1. What types of tools are used in traditional economic development? How are these tools similar? How are they different?
2. Who is involved in the decision-making process with traditional and neighborhood economic development? Does the composition of the group of decision-makers make a difference?
3. What do we know about the outcomes of traditional economic development projects – who benefits and who doesn’t?
4. Moving forward, what are your policy recommendations to overcome some of the shortcomings of traditional economic development?
PADM 7224
1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis
Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Edwards & Imrie (2015)
Chapters 5 & 6
3
PADM 7224
2
CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY
PLANNING AND PARTNERSHIP
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224
3
Renew/improve cities through
community engagement
How do to it?
Note: Reminder that several parts of this book discuss urban policy
outside of the U.S. Most of the examples in this chapter focus on
community-based urban policy in the United Kingdom (UK).
PADM 7224
4
Community Planning and Partnership
Defining Community
What is community?
Complex term with socially constructed boundaries
Often seen as positive concept – used by policy-
makers to spur change (e.g., “there is a breakdown in
our community, so we need to act)
4 common conceptualizations:
Community as a place/geography (e.g., Memphis)
Community as an interest group (e.g., Black
community)
Community organizations (e.g., nonprofits)
Community as process (e.g., community development)
PADM 7224
5
Community Planning and Partnership
Community & the Urban Problem
~19th century urbanization was described as
antithesis of “community”
Conceptualization of the urban “community” was
different than the rural “community”
Urban policy typically targets “communities” to
encourage citizens to participate in urban
regeneration, or create “community”
Shift in urban policy from social community
regeneration (prior late 1970s) to economic
community regeneration (post late 1970s)
PADM 7224
6
Community Planning and Partnership
Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
Communitarianism – idea that collective
bonds with those around us are
important to prevent social exclusion,
which leads to urban decline
Build social capital – linkages that
connect people – to build urban renewal
Communities should be given the
responsibility to drive change
PADM 7224
7
Community Planning and Partnership
Putting Community Activation into Practice
Community-based urban policy changes
governance – private (for-profit and non-
profit) organizations have more seats at the
governing table
Level of community-involvement can vary
substantially from policy to policy – from
“add-ons” to “key partners”
All communities (neighborhoods) do not
have the existing expertise, knowledge, or
ability to engage in policy-making
PADM 7224
8
Community Planning and Partnership
Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Unanswered questions –
Is community involvement in policy-making
simply tokenism by government or is it of
actual value?
Is the policy implemented with the level of
community involvement intended in the
spirit of the policy?
PADM 7224
9
Community Planning and Partnership
Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Looking for answers –
Who represents the community?
“Community” as conceptualized by policy-makers and
implementers often differs from those living in the
community
Who sets the rules for participation?
Policy-makers (city or broader) often continue to
create the top-down rules for engagement
How is power distributed in community
partnerships?
“Expert” knowledge tends to be prioritized over
“localized” knowledge
PADM 7224
10
Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy
Web Links
British Library – Community
Development and Regeneration
https://www.bl.uk/social-
welfare/collection-
items?allportalsubjects=community%20de
velopment%20and%20regeneration
https://www.bl.uk/social-welfare/collection-items?allportalsubjects=community%20development%20and%20regeneration
PADM 7224
11
CHAPTER 6: CULTURE & THE
CREATIVE CITY
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224
12
Key to modern urban policy is promoting
the city’s culture and creativity to improve
well-being (economic and social)
Festivals, sport facilities and events, “place-
marketing”
General idea – cultural strategies lead to
economic development
Critical question – who benefits from this
policy and what who does the policy attract
to the city?
PADM 7224
13
Culture & the Creative City:
Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Growing trend since late 20th century to
market/promote culture to grow the city
For many it was a part of a “reinventing”
process after loss of manufacturing
industry – adapting to a post-industrial
world
Challenged traditional urban planning with
a shot of innovation
New “cultural” industries (i.e., the arts) to
attract – fashion, design, music, film, etc.
PADM 7224
14
Culture & the Creative City:
Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Florida’s “Creative Class” (2002)
General idea – to thrive cities need to
attract new class of educated
professionals who work in post-
industrial tech, knowledge, and
cultural industries; to attract them
cities need to cater to their
“bohemian” lifestyle (three “T’s”)
Highly influential, but controversial
Blamed for (or contributed to) large
influx of gentrification and increasing
inequality in the 21st century city
U.S counties by “creativity index”
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/oct/26/gentrification-richard-florida-interview-creative-class-new-urban-crisis
https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/creative-class-county-codes/
PADM 7224
15
Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Not one specific “cultural promotion”
policy, multiple initiatives and strategies
Culture defined as art vs. culture defined as
society – different policy approaches
Typical goal is that these policies lead to
economic consumption (e.g., coffee shops,
shopping/retail, nightlife, etc.) and vibrant
public spaces
Typically creates neighborhood pockets
(“cultural quarters” – see figure 6.7, p. 162)
Culture and fads change, is it sustainable?
PADM 7224
16
Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Flagship urban development
Revitalizing urban areas with large
construction and architecture projects (such as
inner city, waterfront, etc.)
“…even the most landlocked cities have done
their best to find some sort of waterfront” (p.
163)
Place-marketing (“re-branding”)
Promote distinctive cultural features that set
apart the city, attract investment
Brand decay? Does the image represent all
local identities?
PADM 7224
17
Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Cultural Events and Festivals
Large-scale, short-term events that attract
tourism and investment
Also used to increase concept of
“community”, improve social bonds, and
reduce social exclusion
Example – Memphis in May
Example – soccer stadium in Chester, PA
Competitive example – Olympic Games
bidding process
Ten years later, is Chester better now with a soccer stadium?
https://www.olympic.org/all-about-the-candidature-process
PADM 7224
18
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
What much weight should we put into
cultural-led regeneration efforts?
Exists a knowledge gap in actual impact –
both economic and social
Further exploration needed in trickle-down
effects and sustainability of efforts
Multiple different types of strategies (i.e.,
policies) that fall within this “bucket” with
multiple different outcomes
PADM 7224
19
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
“The evidence shows that community-
based participatory cultural projects are
likely to be far more beneficial in
sustaining urban regeneration, but in the
eyes of city marketers and management,
such projects are less glamorous and
unlikely to project a city onto the world
stage.” (p. 170)
PADM 7224
20
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Whose culture is being promoted?
Tension between successful cultural
marketing (what attracts economic
development) and real social inclusion
(what brings all people together)
Not always mutually exclusive, but can be
Political power struggles lie at the center of
this question
PADM 7224
21
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Does cultural marketing eventually result
in “sameness” promotion?
All cities are promoting the same type of
cultural regeneration which “homogenizes
urban environments”
Fast policy transfer – X policy worked in City A
so why can’t it work in City B; flawed logic
Florida’s creative class thesis neglects
importance of city context in policymaking
and implementation
PADM 7224
22
Culture & the Creative City:
Web Links
Charles Landry (prolific author on
creative cities
https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-
landry/biography/
Urban Studies Special Issue on Culture-
led Regeneration
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/
5-6
https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-landry/biography/
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/5-6
- Edwards & Imrie (2015)�Chapters 5 & 6
- Chapter 5: Community Planning and Partnership
- Community Planning and Partnership�Defining Community
- Community Planning and Partnership�Community & the Urban Problem
- Community Planning and Partnership�Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
- Community Planning and Partnership�Putting Community Activation into Practice
- Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
- Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy Web Links
- Chapter 6: Culture & the Creative City
- Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
- Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
- Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
- Culture & the Creative City: �Web Links
Community Planning and Partnership
Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Culture & the Creative City
Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
PADM 7224
1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis
Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Euchner & McGovern (200
3
)
Chapter 3 – Economic
Development and the
Construction of Opportunity
3
PADM 7224
2
Economic Development and the
Construction of Opportunity
Economic development:
“Stimulating business investment to expand
employment and tax revenues”
Promote economic activity that spurs the
involvement of multiple groups of city citizens
into productive city life
Most city leaders view economic growth as the
key to urban revitalization
Key question – growth is typically viewed as
a good thing, but how to promote growth
that is equitable for all city citizens?
PADM 7224
3
1900th century – golden age of cities due to
industrialization and urbanization
Early 20th century – too much success led to
countertrend in growth and rise of complex
urban problems
Middle 20th century – widespread
deindustrialization decimated many cities
Evidence – manufacturing declined between 51-
64% in major cities
Factory closings rippled throughout
neighborhoods
Suburbanization sky-rocketed
PADM 7224
4
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
Suburbanization
Many of those who could afford to move out of
the city did so
Racial discrimination drastically limited the
mobility of people of color (e.g., “redlining”)
Perfect storm – unemployment rises and tax
revenue falls
City leaders feared raising taxes would
cause further erosion of tax base; but
cutting of services would reduce quality of
life and also cause further erosion
PADM 7224
5
1960s and 70s – city leaders focused on
drawing business investment through
improving downtown business districts;
need not focus on neighborhoods
decimated by deindustrialization
Believed this was the only way for renewal
Put faith in trickle down economics
Wanted to create a post-industrial economy
based in professional jobs with large corporate
headquarters (information technology, services,
communications)
PADM 7224
6
Urban Renewal
Public-private partnerships (3Ps) drove downtown
redevelopment with the support of the Housing Act of
1949 (aka “urban renewal”)
City government would use eminent domain to take
“blighted” from private residents to clear it for
redevelopment by private investors
“Blight” clearing often meant destroying stable Black
neighborhoods, and displacing residents to scattered
public housing projects
Private investors often built profitable buildings, rather
than affordable housing
Civil Rights movement in late 1960s helped to slow
eminent domain and urban renewal
“Urban renewal” program was consolidated in the
Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) in 1974
https://hbr.org/2019/01/what-successful-public-private-partnerships-do
https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/cdbg/
PADM 7224
7
1970s onward – city leaders continued to
follow “logic of growth politics”; “attract
and retain capital investment by persuading
businesses to locate downtown”
How does city hall attract businesses?
Change city tax policy to create a favorable
business tax culture (low overall tax burden and
tax incentives/breaks)
Costs vs. benefits to the city of changing city tax
policy to attract businesses continues to be
debated
PADM 7224
8
Inducing Business Investment
Downsides to downtown development:
Gentrification prices current residents out of
their neighborhoods
Exacerbates income inequality – usually includes
high-paying and low-paying jobs, but few
middle-class jobs
Downtown growth doesn’t trickle to the
neighborhoods that need assistance
Linkage policies have attempted to force
downtown development to community
revitalization, with mixed results
PADM 7224
9
Economic development driven by city tourism
gained traction in the 1990s
Widespread building of convention centers, arts and
entertainment buildings, music venues, museums,
sports arenas, etc.
Marketing existing arts and cultural opportunities
more aggressively
Waterfront development
Large bourgeois city shopping malls
Goal: attract visitors with a single “attraction”,
get them to go to other attractions/retail, and
ultimately get them to come back with more
visitors
PADM 7224
10
Enticing Visitors to the City
Tourism-based urban policy is not the
solution to community revitalization, but
can serve as a “catalyst” to spur city growth
and create city pride (think sports teams)
Even better when such policy encourages
mixing of different city populations in civic
spaces
Major criticisms:
Doesn’t do anything for actual city growth
Tourism buddle can burst – new attractions
become old, lose appeal
Turns cities into artificial Disney Worlds
PADM 7224
11
Neighborhoods decimated by
deindustrialization received little attention
until 1950s/60s civil rights movement and
1960s race riots
Federal response was a “War on Poverty”
and LBJ’s “Great Society”
1970s/80s – spending on Vietnam War,
inflation, rising unemployment and
perception that government was the
problem not the solution quickly led to
retreat of the Great Society ideals
https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/01/28/lbj-great-society-josh-zeitz-book-216538
PADM 7224
12
Neighborhood Revitalization
Economic development hasn’t aligned well
with community development – “Cities
should return to the traditional strategy for
fighting poverty of tending to people’s
material needs by providing income
support, food stamps, housing vouchers,
and basic health care.” (p. 117, via
Lemann’s 1994 NYT article “The Myth of
Community Development”)
People-based policies that enhance an
individual’s opportunity for their own
economic growth
https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/09/magazine/the-myth-of-community-development.html
PADM 7224
13
Neighborhood Revitalization
Other people-based policies:
Residential dispersion (HUD’s MTO)
Improve transportation options (including public
transit) for inner-city residents
Address racial discrimination in hiring practices
Place-based policies haven’t had their intended
effect on revitalization:
1980s Enterprise Zones
1990s Empowerment Zones
2000s and 2010s business improvement districts
(BIDs) are place-based policies with substantial
private involvement – mixed results
https://www.hud.gov/programdescription/mto
PADM 7224
14
Economic development that focuses on
“downtown” and ignores neighborhoods
doesn’t work
“Widespread poverty in the neighborhoods
will always be a drain on public resources, a
source of upward pressure on taxes, a
reason for continuing middle-class flight
from the city, and a deterrent to future
investment.” (p. 124)
PADM 7224
15
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Potential policy responses to improve
economic growth in neighborhoods:
Cooperate – not compete – with other cities
to attract investment
Linkage policies tying business investment to
neighborhood revitalization efforts (local
jobs, affordable housing, mass transit, etc.)
Create performance agreements with
business investments
PADM 7224
16
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Imbroscio’s (1997) alternative approach to
economic growth in neighborhoods
Entrepreneurial-mercantilist strategy
City officials identify new market opportunities to
improve public ends (i.e., be entrepreneurial)
Municipal-enterprise strategy
City owns economic enterprises (utilities, airports,
hospitals, etc.) to maintain control over profits
Community-based strategy
Support grassroots, community-owned nonprofits to
lead neighborhood redevelopment (e.g., CDCs,
community land trusts, worker cooperatives)
https://sk.sagepub.com/books/reconstructing-city-politics
PADM 7224
17
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
What’s needed?
Urban policy rooted in communitarian principles
“The redirection in economic development may
require a more active role for government to
ensure a more equitable distribution of the
costs and benefits of economic growth, a
stronger effort to give all citizens a meaningful
stake in decision-making processes, and a
renewed commitment to revitalizing urban
places.” (p. 134)
- Euchner & McGovern (2003)�Chapter 3 –
- Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
Urban Renewal
Urban Renewal
Inducing Business Investment
Inducing Business Investment
Enticing Visitors to the City
Enticing Visitors to the City
Neighborhood Revitalization
Neighborhood Revitalization
Neighborhood Revitalization
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
PADM 7224
1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis
Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Edwards & Imrie (2015)
Chapters 5 & 6
3
PADM 7224
2
CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY
PLANNING AND PARTNERSHIP
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224
3
Renew/improve cities through
community engagement
How do to it?
Note: Reminder that several parts of this book discuss urban policy
outside of the U.S. Most of the examples in this chapter focus on
community-based urban policy in the United Kingdom (UK).
PADM 7224
4
Community Planning and Partnership
Defining Community
What is community?
Complex term with socially constructed boundaries
Often seen as positive concept – used by policy-
makers to spur change (e.g., “there is a breakdown in
our community, so we need to act)
4 common conceptualizations:
Community as a place/geography (e.g., Memphis)
Community as an interest group (e.g., Black
community)
Community organizations (e.g., nonprofits)
Community as process (e.g., community development)
PADM 7224
5
Community Planning and Partnership
Community & the Urban Problem
~19th century urbanization was described as
antithesis of “community”
Conceptualization of the urban “community” was
different than the rural “community”
Urban policy typically targets “communities” to
encourage citizens to participate in urban
regeneration, or create “community”
Shift in urban policy from social community
regeneration (prior late 1970s) to economic
community regeneration (post late 1970s)
PADM 7224
6
Community Planning and Partnership
Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
Communitarianism – idea that collective
bonds with those around us are
important to prevent social exclusion,
which leads to urban decline
Build social capital – linkages that
connect people – to build urban renewal
Communities should be given the
responsibility to drive change
PADM 7224
7
Community Planning and Partnership
Putting Community Activation into Practice
Community-based urban policy changes
governance – private (for-profit and non-
profit) organizations have more seats at the
governing table
Level of community-involvement can vary
substantially from policy to policy – from
“add-ons” to “key partners”
All communities (neighborhoods) do not
have the existing expertise, knowledge, or
ability to engage in policy-making
PADM 7224
8
Community Planning and Partnership
Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Unanswered questions –
Is community involvement in policy-making
simply tokenism by government or is it of
actual value?
Is the policy implemented with the level of
community involvement intended in the
spirit of the policy?
PADM 7224
9
Community Planning and Partnership
Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Looking for answers –
Who represents the community?
“Community” as conceptualized by policy-makers and
implementers often differs from those living in the
community
Who sets the rules for participation?
Policy-makers (city or broader) often continue to
create the top-down rules for engagement
How is power distributed in community
partnerships?
“Expert” knowledge tends to be prioritized over
“localized” knowledge
PADM 7224
10
Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy
Web Links
British Library – Community
Development and Regeneration
https://www.bl.uk/social-
welfare/collection-
items?allportalsubjects=community%20de
velopment%20and%20regeneration
https://www.bl.uk/social-welfare/collection-items?allportalsubjects=community%20development%20and%20regeneration
PADM 7224
11
CHAPTER 6: CULTURE & THE
CREATIVE CITY
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224
12
Key to modern urban policy is promoting
the city’s culture and creativity to improve
well-being (economic and social)
Festivals, sport facilities and events, “place-
marketing”
General idea – cultural strategies lead to
economic development
Critical question – who benefits from this
policy and what who does the policy attract
to the city?
PADM 7224
13
Culture & the Creative City:
Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Growing trend since late 20th century to
market/promote culture to grow the city
For many it was a part of a “reinventing”
process after loss of manufacturing
industry – adapting to a post-industrial
world
Challenged traditional urban planning with
a shot of innovation
New “cultural” industries (i.e., the arts) to
attract – fashion, design, music, film, etc.
PADM 7224
14
Culture & the Creative City:
Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Florida’s “Creative Class” (2002)
General idea – to thrive cities need to
attract new class of educated
professionals who work in post-
industrial tech, knowledge, and
cultural industries; to attract them
cities need to cater to their
“bohemian” lifestyle (three “T’s”)
Highly influential, but controversial
Blamed for (or contributed to) large
influx of gentrification and increasing
inequality in the 21st century city
U.S counties by “creativity index”
https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/oct/26/gentrification-richard-florida-interview-creative-class-new-urban-crisis
https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/creative-class-county-codes/
PADM 7224
15
Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Not one specific “cultural promotion”
policy, multiple initiatives and strategies
Culture defined as art vs. culture defined as
society – different policy approaches
Typical goal is that these policies lead to
economic consumption (e.g., coffee shops,
shopping/retail, nightlife, etc.) and vibrant
public spaces
Typically creates neighborhood pockets
(“cultural quarters” – see figure 6.7, p. 162)
Culture and fads change, is it sustainable?
PADM 7224
16
Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Flagship urban development
Revitalizing urban areas with large
construction and architecture projects (such as
inner city, waterfront, etc.)
“…even the most landlocked cities have done
their best to find some sort of waterfront” (p.
163)
Place-marketing (“re-branding”)
Promote distinctive cultural features that set
apart the city, attract investment
Brand decay? Does the image represent all
local identities?
PADM 7224
17
Culture & the Creative City:
Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Cultural Events and Festivals
Large-scale, short-term events that attract
tourism and investment
Also used to increase concept of
“community”, improve social bonds, and
reduce social exclusion
Example – Memphis in May
Example – soccer stadium in Chester, PA
Competitive example – Olympic Games
bidding process
Ten years later, is Chester better now with a soccer stadium?
https://www.olympic.org/all-about-the-candidature-process
PADM 7224
18
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
What much weight should we put into
cultural-led regeneration efforts?
Exists a knowledge gap in actual impact –
both economic and social
Further exploration needed in trickle-down
effects and sustainability of efforts
Multiple different types of strategies (i.e.,
policies) that fall within this “bucket” with
multiple different outcomes
PADM 7224
19
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
“The evidence shows that community-
based participatory cultural projects are
likely to be far more beneficial in
sustaining urban regeneration, but in the
eyes of city marketers and management,
such projects are less glamorous and
unlikely to project a city onto the world
stage.” (p. 170)
PADM 7224
20
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Whose culture is being promoted?
Tension between successful cultural
marketing (what attracts economic
development) and real social inclusion
(what brings all people together)
Not always mutually exclusive, but can be
Political power struggles lie at the center of
this question
PADM 7224
21
Culture & the Creative City:
Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Does cultural marketing eventually result
in “sameness” promotion?
All cities are promoting the same type of
cultural regeneration which “homogenizes
urban environments”
Fast policy transfer – X policy worked in City A
so why can’t it work in City B; flawed logic
Florida’s creative class thesis neglects
importance of city context in policymaking
and implementation
PADM 7224
22
Culture & the Creative City:
Web Links
Charles Landry (prolific author on
creative cities
https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-
landry/biography/
Urban Studies Special Issue on Culture-
led Regeneration
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/
5-6
https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-landry/biography/
https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/5-6
- Edwards & Imrie (2015)�Chapters 5 & 6
- Chapter 5: Community Planning and Partnership
- Community Planning and Partnership�Defining Community
- Community Planning and Partnership�Community & the Urban Problem
- Community Planning and Partnership�Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
- Community Planning and Partnership�Putting Community Activation into Practice
- Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
- Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy Web Links
- Chapter 6: Culture & the Creative City
- Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
- Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
- Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
- Culture & the Creative City: �Web Links
Community Planning and Partnership
Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Culture & the Creative City
Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
PADM 7224
1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis
Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Euchner & McGovern (200
3
)
Chapter 3 – Economic
Development and the
Construction of Opportunity
3
PADM 7224
2
Economic Development and the
Construction of Opportunity
Economic development:
“Stimulating business investment to expand
employment and tax revenues”
Promote economic activity that spurs the
involvement of multiple groups of city citizens
into productive city life
Most city leaders view economic growth as the
key to urban revitalization
Key question – growth is typically viewed as
a good thing, but how to promote growth
that is equitable for all city citizens?
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1900th century – golden age of cities due to
industrialization and urbanization
Early 20th century – too much success led to
countertrend in growth and rise of complex
urban problems
Middle 20th century – widespread
deindustrialization decimated many cities
Evidence – manufacturing declined between 51-
64% in major cities
Factory closings rippled throughout
neighborhoods
Suburbanization sky-rocketed
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The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
Suburbanization
Many of those who could afford to move out of
the city did so
Racial discrimination drastically limited the
mobility of people of color (e.g., “redlining”)
Perfect storm – unemployment rises and tax
revenue falls
City leaders feared raising taxes would
cause further erosion of tax base; but
cutting of services would reduce quality of
life and also cause further erosion
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1960s and 70s – city leaders focused on
drawing business investment through
improving downtown business districts;
need not focus on neighborhoods
decimated by deindustrialization
Believed this was the only way for renewal
Put faith in trickle down economics
Wanted to create a post-industrial economy
based in professional jobs with large corporate
headquarters (information technology, services,
communications)
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Urban Renewal
Public-private partnerships (3Ps) drove downtown
redevelopment with the support of the Housing Act of
1949 (aka “urban renewal”)
City government would use eminent domain to take
“blighted” from private residents to clear it for
redevelopment by private investors
“Blight” clearing often meant destroying stable Black
neighborhoods, and displacing residents to scattered
public housing projects
Private investors often built profitable buildings, rather
than affordable housing
Civil Rights movement in late 1960s helped to slow
eminent domain and urban renewal
“Urban renewal” program was consolidated in the
Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) in 1974
https://hbr.org/2019/01/what-successful-public-private-partnerships-do
https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/cdbg/
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1970s onward – city leaders continued to
follow “logic of growth politics”; “attract
and retain capital investment by persuading
businesses to locate downtown”
How does city hall attract businesses?
Change city tax policy to create a favorable
business tax culture (low overall tax burden and
tax incentives/breaks)
Costs vs. benefits to the city of changing city tax
policy to attract businesses continues to be
debated
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Inducing Business Investment
Downsides to downtown development:
Gentrification prices current residents out of
their neighborhoods
Exacerbates income inequality – usually includes
high-paying and low-paying jobs, but few
middle-class jobs
Downtown growth doesn’t trickle to the
neighborhoods that need assistance
Linkage policies have attempted to force
downtown development to community
revitalization, with mixed results
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Economic development driven by city tourism
gained traction in the 1990s
Widespread building of convention centers, arts and
entertainment buildings, music venues, museums,
sports arenas, etc.
Marketing existing arts and cultural opportunities
more aggressively
Waterfront development
Large bourgeois city shopping malls
Goal: attract visitors with a single “attraction”,
get them to go to other attractions/retail, and
ultimately get them to come back with more
visitors
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Enticing Visitors to the City
Tourism-based urban policy is not the
solution to community revitalization, but
can serve as a “catalyst” to spur city growth
and create city pride (think sports teams)
Even better when such policy encourages
mixing of different city populations in civic
spaces
Major criticisms:
Doesn’t do anything for actual city growth
Tourism buddle can burst – new attractions
become old, lose appeal
Turns cities into artificial Disney Worlds
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Neighborhoods decimated by
deindustrialization received little attention
until 1950s/60s civil rights movement and
1960s race riots
Federal response was a “War on Poverty”
and LBJ’s “Great Society”
1970s/80s – spending on Vietnam War,
inflation, rising unemployment and
perception that government was the
problem not the solution quickly led to
retreat of the Great Society ideals
https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/01/28/lbj-great-society-josh-zeitz-book-216538
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Neighborhood Revitalization
Economic development hasn’t aligned well
with community development – “Cities
should return to the traditional strategy for
fighting poverty of tending to people’s
material needs by providing income
support, food stamps, housing vouchers,
and basic health care.” (p. 117, via
Lemann’s 1994 NYT article “The Myth of
Community Development”)
People-based policies that enhance an
individual’s opportunity for their own
economic growth
https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/09/magazine/the-myth-of-community-development.html
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Neighborhood Revitalization
Other people-based policies:
Residential dispersion (HUD’s MTO)
Improve transportation options (including public
transit) for inner-city residents
Address racial discrimination in hiring practices
Place-based policies haven’t had their intended
effect on revitalization:
1980s Enterprise Zones
1990s Empowerment Zones
2000s and 2010s business improvement districts
(BIDs) are place-based policies with substantial
private involvement – mixed results
https://www.hud.gov/programdescription/mto
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Economic development that focuses on
“downtown” and ignores neighborhoods
doesn’t work
“Widespread poverty in the neighborhoods
will always be a drain on public resources, a
source of upward pressure on taxes, a
reason for continuing middle-class flight
from the city, and a deterrent to future
investment.” (p. 124)
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Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Potential policy responses to improve
economic growth in neighborhoods:
Cooperate – not compete – with other cities
to attract investment
Linkage policies tying business investment to
neighborhood revitalization efforts (local
jobs, affordable housing, mass transit, etc.)
Create performance agreements with
business investments
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Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Imbroscio’s (1997) alternative approach to
economic growth in neighborhoods
Entrepreneurial-mercantilist strategy
City officials identify new market opportunities to
improve public ends (i.e., be entrepreneurial)
Municipal-enterprise strategy
City owns economic enterprises (utilities, airports,
hospitals, etc.) to maintain control over profits
Community-based strategy
Support grassroots, community-owned nonprofits to
lead neighborhood redevelopment (e.g., CDCs,
community land trusts, worker cooperatives)
https://sk.sagepub.com/books/reconstructing-city-politics
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Redirecting Economic Development Policy
What’s needed?
Urban policy rooted in communitarian principles
“The redirection in economic development may
require a more active role for government to
ensure a more equitable distribution of the
costs and benefits of economic growth, a
stronger effort to give all citizens a meaningful
stake in decision-making processes, and a
renewed commitment to revitalizing urban
places.” (p. 134)
- Euchner & McGovern (2003)�Chapter 3 –
- Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
Urban Renewal
Urban Renewal
Inducing Business Investment
Inducing Business Investment
Enticing Visitors to the City
Enticing Visitors to the City
Neighborhood Revitalization
Neighborhood Revitalization
Neighborhood Revitalization
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
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