
s
e
o
f
s
im
p
le
o
n
e
s
d
e
tr
a
c
ts
f
ro
m
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
1
1
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
u
s
e
s
f
la
t,
l
if
e
–
le
s
s
,
a
n
d
m
e
c
h
a
n
ic
a
l
w
ri
ti
n
g
w
it
h
o
b
v
io
u
s
s
h
if
ts
in
p
o
in
t
o
f
v
ie
w
i
n
te
rf
e
r-
in
g
w
it
h
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
W
o
rd
c
h
o
ic
e
s
a
re
f
re
q
u
e
n
tl
y
in
a
c
c
u
ra
te
a
n
d
i
n
a
p
p
ro
–
p
ri
a
te
t
o
p
u
rp
o
s
e
a
n
d
a
u
d
ie
n
c
e
.
R
a
n
g
e
o
f
v
o
c
a
b
u
la
ry
i
s
li
m
it
e
d
,
o
ft
e
n
re
ly
in
g
o
n
tr
e
n
d
y
a
n
d
/o
r
w
o
rn
-o
u
t
w
o
rd
s
.
M
o
s
t
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
s
a
re
b
u
lk
y
,
m
o
n
o
t-
o
n
o
u
s
,
a
n
d
/o
r
a
w
k
w
a
rd
,
m
a
k
in
g
i
t
d
if
–
fi
c
u
lt
b
u
t
n
o
t
im
p
o
s
s
ib
le
t
o
u
n
d
e
rs
ta
n
d
.
6 T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
la
p
s
e
s
i
n
to
b
ia
s
e
d
,
u
n
g
ro
u
n
d
e
d
e
m
o
ti
o
n
w
it
h
n
o
c
o
n
s
is
te
n
t
p
o
in
t
o
f
v
ie
w
.
R
e
p
e
ti
ti
o
n
,
c
li
c
h
é
s
,
a
n
d
ja
rg
o
n
d
is
–
tr
a
c
t
th
e
re
a
d
e
r
a
n
d
c
o
n
v
e
y
m
in
i-
m
a
l
m
e
a
n
in
g
.
W
o
rd
s
a
re
u
s
e
d
i
n
c
o
r-
r
e
c
tl
y
i
n
s
e
v
e
ra
l
p
la
c
e
s
,
m
a
k
–
in
g
t
h
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
d
if
fi
–
c
u
lt
t
o
u
n
d
e
rs
ta
n
d
.
S
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
s
o
u
n
d
u
n
n
a
t-
u
ra
l
w
it
h
in
c
o
rr
e
c
t,
ir
re
g
u
la
r,
a
n
d
a
w
k
w
a
rd
w
o
rd
p
a
tt
e
rn
s
f
o
rc
–
in
g
s
to
p
s
b
e
c
a
u
s
e
t
h
e
m
e
a
n
in
g
i
s
o
b
s
c
u
re
d
.
0 T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
d
o
e
s
n
’t
d
e
m
o
n
s
tr
a
te
m
in
d
fu
ln
e
s
s
i
n
c
h
o
ic
e
o
f
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
o
r
w
o
rd
s
e
le
c
–
ti
o
n
.
T
h
e
m
e
a
n
in
g
i
s
e
n
ti
re
ly
o
b
s
c
u
re
d
.
Appendix218
M
L
A
C
it
a
t
io
n
U
s
in
g
t
h
e
M
L
A
c
it
a
ti
o
n
s
ty
le
,
th
e
w
ri
te
r
a
c
c
u
ra
te
ly
a
n
d
c
o
rr
e
c
tl
y
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
ts
th
e
r
e
q
u
ir
e
d
n
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
s
o
u
rc
e
s
.
1
0
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
u
s
e
s
t
h
e
re
q
u
ir
e
d
n
u
m
–
b
e
r
a
n
d
t
y
p
e
o
f
s
o
u
rc
e
s
.
M
L
A
d
o
c
u
–
m
e
n
ta
ti
o
n
s
h
o
w
s
m
a
s
–
te
ry
o
f
c
it
a
ti
o
n
s
ty
le
w
it
h
n
o
o
r
v
e
ry
m
in
o
r
e
rr
o
rs
i
n
p
u
n
c
tu
a
ti
o
n
.
9 T
h
e
re
a
re
m
in
o
r
in
c
o
n
–
s
is
te
n
c
ie
s
i
n
c
it
in
g
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
te
ri
a
l
w
it
h
li
tt
le
d
e
v
ia
ti
o
n
fr
o
m
r
e
q
u
ir
e
d
M
L
A
s
ty
le
.
O
n
e
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
y
n
o
t
h
a
v
e
b
e
e
n
c
le
a
rl
y
c
it
e
d
i
n
t
h
e
p
a
p
e
r.
8 T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
d
e
v
ia
te
s
i
n
re
p
e
a
te
d
b
u
t
m
in
o
r
fa
s
h
io
n
fr
o
m
M
L
A
s
ty
le
.
E
it
h
e
r
o
n
e
t
o
o
m
a
n
y
o
r
to
o
f
e
w
s
o
u
rc
e
s
m
a
y
b
e
c
it
e
d
.
7
.5
D
if
fe
re
n
t
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
te
–
ri
a
l
is
fr
e
q
u
e
n
tl
y
c
lu
m
p
e
d
to
g
e
th
e
r
w
it
h
m
in
im
a
l
id
e
n
–
ti
fi
c
a
ti
o
n
.
C
it
a
ti
o
n
u
s
e
m
a
y
n
o
t
m
a
tc
h
re
q
u
ir
e
d
n
u
m
–
b
e
r,
o
r
in
-t
e
x
t
c
it
a
ti
o
n
s
a
n
d
W
o
rk
s
C
it
e
d
d
o
n
’t
f
u
ll
y
m
a
tc
h
.
7 F
re
q
u
e
n
t
m
in
o
r
a
n
d
s
e
v
e
ra
l
m
a
jo
r
e
rr
o
rs
a
re
m
a
d
e
i
n
t
h
e
M
L
A
d
o
c
u
–
m
e
n
ta
ti
o
n
.
S
o
u
rc
e
i
n
fo
r-
m
a
ti
o
n
f
o
r
in
-t
e
x
t
c
it
a
–
ti
o
n
s
d
o
e
s
n
’t
m
a
tc
h
W
o
rk
s
C
it
e
d
,
e
v
e
n
i
f
th
e
c
o
rr
e
c
t
n
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
s
o
u
rc
e
s
i
s
u
s
e
d
.
3 W
h
e
re
p
re
s
–
e
n
t,
t
h
e
M
L
A
d
o
c
u
m
e
n
ta
–
ti
o
n
i
s
u
n
c
le
a
rl
y
a
n
d
in
a
c
c
u
ra
te
ly
a
p
p
li
e
d
.
0 N
o
c
it
a
ti
o
n
i
s
p
ro
v
id
e
d
f
o
r
s
o
u
rc
e
m
a
te
–
ri
a
l
u
s
e
d
.
Appendix 219
C
o
n
v
e
n
t
io
n
s
A
c
c
o
rd
in
g
t
o
s
ta
n
d
a
rd
w
ri
t-
te
n
A
m
e
ri
c
a
n
E
n
g
li
s
h
,
th
e
w
ri
te
r
c
o
r-
re
c
tl
y
a
p
p
li
e
s
s
p
e
ll
in
g
,
p
u
n
c
tu
a
ti
o
n
(i
n
c
lu
d
in
g
s
e
n
te
n
c
e
s
tr
u
c
tu
re
),
a
n
d
g
ra
m
m
a
r
s
o
t
h
e
w
ri
ti
n
g
is
p
ro
fe
s
s
io
n
a
l
a
n
d
e
a
s
y
t
o
u
n
d
e
rs
ta
n
d
.
T
h
e
w
ri
ti
n
g
m
e
e
ts
t
h
e
re
q
u
ir
e
d
le
n
g
th
a
n
d
o
v
e
ra
ll
s
u
b
–
m
is
s
io
n
fo
r
m
a
t
fo
r
th
e
a
s
s
ig
n
m
e
n
t.
1
5
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
d
e
m
o
n
s
tr
a
te
s
a
s
tr
o
n
g
g
ra
s
p
o
f
c
o
n
–
v
e
n
ti
o
n
s
,
u
s
in
g
t
h
e
m
e
ff
e
c
ti
v
e
ly
t
o
e
n
h
a
n
c
e
r
e
a
d
–
a
b
il
it
y
w
it
h
n
o
o
r
in
fr
e
q
u
e
n
t,
m
in
o
r
e
rr
o
rs
.
W
ri
te
r
is
m
e
ti
c
u
lo
u
s
a
b
o
u
t
v
is
u
a
l
p
re
s
e
n
ta
ti
o
n
.
1
4
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
h
a
s
h
a
rd
ly
a
n
y
g
ra
m
m
a
ti
c
a
l
d
is
tr
a
c
ti
o
n
s
,
m
a
in
ta
in
in
g
o
v
e
ra
ll
c
la
ri
ty
a
n
d
h
a
n
d
li
n
g
m
o
s
t
c
o
n
v
e
n
–
ti
o
n
s
w
it
h
fi
n
e
s
s
e
.
T
h
e
p
a
p
e
r
s
li
g
h
tl
y
d
e
v
ia
te
s
f
ro
m
re
q
u
ir
e
d
f
o
r-
m
a
t
o
r
le
n
g
th
.
1
3
T
h
e
w
ri
te
r
s
h
o
w
s
r
e
a
s
o
n
–
a
b
le
c
o
n
tr
o
l
o
v
e
r
a
l
im
it
e
d
ra
n
g
e
o
f
c
o
n
–
v
e
n
ti
o
n
s
w
it
h
p
a
tt
e
rn
s
o
f
m
in
o
r
g
ra
m
–
m
a
ti
c
a
l
a
n
d
m
e
c
h
a
n
ic
a
l
e
rr
o
rs
.
W
h
il
e
m
il
d
ly
d
is
–
tr
a
c
ti
n
g
,
th
e
y
d
o
n
’t
i
m
p
e
d
e
u
n
d
e
rs
ta
n
d
–
in
g
.
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
m
a
y
b
e
o
u
ts
id
e
t
h
e
re
q
u
ir
e
d
w
o
rd
ra
n
g
e
.
F
o
rm
a
t
m
a
y
p
ro
v
id
e
b
a
s
ic
i
n
fo
rm
a
–
ti
o
n
b
u
t
d
e
tr
a
c
ts
f
ro
m
th
e
t
e
x
t.
1
2
S
e
v
e
ra
l
d
if
fe
r-
e
n
t
g
ra
m
m
a
ti
c
a
l
a
n
d
m
e
c
h
a
n
i-
c
a
l
e
rr
o
rs
th
ro
u
g
h
o
u
t
th
e
e
s
s
a
y
s
o
m
e
ti
m
e
s
in
te
rf
e
re
w
it
h
th
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
.
T
h
e
e
s
s
a
y
i
s
n
o
ti
c
e
a
b
ly
o
u
ts
id
e
t
h
e
re
q
u
ir
e
d
le
n
g
th
,
a
n
d
s
o
m
e
p
a
rt
o
f
re
q
u
ir
e
d
i
n
fo
r-
m
a
ti
o
n
i
s
m
is
s
in
g
.
T
h
e
fo
rm
a
t
m
a
y
d
e
tr
a
c
t
fr
o
m
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
.
1
1
M
u
lt
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