See attached.
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PPT Presentation over Creative Counseling Approaches including Art Therapy, Play Therapy, Music Therapy. · PowerPoint – · 1. clearly outline the topic and the major points that are takeaways, relevancy in school counseling, why you chose this topic, etc. · 2. Include an Interactive (activity) that can be done virtually during the presentation. · · 20 – 30 minutes · References page (APA format) |
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Popular Counseling Theories Used by Schoo
l
Counselors
Cynthia Crawford
The purpose of this chapter is to:
• Summarize the most commonly used counseling theories used in schools
• Reflect on one’s personal theory of counseling as a school counselor-in-training
• Apply theory to school-related case studies
The school connselor’s approach to counseling is influenced by one or more theoretical orienta-
tions. There exists a plethora of theoretical approaches within the counseling field, some represent-
ing an extension of preexisting theories of personality development and others expressing a reaction
against earlier systems of thought. Overall, counseling theories explain (a) why people live productive
or unproductive lives and (b) how to assist people in changing aspects within themselves that seem
counterproductive (Hackney & Cormier, 2009). Regardless of one’s theoretical orientation, knowl-
edge of counseling theory is ctitical in accurately assessing and conceptualizing a counselee’s case.
Choosing a theoretical foundation is guided by the counselor’s phenomenological and philosophical
views from affective, cognitive, behavioral, and relational perspectives (Hackney & Cormier, 2009).
Both the counselee and counselor come to the counseling situation with a unique background of
cultural experiences, which influence the counselor-counselee relationship, the counseling process,
and interventions that may therapeutically meet the needs of the counselee. Because no one particu-
lar theory is best suited for all counselees, it is incumbent upon the counselor to choose a theoretical
approach that best fits the needs of the connselee in terms of personality factors, background experi-
ences, and cultural milieu (Corey, 2009a).
This chapter provides a general overview of unique contextual aspects within schools that may
influence theoretical orientation and counseling theories frequently employed in school counsel-
ing settings, including person-centered counseling, reality therapy, cognitive behavioral approaches,
solution-focused brief counseling, narrative therapy, and creative counseling approaches such as
art, play, and music.
Contextual Aspects of Schools
Schools provide a unique environment in which to provide counseling. Although some of the
aspects unique to schools are more thoroughly discussed in Chapters 2 and 13, it is important to
consider the distinctive aspects of the school environment that impact school counselors’ choice
of theoretical orientation. Some of these aspects include children and adolescents as counselees,
scope of school counselor responsibilities, and students’ time availability. First, school personnel’s
primary aim is to educate children. Because school counselors focus their counseling energies pri-
marily on children and adolescents, developmental issues influence choice of theoretical orientation.
Second, school counselors are responsible for many tasks and activities. These responsibilities limit
the amount of energy and time the school counselor has available for counseling. School counselors
may not have the resources or time to adequately counsel students who present significant mental
health issues, or who require unavailable resources or intensive ongoing counseling. The third aspect
31
32 A Guide to Practicun1 and Internship for School Counselors-in-Training
is the students’ time availability. Studeuts are in school to be educated. Excessive time spent in the
school counseling office can take away from time spent in the classroom. In some cases, excessive
counseling during school hours may impede upon a students’ classroom time. These contextual con-
siderations must be factored in when school counselors choose a counseling theory or theories.
Each of the following sections provides a brief summary of theories common to school settings,
describes some unique characteristics of each approach, and indicates populations with whom each
theory has been successfully applied. The following descriptions are not meant to exhaustively
explain the tenets of any one particular theory, because you have undoubtedly already taken a class
exclusively on counseling theories. However, this chapter serves as a reference when counseling with
school-aged youth.
Person-Centered Counseling
Carl Rogers, the founder of person-centered counseling, developed it as an approach to counsel-
ing that emphasizes the counselee’s inner ability to be aware of and solve his or her own problems
(Monte & Sollod, 2003). Person-centered counseling represents a reaction against earlier, psycho-
dynamic theories that viewed the counselor as an expert and interpreter of an individual’s emotional
distress. Through this nondirective approach, a collaborative relationship between the counselor and
counselee is established that is critical to the success of therapy (Rogers, 1951). Rogers’s approach
challenged the assumption that “the counselor knows best” and that counselees are unable to unde1c
stand and resolve tbeir problems without direct help on the part of a counselor. In contrast, person-
centered counseling compares therapy to a journey shared by two equally fallible individuals and
contends that counselees are capable of self-directed growth in the presence of an unconditionally
accepting counselor-counselee relationship (Corsini & Wedding, 2005a).
Rogers believed the focus of counseling should be on the person rather than the problem, that all
people strive for self-actualization, and that the ultimate goal of counseling is congruence between
the person’s true inner self and his or her perceived self. On the part of the counselor, Rogers advo-
cated for unconditional positive regard or nonjudgmental acceptance of the counselee; a genuine,
unpretentious presentation of congruence; and accurate empathic understanding. The counselor
seeks to understand the counselee’s own phenomenological world and feels to the greatest extent
possible, the emotions experienced by the counselee (Monte & Sollod, 2003).
Person-centered counseling skills include attentive listening and reflecting feeling, or helping
the counselee to find the words to describe his or her feelings. The counselor’s empathic response
to the counselee’s feelings may reveal fragments of the real self that have remained hidden for
some time, bring these pieces of the real self to the counselee’s awareness, and promote congruence
between the perceived and real self (Monte & Sollod, 2003). Overall, the counselor works to provide
a warm, respectful, genuine, and caring environment in which self-actualization may occur, thus
allowing the counselee to problem solve independent of advice or interpretation on the part of the
counselor. A central tenet of Rogers’s theory was that couuselees, including students, have the neces-
sary means in themselves to resolve their own challenges, and that the counselor is responsible for
establishing a therapeutic setting to enable clients to realize they have the ability for self-change and
to “attain this insight themselves” (Monte & Sollod, 2003, p. 474).
Rogers once stated, “Every individual exists in a continually changing world of which he is the
center” (1951, p. 483). Rogers viewed human nature from a positive perspective and contended that
each individual has the power to heal the self when provided the proper psychological conditions, as
described earlier. His theory emphasizes human worth and dignity, as well as the personal freedom
to be, to choose, and to act (Monte & Sollod, 2003).
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Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 33
Person-centered connseling has been applied in a number of conntries and in numerous multicul-
tural settings. The role a counselor takes in setting aside personal values, thus completely accepting
and identifying with those of the connselee, enhances the applicability of the approach with diverse
populations (Sharf, 2008a). The person-centered approach has been applied with individuals, groups,
and families. Basic tenets of the approach are frequently employed in educational settings from
elementary to graduate school. With its emphasis on a warm, caring counselor-connselee connec-
tion, the approach is particularly applicable in crisis intervention, including traumatic disasters,
extreme illness, unplanned pregnancies, and grief (Corsini & Wedding, 2005a).
ACTIVITY 3.1
Conduct a role-play using the following scenario with a partner. One person will play the
role of a person-centered counselor using the philosophical approach described earlier, and
the other person will role play the counselee described next.
Ella is a fourth-grade student in a rural school that has few resources, poorly paid person-
nel, and nonexistent mental health agencies. The closest facility that provides counseling
is in a city that is located nearly one hour away. Ella arrives in the counselor’s office upset,
crying, and incapable of talking about the issue that brought her to the office. It seems
that her mother, her primary caregiver, was arrested the night before due to charges of
drug use and abuse. Ella was sent to live with her grandparents, who live a few blocks
away, until her mother is arraigned. Ella’s grandparents care about Ella, but have physical
difficulties that prevent them from caring for her appropriately.
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play Ella. What were some of the aspects of this coun-
seling approach that you think assisted the counseling process? Detracted from the counsel-
ing process?
Reality Therapy or Choice Theory
William Glasser developed reality therapy in the early 1960s following his work with institution-
alized delinquent adolescent girls. Presented within a friendly, collaborative counselor-counselee
relationship, the essence of reality therapy, based on choice theory, is self-responsibility, or leading
the counselee to take responsibility for his or her life choices (Corey, 2009b). Glasser (2001, 2005)
proposed five basic essential psychological needs: survival, love and belonging, power or achieve-
ment, freedom or independence, and fun. Individuals, according to Glasser, choose their behaviors
in response to the quality of relationships they experience and in an attempt to meet their perceived
needs. Reality therapy suggests the underlying issue for a troubled counselee is an absence or lack of
satisfaction with a significant interpersonal relationship. Therefore, as a counselor, you can facilitate
a significant relationship with your student counselee.
In treating counselees for emotional disturbance, Glasser considers psychiatric symptoms to
represent behaviors cho.sen in an attempt to meet needs stemming from an ineffective relation-
ship. Therefore, according to Glasser, most diagnoses of mental illness are inaccurate. In working
with counselees, Glasser frequently converts diagnostic descriptors such as depression, anxiety, and
34 A Guide to Practicuni and Internship for School Counselors-in-Training
phobia into verb forms, expressed as depressing, anxietizing, and phobicing, thus implying the indi-
vidual chooses the behavioral symptom and enacts it within his or her life (Sharf, 2008b).
According to Glasser (1990), an individual’s total behavior consists of doing, thinking, feeling, and
physiology, a concept he often illustrated in a diagram of a car. In this illustration, an individual’s
basic needs (survival, belonging, power, freedom, and fun) form the engine of the car. The ind.i-
vidual’s wants are responsible for steering the car. The rear wheels represent the individual’s feelings
and physiology, two components over which there is less control. The front wheels, controlled by the
steering “wants,” represent doing and thinking, and suggest a greater degree of choice and personal
control. According to Glasser, behavioral change results in the individual changing what he or she
thinks or does, which in turns brings about emotional as well as physiological change (Shatf, 2008b).
The goals of reality therapy, therefore, are to meet one’s needs by taking control of life choices.
Strategies employed by reality therapists to bring about change include questioning, optimism, humor,
confrontation, and paradoxical techniques. In assessing the counselee’s status in· meeting his or her
needs in a realistic manner, the reality therapist may employ the WDEP system (Wubbolding, 2004):
W =Wants: What do you want to be and do? Your mental picture of yourself.
D = Doing and direction: What are you doing? Where do you want to go?
E =Evaluation: Is what you are doing now working for you? Is it getting yon what you want?
P =Planning: A plan to get you where you want to be, often represented by the acronym SAMIC:
S · = Simple and specific
A = Attainable
M = Measurable
I = Immediate and involved
C = Controlled and commitment (includes use of a contract)
In reality therapy, the counselor and counselee work collaboratively in creating a plan that the
counselee believes will realistically meet his or her needs. Therefore, this counseling approach
involves teaching individuals to make choices that will lead to desired outcomes and meet their ueeds
through interpersonal relationships, with the counselor-counselee relationship critically important
for this teaching-learning process to be successful (Sharf, 2008b; Wubbolding, 2004).
Glasser has written a number of books applying his theory to educational settings. They include
Schools Without Failure (1969) and The Quality School (1998). Reality therapy is quite popular in
middle and high scho9l settings, but may be used across all grade levels by teachers, administrators,
and school counselors (Sharf, 2008b).
ACTIVITY 3.2
Using the WDEP system (Wubbolding, 2004) with a partner, conduct a role-play including a
counselor and a counselee using the following scenarios.
a. A 12th-grade student who is having difficulty with career plans
b. A 7th-grade male who is being bullied by his peers
c. A 3rd grader who is having prohlems getting along with her sister
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play the student counselee. What were some of the aspects
of this counseling approach that assisted the counseling process? Detracted from the counsel-
ing process?
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Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 35
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
Cognitive behavioral approaches include the works of Albert Ellis (2004a, 2004b), who devel-
oped rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) and Aaron Beck (1976, 1987), who founded cogni-
tive therapy (CT). Each of these models combines principles from cognitive and behavioral theories
into shorHerm therapy approaches, which are popular treatment techniqnes in clinical as well as
school counseling settings (Corey, 2009c).
Eiiis’s (2004a, 2004b) REBT is based on the premise that one’s interpretation of life events influ-
ences emotional and behavioral responses within the environment. Hence, by changing the inter-
pretation or the way we think about life situations, we also change how we feel and what we do in
response to our thinking. Ellis focused on altering absolutist thinking, typically represented by the
words must, ought, and should. He contended that emotional problems are largely a result of mis-
taken beliefs and may be rectified by recognizing the irrational nature of one’s thinking, disputing
such irrational cognitions, and replacing these thoughts with more rational and effective thinking.
Rational emotive behavior therapy, directive and educational in nature, stresses thinking, judg-
ing, deciding, analyzing, and doing (Corey, 2009c; Sharf, 2008c). The counselor’s role in REBT is to
help the counselee realize the irrationality of mistaken beliefs, which will later be replaced by more
functional thoughts and behaviors through experiential activities and behavioral homework assign-
ments to reinforce the newly acquired behaviors.
Beck (1976, 1987) developed his theory of counseling, referred to as cognitive therapy (CT), after
working with individuals suffering from depression. Although he and Ellis did not work together
in developing their approaches, similarities are noted. Both require active involvement on the part
of the counselee, are directive, time limited, present focused, structured, collaborative, and employ
situation-specific problem identification. Differences include terminology and emphasis on empiri-
cism to a greater degree in CT than REBT, with CT applying more structure within the counseling
process and REBT using more confrontation during counseling (Corey, 2009c).
Those who are associated with CT credit emotional instability to cognitive distortions, which lead
to a negative bias in thinking. Common cognitive distortions include all-or-nothing thinking, mind
reading, catastrophizing, overgeneralization, labeling and mislabeling, magnification and minimi-
zation, and personalization, among others (Sharf, 2008c). Treatment involves a collaborative effort
between the counselor and counselee to identify dysfunctional, distorted thinking, and challenge
ACTIVITY 3.3
With a partner, conduct a role-play of the following situation using a cognitive behavioral
approach.
A parent of one of your fifth graders comes to see you because she is concerned that her
son, Kyle, is gay. According to Kyle’s mom, he is not interested in sports or any type of
physical activity that is typical for boys his age. Kyle, according his mother, is quiet and
prefers to play dolls with his sister. Kyle’s mom further states that it is her fault because
she divorced his father when he was baby and as a result of not having a male figure in the
home, Kyle is suffering the consequences.
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play Kyle’s mom. What were some of the aspects of this
counseling approach that assisted the counseling process? Detracted from the counseling
process?
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36 A Guide to Practiclun and Internship for School Counselors-in-Training
such cognitions by asking questions such as “What is the evidence for the belief?” (Sharf, 2008c
p. 349). Counselees may participate in activities such as journaling, record keeping, self-monitorin;
b•
and thought recognition as a means of examining the accuracy of their cognitions. When counselees
develop an awareness of their cognitive distortions, they may again work collaboratively with the coun-
selor to restructure their thinking and improve their problem-solving and coping skills (Corey, 2009c;
Sharf, 2008c). Treatment strategies include behavioral rehearsal, role-play, and homework assign-
ments for continued practice of positive cognitions and behaviors (Corsini & Wedding, 2005b).
Cognitive behavioral approaches have been applied successfully with children and adults demon-
strating general anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, obsessive disorders, and substance
abuse (Corey, 2009c; Corsini & Wedding, 2005b; Sharf, 2008c). The brief, didactic nature of CT and
REBT make them popular approaches among school counseling interventions.
Solution-Focused Brief Counseling
Similar to the person-centered counseling approach, solution-focused brief counseling, or solu-
tion-focused therapy, is based on the assumption that everyone experiences problems and has within
himself or herself the strength to implement the needed change(s) to solve such difficulties. The
overall goal of the counseling process is collaborative construction of solutions between the coun-
selee and counselor (Downing & Harrison, 1992). Earlier, traditional counseling models focused
exclusively on the problem, followed by assessment to identify possible origins of the difficulty.
Treatment was then designed to remediate the inadequacies of the counselee in relating to the prob-
lem (Murphy, 1997), inherently conveying to the counselee that something is wrong with him or
her. Solution-focused brief counseling, in contrast, assumes the wellness and inner strength of the
counselee, rather than focusing on some personality distortion or psychopathology (Downing &
Harrison, 1992).
Solution-focused brief counseling was initially influenced by the work of Milton Erickson
(deShazer, 1985). Erickson is regarded by many as the founder of brief therapy; the brief strategic
therapy model of the Mental Research Institute in Palo Alto, California; and the solution-focused
therapy model of the Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Bonnington (1993)
credits the deShazer group at the Brief Family Therapy Center with development of the basic prin-
ciples of solution-focused brief counseling. They include (a) the philosophy that the primary task
of the counselor is to help the counselee do something different; (b) the shift of emphasis from the
problem itself to a solution that may already be present within the counselee’s life; (c) the idea that
change, even in small increments, is productive in creating the medium for further change; and
(d) goals stated in positive terms create expectations for change.
In solution-focused brief counseling, problems are viewed as being maintained by the counselee’s
belief that the problem is always happening and may have intensified as a result of the individual
repeatedly applying the same solutions indiscriminately to each area of difficulty (LaFountain,
Garner, & Eliason, 1996). At the outset of therapy, the counselor may ask the counselee not only to
describe the problem, but also to think of times when the problem is either not present or present
to a lesser degree (exceptions to the problem). The counselee may then be asked what was different
during such times or what he or she did differently. Such dialogue implies the potential within the
individual to make necessary changes (Bonnington, l 993).
Once the counselee has acknowledged the existence of a problem, the emphasis shifts to goal set-
ting. The “miracle question” (deShazer, 1988) proposes a hypothetical situation in which the conn-
. selee is asked to imagine awakening one morning and the problem has been solved. The counselee
is then instructed to process how his or her environment might be different and what he or she might
be doing differently. The counselor then guides the counselee to the present reality that miracles are
not likely to happen, but, since the student knows what he or she would like to be different, they
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Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 37
have the ability to plan what they will do to bring about the desired changes. The counselor encour-
ages the counselee to let go of previously attempted solution behaviors that have already proven inef-
fective in solving the problem, consider what he or she may already be doing to reach their goals, and
state what behaviors he or she believes would bring about realization of goals (Bonnington, 1993).
(This allows the counselee to get a vision of what is wanted rather than what is not desired.)
During subsequent sessions, the counselor assists the student in restating goals as process goals
and reviews the counselee’s progress. The counselor may suggest analogies that compare the process
to reaching a goal in an obstacle course. Each session concludes with encouragement to reinforce
behaviors that result in positive change for the counselee. Students may also be instructed to look
for instances during the upcoming week that they would like to see happen more frequently. The
next session then begins by discussing those events the student wishes to have repeated (LaFountain
et al., 1996).
Solution-focused brief counseling techniques are applicable with students of all ages and may
be applied in individual as well as group counseling settings. These techniques may be used with
students demonstrating a variety of difficulties and may serve to lessen the stigma sometimes associ-
ated with certain populations that appear prevalent in group counseling programs, such as children
of alcoholics or students struggling with anger or behavioral issues (LaFountain et al., 1996). Since
the treatment groups focus on the strengths of the individual student, group members are able to
learn from one another, thus lessening the need to identify role models.
ACTIVITY 3.4
With a partner, conduct a role-play of a school counselor and a counselee using the solution-
focused counseling approach. Use one or more of the following scenarios to assist you with
this process.
a. A second grader is upset because one of her friends will not play with her or be her
learning partner in class.
b. A sophomore did not get a scholarship to attend an academic camp and believes that
she will never get into a good college because of this rejection.
c. A parent is concerned about her 17-year-old daughter who seems belligerent and will
not listen to anything she has to say.
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselees. What were some of the aspects of
this counseling approach that assisted the counseling process? Detracted from the counsel-
ing process?
Narrative Therapy
Grounded in the principles of social theory, Michael White and David Epston (1990) are viewed as
primary contributors to narrative therapy. Similar to the approaches described earlier in this chapter,
narrative therapy involves a collaborative counselor-counselee relationship and empowers the coun-
selee to take an active role in initiating.life changes. In narrative therapy, an individual’s reality is con-
strncted through life stories based on past experiences and is viewed through the interpretative lens
of expectations from within the dominant culture of a society (e.g., parents, peers, teachers), finally
resulting in the individual’s personal beliefs about him- or herself. Individual stories often conflict
with stories perpetuated by the dominant sotietal culture, thus culminating in stress, confusion, and
38 A Guide to Practicun1 and Internship for School Counselors-in-Training
ACTIVITY 3.5
With a partner, conduct a role-play of a counselor and counselee using a narrative approach.
The following scenario may be used to assist with this activity:
JoAnna is very unhappy. No matter what she tries, nothing seems to turn out the way
she would like. For instance, just this morning, she took a quiz in her algebra class, and
even though she spent hours studying for it, she was only able to receive a grade of a C.
Furthermore, her boyfriend recently broke up with her because she tended to “drag him
down,” according to JoAnna. She comes to see you because she· doesn’t feel as if she has
many friends and is lonely.
Discuss what it was like to role-play the counselor and some of the challenges in using this
approach. What aspects of this theory seemed to facilitate the counseling relationship?
Discuss what it was like to role-play JoAnna. What were some of the aspects of this counsel-
ing approach that assisted the counseling process? Detracted from the counseling process?
frustration on the part of the counselee. These beliefs become the counselee’s story and may serve to
dictate how he or she views self and others, as well as life’s challenges (Corey, 2009d).
Narrative therapy involves the counselor and counselee working collaboratively to (a) co-construct
the counselee’s story; (b) deconstrnct “impoverishing” life stories by externalizing problems as sep-
arate and apart from the individual; (c) identify unique outcomes or times when the counselee was
able to separate himself or herself from the influence of the problem; and (d) reconstruct a pre-
ferred, alternative story, thus enhancing coping and problem-solving skills, initiating goal setting,
and improving self-image. Using this postmodern approach, counselees are able to reconstruct and
redirect their life path to set goals for the future (Carlson, 1997; White, 1993, 1995).
Narrative therapy involves interpretation of counselee issues through the examination of a person’s
life stories. As in solution-focused brief counseling, the emphasis in narrative therapy is on pounselee
strengths and the potential for positive change, rather than on diagnosis or labeling. The counselee
takes charge of interpreting his or her life story while the counselor exercises active listening and
encouragement to further empower the counselee as author of his or her life story (Corey, 2009d).
The process of narrative therapy may be compared to the analysis of literary works by examining
story components such as setting, plot, and themes. As counselees tell and retell their experiential nar-
ratives, the counselor listens intently for the purpose of validating the story to the counselee as well
as drafting alternative extensions to the counselee’s story. Through story recollection and repetition,
the counselee is able to understand the experience from multiple perspectives, in some cases leading
to problem solution, and in others emotional release, understanding, and acceptance as the counselee
grieves aspects that have created angst within his or her own life (Neimeyer, 2000; Sharf, 2008d).
Narrative therapy may be implemented during individual or group counseling in school as well
as clinical settings. Researchers have integrated the approach with creative counseling strategies,
such as play and art therapy, resulting in positive therapeutic gains (Carlson, 1997; Shovlin, 1999).
Narrative therapy may also be applied in career counseling settings to address developmental tasks
such as understanding self-identity, building autonomy, decision making, and goal setting (Thomas
& Gibbons, 2009).
Creative Counseling Approaches
Creative counseling approaches, also known as expressive therapies, are therapeutic interventions
in which the counselee uses creative energies to enhance self-awareness or self-expression within
Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 39
a treatment setting (Robbins, 1980). Three creative counseling approaches frequently employed
in school counseling settings are art therapy, play therapy, and music therapy. Such expressive
approaches are often used in school counseling settings to enhance self-esteem, build self-concept,
improve social interaction, and encourage multicultural awareness and acceptance among children
from a variety of cultural backgrounds (D’Andrea & Daniels, 1995).
Art Therapy
Natale (1996) describes two schools of thought currently existing in the field of art therapy. First,
art has for years been used as an interpretative tool to lend information regarding thoughts, memo-
ries, and feelings of individuals who may be unable or unwilling to express such verbally. Using
this philosophy, the information gleaned from analysis of a counselee’s art creation is analytically
interpreted and used to develop a plan for reaching goals. Second, art is considered to be healing in
and of itself, and may be used as a means of expressive communication with individuals who pres-
ent emotional or behavioral difficulties. In this chapter, and for the purposes of school counseling,
art therapy will be defined as a form of expressive communication in which the counselee expresses
thoughts and feelings through creation of art products using one or more of a variety of media.
Student-created art products, therefore, may provide clues to the affective status of an individual,
and also serve as an expressive language, thus providing a less threatening mode of communication
within the counselor-counselee relationship (Natale, 1996; Naumburg, 2001). School counselors
are advised to use art therapy as a tool for self-expression and refrain from interpretation of uncon-
scious, projected meanings unless they have received sufficient training in projective personality
assessment and modern-day psychoanalysis (Naumburg, 2001).
Art therapy is easily integrated into the typical school counseling office. Art media are often
readily available in school settings and include multicolored paper, pencils, crayons, markers, paints,
glue, magazine cutouts for collage, modeling clay, pipe cleaners, and papier-macM. Most materials
may be stored in cabinets or file drawers until ready for use (Kahn, 1999). During the initial stage of
counseling, it is important to create an atmosphere of acceptance through nonthreatening, encourag-
ing statements, and provide a choice of art activity. During this stage, the counselor may introduce
activities to enhance counselee self-awareness and encourage the examination of personal issues.
Later on, goal-directed activities are recommended (Kahn, 1999). Art therapy, as a medium for
self-expression and communication between counselee and counselor, may be applied by counselors
in school settings to achieve similar results as other methods of brief counseling. The approach is
easily integrated into theoretical models such as person-centered, cognitive behavioral, and solution-
focused (Kahn, 1999; Riley, 1999).
Art therapy is suitable for counselees of all ages and areas of need, including developmental,
academic, social, and emotional. The approach is considered suitable for children as well as resis-
tant adolescent counselees, who may be less cooperative with traditional “talk therapy” approaches.
ACTIVITY 3.6
Take a blank sheet of paper and colored markers. Think about your practicum or internship
experience, then draw your feelings that represent this experience. Let your mind wander while
you think in terms of how you would like to represent your feelings and thoughts about this
clinical experience. Do not evaluate your work and do not worry if you are unable to represent
these feelings and thoughts accurately. After you are finished, put this picture away and then
do this same activity at the end of your program. Compare the two pictures to see how your
feelings and thougpts may have changed based on your artwork. Identify one way you might
use a similar art activity with one of the students in your school.
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40 A Guide to Practictun and Internship for School Counselors-in-Training
Art provides avenues for self-expression through the defense lowering nature of concrete images
depicted in drawings, paintings, and sculptures (Landreth, 2002; Riley, 1999). Allowing children
to express their feelings through art also enhances coping in times of stress and separation anxiety
precipitated by illness or injury (Raghurman, 1999). The approach may be an effective treatment
technique for homebound students upon their return to school following medical interventions that,
at times, necessitate lengthy hospital stays, surgeries, and prolonged periods of discomfort. Finally,
art therapy is also recommended as an intervention for children with special needs, such as autism,
to enhance expressive communication (Emery, 2004).
Play Therapy
Child-centered, nondirective play therapy is a popular treatment for children and adolescents both
in school and clinical settings. Play therapy is based on the contention that play is a child’s primary
method of communication and cognitive processing. The child processes experiences through play
and builds communicative abilities by enacting his or her perceptions of reality. Play may be used
to enhance the counselor-counselee relationship, foster a sense of security on the part of the young
student, and initiate individual expression through a less restricted modality independent of verbal
language (Landreth, 2002).
Child-centered play therapy, based on person-centered principles, involves a complete and total
acceptance of the child for the person he or she is. The therapist does not overtly direct the play ses-
sion by instructing the child as to what or how to play, but instead allows the child to lead the play
therapy process. The counselor uses verbal communication to reflect content and emotion following
the child’s actions or spoken words. A warm, permissive relationship is established between the
counselor and counselee in order for the child to communicate through play what be or she may have
been unable to communicate through spoken language. Play therapy allows school-aged children an
avenue for expression without the constraints of formal linguistic communication (Landreth, 2002;
Schaefer & O’Connor, 1983).
Play therapy incorporates a number of modalities, including representational play through the use
of play objects, parallel play, interactive play between counselor and counselee (or between several
children for social development), and expressive play through art making. The long-term goal of i.
child-centered play therapy is for the child to develop congruence between his or her perceptual world I
based on experience and his or her self-concept (Landreth, 2002; Nordling & Guerney, 1999). · 1·
There are several counselor qualities and personality traits that may serve to enhance one’s ability
to successfully implement child-centered play therapy. They include (a) unconditional acceptance
of the child counselee; (b) respecting the personhood of the child; (c) demonstrating sensitivity to
the child’s communication from both verbal and nonverbal perspectives; (d) being fully present and
focused exclusively on the relationship with the child counselee at the time and moment of the ther-
apy session; and (e) a tolerance for ambiguity (Landreth, 2002). In child-centered play therapy, the
couuselor is encouraged to allow the child counselee a choice to change or not to change; this is a
potential challenge for many professionals since the original purpose of thecounseling is often to
bring about a change. Providing the child the opportunity to decide whether to change his or her
behavior builds a sense of responsibility and decision making that may ultimately lead to change
(Landreth, 2002).
Play therapy materials should include only toys or objects conducive to self-expression. Automated
toys or toys reflecting popular celebrities or superheroes may inhibit the child’s expressive communi-
cation during play. A variety of toys should be available for expression, including toys for aggressive
or violent expression, including punching bags, plastic knives, plastic hammers or mallets, blocks
that may be thrown, and toy guns. Most authors agree that guns do not promote violence in the real
life of the child counselee (Landreth, 2002; McDonald, 1984; Trotter, Eshelman, & Landreth, 2001).
Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 41
However, when nsing aggressive types of toys, be sure to communicate the value of these toys with
administrators who enforce zero-tolerance policies.
Expressive counseling approaches such as play and art therapies are potentially effective in indi-
vidual as well as group counseling interventions among school-aged children. They may serve to
bridge cultural differences that exist between counselor and counselee, enhance communication
with culturally diverse students, relieve stress among students as they transition to new academic
settings, and improve self-esteem, thus allowing students from backgrounds different than those
dominantly reflected in the school environment to achieve academic gains (Baggerly & Parker,
2005; Cochran, 1996).
ACTIVITY 3.7
Observe a child playing. Make note of this child’s developmental and chronological age.
Note some of the actions exhibited by this child. Compare your observations with a partner’s
observations and notes. Discuss how you might use play in a counseling session with one of
your students.
Music in a Counseling Setting
Music has been referred to as “truly the universal language” (Vines, 2004, p. 12). Although school
counselors do not conduct music therapy without obtaining proper certification or licensure, using
music in large group classroom guidance and small group counseling programs may evoke thoughts
and feelings among children such as awareness, self-expression, and social interaction. Music and
song may be incorporated into elementary school counseling activities to enhance attentiveness,
strengthen the social bond between the counselor and a group of children, and serve as a teaching
aid to enhance coping during difficult life transitions such as parental divorce and relocation (Bixler,
2001; Haigh, 2005). At the middle and high school levels, music may also be employed during class-
room guidance and group counseling programs to build rapport between the school counselor and
student counselees. Guidance lessons and group sessions centered on popular, classroom appropriate
song lyrics may stimulate self-expression among adolescent students and lead to class discussions
on pertinent issues such as academic achievement, respect for diversity, and career opportunities
(Veach & Gladding, 2007; Vines, 2005). Parents, teachers, and school counselors may refer students
to music therapists for help in treating conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), depression, low self-esteem, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and mentally or physi-
cally disabling conditions (Emery, 2004; Hendricks, 2001; Jackson, 2003; Kennedy, 2008).
ACTIVITY 3.8
Bring in music that has special meaning for you. Play the music in class and talk about the rea-
son that the music yon brought to class is meaningful to you. Describe how this music or song
selection relates to yonr school counselor-in-training experience. How might you use a similar
activity with students in your school?
Conclusion
School counselors, faced with overwhelming responsibilities and demands that are, at times, extra-
neous to their primary role as counselors, rarely have the luxury of 50-minnte sessions considered
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42 A Guide to Practicun1- and Internship for School Counselors-in-Training
routine by professionals in community and private settings. In addition, student counselees are often
referred by parents or teachers rather than by themselves and, hence, may meet the counseling situ-
ation in a less than cooperative manner. In view of such conditions, the need arises for counseling
methods that are both time effective and optimistic in nature. This chapter has provided a brief
overview of several counseling theories frequently employed in school settings, which are generally
time limited, collaborative, empowering, and lead to enhanced academic achievement and improved
learning outcomes. School counselors are encouraged to develop an in-depth knowledge base of
different counseling approaches and to select ideologies that not only appeal to themselves as prac-
titioners within the schools, but, most important, meet the developmental and emotional needs of
their counselees.
Web Sites
Person-Centered Counseling
• This YouThbe depiction shows a counselor using a person-centered approach to counseling: http://
video.google.com/videosearch?q=person+centered+youtube&oe=utf-8&i’ls=org.mozilla:en-
US:official&client=firefox-a&um=l&ie=UTF-8&ei=YBf7SuWeN4HjnAfTqYDlDA&sa=X&oi
=video_result_group&ct=title&resnum=l&ved=OCA4QqwQwAA#
• This link will take you to a short explanation of person-centered counseling described by Carl
Rogers: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HarEcd4bt-s
Reality Therapy
• This link will take yon to a brief discussion of reality therapy as described by William Glasser.
A short scenario of this approach in practice is also shown: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
eYJBBm7bilA&eurl=http%3A%2F%2Fvideo%2Egoogle%2Ecom%2Fvideosearch%3Fclie
nt%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26q%3DReality%2BTherapy%26oe%3DUTF%2D8%26um%
3D I %26ie%3DUTF%2D8%26ei%3DcFpaSoqkApGCmQf9kp2HAg%26sa%3DX&feature=
player_embedded
• This link will take you to a YouTube depiction of reality therapy with an angry parent: http://
video.google.com/videosearch?client=safari&rls=en&q=Reality+Therapy&oe=UTFS&um=
l &ie= UTF8&ei=cFpaSoqkApGCmQf9kp2HAg&sa=X&oi=video_result_group&ct=
title&resnum=l2#
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
• In the YouTube video titled Cognitive Therapy: The Case of Tim, you can view a fictitious
counseling session using cognitive therapy: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lizm4jiyvXI
• This link will take you to a counseling scenario that utilizes the strategies of cognitive ther-
apy: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqW8p9WPweQ&feature=related
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy
• This link will take you to a YouTube video titled What is Solution Focused Brief Therapy?
Counselors describe the use of this approach in their practices: http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=R2G8UKA4yIU&feature=related
• This link will take you to a video titled A Brief History of the Solution-Focused Approach and
the individuals who shaped this approach: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J0hcpLKVp7o&
feature=related
1
I
Popular Counseling Theories Used by School Counselors 43
Narrative Therapy
• A description of narrative therapy by Robert Rich is available on this link with examples of stories
that people believe in order to continne their unhappy situations: http://anxietyanddepression-
help.com/narra.html
• The following link will take you to a YouTube demonstration that was filmed for a class at the
University of Texas, Austin: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u05ssGiWHT8
Using Art in Counseling
• This link will take you to art therapy activities that you can adapt with the school-aged youth
that you are counseling: http://www.arttherapyblog.com/c/art-therapy-activities/
• This link will take you to a page that explains art therapy and provides numerous activities that
you can use in individual or group counseling: http://www.vickyb.demon.co.uk/
Play Therapy
• This link will take you to the home page of the Association for Play Therapy. An overview
of play therapy, a shot media presentation describing play therapy, and links to play therapy
organizations are found on this site: http://www.a4pt.org/ps.playtherapy.cfm
• This link will take you to a journal article that describes 15 effective play ther-
apy techniques that you could adapt and implement with students in your setting:
http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/-drbryce/Play%20Therapy%20Techniques
Music Therapy
• This link will take you to a short video that describes the use of music in counseling: http://video.
google.com/videosearch?client=safari&rls=en&q=music+therapy&oe=UTF8&um=l&ie=
UTF8&ei=sGJaSt3RHc6wmAfdp7TxAg&sa=X&oi=video_result_group&ct=title&resnum=4#
• This Web site from the American Music Therapy Association provides answers to frequently
asked questions about music therapy: http://www.musictherapy.org/faqs.html
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