1. Research has shown that Monday is the highest negative-affect day across most cultures. However, in some countries, the negative effect is lower on Friday and Saturday than on Sunday. What are the two explanations for this discrepancy?
2. Zach is a pharmaceutical sales representative and must put on a smile every day at work with his clients. Discuss the emotional labor experienced by Zach. Explain the significance of emotional intelligence demanded of Zach in order to be successful, and how he applies his emotions and moods in his job.
The assignment is to answer the question provided above in the essay form. This is to be in narrative form. Bullet points should not be used. The paper should be at least 1.5 – 2 pages in length, Times New Roman 12-pt font, double-spaced, 1-inch margins, and utilizing at least one outside scholarly or professional source related to organizational behavior. This does not mean blogs or websites. This source should be a published article in a scholarly journal. This source should provide substance and not just be mentioned briefly to fulfill these criteria. The textbook should also be utilized. Do not use quotes. Do not insert excess line spacing. APA formatting and citation should be used.
Essentials of Organizational Behavior
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter 4
Emotions and Moods
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
1
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Differentiate between emotions and moods.
Identify the sources of emotions and moods.
Show the impact emotional labor has on employees.
Describe affective events theory.
Describe emotional intelligence.
Identify strategies for emotion regulation.
Apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues.
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2
Affect, Emotions, and Moods
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Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings people experience. This includes both emotions and moods. Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods are the feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.
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The Basic Emotions
Six universal emotions
Anger
Fear
Sadness
Happiness
Disgust
Surprise
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Many researchers agree on six essentially universal emotions – anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise. Some even plot them along a continuum: happiness – surprise – fear – sadness – anger – disgust. The closer two emotions are to each other on this continuum, the more likely people will confuse them. Emotions can differ depending on whether a society is individualistic or collectivistic in terms of the general outlook of its people.
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Moral Emotions
Emotions that have moral implications because of our instant judgment of the situation that evokes them
Moral disgust
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Research on moral emotions focus on examples such as sympathy for the suffering of others, guilt about our own immoral behavior, anger about injustice done to others, and contempt for those who behave unethically.
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The Basic Moods: Positive and Negative Affect
Positive affect: a mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, enthusiasm, and elation at the high end (high positive affect) and boredom, depression, and fatigue at the low end (low positive affect)
Negative affect: a mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end (high negative affect) and contentedness, calmness, and serenity at the low end (low negative affect)
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Our basic moods carry positive and negative affects; they cannot be neutral. Emotions are grouped into general mood states.
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The Affect Circumplex
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People rarely experience both positive and negative affect at the same time. Over time, we differ in how much we experience of each.
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Experiencing Moods and Emotions
Positive moods are somewhat more common than negative moods
Positivity offset: at zero input, most people experience a mildly positive mood
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The degree to which people experience positive and negative emotions varies across cultures. Some cultures value certain emotions more than others, which leads individuals to change their perspective on experiencing those emotions.
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The Function of Emotions and Moods
Emotions and Rationality
Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help us understand the world around us
Emotions and Ethics
New research suggests that ethical behavior may be based to some degree on emotions and feelings
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There are some who think that emotions are linked to irrationality and expressing emotions in public may be damaging to your career or status. However, research has shown that emotions are necessary for rational thinking.
People who are behaving ethically are at least partially making decisions based on their emotions and feelings.
Emotions help us make better decisions and help us understand the world around us. If we are going to make decisions, we need to incorporate both thinking and feeling.
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Sources of Emotions and Moods (1 of 2)
Personality
Some people experience certain moods and emotions more frequently than others
Affect intensity: experiencing the same emotions with different intensities
Time of day
People vary in their moods by time of day
Day of the week
People tend to be in their best mood on the weekend
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Affectively intense people experience both positive and negative emotions more deeply. Many are happier toward the end of the week or mid-day.
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Sources of Emotions and Moods (2 of 2)
Time-of-Day Effects on Moods of U.S. Adults as Rated from Twitter Postings
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Levels of positive affect are greatest in the evening, and the lowest in the early morning, on most days of the week. Levels of negative affect are also the highest in the overnight hours, but the lowest point is later in the morning than for positive affect.
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More Sources
Weather
Illusory correlation
No impact according to research
Stress
Increased stress worsens moods
Sleep
Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making
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Weather is thought to have an impact on our emotions, but there is no proven effect.
Stress is an important factor and even at low levels it can cause our mood to change. It is important to maintain a low level of stress to help us control our psychological, as well as our physical health. Social activities have been shown to have a positive impact on our moods. This could be physical outlets such as playing in a basketball league, or it can be going out to dinner with friends. These types of activities are found to have a positive impact on our moods.
Sleep can be another factor; it is important to get enough, and high quality levels, of sleep.
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Even More Sources
Exercise
Mildly enhances positive mood
Age
Older people experience negative emotions less frequently
Sex
Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely, and display more frequent expressions of emotions
Could be due to socialization
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Physical activity can also aid in keeping our moods upbeat.
Some characteristics that are beyond our control can impact our moods, such as age and gender. Elderly people tend to have fewer negative emotions. Women tend to express their emotions readily, and their moods tend to last longer. Research has shown that this is due more to cultural socialization than to biology.
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Emotional Labor
Emotional labor: an employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work
Emotional dissonance: when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling another
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In many jobs there is an implied agreement on the types of emotions that should be expressed. For example, waitresses are supposed to be friendly and cheerful whether they are currently feeling that emotion or not. When employees don’t feel the emotion they are required to express, they may experience emotional dissonance. This can lead to burnout and frustration with the job.
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Felt vs. Displayed Emotions
Felt Emotions:
The individual’s actual emotions
Displayed Emotions:
The learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job
Surface Acting – hiding one’s true emotions
Deep Acting – trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules
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An employee’s actual emotions are their felt emotions and this is in contrast to the emotions that are required or deemed appropriate, which are called displayed emotions. There are two levels of displayed emotions that can be expressed. They are both appropriately called acting. Surface acting occurs when an employee displays the appropriate emotions even when he doesn’t feel those emotions. Deep acting occurs when the employee actually changes her internal feelings to match displayed rules. This level of acting can be very stressful.
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Affective Events Theory
How do emotions and moods influence job performance and satisfaction?
Affective events theory (AET): employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction
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AET provides us with valuable insights into the role emotions play in primary organizational outcomes of job satisfaction and job performance.
Work events trigger positive or negative emotional reactions, to which employees’ personalities and moods predispose them to respond with greater or lesser intensity.
Emotions influence performance and satisfaction variables such as organizational citizenship behavior, organizational commitment, level of effort, intention to quit, and workplace deviance.
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Emotional Intelligence (1 of 2)
Emotional intelligence: a person’s ability to:
Perceive emotions in the self and others
Understand the meaning of these emotions
Regulate one’s emotions in a cascading model
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Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a growing area of study is becoming increasingly important in the understanding of how individuals behave. EI is pulling in one’s understanding of emotions and their impact on behavior. Individuals who are emotionally intelligent will have a strong sense of self-awareness, recognizing their own emotions when experienced. They are also able to detect emotions in others. By understanding their own emotions and those of others, they can manage emotional cues and information to make decisions.
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Emotional Intelligence (2 of 2)
A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence
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People who know their own emotions and are good at reading emotional cues are most likely to be effective.
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Emotional Intelligence on Trial
The case for:
Intuitive appeal – it makes sense
EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance
Study suggests that EI is neurologically based
The case against:
EI is too vague a concept
EI can’t be measured
EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when those factors are controlled
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EI plays a very important role in job performance; however, the jury is still out on the role EI plays in effectiveness in organizations.
The case for EI is based on the fact that it makes sense and appeals to our intuitive thinking. It tends to predict things that matter and are positively correlated to high job performance. Many studies have shown that EI is neurologically based and thus helpful in predicting behavior.
However, EI has its critics as the concept can be seen as too vague and not easily measured. Since it is so closely related to intelligence and personality theories, it is not seen as unique when these factors are controlled.
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Emotion Regulation
Emotion regulation: identifying and modifying the emotions you feel
Effective emotion regulation techniques include:
Acknowledging emotional responses to situations
Venting
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Emotion regulation involves identifying and modifying the emotions you feel. Research on effective emotion regulation techniques is ongoing, but studies show that acknowledging, rather than suppressing, our emotional responses to situations and reevaluating events after they occur can be effective, as can open expression of emotions, or venting.
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OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction
Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information
Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity
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There are numerous applications of emotions and moods. These include selection of employees, decision making, and creativity.
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More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce
Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively
Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion
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Motivation, leadership, negotiation, and customer service are also work outcomes that are impacted by emotions and moods, and it is important for managers to understand the connection.
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Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day
Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work
Safety and Injury at Work – Bad moods can contribute to injuries on the job
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Job attitudes can influence our home life but don’t always get carried back to the workplace. However, deviant workplace behaviors are often the result of negative emotions and significantly impact the workplace. Negative emotions can also lead to increased injuries at work.
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Implications for Managers (1 of 2)
Recognize that emotions are a natural part of the workplace and good management does not mean creating an emotion-free environment
To foster creative decision making, creativity, and motivation in employees, model positive emotions and moods as much as is authentically possible
Provide positive feedback to increase the positivity of employees. Of course, it also helps to hire people who are predisposed to positive moods.
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In summary, moods and emotions are important to the study of organizational behavior. Also, they are natural expressions and managers should not try to completely control the employees’ emotions, but they should be aware of the emotions and not ignore emotional indicators.
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Implications for Managers (2 of 2)
In the service sector, encourage positive displays of emotion, which make customers feel more positive and thus improve customer service interactions and negotiations
Understand the role of emotions and moods to significantly improve your ability to explain and predict your coworkers’ and employees’ behavior
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The more you understand the emotions of your employees, the better you will be able to predict their behavior.
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Copyright
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Essentials of Organizational Behavior
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter 5
Personality and Values
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it.
Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality framework and the Big Five model.
Discuss how the concepts of core self-evaluation (CSE), self-monitoring, and proactive personality contribute to the understanding of personality.
Describe how the situation affects whether personality predicts behavior.
Contrast terminal and instrumental values.
Describe the differences between person-job fit and person-organization fit.
Compare Hofstede’s five value dimensions and the GLOBE framework.
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Personality
Personality – the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
Most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits such as shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid
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Personality is often defined by characteristics such as outgoing or charming. However, psychologists define personality as the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system.
We study personality in Organizational Behavior because it impacts a number of important work outcomes. We can attempt to measure personality through a variety of methods. Often these methods are utilized in the hiring process to assist in hiring the right person for the job and the organization.
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Assessing and Measuring Personality
Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions
Help managers forecast who is best for a job
Self-report surveys
Most common
Prone to error
Evaluate on a series of factors
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Self-reports are the most common and easiest way to measure personality, but they are prone to error due to the fact that the individual is reporting all the data about themselves.
Studies show that culture influences how we rate ourselves. People from individualistic countries trend toward self-enhancement, while those in collectivistic societies trend toward self-diminishment.
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Personality Determinants
Personality reflects heredity and environment
Heredity is the most dominant factor
Twin studies: genetics more influential than parents
Environmental factors do have some influence
Aging influences levels of ability Basic personality is constant
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There are many determinants of personality including heredity, environmental factors, and age.
There has been a long-standing debate about whether genetics or environment are more important in determining personality. They both play an important role. The heredity approach refers to factors determined at conception such as physical stature and gender. This has been reaffirmed by studies that have looked at twins who were raised apart but still had similar personalities. However, there were differences observed leading to the idea the environmental factors can have some influence.
Age does influence the level of ability that an individual has even though it is widely held that the basic personality stays constant throughout the life of the individual.
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Dominant Personality Frameworks
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Most widely used personality-assessment instrument in the world
Individuals are classified as:
Extroverted or Introverted (E/I)
Sensing or Intuitive (S/N)
Thinking or Feeling (T/F)
Judging or Perceiving (J/P)
Classifications combined into 16 personality types (i.e., INTJ or ESTJ)
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The MBTI is the most widely used personality instrument worldwide. Participants are classified within four scales to determine 1 of 16 possible personality types. These types are broken down into four dichotomies. The first is extroverts who tend to be sociable and assertive versus introverts who tend to be quiet and shy. The second dichotomy is sensing and intuitive. Sensors are practical and orderly where intuits utilize unconscious processes. The third dichotomy is thinking and feeling. Thinking focuses on using reason and logic whereas feeling utilizes values and emotions. The final dichotomy is judging and perceiving. Judgers want order and structure whereas perceivers are more flexible and spontaneous.
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Measuring Personality Traits: The Big-Five Model
Five Traits:
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
Strongly supported relationship to job performance (especially conscientiousness)
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The Big Five model of personality sets forth that there are five basic dimensions that underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variations in human personalities. The Big Five factors are: Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experiences. There is a lot of research that supports the Big Five model, and it has been shown to predict behavior at work.
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Big Five Traits and OB
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As shown, the Big Five traits are related to job performance and also have other implications for work and life.
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The Dark Triad
The Dark Triad
Machiavellianism
High machs tend to be pragmatic, emotionally distant, and believe the ends justify the means
Narcissism
A person with a grandiose view of self, requires excessive admiration, has a sense of self-entitlement, and is arrogant
Psychopathy
A lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm
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Researchers have found that three socially undesirable traits called the Dark Triad are relevant to organizational behavior.
Machiavellianism describes a person who tends to be emotionally distant and believes that the ends justify the means. They tend to have a competitive drive and a need to win. They can be very persuasive in situations where there is direct interaction with minimal rules and people are distracted by emotions. Narcissism is a trait that often hinders job effectiveness. It describes a person who requires excessive admiration and has a strong sense of entitlement. Psychopathy refers to a lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm.
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Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
Core self-evaluation
People with positive core self-evaluation like themselves and see themselves as capable and effective in the workplace
Self-monitoring
Adjusts behavior to meet external, situational factors
Proactive personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres
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People with positive CSE perform better because they set more ambitious goals, are more committed to their goals, and persist longer in attempting to reach them. Self-monitoring is another personality trait that is linked to job performance. It is the ability to adjust behavior to meet situational factors. High monitors are more likely to become leaders in the workplace. Proactive personalities are people who are able to identify opportunities and take action to capitalize on that opportunity. They also have the ability to persevere through difficulties to meet their goals. Proactive personality may be important for work teams.
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Personality and Situations (1 of 2)
The effect of particular traits on organization behavior depends on the situation
Two frameworks
Situation Strength
Trait Activation
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Personality and Situations (2 of 2)
Situation strength theory – the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation
Analyze situation strength in terms of:
Clarity
Consistency
Constraints
Consequences
Trait activation theory (TAT) – predicts that some situations, events, or interventions “activate” a trait more than others
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Strong situations pressure us to exhibit the right behavior, clearly show us what that behavior is, and discourage the wrong behavior. In weak situations, “anything goes,” and thus we are freer to express our personality in our behaviors. Thus, research suggests that personality traits better predict behavior in weak situations than in strong ones.
Research shows that in a supportive environment, everyone behaves prosocially, but in an environment that is not so nice, whether an individual has the personality to behave prosocially makes a major difference.
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Trait Activation Theory
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Trait Activation Theory: Jobs in Which Certain Big Five Traits Are More Relevant
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Values
Values represent basic, enduring convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence”
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Values represent basic convictions that make judgments about what is the best mode of conduct or end-state of existence.
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Value Systems
Represent a prioritizing of individual values by:
Content – importance to the individual
Intensity – relative importance with other values
The hierarchy tends to be relatively stable
Values are the foundation for attitudes, motivation, and behavior
Influence perception and cloud objectivity
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Value systems represent individual values and prioritizes them based on how important the particular value is to the individual and how intense their feelings are about that particular value. The way individuals set up their values in order of importance is relatively stable over time and sets the foundation for many work outcomes such as attitudes, motivation, and behavior. In addition, values are important in the workplace because they can influence an individual’s perception and cloud their objectivity.
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Rokeach Value Survey
Terminal values: desirable end-states of existence
Goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime
Instrumental values: preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving the terminal values
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The Rokeach Value Survey was created by Milton Rokeach. It consists of two sets of values, terminal values and instrumental values. Terminal values describe the desired values/goals a person would like to keep/achieve through their lifetime. Instrumental values are the preferred modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values.
Values vary between groups and can cause trouble when group members hold different values and negotiation is needed.
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Personality-Job Fit: Holland’s Hexagon (1 of 2)
Job satisfaction and turnover depend on congruency between personality and task
People in jobs congruent with their personality should be more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than people in incongruent tasks
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Personality and value studies are important to the field of organizational behavior because they have been linked to workplace outcomes. The person-job fit theory developed by John Holland has been critical to thinking about how people fit with a specific job. Holland classified people into six personality types utilizing a vocational preference inventory.
Through the study of personality it has become clear that there are intrinsic differences in personality between people. Given that there are a number of different jobs it is logical that people in jobs congruent with their personalities would be more satisfied in their work.
When the personality is matched with the type of occupation, then there are stronger positive work outcomes.
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Personality-Job Fit: Holland’s Hexagon (2 of 2)
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There are cultural implications for person–job fit that speak to workers’ expectations that jobs will be tailored to them. Managers in collectivistic cultures should not violate cultural norms by designing jobs for individuals; rather they should seek people who will likely thrive in jobs that have already been structured.
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Person-Organization Fit
It is more important that employees’ personalities fit with the organizational culture than with the characteristics of any specific job
The fit predicts job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover
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This idea can be further linked to the workplace by looking at person-organization fit. The employee’s personality needs to fit with the organizational culture. When employees find organizations that match their values, they are more likely to be selected and correspondingly be more satisfied with their work. The big five personality types are often helpful in matching the individuals with organizational culture.
Person-job fit and person-organization fit are considered to be the most relevant dimensions for the workplace, but person-group fit is important in team settings and person-supervisor fit is relevant to job satisfaction and performance outcomes.
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Cultural Values
Values differ across cultures
Two frameworks for assessing culture:
Hofstede
GLOBE
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There are global implications to personality and values in the workplace. Frameworks such as the Big Five are transferable across cultures; in fact, it has been used worldwide. However, the applicability is higher in some cultures than others. Values, on the other hand, differ to a great degree across cultures.
Geert Hofstede developed a framework for assessing culture. He breaks up his framework of understanding into five value dimensions: power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term versus short-term orientation.
The GLOBE, as discussed earlier, is also helpful in framing differences between cultures.
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Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures (1 of 2)
Five factors:
Power Distance
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation
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Power distance is the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Low-distance occurs when there is relatively equal power between those with status and wealth and those without. Higher distance occurs when there is unequal power distribution between groups.
The second component in Hofstede’s framework is individualism vs. collectivism. Individualism is the degree to which people prefer to act on their own rather than in a group. Collectivism is the idea that people operate within a social framework where they help others out and they expect help when they need it.
Hofstede offers a third component in his model that distinguishes between masculinity and femininity. Masculinity is the extent to which the culture prefers achievement, power, and control versus characteristics that are more feminine in nature.
The fourth component is uncertainty avoidance. This is the extent to which a society is willing to live with uncertainty and ambiguity. High uncertainty avoidance cultures will try to avoid ambiguous situations as much as possible. Lower uncertainty avoidance cultures do not mind ambiguity.
The final component is time orientation. Long-term orientation societies will emphasize the future and what it takes to get to the future they desire, thrift and persistence. Short-term orientation societies will emphasize the here and now.
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Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures (2 of 2)
Country Power Distance Rank Individualism Rank Masculinity Rank Uncertainty Avoidance Rank Long-term Orientation Rank
Australia 41 2 16 37 22-24
Great Britain 42-44 3 9-10 47-48 28-29
Greece 27-28 30 18-19 1
Guatemala 2-3 53 43 3
Hong Kong 15-16 37 18-19 49-50 2
Japan 33 22-23 1 7 4
Malaysia 1 36 25-26 46
Pakistan 32 47-48 25-26 24-25 34
Singapore 13 39-41 28 53 9
Sweden 47-48 10-11 53 49-50 20
United States 38 1 15 43 27
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Exhibit 5-4
Hofstede’s Cultural Values by Nation
Source: Copyright Geert Hofstede BV, hofstede@bart.nl. Reprinted with permission.
The exhibit shows the ratings and ranks of 53 countries. For example, power distance is higher in Malaysia than in any other country. The United States is very individualistic; in fact, it’s the most individualistic nation of all (closely followed by Australia and Great Britain). Guatemala is the most collectivistic nation. The country with the highest masculinity rank by far is Japan, and the country with the highest femininity rank is Sweden. Greece scores the highest in uncertainty avoidance, while Singapore scores the lowest. Hong Kong has one of the longest-term orientations; Pakistan has the shortest-term orientation.
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GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures
Ongoing study with nine factors:
Assertiveness
Future orientation
Gender differentiation
Uncertainty avoidance
Power distance
Individualism/ collectivism
In-group collectivism
Performance orientation
Humane orientation
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The GLOBE framework takes a look at nine dimensions of national culture. It is similar to Hofstede’s model but adds the humane and performance orientations. The humane orientation looks at how much society rewards people for being altruistic and kind where the performance orientation looks at how much society encourages and rewards good work.
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Implications for Managers
Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness
Use MBTI in training and development to help employees better understand themselves and team members, and facilitate communication
Evaluate your employees’ jobs, their work groups, and your organization to determine the optimal personality fit
Take into account employees’ situational factors when evaluating their observable personality traits, and lower the situation strength to better ascertain personality characteristics
Take into consideration people’s different cultures
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