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Game of Sages: War and Diplomacy in China, 223 BCE
By Sandrine Catris and Andrew Goss (Augusta University, Augusta, GA)
Game book
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
• Brief overview of the game
• How to React
2. Historical Background……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6
• Chronology
• The Warring States Period
• Civil Wars and Centralization of Power
• Small Farmers, Bureaucrats, and Social Mobility
• Military Changes and Innovations
• Intellectual Trends of the Warring States
• Vertical and Horizontal Alliances: Diplomacy in the Warring States, 320 –256
BCE
3. The Game ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
• Major Issues for Debate
• Rules and Procedures
• How to Win
• Pronunciation
4. Roles and Factions ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23
5. Core Texts and Documents………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26
• Confucian Texts (pp. 27–52)
• Daoist Texts (pp. 53–71)
• Legalist Texts (pp. 72–85)
• Mohist Texts (pp. 86–93)
• Military Theorists (pp. 94–113)
• Chinese Poetry (pp. 114–130)
• Persuaders and Persuasions (pp. 131–139)
• Guanzi Texts (pp. 140–151)
• Heroes and Anti-Heroes (pp. 152–165)
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Section 1: Introduction
Brief overview of the game
This game takes place at the end of the Warring States period in China, at a time when Qin
state has already absorbed two of the previously existent seven states, and is threatening
the remaining four states of Chu, Qi, Zhao and Yan. The game is centered on the once
powerful state of Chu, which has been reduced to a shadow of its former itself, losing
territory and beset by internal squabbling amongst rulers and ministers. Chu has now
become infamous for its corruption, incompetence, and a weak monarchy. T he game
revolves around a counter-factual effort in Chu in which the King of Chu has recruited
persuaders and statesmen from around China to assist Chu in helping improve its
governance and political institutions. The King of Chu has hired a varied group o f advisors
and persuaders, and is asking them to help Chu govern itself more effectively. In the
presentations during the council sessions, students playing the persuader roles are to use
the texts, ideas, and arguments from their cultural, political, or p hilosophical position to
outline how they think governing in Chu should be improved.
The simulation asks all students to become familiar with the three most influential
philosophical legacies of the Warring States era: Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism , as
well as Mohism and the occult arts. The game brings to life the rich cultural traditions of
the Warring States period, and also sets the stage for discussing how the Han synthesis
(and subsequent Chinese political traditions) drew from a multitude of earlier traditions.
The King of Chu has surrounded himself with a number of persuaders, advisors who have
backgrounds and training in statecraft and governing. There are four main factions, each
representing one of the main trends of Warring States political philosophy: Confucianism,
Daoism, Legalism and Mohism. In addition, some advisors are indeterminates, in that they
are not connected to any of those trends, but are trained in the arts, military affairs,
diplomacy, divination, and other areas.
The base game takes place in the Chu capital of Shouchun, with the King presiding over a
series of council meetings, usually five. The game begins (after the setup classes) with an
introductory session, in which the students introduce themselves, the factions b egin
meeting, and the King asks some general questions, which will serve as small exercises. The
following council sessions/classes (usually three), are structured around specific questions
the King has posed to his advisors.
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The second session is a debate amongst the indeterminates, on the question of how best to
respond to the growing power of Qin state. Although the main speakers will be
indeterminates, any of the other persuaders will also be encouraged to participate by
asking questions and commenting on the presentations.
The third session will feature a debate mainly between the Confucians and the Legalists, on
the question of what produces virtuous and proper behavior in men. Each faction will
answer this question (with presentations from each of the faction members), and the other
two factions (Mohists and Naturalists) will provide commentary and questions. The fourth
session will be a debate between the Mohists and Naturalists on the question of how a king
can promote a stable order. The indeterminates will judge the two top factions.
The two best factions will then work with one of the senior advisors to develop a
government reform plan, which will be formally presented and debated at the beginning of
the fifth session.
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How to React
Reacting to the Past is a series of historical role -playing games. After a few preparatory
lectures, the game begins and the students are in charge. Set in moments of heightened
historical tension, the games place you in the role of a person from the period. By reading
the game book and your individual role sheet, you will find out more about your objectives,
worldview, allies, and opponents. You must then attempt to achieve victory through formal
speeches, informal debate, negotiations, and conspiracy. Outcomes sometimes differ from
actual history; a postmortem session sets the record straight.
The following is an outline of what you will encounter in Reacting and what you will be
expected to do.
Game Setup
Your instructor will spend some time before the beginning of the game helping you to
understand the historical context for the game. During the setup period, you will use
several different kinds of material:
• The game book (from which you are reading now), which includes historical
information, rules and elements of the game, and essential historical documents.
• A role sheet, which provides a short biography of the historical person you will
model in the game as well as that person’s ideology, objectives, responsibilities, and
resources. Some roles are based on historical figures. Others are “composites,”
which draw elements from a number of individuals. You will receive your role sheet
from your instructor.
In addition to the game book, you may be required to read historica l documents or books
written by historians. These provide additional information and arguments for use during
the game.
Read this material before the game begins. And just as important, go back and reread these
materials throughout the game. A second reading while in role will deepen your
understanding and alter your perspective. Once the game is in motion, your perspectives
may change. This will make some ideas begin to look quite different. Students who have
carefully read the materials and who know the r ules of the game will invariably do better
than those who rely on general impressions and uncertain memories.
Game Play
Once the game begins, class sessions are presided over by students. In most cases, a single
student serves as some sort of presiding off icer. The instructor then becomes the
Gamemaster (GM) and takes a seat in the back of the room. Though they do not lead the
class sessions, GMs may do any of the following:
• Pass notes
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• Announce important events (e.g., Sparta is invading!). Some of these events are the
result of student actions; others are instigated by the GM
• Redirect proceedings that have gone off track
Instructors are, of course, available for consultations before and after game sessions.
Although they will not let you in on any of the secrets of the game, they can be invaluable in
terms of sharpening your arguments or finding key historical resources.
The presiding officer is expected to observe basic standards of fairness, but as a fail -safe
device, most Reacting to the Past games employ the “Podium Rule,” which allows a student
who has not been recognized to approach the podium and wait for a chance to speak. Once
at the podium, the student has the floor and must be heard.
Role sheets contain private, secret information that yo u must guard. You are advised,
therefore, to exercise caution when discussing your role with others. Your role sheet
probably identifies likely allies, but even they may not always be trustworthy. However,
keeping your own counsel and saying nothing to anyone is not an option. In order to
achieve your objectives, you must speak with others. You will never muster the voting
strength to prevail without allies. Collaboration and coalition building are at the heart of
every game.
Some games feature strong alliances called factions. As a counter -balance, these games
include roles called Indeterminates. They operate outside of the established factions, and
while some are entirely neutral, most possess their own idiosyncratic objectives. If you are
in a faction, cultivating Indeterminates is in your interest, since they can be persuaded to
support your position. If you are lucky enough to have drawn the role of an Indeterminate
you should be pleased; you will likely play a pivotal role in the outcome of the game.
Game Requirements
Students in Reacting practice persuasive writing, public speaking, critical thinking,
teamwork, negotiation, problem solving, collaboration, adapting to changing
circumstances, and working under pressure to meet deadlines. Your instructor will explain
the specific requirements for your class. In general, though, a Reacting game asks you to
perform three distinct activities:
Reading and Writing. This standard academic work is carried on more purposefully in a
Reacting course, since what you read is put to immediate use, and what you write is meant
to persuade others to act the way you want them to. The reading load may have slight
variations from role to role; the writing requirement depends on your particular course.
Papers are often policy statements, but they can also be autobiographies, battle plans,
newspapers, poems, or after-game reflections. Papers provide the foundation for the
speeches delivered in class.
Public Speaking and Debate. In the course of a game, almost everyone is expected to deliver
at least one formal speech from the podium (the length of the game and the size of the class
will determine the number of speeches). Debate follows. It can be impromptu, raucous, and
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fast paced. At some point, discussions must lead to action, which often means proposing,
debating, and passing a variety of resolutions. Gamemasters may stipulate that students
must deliver their papers from memory when at the podium, or may insist that students
wean themselves from dependency on written notes as the game progresses.
Wherever the game imaginatively puts you, it will surely not put you in the classroom of a
twenty-first-century American college. Accordingly, the colloquialisms and familiarities of
today’s college life are out of place. Never open your speech with a salutation like “Hi guys”
when something like “Fellow citizens!” would be more appropriate.
Always seek allies to back your points when you are speaking at the podium. Do your best
to have at least one supporter second your proposal, come to your defense, or admonish
inattentive members of the body. Note-passing and side conversations, while common
occurrences, will likely spoil the effect of your speech; so you and your supporters should
insist upon order before such behavior becomes too disruptive. Ask the presiding officer to
assist you. Appeal to the Gamemaster as a last resort.
Strategizing. Communication among students is an essential feature of Reacting games. You
will find yourself writing emails, texting, attending out-of-class meetings, or gathering for
meals on a fairly regular basis. The purpose of frequent communication is to lay out a
strategy for achieving your objectives, thwarting your opponents, and hatching plots to
ensnare individuals troubling to your cause. Whe n communicating with a fellow student in
or out of class, always assume that he or she is speaking to you in role. If you want to talk
about the “real world,” make that clear.
Controversy
Most Reacting to the Past games take place at moments of conflict in the past and therefore
are likely to address difficult, even painful, issues that we continue to grapple with today.
Consequently, this game may contain controversial subject matter. You may need to
represent ideas with which you personally disagree or that you even find repugnant. When
speaking about these ideas, make it clear that you are speaking in role. Furthermore, if
other people say things that offend you, recognize that they too are playing roles. If you
decide to respond to them, do so using the voice of your role and make this clear. If these
efforts are insufficient, or the ideas associated with your particular role seem potentially
overwhelming, talk to your Gamemaster.
When playing your role, rely upon your role sheet and the other game ma terials rather
than drawing upon caricature or stereotype. Do not use racial and ethnic slurs even if they
are historically appropriate. If you are concerned about the potential for cultural
appropriation or the use of demeaning language in your game, talk to your Gamemaster.
Amid the plotting, debating, and voting, always remember that this is an immersive role –
playing game. Other players may resist your efforts, attack your ideas, and even betray a
confidence. They take these actions because they are pla ying their roles. If you become
concerned about the potential for game-based conflict to bleed out into the real world, take
a step back and reflect on the situation. If your concerns persist, talk to your Gamemaster.
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Section 2: Historical Background
Chronology:
Western Zhou Period: 1045–771 BCE
Spring and Autumn Period: 771–480 BCE
Warring States Period: 480–221 BCE
State of Jin divides in three States: Wei, Hann, and Zhao: 424 BCE
Tian lineage Usurpation in Qi: 386 BCE
Reforms in Qin of Lord Shang Yang: 360–338 BCE
State of Yue falls to Chu and Qi: 334 BCE
All rulers have the title Wang (King): 323 BCE
Qin Conquest of the non-Chinese states of Shu and Ba: 316 BCE
State of Lu falls to Qin: 249 BCE
State of Hann falls to Qin: 230 BCE
State of Wei falls to Qin: 225 BCE
The Warring States Period
The Spring and Autumn period marks the beginning of the long decline in the power
of the Zhou Kings that began with the relocation of the Zhou capital further east in 771
B.C.E. At the time, rulers of the seventy Zhou regional states (most accurately described as
city-states) had links with the Zhou kings’ lineage. These rulers had titles equivalent to
Duke and Marquis. By the end of this period, interstate war and civil wars had begun the
process of creating territorial states increasingly separate from the Zhou lineage. By the 5 th
c. BCE, many of the city-states had disappeared. At the beginning of the Warring States era
in 480 BCE, there were about twenty states left. During the two and half century of th is era,
predation on smaller weaker states intensified. This period saw major political, social, and
cultural changes that make this era stand out from the previous one. This era saw the
consolidation of the power of the rulers and the creation of new inst itutions that allowed
for the strengthening of territorial states.
During the Warring States, many of the political institutions that shaped early
imperial China emerged. [1] Seven major states dominated most of this period: The State of
Yan, The State of Zhao, The State of Qi, The State of Wei, The State of Hann, The State of Qin,
and the State of Chu. Minor states also played a role, but mostly as buffer zones between
the larger ones. The minor states included the state of Lu (home state of Confucius), the
state of Zhongshan, the State of Zou, the State of Wey, the State of Song and several more.
They were mostly located around the old Zhou royal borders. This period is also marked by
demographic changes and significant growth of the population due to agricultural
innovations. Bob Eno and Mark Edward Lewis both argue that the Warring States period
saw a move to a ruler-centered state.[2] Although we speak of territorial states, it is
important to know that borders were constantly shifting and hardly clearly delineated
despite the existence of walls between states as they often changed due to wars of
conquest.
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Despite the endemic warfare that became the hallmark of these two and half
centuries, the Warring States period saw innovation and cultural achievements. During this
period, philosophical texts written with brush and ink on bamboo strips proliferated and
traveled far and wide between the states. This led to the growth of new ideas in military
strategy, political philosophy, natural philosophy, and occult thought. A new group of men
emerged during this period, the traveling persuader. These traveling persuaders hoped to
find audiences as they traveled to the courts of the different states and moved within elit e
circles.[3] Many of the philosophers of this era saw the situation as far from ideal. The
traveling persuaders were not the only people on the move, entertainers, military
specialists, and displaced populations of farmers moved back and forth between the states
in the search for employment or refuge from war.
Most of this period was also marked by the great brutality of warfare, assassinations,
and fears of annihilation. Many of the old aristocratic families of the Spring and Autumn
period were replaced by different usurpers who came from ministerial backgrounds, like
the Tian lineage in Qi. The vast majority of the population of this era, the farmers bore the
brunt of the warfare. The men found themselves forcefully conscripted into large infantries.
These commoners suffered from starvation and displacement as armies took their crops
and forced them off their lands. Smaller states became increasingly unable to survive as the
larger states easily trampled them with their ability to conscript larger armies. [4]
By the time our game begins in 223 BCE, only five states remained : Qin, Zhao, Yan,
Qi, and Chu. The rulers of each of these states had used the title King for a century. The
philosophical trends offered solutions to the political and social problems of the time. What
made for an ideal ruler? How could warfare and its ch aos end? What represented the ideal
social order? Let’s discuss the following important facets of the Warring States period: The
Centralization of Power, the Political Institutions, the Commoners and the Bureaucrats, the
Military Innovations, the Philosophical Trends, and the Diplomatic Strategies.
Civil Wars and Centralization of Power
By the 5th century, the state of Jin, close to the Zhou Royal House, was wrecked by
the continuous civil wars led by its aristocratic lineages. The infighting among the lineages
brought great chaos and destruction to Jin. The main lineages fighting for control over Jin
were Zhao, Wei, Hann, and Zhi who allied and fought against the Fan and Zhonghang
lineages. The civil war between the lineages began in 497 BCE and ended by 490 BCE with
the success of the Zhao, Wei, Hann, and Zhi lineages. After this victory, a new civil war
exploded between 458 and 453 BCE. The Zhao, Wei, and Han lineages emerged victorious
and divided the state of Jin into three states named after the victorious lineages. In 424
BCE, the states of Zhao, Wei, and Han recognized their independence and in 403 BCE, the
mostly symbolic Zhou king recognized the three new states.
Many other states saw ministerial lineages fight to usurp power. For example, in the
State of Qi, the Tian ministerial lineage won the infighting and replaced the ruling house of
Qi. They managed to dominate and attract popular support through the use of philanthropy
and the support of aristocratic refugees from other states. Through their brilliant political
machinations, they managed to become the new ruling lineage in Qi. Qi was a state in an
advantageous geographical location with abundant agricultural and maritime resources.
During the Warring States period, Qi had the largest capital city, Linzi, and was one of the
main demographic and economic centers of the area.[5]
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In Zhao, Wei, Han, and Qi, the states became more centralized a nd organized around
a ruler who then appointed bureaucrats to directly rule the land of defeated lineages as
districts (xian). Most of the states implemented fiscal and military reforms. The state of Qin
would be the state to reform its institutions the mo st. The changes, however, came later
than in the other states.[6] In the Southern region of the Warring States, centralization had
also happened. In the South, in the Yangzi basin, the states of Yue, Wu, and Chu struggled
for dominance. The king of Yue, King Goujian is said to have implemented th ree important
reforms: 1. The men who lost sons in war received tax exemptions. 2. Yue recruited men to
serve as officials from other states. 3. The men who opened land for agriculture also
received tax exemptions. By 473 BCE, the state of Yue attacked and vanquished Wu. The
state of Chu was known for its weak ruler and as one of the states that implemented the
smallest amount of reforms of its institutions. Yet Chu, the southernmost state, eventually
would destroy and annex of the state of Yue in 334 BCE. This gave Chu greater control of
the Yangzi area. In classical texts, Chu like Qin was not one of the states with historical
prestige, both were seen by the other states as frontier states. Some historians have argued
that Chu failed to take advantage of its large land and population due to the weakness of its
monarchy.[7]
The state of Wei dominated much of the Warring States period, especially during the
first hundred years after the partition of Jin by making significant institutional reforms. In
the 5th c., the ruler of Wei, Wen, employed Li Kui, as a statesman. As Lewis argues the
historical record often credits specific men for reforms of institutions that are likely to have
taken a long time. Nevertheless, according to these sources, Li Kui implemented systematic
reforms of taxes, land usage, and codified law. In 413, Wen was able to employ the famous
military general Wu Qi and mobilize a large army to attack the state of Qin thanks to the
centralizing reforms of Li Kui. Wei also formed alliances with Zhao and Han in an effort to
attack Qi leading to the surrender of the Qi ruler in 405 BCE. [8]
At the beginning of the 4th c. BCE, Wei was at its peak and had expanded Westward
and Southward thereby growing its agricultural lands significantly. Wei also had not one
but several important trading centers. Wei, however, did hav e one disadvantage over the
six other major states. It was surrounded by potential enemies on all its borders —Qi in the
East, Zhao in the North, Qin to the West, and Chu to the South. On many occasions, Wei had
to fight wars on multiple fronts.[9] Wei was soon embroiled in wars between its former
allies Han and Zhao, and Chu, over the minor state of Wey. It had also faced a terrible defeat
against the Qin in 364 BCE. By the second half of the 4 th c., Wei had shrunk and moved its
capital. The waning of Wei according to Li Feng is a turnin g point in the Warring States era
as it allowed for the rise of Qin and Qi.
Qin began reforming its institutions very late. Qin, the western most of the seven
large states of the era, had its capital near the old capital region of the Western Zhou. They
had a geographical advantage as the topography of the region protected them from
invasions. In the North, Qin had to deal with nomadic Rong and Di tribes. Those tribes were
more a nuisance than a serious threat to the territorial state. In the East, the onl y point of
access to Qin was the Hangu pass, and in the South, it was the Wu pass. This made it easy
for them to protect and defend their territories. In 441 BCE and 316 BCE, the state of Qin
completed the conquest of two southern States, the state of Shu and Ba. This not only gave
Qin a large base for agricultural production, but it also brought them closer to the large
state of Chu. The southern conquests gave Qin an advantage when supplying its large army
of conscripted farmers in both men and food.[10]
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According to classical historiography, Qin began implementing reforms when Xian
Gong, who had been a hostage in Wei returned to Qin and seized control. Xian Gong ruled
for two decades and introduced a series of centralizing reforms that weakened aristocratic
families. He abolished human sacrifices for the burial rites of major aristocrats in 384. In
375 he implemented the registration of all households in units of five and divided the states
into directly governed districts (xian). His son Xiao Gong continued his reforms known as
the Shang Yang reforms (based on the Legalist philosophy of Shang Yang). Shang Yang,
originally from the minor state of Wey, worked in Wei as an advisor for some time and then
moved to the state of Qin where he met the ambitious new Qin ruler. Shang Yang served as
a high official in Qin and is credited with the implementation of radical reforms in Qin that
strengthened the state significantly by creating a system that allowed for control of
population and land (see the Book of the Lord of Shang).[11]
The state of Yan was the last one to organize around a single ruler. It was a small
Northeastern State. It faced a civil war and outside invasions from Qi. The state of Zhao,
west of Yan, intervened during the Qi invasion and put the son of the ruler of Yan on the
throne. By the 4th c., all of the states to varying degree of success had created ruler -centered
states that led to a change in title. This change first began in the state of Wei with its ruler
taking on the title of King (Wang) in 344 BCE. Until that date, the title of King had been
reserved for the Zhou rulers. The King of Wei used regalia and chariots associated with the
Xia Dynasty (that may or may not have existed) as a way of marking his legitimacy as a
king. Soon, the ruler of Qi also adopted the title of King in 334 BCE. The Qin ruler took the
title of King in 325 BCE, and two years later the rulers of Zhao, Yan, and Zhongshan had
also taken on that title. The rulers of Chu had a longer history of using the title as a way of
marking their defiance against the increasingly irrelevant Zhou Kings. By 323 BCE, all of the
rulers had taken up the title King.
Small Farmers, Bureaucrats, and Social Mobility
As discussed earlier, the institutional innovations that occurred between the Spring and
Autumn period and the Warring States period led to the growth of small farmers. Before
the Warring States period, historians argue that lands were held by lineages and the head
of a lineage would divide the land among the lineage households and keep one plot of land
that served the needs of the lineage. The historian Li Feng writes that during the Warring
States period there was a reorganization into households of small farmers. We see this in
some of the reforms that happened in both Wei and Qin. This new unit put households now
under the control of the state rather than under the control of the head of their lineages.
These households were now the units for taxation by the state.
This changed the relationship between farmers and the state significantly. During the
Zhou, farmers owed labor service to their lineage head. Historians believed that by the
Warring States period, farmers paid taxes in kind and owed military service to their state.
To mobilize the resources of a state, the ruler had to have accurate population r egisters.
There is some evidence that states had such registers that included data on men, women,
children, arable land, and tax resources. Li Feng argues that it likely was true for all states,
but we only have clear evidence from Chu where archaeologists excavated tombs and
found the Baoshan strips that included population data. According to speculative estimates,
taxes in kind amounted to about 10% of their harvests.[12]
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We do not know much about the lives of commoners, most of which would have been
farmers who either rented or owned the land they plowed. We do know that farmers now
under the control of the states through laws and taxes were regularly mobilized in times of
war. We do not know about the common age for conscription into an army. In the history
about the famous Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao in 260 BCE, we know that all
male farmers above 15 years of age were mobilized by Qin. The source on this suggests this
was an unusually young age.[13]
During the Warring States period, social mobility, albeit limited, became a
possibility. For example, the State of Qin created over twenty new military ranks. Farmer –
soldiers regardless of social rank could be rewarded and rise in rank based on their
military contributions. This helped create new hierarchies. Another new class of people
emerged during this period, the bureaucrats who served the rulers. Before the Warring
States period, all official posts were based on hereditary status. With the institutional
reforms done in most of the states to varying degrees, many of the officials were now
chosen by the rulers in these now ruler-centered states. Qin had over three hundred and
fifty magistrates and each had a secretarial official (an assistant) to help them. Qin and
many of the States also created heads of these new bureaucracies, known as Grand
Chancellor in Qin or Chief Commander in Chu (a position we could also call a Prime
Minister). While farmers paid taxes and served in the military, the bureaucrats had to
provide annual reports on their district’s population and other resources. Bureaucrats too
were now under the control of their state. They received salaries in kind, could be
promoted or punished based on their job performances. Their lives were now dependent
on their ruler.[14]
Military Changes and Innovations
States implemented many of the reforms due to the change in the way wars were fought. As
mentioned earlier, warfare changed radically from being led by aristocratic charioteers to
being led by cavalry and large infantries. Yue and Shu, defuncts states by t he middle of the
Warring States era, were the first to adopt large infantries because the Yangzi region
terrain made chariot warfare impractical. By the late Warring States, the seven major states
could mobilize very large armies. Qin, Qi, and Chu may have been able to mobilize
infantries of one million conscripted soldiers, while Han the smallest of the major states
may have been able to mobilize three hundred thousand soldiers. These soldiers had
minimal to no training and single battles could have upward of thirty thousand casualties.
Infantry wars led to more destruction than the earlier chariot wars. [15]
Mounted horsemen accompanied the infantry soldiers, they were faster and able to
move on different terrains in comparison with chariots. Chinese states first adopted the use
of cavalry to have a chance when engaging with their nomadic Northern neighbors. The use
of cavalry was then quickly adopted by the other states. The mounted soldiers relied on
different weapons such as lances, swords, and compound bows. According to Major and
Cook, this change led to more innovations in weaponry to respond to attacks by cavalry.
The invention of the crossbow, a weapon capable of piercing armors and of stopping a
horse, made the infantry very destructive. This weapon was first used in the Southern
States of Chu, Wu, and Yue, but by the mid Warring States every single state had adopted it.
This weapon did not require a lot of training and was therefore perfect for armies of
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conscripted farmers.[16] The introduction of the cavalry and of large infantries in warfare
made the wars a lot more destructive.
According to Li Feng, between 535 BCE and 286 BCE, statistical research shows
there were 358 wars between states, more than one war per year on average. [17] Li Feng
also argues that the purpose of warfare also changed between the end of the Spring and
Autumn period and the Warring States era. By the Warring States, the purpose of warfare
was territorial conquest. When an army conquered new territories, but could not occupy
them permanently, the goal was to annihilate the possibility of rebellions by killing as many
enemy-soldiers as possible.[18]
The composition of the Warring States armies with its large, conscripted infantry
and aristocratic cavalry, also required changes in the organization of the military. The
conscripted farmers had no training and unlike the mounted aristocrats they would have
not known how to wage war. During this period, the armies became well-organized with
very clearly defined ranks as seen in the case of the State of Qin. These armies were led by a
new group of men, military specialists, well-versed in military treatises, such as Sunzi The
Art of War. This new literature written by military theorists such as the legendary Sun Wu
(Sunzi) of the 6th c., Sun Bin (a real historical Qi general), Wei Liao (from 4 th c. Qin), Bo Qi
(from Qin) and Wu Di (Wuzi) circulated widely during this period and often borro wed
concepts from the intellectual trends of the time.[19]
Intellectual Trends of the Warring States
In an era of warfare, chaos, and constant moving of borders, the states increasingly needed
literate officials to serve the new needs of the centralizing states. Most of these offi cials
came from the old aristocratic families who had in the Spring and Autumn period served
military roles (as charioteers). This new class of literate men often hoped for social
mobility and traveled between states in search for employment. This why historians call
them “traveling persuaders.” The existence of these traveling persuaders during the
Warring States shows a breakdown of the old social orders. In the past, aristocrats had to
remain loyal to the rulers of their states. By the Warring States, th e old aristocratic
networks of power had deteriorated. These scholars were not indispensable to the new
social order, but they were a major feature of it.
This era also saw the birth of some of the foundational philosophical traditions of
East Asia, the most famous being Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism, but also Mohism.
Although we see these philosophical schools as distinct schools, it is more accurate to see
them as intellectual trends. According to Major and Cook, the era saw a blossoming of
written texts of all kinds. Historians link the rise in literacy to the emergence of the
Confucian tradition because of its emphasis on education. Confucius saw the period of the
Western Zhou as a Golden Age and according to the Confucian tradition set out to collect
Zhou texts, especially documents that covered historical events and rituals. The disciples of
Confucius preserved much of this legacy in The Analects.
The intellectual life of this era from what we know revolved around Masters and
disciples who transmitted both written and oral texts. Most of the texts of this era are
attributed to one master, but this may be an artifact of the time. It is believed that most of
the texts like the most famous of them The Analects were written by the disciples of these
masters. Some of these Masters were teachers, others traveling persuaders who succeeded
in a bureaucratic career, and some were semi-mythical figures. We do not know much
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about how texts were transcribed and transmitted during this perio d. We do, however,
suspect that many more texts circulated during this period than in earlier periods. [20] Many
of the intellectual trends of this era continued to be relevant in later centuries, while some
became completely defunct.
Mark Edward Lewis explains that scholarship was most often not a road to gaining
high office, but teaching was probably a source of income at a time of turmoil for o ld
aristocratic networks.[21] Many scholars could also be hired to perform certain rituals for
royal courts or for aristocratic families, or could serve as clerks. Lewis also argues that the
ability of these scholars to move between public services at courts and private services
with local society may be one of the reasons that some of the scholarly production of the
time would survive the turmoil of the end of the Warring States period. [22] The rulers of Qi
but also of Wei played a role in the development of the scholarly pursuits of these literate
men as they provided sponsorship for intellectual labor. For example, the Qi rulers from
the Tian lineage gathered scholars at the Jixia academy in Linzi, the Qi capital. Although we
do not know the extent of this “academy” as an institution, we do know it is the first record
of a state acting as patron of scholarship in a Chinese context. It is possible rulers of other
states may have also acted in this manner as having good scholars would bring prestige to a
state.[23]
Thanks to archaeological excavations, we know that many of the trends shared
overlapping ideas and beliefs. This is why we speak of trends rather than schools of
thoughts. In this era, schools of thoughts had not yet emerged. [24] For example, the concept
of Dao often translated as Way is originally a concept that comes from the Naturalist trend
as espoused by the legendary Laozi and by Zhuangzi. Dao in the Naturalist understanding
refers to a non-anthropomorphic cosmic force. When Confucius and Mencius use the term
Dao they use as a description of a harmonious and hierarchical society. This shows that the
word Dao was widely used but referred to widely different concepts depending on the
thinker.[25] Another example is the concept of qi. To naturalist, qi referred to a primordial
undifferentiated substance that can become everything in the world. To Mencius, qi is what
makes up for our inner nature and something that can be cultivated through education. [26]
The Confucian trend may have been the most organized of all of the intellectual
trends of this period for there is historical evidence that Confucian disciples intentionally
maintained a temple in his hometown of Qufu in the minor state of Lu and created a sort of
place for acquiring a Confucian education. One of the most famous disciples of Co nfucius
was Mencius, known as Mengzi in Chinese. Mencius is believed to have spent some time at
the Jixia academy. In the text attributed to the teachings of Mencius, The Mengzi, we read
conversations that Mencius had with rulers during his travels through the different states.
Two of the virtues that Mencius valued most were humaneness ( ren) and righteousness
(yi). Mencius argued that through education and adherence to rituals, men could return to
their good innate nature. One of the most famous examples that Mencius gives for human
nature being inherently good is that of the infant who falls into a well. According to
Mencius, every person’s instinct would be to save the infant without a self -interested
reason for it. He also argued that people would flee a bad ruler but would run to a good one.
Mencius ideas were not very popular among rulers of the time but would be much later.
Xunzi, also a disciple of Confucius, unlike Mencius believed human nature was evil, but that
through education and the example of a good ruler humans could change. He argued that
rulers who cultivated rituals and ren (humaneness) could help restore a proper social
order. Unlike Confucius and Mencius, scholars believe it is likely that Xunzi wrote much of
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the text attributed to his thinking. Despite the high quality of his text, Xunzi’s reputation
has not been great in part because he was the teacher of two of the most famous Legalist
scholars, Han Fei and Li Si who abandoned Xunzi’s belief in the power of a good ruler and
focused on controlling people through laws.[27]
The Legalist Trend emphasized the importance of laws on taxes, on agriculture, but
also on the recruitment of officials to serve the rulers, we see ideas about human nature for
example coming from Xunzi. One of the texts considered as part of the Legalist tren d is the
Book of Lord Shang. This text is attributed to Shang Yang the famous man who led major
reforms in the State of Qin and helped make it stronger and more centralized. The Han Feizi
attributed to the philosopher Han Fei is another text categorized as a Legalist text for its
emphasis on the ruler and on the use of rewards and punishments. The book attributed to
Han Fei however is a very eclectic work. Han Fei, originally from the state of Han had
studied with Xunzi. He worked in the state of Qin but wa s forced to commit suicide. Some
say Li Si a fellow-student was responsible for this suicide and that it helped Li Si rise in the
Qin bureaucracy. There are other texts attributed to this trend that have survived only in
fragments such as Shen Buhai’s text and Shen Dao’s Shenzi.[28] Legalist thought clearly had
an impact on many of the rulers of that time, but Qin was perhaps the best example of a
state that had fully adopted Legalist principles.
A rival trend to the Confucians was the Mohist trend. The followers of Mozi,
according to texts critical to this trend, were organized in a strict quasi-military way. The
followers of Mozi focused on commoners—farmers and craftsmen. This trend was widely
popular and attracted many followers during this period but disappeared at the end of it.
We do not know why. The text associated with the Mohist trend includes many arguments
against Confucians. For examples, Mohists did not support the traditional hierarchical
orders or filial piety. They advocated for jian’ai (universal love-or impartial caring).
Mohists opposed wars of conquests.[29]
The Naturalist trend as represented by texts such as the Daodejing also known as
the Laozi and the Zhuangzi was also deeply influential. Many concepts used by the
Naturalists were adopted and adapted by the other trends. The Daodejing is attributed to
the possibly legendary Laozi a contemporary of Confucius. It includes political strategy and
naturalist thought. It is believed that during the Warring States this text or parts of it
circulated broadly among scholars. The central concept in this text is the Dao the unitary
force of the universe, but also the concepts of yin and yang. The vision of the ideal ruler is a
ruler who attuned with the Dao rules over ignorant folks with full bellies through wuwei
(non-action or non-thriving). Another figure of this trend is Zhuang Kou. The Zhuangzi is
traditionally attributed to him, but scholars argue that it is likely that the Zhuangzi is the
work of different scholars. The Zhuangzi uses many of the same concepts as the Daodejing
and has the same vision of what makes a sage ruler, but it emphasizes the need to remain
free from worldly entanglements.
We know of many other thinkers of this era but sometime only fragments of their
texts or simply their names survived. This period rep resents an era of great diversity of the
intellectual life. Military treatises and philosophical texts circulated broadly during this
time. Historians argue that many of the texts of this period were written down to serve as
teaching tools. Historical anecdotes, poetry as found in the Elegies of Chu known as the
Chuci, and texts attributed to the Zhou era, such as the Book of Odes, the Book of Documents,
and The Book of Changes all formed the intellectual and cultural world of elite men.[30]
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Vertical and Horizontal Alliances: Diplomacy in the Warring States, 320–256 BCE
The 4th c. BCE saw regular changes in the balance of power between the seven major
states. The smaller states despite their historical prestige suffered a lot of predation and
difficulties when facing their larger neighbors, but for a time where able to use allia nces to
survive. One of the defining features of this era were the alliances made between states.
During this period Qin was becoming increasingly powerful and successful in its wars of
conquest. By the end of the 4th c., the three major powerful states were Qin, Chu, and Qi.
The other remaining states were minor and not nearly as powerful in terms of territory and
military power. This led to a period known for its vertical and horizontal alliances between
320 BCE and 256 BCE.
Kings and Ministers created a number of vertical alliances between Northern and
Southern states to protect themselves against the Qin’s powerful drive to conquer lands
east of its territory. As mentioned earlier, the Qin’s geographical advantage protected them
from invasions into their homeland. The Vertical Alliances were potentially a good strategy
to limit the Qin expansion as their western position could have been turned into a
weakness. As a result of this new strategy, the Qin used their ability to bully and persuade
its neighboring states to enter alliances with them—known as horizontal alliances. The Qin
bureaucrats were quite effective at times in negotiating these alliances by promising lands
or protection for their smaller neighbors.[31]
We can see how these diplomatic strategies worked out for the state of Wei. In the
last half of the 4th c., the state of Wei as discussed earlier suffered losses against the
expansionist state of Qi and against the army of Qin led by Shang Yang. Because of the
defeats against Qin, Wei agreed to become allied with Qi. The alliances according to Li Feng
did not really help Wei, as the Qin continued to attack and regularly defeat Wei forces. In
322 BCE, the state of Wei, much weakened, entered a horizontal alliance with Qin. The king
of Qi worrying about Qin’s growing influence with its control of parts of Wei, sent an envoy
to Chu and proposed an alliance against Qin. Then when in 319, the King of Wei died, its
successor ended the horizontal alliance and asked Qin to leave. Qin did not leave. So, in 318
Chu and Qi launched a military intervention on behalf of Wei to rid the Wei territory of Qin
troops with the help of the Northern States of Han, Zhao, and Yan. This vertical alliance
however failed because the King of Qi and the King of Chu both wanted to lead the attack
against Qin. The other states chose to follow Chu. As a result, Qi ended their participation in
the alliance. The war was a failure for the alliance as Qin won, stayed in Wei and took
territory from Han.[32] Qin consolidated much of its territorial gains during this period and
conquered a number of non-Chinese (non-Hua) neighbors. The Qin had created a vast
territorial state protected vastly by mountain ranges with its conquest of the Rong people
in the North. After the conquests of Shu and Ba, the Qin laid their eyes on the lands of Chu.
In 312 BCE, Qin attacked Chu and defeated them, thereby taking a large part of the western
part of Chu. This weakened Chu and brought more power to Qin.
The Qin’s military and diplomatic acumen prevented the alliances from succeeding.
Another example of Qin’s ability is when ten years after the Qin victory in Wei and Han, the
northern states attempted once again to form an alliance. The Qin sent an envoy and bribed
Chu so that the King of Chu would not join a vertical alliance by promising to return
territory the Qin had taken from Chu. Chu accepted the bribe. The state of Qi gave up on the
alliance seeing that Chu would not participate. Qi entered in a horizontal agreement with
both Qin and Chu in 302 that recognized a balance of power between these three states.
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The alliance soon ended when a hostage from Chu living in Qin murdered a Qin aristocrat
and fled. This led to turmoil and the end of the tri-partite alliance.[33]
At the beginning of the 3rd century, Qi still held an important place both
economically and culturally. As mentioned earlier, its capital was the largest city of its time
and also included the famous Jixia Academy. During this period, a relative to the royal
house of Qi, Tian Wen managed to accumulate wealth and power and surrounded himself
with persuaders, assassins, and entertainers. During th e reign of King Min of Wei, Tian Wen
had a lot of influence in Qi and helped create a vertical alliance with Han and Wei. Qin
appointed Tian Wen as a minister until Zhao offered Qin an alliance against Qi. Qi launched
an attack on Qin that lasted three years and was successful. Qin returned territories to Han
and Wei that had been lost in previous wars. Han, Wei, and Qi then launched a successful
attack on Yan. These three states also defeated Chu in battles. This brought back Qi and its
two allies among the dominant powers of the Warring States.
In 294 BCE, this alliance between Qi, Han, and Wei collapsed and Qi and Qin entered
into a temporary agreement that they would each pursue their own interests and not
attack each other. Qin restarted its campaigns against Wei and Han while Qi attacked the
minor state of Song. Eventually, Qi and Qin rulers declared themselves emperor of the East
and emperor of the West respectively in 288 BCE. They then agreed to launch an attack
against the state of Zhao. The king o f the state of Qi however then convinced by the state of
Yan that attacking Zhao would only benefit Qin formed an alliance with Yan and Zhao
against Qin. Qin was forced to abandon territory it had taken from Zhao and Wei. This rise
of power of Qi with its success in conquering the minor state of Song, led to a multi-state
alliance against Qi. Chu declared itself an ally of Qi and marched North, but simply occupied
territory it had previously lost to Qi. This attack on Qi weakened Qi significantly even after
Tian Dan, a general and a relative of the Qi Royal house, recovered the lost territory in 279
BCE. Qi, however, would not fully recover its strength, though it continued to be an
important intellectual center.
Conclusion:
The Warring State era is a historically fascinating period of history. Between 480
BCE and 221 BCE, the cultural, political, and social landscape of the states from the Yellow
River to the Yangzi River changed radically. It was a period of great innovation in terms of
political institutions, diplomacy, military strategy and technology, but also cultural and
literary productions. Some of the great philosophies that would influence all East Asia
emerged during this period, most notably Confucianism and Daoism. The states kept
engaging in military alliances but also exchanges of hostages from royal and aristocratic
lineages. By the late 4th c. BCE, many of the minor states had already been taken over by the
major states. The vertical and horizontal alliances show us great example of dipl omacy
between these states that had a shared cultural and linguistic background with some
variations in each state. The major states at the beginning of the 3 rd century were now left
without buffer zones. In 223 BCE, the state of Qin was the strongest of t he state. It had
destroyed Han in 230 BCE and Wei in 225 BCE and taken large territories from Chu in a
long series of successful wars against Chu. The king of Qin, King Ying Zheng aspired to unify
all the states under his rule. Historians argue that Li Si was deeply influential in King
Zheng’s expansionist ambition. Was there still a chance to stop King Zheng and his army in
223 BCE?
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[1] China here refers to a geographical region not to the modern-day country.
[2]Mark Lewis, “Chapter Nine, Warring States Political History” in The Cambridge History of Ancient
China: From the Origins of Cilivilization to 221 B.C. edited by Loewe, Michael and Edward L.
Shaughnessy. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999) 587-650, here 597 ; Bob Eno, “2.1 The
Warring States Period”, https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23445/2.1-
Warring_States-2010 ?sequence=2&isAllowed=y, last accessed, October 5, 2020.
[3] John S. Major and Constance A. Cook, Ancient China: A History, (New York: Routledge, 2017) 146.
[4] Major and Cook, 146.
[5] Lewis, and Major and Cook, 148.
[6] Lewis, 597-601.
[7] Lewis, 597.
[8] Li Feng, 189.
[9] Lewis, 595.
[10] Lewis, 596.
[11] Lewis, 602 and Li Feng, 235-236.
[12] Li Feng, 192-194.
[13] Li Feng ,194.
[14] Li Feng, 196.
[15] Major and Cook, 150-151
[16] Major and Cook, 151, Li Feng, 199-200.
[17] Li Feng, 187, and
[18] Li Feng, 200.
[19] Li Feng, 200-201.
[20] Major and Cool, 156.
[21] Lewis, 642.
[22] Lewis, 642-643.
[23] Lewis, 643
[24] Major and Cook, 153-155.
[25] Major and Cook, 156.
[26] Major and Cook, 157.
[27] Major and Cook, 157
[28] Major and Cook, 158.
[29] Major and Cook, 157-158.
[30] Major and Cook, 160-1610
[31] Eno, p. 18.
[32] Eno, p. 18; Lewis, pp. 634-635;
[33] Eno, p. 18.
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Section 3: The game
Major Issues for Debate
This is a game about how to apply the philosophical, moral, religious, and cultural systems
of the Warring States era to concrete political problems, in this case, the ineptitude of the
State of Chu and the expansion of Qin power. To solve these problems, the characters in the
game discuss and debate the major systems of understanding human behavior, ethical
action, and political leadership during the Warring States. These debates will demonstrate
the main features of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism, and lesser-known philosophies
and cultural traditions, including occult arts, and Mohism.
To be successful in the game, students must persuade other players of the merits of their
solution to the political problems, using the principles and arguments of W arring States
era. The ancient Chinese sages—commonly known as persuaders—were educated in not
only a cultural or philosophical tradition, but also trained in the art of persuading others
(especially statesmen and rulers) to follow and apply their advice. This is done through
persuasive speeches, but also through informal negotiation and discussions .
The main goal of the game is to reform the State of Chu. The persuaders and advisors will
debate the best way to reform Chu institutions in order to make the King of Chu and its
state stronger, especially in light of Qin aggression. Besides King Xiong Fuchu, all the roles
are advisors or courtiers of Chu state. One group of advisors – who are all indeterminates
on the question of how to reform the Chu state – are long-standing advisors and courtiers
to King Xiong. The remaining roles are all newly recruited and retained advisors, who are
in four different factions. Each of these factions represents one of the main four trends of
political philosophy in Warring States China: Ru trend (Confucians), Fa trend (Legalists),
Naturalists (including Daoists), and Mohists. King Xiong has decided that in order to reform
the government, and bring new governing ministers into the state, he will host a series of
formal debates between the different advisors.
The ultimate goal for most of the advisors is to have their reform program became the basis
for Chu’s government, to be selected as a minister to King Xiong, and to help the King meet
challenges associated with Qin expansion. They must also survive what is likely to be a
difficult year.
Rules and Procedures
In most class sessions, there will be five game sessions. After an introductory session, in
which the new and old advisors begin to get to know each other, there are three formal
debates. The first of the debates (which will take place during the second cl ass session),
will feature presentations and advice from King Xiong’s long -serving advisors and
courtiers. They will describe how they think Chu can prosper in this chaotic age of strife
and warfare. Class session 3 will feature a debate between the Confuc ians and the Legalists,
and during class session 4, the Naturalists and Mohists will debate. Be aware though that
all advisors will participate in three of these debates, by offering commentary and asking
21
questions. As the King’s long-standing advisors, the indeterminates will help the King select
the most appropriate philosophy for Chu. During the final session, the two factions who did
best in the debate will present their political reform, and the king will select one of those
plans. The chosen faction (plus some additional advisors) will then become senior
ministers to the King of Chu.
The documents in this game book include the philosophies and texts you will need to
develop a response to Qin aggression. Everyone should read closely the core texts of
Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism: The Analects, Daodejing, and the Book of Lord Shang,
and also familiarize yourself with the texts by Mencius, Xunzi, and Han Feizi. You should
read one of the model persuasions, which can serve as examples for how persuad ers make
their political arguments during the Warring States period: Robber Zhi (especially for the
Daoists), The Story of Su Qin (especially for the Confucians and military strategists), or the
Li Si memoir in Part VIII of the documents, which includes a famous persuasion, in the
Legalist tradition.
Depending on your role, you will also steep yourself in the philosophies and texts of your
philosophical trend. Most roles are required to make a persuasive speech. Many instructors
will require a written version of that speech (page length/word-count to be determined by
instructor). Most instructors will also require a reflection essay.
How to Win
To win, at minimum you must still be alive at the beginning of the next Lunar New Year
(the game takes place at the beginning of spring). Most advisors secure a complete victory
if they are chosen as one of the ministers to King Xiong during the fifth session. Some
advisors are not eligible to be chosen as ministers, and have other win objectives. A partial
win can be secured for the advisors even if they did get selected as a minister – that is
possible if their ideas inform the government reform or the decisions by King Xiong.
Pronunciation
Chinese is a syllabic language, with four tones (plus a neutral tone). In the context of this
game, it is generally not necessary to get the tones correct, but a general instruction to
someone pronouncing Chinese names is to pronounce each syllable distinc tly, with similar
emphasis.
Consonants:
The following letters have a pronunciation similar to English words that begin with
these letters: b, d, f, g, h, k, l m, n, s, t, r
The remaining consonants are:
j pronounced “dj” as in jeep (not aspirated)
q pronounced “ch” as in Cheetos (aspirated)
22
zh pronounced “j” as in jack (not aspirated)
ch pronounced “ch” as in chicken (aspirated)
z pronounced “ts” as in the cats (not aspirated)
c pronounced “ts” as in what’s (aspirated)
sh pronounced “sh” as in sheep
x pronounced as a soft “sh,” sometimes explained as neither “s” nor (x)
“sh” but in-between
Vowel sounds
i “ee” when preceded by j, q, and x, and somewhat like “e” in French o r
“ö “ when preceded by zh, ch, sh
u “oo” except when preceded by q, j, and x where then it is pronounced
like the French u (as in the French pronoun tu).
a short “a” as in a-ha
o “oh”
e “e” as in the French e or German “ö “
ai “I”
ei “ay”
ao “ou” as in ouch
ou “ow” as in the beginning of awful
an “an”
en “un”
ang “on”
eng “ung” without pronouncing the g.
er “ir”
While this game is still in development, a number of the texts the students read may have
some stray use of Wade-Giles Romanization, not the standard Pinyin syste m (which is used
throughout the Game Book). This will be confusing, but will be rare.
23
Please note that Han or Hann will in most cases reference the Han state, NOT the Han
dynasty (which did not exist until 202 BCE).
Wei state is the major state of central China of the Warring States era. Wey is a much
smaller contemporary state which bordered it to the south.
Counterfactuals. The premise for this game, that the King of Chu attempted to reform Chu
government, is a counterfactual. Some of the statesmen in the game are real people who
were alive in 223 BCE. Most of the persuaders and courtiers are not historical figures, but
are followers of real philosophical trends.
24
Section 4. Roles and factions
King Xiong Fuchu and his long-standing advisors and courtiers are indeterminates on the
question of how to reform Chu.
Xiong Fuchu is the king of the state of Chu and he presides over the council, which is
taking place in his capital city. He is responsible for ru nning all sessions. He
has an opening speech, and will be the center of everyone’s attention during
the fifth session, when he must choose how to handle the Qin army .
Li Yuan is an old advisor of King Xiong, who has been tasked with working with
some of the new persuaders to develop a government reform plan. After the
results of the debates are known, and two finalists are announced, Li Yuan
will develop a reform plan based upon one of those faction’s ideas.
Yan Ju is an old advisor to the King of Xiong, p reviously employed by the State of
Zhao, by now for many years in King Xiong’s court. He has also been tasked
with working with some of the new persuaders to develop a government
reform plan. After the results of the debates are known, and two finalists a re
announced, Yan Ju will develop a reform plan based upon one of those
faction’s ideas
Xiang Yan is an old advisor Chu general responsible for some decisive victories
during the last Qin attacks. He in general advocates for an aggressive stand
against the Qin, and is deeply distrustful of outsiders
Liu Biao is military strategist from the former state Wei, which was overrun by the
Qin two years earlier. He is now a Chu military advisor and advocates for
building defenses.
Wu Ai, Chu Shaman who believes that any important decision should be based upon
consultation with nature and ancestral spirits. She will advocate that Chu
respect the old spiritual ways.
Zhao Liying is one of the consorts to the King of Chu, daughter of King Dai of Zhao.
She is well-versed in Confucian philosophy and was the person responsible
for convincing Xiong Fuchu to try to reform Chu.
Qin Wushuang is a travelling musician, entertainer and cou rtier, currently
performing in the court of the King of Chu, but originally from Yan state. He
performs a musical entertainment.
Tian Liang is a Qi hostage at the Chu court. He has won the trust of King Xiong and is
now acting as an informal advisor. Tian Liang is a proponent of the
government of Qi.
25
Li Weizhi, diplomatic expert of the state of Chu. This role will advocate for reform of
Chu so that the northern states of Zhao, Yan and especially Qi have greater
respect for Chu.
Sun Hao is a former general of the Qi state, and a descendant of the famous Qi
military strategist Sun Bin. He ran afoul of the Qi king…and is now in exile
serving as a minor military advisor to the King of Chu.
Li Mei is the former Queen Dowager of the State of Yan. She was f orced into exile by
the King of Yan who believed she had too much influence over some of his
minister. She is now in exile in Chu serving as an informal advisor to the King
of Chu and teacher to Zhao Liying.
Yuan Shu is formerly of Zhao state, who knows f irst-hand the strength of the Qin
military. Zhao has been mostly conquered by Qin. He is temporarily serving
as an advisor to the King of Chu.
Wang Li is an astrologer formerly employed in Zhou. He has the means to develop
calendars which help plan the year.
Wei Ke is a military specialist and the brother of former king of Wei, one of the
states recently defeated and absorbed by the Qin
Ru Trend Persuaders (Confucians):
Meng Nan is a Mencius trend philosopher, from the state of Qi. He is devoted to the
ethical framework of the Mengzi—which emphasis the basic good nature of
all people.
Zhao Kuang is a Xunzi disciple and persuader who studied with Xunzi himself.
Fang Hongjian is a Xunzi trend philosopher, who is a disciple to Zhao Kuang (the
other Xunzi philosopher)
Wen Cheng is a Mencius trend philosopher, who.
Su Nianzu is a former Jixia academician. He believes scholarly discussion and debate
will bring forth a solution.
Naturalist Trend Persuaders:
Zhou Ke is a follower and persuader of the Zhuangzi tradition, one of the classics of
Daoism.
26
Li Daoling is a Daoist philosopher, who uses the Laozi text to advocate for a
negotiated surrender.
Xie Wei is a Daoist trend philosopher.
Zhao Gao is the Zou Yan persuader, who promotes Yin -Yang and Five Phases
thinking.
Fu Delun is a Naturalist persuader.
Fa Trend Persuaders (Legalists):
Zheng Jiang is a disciple of Han Fei Zi, a major legalist scholar.
Su Yi is a follower of the Shang Yang Legalist tradition, which emphasizes strong
legal codes.
Gong Yanlin is a a traveling Legalist persuader who came from the state of Qi. Fan
Bo is a Legalist persuader.
Guo Yi is a Legalist persuader.
Mohist Trend Persuaders:
Lu Ban is from the Mohist school.
Liao Song is Mohist trend persuader.
Merchant Qu is a local Chu merchant.
Yan Qiang is a Mohist persuader.
Zheng Xianya is a Mohist Persuader.
Section 5. Core Texts and Documents
I. Confucian Texts ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
• The Analects of Confucius ………………………………………………………………………………. 29
• Mengzi ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 37
• Xunzi …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
II. Daoist Texts ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
• Laozi biography ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
• Daodejing …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
• Zhuangzi …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 61
• Robber Zhi ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 68
III. Legalist Texts ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
• The Book of Lord Shang ………………………………………………………………………………… 73
• Han Feizi ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 81
IV. Mohist Texts …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 86
• Mozi …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 87
V. Military Theorists ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 94
• Sunzi and Wu Qi memoir ………………………………………………………………………………. 95
• Wuzi ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100
• Sunzi’s The Art of War ………………………………………………………………………………. 106
VI. Chinese Poetry …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 114
• Book of Odes ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 115
• The Chuci ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 120
VII. Persuaders and Persuasions ………………………………………………………………………………. 131
• Mencius, Master Zou, Chunyu Kun ……………………………………………………………….. 132
• Annals of the Warring States ………………………………………………………………………… 135
• The Book of Qi …………………………………………………………………………………………… 138
VIII. Guanzi ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 140
• Neiye ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 141
• Yuan Kuan calendar ……………………………………………………………………………………. 146
IX. Heroes and Anti-Heroes ……………………………………………………………………………………… 152
• Li Si memoir………………………………………………………………………………………………. 153
• Tian Dan ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 156
• The Assassin-Retainers Memoir …………………………………………………………………….. 158
26
Part I. Confucian Texts
The Analects of Confucius
Confucius (551 – 479 BCE), known as Kong Qiu in Chinese, was born in the small state of Lu, near
the Shandong peninsula. Confucius became an expert in the traditions of the older Zhou (1045-771
BCE) society, and distilled the insights of ritual and governance from the Zhou world into lessons
he hoped would help recreate Zhou society in 6th century BCE China. Over the course of his life he
advised a number of Lu rulers, while also teaching young aristocrats trying to rise in rank and power.
Around 500 BCE Confucius was forced into exile, and he spent 15 years as a wandering sage, trying
to find employment as a political advisor, and when that failed, earning a living as an itinerant
instructor. The Analects are a collection of his teachings, recorded by his disciples (possibly from
lecture notes), and collected into twenty books in the years after his death in 479 BCE. There is an
occasional logic to The Analects organization, as some of the books clearly have a thematic
organization, but in many places the sequence of the passages appears random. In the next centuries,
The Analects were copied and distributed in bamboo manuscript form. In the pages that follow, there
are excerpts from some of the best-known passages about governance, which are the principle
thematic focus of Books 2, 12 and 13 of The Analects.
All philosophers and persuaders in the third century BCE, regardless of their school of thought,
would have been familiar with The Analects. Moreover, the Confucian scholars, or the so-called Ru
School, developed and expanded the lessons of The Analects to encompass an ethical framework for
all behavior, including political leadership and governance. The two most prominent figures where
Mencius and Xunzi, who each elaborated the basic Confucian teachings in distinct directions.
Mengzi
Mencius (372-289 BCE) is generally considered the second sage of Confucianism, although he was
born a century after Confucius’s death. His early life is obscure, but he studied Confucianism from
an early age, and after his training was complete, he was a traveling persuader, who offered advice to
rulers and statesmen. Much of his writings (collected in the seven books, each with a part A and B,
known as the Mengzi), were proposals for specific government actions or reforms, which he thought
should be enacted by contemporary kings and rulers. For a while he worked for the state of Qi,
where he advised King Xuan on diplomacy and war (collected in Book 1B). His philosophy further
elaborates the ethical framework developed by Confucius and his followers, and revolve around his
central teaching that human nature was in essence good (see Book 6A). For Mencius, humans had
an innate tendency towards benevolence, righteousness, and propriety (Book 2A), and rulers and
government should be done through and by goodness. His ideas also have important implications
for education and leadership more generally, in that he proposed that the innate goodness of
humanity suggested teachers and leaders do those things which brought out this goodness.
27
Xunzi
Xunzi, or Master Xun, was two generations younger than Mencius, and had died just a few years ago
earlier (in the timeline of the game). His essays were written on bamboo scrolls, and circulated
already during his lifetime. After his death they were collected in the 32 chapters of the Xunzi. He
studied and taught within the Confucian philosophical trend, and his philosophy is also an
expansion of the Confucian ethical framework for leadership. He has advice for both rulers and
courtiers, offering advice on governance and warfare, and has suggestions for ambitious men
seeking advancement. In general, he is less idealistic about humanity than Confucius or Mencius,
with suggestions for action that reckon with the darker sides of human nature (including in yourself).
In this he departed from the then mainstream position of Mencius, and Xunzi’s most famous
philosophical position is explicitly in opposition to Mencius. Xunzi argued in Chapter 23 that human
nature is bad (sometimes translated as evil). Among other implications, this meant for Xunzi that
governing and leadership needed to deliberately create goodness, as it didn’t just naturally flow
through humanity.
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Excerpts from The Analects
Book I
1.1 The Master said: To study and at due times practice what one has studied, is this not a pleasure?
When friends come from distant places, is this not joy? To remain unsoured when his talents are
unrecognized, is this not a junzi?
1.2 Master You said: It is rare to find a person who is filial to his parents and respectful of his elders,
yet who likes to oppose his ruling superior. And never has there been one who does not like opposing
his ruler who has raised a rebellion. The junzi works on the root – once the root is planted, the dao is
born. Filiality and respect for elders, are these not the roots of ren?
Book II
2.1 The Master said: When one rules by means of virtue it is like the North Star – it dwells in its
place and the other stars pay reverence to it.
2.2 The Master said: There are three hundred songs in the Poetry, yet one phrase covers them all:
“Thoughts unswerving.”
2.3 The Master said: Guide them with policies and align them with punishments and the people
will evade them and have no shame. Guide them with virtue and align them with Ii and the
people will have a sense of shame and fulfill their roles.
2.4 The Master said: When I was fifteen I set my heart on learning. At thirty I took my stand. At
forty I was without confusion. At fifty I knew the command of Tian. At sixty I heard it with a
compliant ear. At seventy I follow the desires of my heart and do not overstep the bounds.
2.5 Meng Yizi asked about filiality. The Master said, “Never disobey.” Fan Chi was driving the
Master’s chariot, and the Master told him, “Meng Yizi asked me about filiality and I replied, ‘Never
disobey.’” Fan Chi said, “What did you mean?” The Master said, “While they are alive, serve them
according to li. When they are dead, bury them according to li; sacrifice to them according to li.”
2.6 Meng Wubo asked about filiality. The Master said, “Let your mother and father need be
concerned only for your health.”
2.7 Ziyou asked about filiality. The Master said, ”What is meant by filiality today is nothing but
being able to take care of your parents. But even hounds and horses can require care. Without
respectful vigilance, what is the difference?”
2.8 Zixia asked about filiality. The Master said, “It is the expression on the face that is difficult. That
the young should shoulder the hardest chores or that the eldest are served food and wine first at
meals – whenever was that what filiality meant?”
2.9 The Master said: I can speak with Hui all day and he will never contradict me, like a dolt. But
after he withdraws, when I survey his personal conduct, indeed he is ready to go forth. He’s no dolt!
2.10 The Master said: Look at the means he employs, observe the sources of his conduct, examine
what gives him comfort – where can he hide? Where can he hide?
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2.11 The Master said: A person who can bring new warmth to the old while understanding the new is
worthy to take as a teacher.
2.12 The Master said: The junzj is not a vessel.
2.13 Zigong asked about the junzi. The Master said, “One who first tries out a precept and only after
follows it.”
2.14 The Master said: The junzj is inclusive and not a partisan; the small man is a partisan and not
inclusive.
2.19 Duke Ai asked, ”What should I do so that the people will obey?” Confucius replied, “Raise
up the straight and set them above the crooked and the people will obey. Raise up the crooked and
set them above the straight and the people will not obey.”
2.20 Ji Kangzi asked, “How would it be to use persuasion to make the people respectful and
loyal?” The Master said, “If you approach them with solemnity they will be respectful; if you are
filial and caring they will be loyal; if you raise up the good and instruct those who lack ability th ey
will be persuaded.”
2.21 Someone addressed Confucius, saying, ”Why do you not engage in govern- ment?” The Master
said, “The Documents says, ‘Filial, merely be filial, and friends to brothers young and old.’ To apply this
as one’s governance is also to engage in government. Why must there be some purposeful effort to
engage in governance?”
2.22 The Master said: A person without trustworthiness, who knows what he may do? A carriage
without a yoke strap, a cart without a yoke hook: how can you drive them?
2.23 Zizhang asked, “May one foretell ten generations from now?” The Master said, “The Yin
Dynasty adhered to the Ii of the Xia Dynasty; what they added and discarded can be known. The
Zhou Dynasty adhered to the Ii of the Yin Dynasty; what they added and discarded can be
known. As for those who may follow after the Zhou, though a hundred generations, we can
foretell.
Book XII
12.1 Yan Yuan asked about ren. The Master said, “Conquer yourself and return to li: that is ren. If a
person could conquer himself and return to li for a single day, the world would respond to him with
ren. Being ren proceeds from oneself, how could it come from others?” Yan Yuan said, “May I ask
for details of this?” The Master said, “If it is not li, don’t look at it; if it is not li, don’t listen to it; if it is
not li, don’t say it; if it is not li, don’t do it.” Yan Yuan said, “Although I am not quick, I ask to apply
myself to this.”
12.2 Zhonggong asked about ren. The Master said, “When you go out your front gate, continue to
treat each person as though receiving an honored guest. When directing the actions of subordinates,
do so as though officiating at a great ritual sacrifice. Do not do to others what you would not wish
done to you. Then there can be no complaint against you, in your state or in your household.”
Zhonggong said, “Although I am not quick, I ask to apply myself to this.”
12.3 Sima Niu asked about ren. The Master said, “The person who is ren speaks with reluctance.”
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“Reluctant in speech – may such a person, then, be called ren?” The Master said, ”When doing it is
difficult, can one not be reluctant to speak of it?”
12.4 Sima Niu asked about the junzi. The Master said, “The junzi is not beset with care or fear.”
“Not beset with care or fear – may such a person, then, be called a junzi?” “Surveying himself within
and finding no fault, what care or fear could there be?”
12.5 Sima Niu was beset with care. “All people have brothers, I alone am without one.” Zixia said, “I
have heard it said, ‘Life and death are preordained, wealth and rank are up to Tian. The junzi never
lets slip his respectful vigilance: when with others, he is reverent and acts with li – in the world within
the four seas, all men are his brothers.’ What concern need a junzi have that he is without brothers?”
12.6 Zizhang asked about discernment. The Master said, “When one is uninfluenced by slanderous
statements about someone that reach a saturation point or by disputes that are brought before him
that have a direct bearing on him, then he may be said to be discerning. He may also be said to be
farsighted.”
12.7 Zigong asked about governance. The Master said, “Provide people with adequate food, provide
them with adequate weapons, induce them to have faith in their ruler.”
Zigong said, “If you had no choice but to dispense with one of those three things, which would it
be?”
“Dispense with weapons.”
“If you had no choice but to dispense with one of those two things, which would it be?”
“Dispense with food. From ancient times there has always been death. If the people do not have
faith, the state cannot stand.”
12.8 Ji Zicheng said, “Being a junzi is simply a matter of one’s plain substance. Of what use are
patterns (wen)?”
Zigong said, “What a shame that you have described the junzi in this way – a team of horses is not as
swift as the tongue! If patterns were like plain substance and plain substance like patterns, the pelts of
tigers and leopards would be like those of hounds and sheep.”
12.9 Duke Ai questioned You Ruo. “In years of famine, when I do not take in enough to meet my
expenditures, what should I do?”
You Ruo replied, “Why not set taxes at the rate of one-tenth?”
“At the rate of two-tenths my income is not adequate – how could I manage at one tenth?”
You Ruo replied, “When the people have sufficient means, who will not provide the ruler with what
he needs; when the people do not have sufficient means, who will provide the ruler with what he
needs?”
12.10 Zizhang asked about exalting virtue and discerning confusion. The Master said, “Taking loyalty
and trustworthiness as the pivot and ever shifting to align with the right: that is exalting virtue. When
one cherishes a person one wishes him to live; when one hates a person one wishes him to die –on
the one hand cherishing and wishing him life, while on the other hating and wishing him death: that is
confusion.
Truly, it is not a matter of riches,
Indeed, it is simply about discernment.
12.11 Duke Jing of Qi asked Confucius about governance. Confucius replied, “Let the ruler be ruler,
ministers ministers, fathers fathers, sons sons.”
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The Duke said, “Excellent! Truly, if the ruler is not ruler, ministers not ministers, fathers not fathers,
sons not sons, though I possess grain, will I be able to eat it?”
12.12 The Master said, “Able to adjudicate a lawsuit by hearing a single statement – would this not
characterize Yóu?”
Zilu never postponed fulfillment of a promise overnight.
12.13 The Master said, In hearing lawsuits, I am no better than others. What is imperative is to make
it so that there are no lawsuits.
12.14 Zizhang asked about governance. The Master said, “Fulfill your office untiringly, perform your
duties with loyalty.”
12.15 The Master said, Once a junzi has studied broadly in patterns and constrained them with li,
indeed he will never turn his back on them.
12.16 The Master said, The junzi perfects what is beautiful in people, he does not perfect what is ugly.
The small man does just the opposite.
12.17 Ji Kangzi questioned Confucius about governance. Confucius replied, “Governance is setting
things upright. If you lead with uprightness, who will dare not to be upright?”
12.18 Ji Kangzi was concerned about bandits, and asked advice of Confucius. Confucius replied, “If
you yourself were truly not covetous, though you rewarded people for it, they would not steal.”
12.19 Ji Kangzi asked Confucius about governance, saying, “How would it be if I were to kill those
who are without the dao in order to hasten others towards the dao?”
Confucius replied, “Of what use is killing in your governance? If you desire goodness, the people will
be good. The virtue of the junzi is like the wind and the virtue of common people is like the grasses:
when the wind blows over the grasses, they will surely bend.”
12.20 Zizhang asked, “When may a gentleman be said to have attained success?”
The Master said, “What do you mean by attaining success?”
Zizhang replied, “His name is renowned throughout his state and his household.”
The Master said, “This is to be renowned, not to be successful. Attaining success lies in being
straightforward in basic substance and loving the right, being perspicacious when listening to others
speak and observant of their facial expressions, and bearing in mind deference towards others. Such a
person will surely attain success in the state and in his household.
“As for being renowned, such a man gets a reputation for ren from appearances, though his conduct
contravenes it, and he is free of self-doubt. His name is renowned throughout his state and his
household.”
12.21 Fan Chi accompanied the Master on an outing past the altar of the great rain dance.
“May I ask about exalting virtue, reforming faults, and discerning confusion?”
The Master said, “Well asked! Be first to the effort and last to take reward – is that not exalting virtue?
To set to work upon one’s own faults and not upon the faults of others, is that not the way to reform
faults? In the anger of the moment to forget one’s safety and that of one’s parents, is that not
confusion?”
12.22 Fan Chi asked about ren. The Master said, “Cherish people.” When he asked about knowledge,
the Master said, “Know people,” and Fan Chi did not understand.
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The Master said, “If you raise up the straight and place them over the crooked, they can make the
crooked straight.”
Fan Chi took his leave and went to see Zixia. “Just now, I was with the Master and asked him about
knowledge. He said, ‘If you raise up the straight and place them over the crooked, they can make the
crooked straight.’ What did he mean?”
Zixia said, “How rich these words are! When Shun possessed the world he picked Gaoyao out from
among the multitudes, and those who were not ren kept far distant. When Tang possessed the world,
he picked Yi Yin out from among the multitudes, and those who were not ren kept far distant.”
12.23 Zigong asked about friends. The Master said, “Advise them loyally and guide them well. If this
does not work, desist. Do not humiliate yourself.”
12.24 Master Zeng said, A junzi attracts friends through his patterned behavior, and employs friends
to assist him in ren.
Book XIII
13.1 Zilu asked about governance. The Master said, “Be first to the task and comfort others at their
labors.”
When asked for more, he said, “Be tireless.”
13.2 Zhonggong was serving as steward for the Ji family. He asked about governance. The Master
said, “Provide a leading example to your officers. Pardon minor offences. Raise up the worthy.”
“How can I recognize who has worthy abilities so I can raise them up?”
“Raise up those you recognize. As for those you don’t recognize, will the others let
you do without them?”
13.3 Zilu said, “If the ruler of Wei were to entrust you with governance of his state, what would be
your first priority.”
The Master said, “Most certainly, it would be to rectify names.”
Zilu said, “Is that so? How strange of you! How would this set things right?”
The Master said, “What a boor you are, Yóu! A junzi keeps silent about things he doesn’t understand.
“If names are not right then speech does not accord with things; if speech is not in accord with
things, then affairs cannot be successful; when affairs are not successful, li and music do not flourish;
when li and music do not flourish, then sanctions and punishments miss their mark; when sanctions
and punishments miss their mark, the people have no place to set their hands and feet.
“Therefore, when a junzi gives things names, they may be properly spoken of, and what is said may be
properly enacted. With regard to speech, the junzi permits no carelessness.”
13.4 Fan Chi asked to learn about farming grain. The Master said, “Better to ask an old peasant.”
He asked about raising vegetables. “Better to ask an old gardener.”
When Fan Chi left, the Master said, “What a small man Fan Xu is! If a ruler loved li, none among the
people would dare be inattentive; if a ruler loved right, none would dare be unsubmissive; if a ruler
loved trustworthiness, none would dare be insincere. The people of the four quarters would come to
him with their children strapped on their backs. Why ask about farming?”
13.5 The Master said, If a man can recite from memory the three hundred odes of the Poetry but,
when you entrust him with governance, he is unable to express his meaning, or, when you send him
to the four quarters on diplomatic missions, he is unable to make replies on his own initiative, though
he may have learned much, of what use is he?
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13.6 The Master said, If he is upright in his person, he will perform without orders. If he is not
upright in his person, though you give him orders, he will not carry them out.
13.7 The Master said, The governments of the states of Lu and Wei are like older and younger
brothers.
13.8 The Master commented that Prince Jing of Wei handled possessing his residences well. When he
first possessed a home he said, “This is truly a good fit.”
When he came to have some luxuries he said, “This is truly complete.” When he became wealthy he
said, “This is truly beautiful.”
13.9 The Master traveled to the state of Wei. Ran Yǒu drove his chariot. The Master said, “How
populous it is!”
Ran Yǒu said, “As Wei is already populous, what would you add?”
“Enrich them.”
“Once the people were enriched, what would you add?”
“Teach them.”
13.10 The Master said, If there were someone who would employ me, things would be in hand within
a year on the. In three years, they would have come to success.
13.11 The Master said, “‘If good men governed for a hundred years, cruelty could indeed be
overcome and killing dispensed with.’ How very true that saying is!”
13.12 The Master said, If there were one who reigned as a true king, after a generation, all would be
ren.
13.13 The Master said, If one can make his person upright, then what difficulty will he have in taking
part in governance? If he cannot make his person upright, how can be make others upright?
13.14 Ranzi came from court. The Master said, “Why are you late?”
Ranzi replied, “There were matters of government.”
The Master said, “Surely, these were affairs of the household. Were there matters of government,
though I am not in office, I would be advised of them.”
13.15 Duke Ding asked, “Is there a single saying that can lead a state to flourish?”
Confucius replied, “No saying can have such an effect, but there is one that comes close: There is a
saying, ‘It is hard to be a ruler; it is not easy being a minister.’ If one thus understood how hard it is to
rule, would this not come close to a single saying leading a state to flourish?”
“Is there a single saying that can destroy a state?”
Confucius replied, “No saying can have such an effect, but there is one that comes close: There is a
saying, ‘There is nothing I love more about being a ruler than that no one contradicts me.’ If a ruler
were fine and none contradicted him, that would be fine indeed; if he were not a good ruler and none
contradicted him, then would this not come close to a single saying destroying a state?”
13.16 The Lord of She asked about governance. The Master said, “Those nearby are pleased, those far
distant come.”
13.17 Zixia served as steward of Jufu and asked about governance. The Master said, “Don’t seek
quick results; don’t attend to matters of minor profit. If you seek quick results, you will not attain
success; if you attend to matters of minor profit, you will not succeed in great affairs.”
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13.18 The Lord of She instructed Confucius, saying, “There is an upright man in my district. His
father stole a sheep, and he testified against him.”
Confucius said, “The upright men in my district are different. Fathers cover up for their sons and
sons cover up for their fathers. Uprightness lies therein.”
13.19 Fan Chi asked about ren. The Master said, “Let your bearing be reverent when you are at leisure,
be respectfully attentive in managing affairs, and be loyal towards others. Though you be among
barbarians, these may never be cast aside.”
13.20 Zigong asked, “How must one be in order to deserve being called a gentleman?”
The Master said, “One who conducts himself with a sense of shame and who may be dispatched to
the four quarters without disgracing his lord’s commission, such a one may be termed a gentleman.”
“May I ask what is next best?”
“When his clan calls him filial and his neighborhood district calls him respectful of elders.”
“May I ask what is next best?”
“Keeping to one’s word and following through in one’s actions – it has the ring of a petty man, but
indeed, this would be next.”
“What are those who participate in governance today like?”
“Oh! They are men you measure by bucket or scoop – why even count them?”
13.21 The Master said, Those who cannot keep to the central path in their conduct but who are still
worth some praise are surely the reckless and the timid. The reckless are willing to advance towards
the goal, and the timid have things that they are unwilling to do.
13.22 The Master said, “The people of the South have a saying: ‘A person without constancy may not
be a shaman or a doctor.’ This is very fine!”
“If one is not constant in virtue, one may receive disgrace” – the Master said, “Simply do not divine.”
13.23 The Master said, The junzi acts in harmony with others but does not seek to be like them; the
small man seeks to be like others and does not act in harmony.
13.24 Zigong asked, “If all the people of your village loved you, how would that be?”
The Master said, “Not good enough.”
“If all the people of your village hated you, how would that be?”
The Master said, “Not good enough. Better that the good people in your village love you and the bad
people hate you.”
13.25 The Master said, The junzi is easy to serve and hard to please. If you do not accord with the dao
in pleasing him, he is not pleased; when it comes to employing others, he only puts them to tasks they
are fit to manage. The small man is hard to serve but easy to please. If you do not accord with the dao
in pleasing him, he is still pleased; when it comes to employing others, he demands they be able in
everything.
13.26 The Master said, The junzi is at ease without being arrogant; the small man is arrogant without
being at ease.
13.27 The Master said, Incorruptibility, steadfastness, simplicity, and reticence are near to ren.
13.28 Zilu asked, “How must one be in order to deserve being called a gentleman?”
The Master said, “Supportive, encouraging, congenial – such a man may be called a gentleman.
Supportive and encouraging with his friends, congenial with his brothers.”
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13.29 The Master said, If a good man were to instruct the people for seven years, they would indeed
be ready to go into battle.
13.30 The Master said, Not to teach the people how to fight in war may called discarding them.
Translation by Bob Eno available at:
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23420/Analects_of_Confucius_%
28E no-2015%29-updated ?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
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Excerpts from The Mengzj
Translated by Bob Eno (an Online translation for a class)
BOOK1 KING HUI OF LIANG PART A
1A.1 Mencius appeared in audience before King Hui of Liang. The King said, “Aged Sir, you have not
regarded a thousand li as too great a distance to travel here – surely it must be that you have come to
profit my state!”
Mencius replied, “Your Majesty, why must you speak of profit? Indeed, there is nothing but humanity
and right. If Your Majesty says, ‘Whereby may I profit my state?’ your grandees shall say, ‘Whereby
may I profit my family?’ and your gentlemen and common people shall say, ‘Whereby may I profit
myself?’ When those higher and lower compete with one another for profit, the state will be in
danger. In a state of ten thousand war chariots, the man who assassinates the ruler will surely have a
family estate of one thousand; in a state of one thousand war chariots, the man who assassinates the
ruler will surely have a family estate of one hundred. Such men have a tenth share of the state’s force,
and this is by no means a little. But if right is placed to the rear and profit to the fore, such men will
never be satisfied unless they seize it all. Never has a man of humanity abandoned his parents, and
never has a man of right put himself before his ruler.
“May Your Majesty simply speak of humanity and right. Why must you speak of profit?”
1A.2 Mencius appeared in audience before King Hui of Liang. The King was standing by a pond in
his park land, gazing at the deer and wild geese around it. “Do worthy men also delight in things such
as this?” he asked.
Mencius replied, “Only when one is worthy may one delight in them; though the unworthy may
possess them, they cannot take delight in them. The Poetry says:
The King began his Magic Tower,
Planning it and spanning it,
The people set themselves to work,
In no time it was done!
He started it with no great haste,
The people simply came.
The King was in his Magic Park,
The deer and doe lay all around,
The deer and doe all glistening sleek,
The white birds gleaming bright.
The King was at his Magic Pond,
How full with leaping fish!
The King relied upon the labor of the people to build his tower and his pond, and the people took
joyful delight in it. Hence they called his tower the Magic Tower and his pond the Magic Pond,
delighting in the deer and fish that were there.
“The men of old shared their delight with the people – that is why they knew delight. But the ‘Oath
of Tang’ says:
When shall this sun die,
That I may share death with you?
The people then so wished the ruler’s death.
“Though one may have towers, pools, birds and beasts, how can you enjoy them alone?”
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1A.3 King Hui of Liang said, “My attitude towards my state is simply to exhaust my every effort on its
behalf. If in Henei there is famine, I move people to Hedong and grain to Henei, and likewise also if
the case is reversed. When I examine governance in neighboring states, none is as conscientious as
mine. Yet the population of those states does not decrease and that of mine does not increase. Why is
this so?”
Mencius replied, “Your Majesty loves war, so let me use an analogy from war to explain. Picture the
drums beating your soldiers into battle – the swords of the armies have clashed! Suddenly, your men
strip off their heavy armor and run, trailing their weapons behind them. Some run for a hundred
paces, others stop after fifty. If the men who had retreated only fifty paces began to laugh at those
who had run a hundred, what would you think of them?”
“That they were wrong to do so! They haven’t run a hundred paces, but they’ve still run away.”
Mencius said, “If Your Majesty understands this, then you need not look for the population of your
state to grow over those of your neighbors.
“If a state does not interfere with the people during the growing season, there will be more grain than
the people can eat. If you regulate fishing nets so that fine-woven ones may not be used in the pools
and ponds, there will be more fish than the people can eat. If you allow hatchets and axes to be used
in the woods only in proper season, there will be more lumber than the people can use. When there is
more grain and fish than the people can eat and more lumber than the people can use, the people can
nourish their living and mourn their dead without regrets: this is the root of the Dao of the True
King.
“When on every five mu homestead a mulberry tree is planted, people fifty and over are able to wear
silk clothes. When chicken, pigs, and dogs are bred in a timely way, all who are seventy and over have
meat to eat. If laborers in fields of a hundred mu are not taken from their fieldwork during growing
season, then families with many mouths to feed will never go hungry. When the education given in
village schools is extended by the example of behavior that is filial to parents and deferential to elders,
then none with white hair will carry heavy loads along the roads. There has never been a ruler who
did not rule as a True King when those seventy and older wore silk and ate meat, and when the
people were never hungry or cold.
“But now, when food is plentiful, dogs and pigs eat the people’s food and none know to garner and
store it; when food is scarce, people starve by the roadside and none know to open the storehouses
and distribute grain. When men die, you say, ‘It is not I – it is the weather’s fault!’ How is this
different from running them through with a spear and saying, ‘It was not I – it is the spear’s fault!’
“Once Your Majesty ceases to blame the weather, people will come to you from everywhere in the
world.”
1A.6 Mencius appeared in audience before King Xiang of Liang. When he emerged, he said to
others, “When I first caught sight of him he did not have the look of a ruler of men, and when I
approached closer I saw nothing in him to inspire awe. He began by asking me abruptly, ‘ How
can the world be put in good order?’
“I replied by saying, ‘It will be put in order tlu ough unity.’ “‘Who can unify it?’
” I said, ‘ One who takes no pleasure in killing people.’ “‘Who can deliver it to him?’
” I said, ‘No one in the world would refuse to give it to him. Does Your Majesty know how
rice plants grow? If there is a summer drought, the seedlings wither. But if clouds rise cluck
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in the heavens and the rain pours down, the seedlings will suddenly swell upright – who could
stop them? Now, in the world today there are no leaders who do not take pleasure in killing
people. If there were such a one, the people of the world would all straighten their necks to
gaze towards him. If he were truly such a man, the people would come to him just as water
flows downwards – pouring down with such force, who could stop them?”‘
1A.7 King Xuan of Qi asked, “Will you teach me about the great hegemons, Duke Huan of Qi
and Duke Wen of Jin?”
Mencius replied, “The disciples of Confucius did not speak of the affairs of these rulers, …. I have
not learned of them. Failing in this, may I speak to you of True Kingship?”
“What sort of virtue must one have to rule as a True King?”
Mencius said, “If one rules by protecting the people, none can stop him.”
“Could a man like me rule as a protector of the people?”
“Yes.”
“How do you know I could?”
Mencius said, “I heard from your courtier Hu He that when Your Majesty was sitting up in the
great hall, an ox was dragged by in the court below, and that seeing it you asked, ‘Where are you
taking that ox?’ Your courtiers told you that it was to be slaughtered and its blood used to anoint
a newly cast bell, and you said, ‘Spare it. I can’t bear to see it whimpering like an innocent man
being taken for execution.’ And when your courtiers asked whether you wished them not to
consecrate the bell you said, ‘How can we do away with that? Use a sheep instead.’ I wonder
whether the story is accurate.”
“Yes, it is.”
“Well then, your heart is sufficient for you to reign as a True King. The people all thought you
spared the ox because you were stingy, but I understand that it was because you could not bear its
distress.”
The King said, “That’s right. That’s just what they said. But even though Qi is not a big state,
how could I begrudge sacrificing a single ox? It was that I couldn’t bear its whimpering like an
innocent man being taken for execution, so I told them to substitute a sheep.”
“Your Majesty should not be surprised that the people took you to be stingy, since you
substituted a smaller animal for a large one. How could they know? If your concern was that they
were being executed despite their innocence, what difference would there be between an ox and a
sheep?”
The King laughed. “Really, what was I thinking? I wasn’t thinking about the expense when I said
to substitute a sheep, but it’s natural that the people said I was just being stingy.”
Mencius said, “There was no harm in what you did – it was the working of humanity. You had
seen the ox, but you had not seen the sheep. For a junzi, if he has seen a bird or beast alive, he
cannot watch it die; if he has heard its voice, he cannot bear to eat its flesh. This is why the junzi
keeps his distance from the kitchen!”
39
…
“Treat your aged kin as the elderly should be treated, and then extend that to the treatment of the
aged kinsmen of others; treat your young kin as the young should be treated, and then extend it
to the young children of others. If you do this, you will be able to govern the world as though you
turned it in your palm. The Poetry says:
An exemplar in treating his wife,
And extending to his brothers,
Thus he ruled the family and the state.
What this is speaking of is taking one’s own heart and applying it in the treatment of others. If
you extend your kindness it will be enough to protect all within the Four Seas of the world; if you
don’t extend your kindness, you can’t even protect your wife and children…
…
Mencius said, “Is it that you lack rich foods that satisfy your palate, fine clothes that bring
comfort to your body, colorful décor that can bring pleasure to your eyes, beautiful music to
stimulate your ears, or court favorites to carry out your every order? Surely your royal officers
could supply such wants – surely these are not what you mean.”
“No,” said the King. “It is not because of such things.”
“In that case, I can guess Your Majesty’s great desire. It is to broaden your territories, to have the
rulers of Qin and Chu pay homage at your court, to stand at the center of the states and subdue
the barbarians beyond the borders in all directions. But to pursue these ambitions by the means
you now employ is like trying to catch fish by climbing a tree.”
The King said, “Is it as bad as that?”
“Likely worse!
Mencius said, “If the state of Zou fought the state of Chu, whom does Your Majesty think would
prevail?”
“The men of Chu would prevail.”
“Precisely so. And this is because the small is inherently no match for the large, the few are no
match for the many, and the weak are no match for the strong…
“If Your Majesty were now to proclaim policies that were governed by humanity, you would
cause all the warriors in the world to wish they could attend Your Majesty at court, all the tillers in
the world to wish they could till Your Majesty’s lands, all the merchants in the world to wish they
could collect at Your Majesty’s markets, all the travelers in the world to wish they could journey
on
Your Majesty’s roads. Everyone in the world who feels distress because of their rulers would wish
to come denounce them before Your Majesty. If this were so, who could stop them?”
…
40
Mencius said … “The enlightened ruler regulates the people’s means of support, ensuring that
these are sufficient for them to serve their parents and nurture their wives and children. Through
good years, they will always have enough to eat their fill; in bad years, they will at least escape
starvation. Then, when he guides them towards goodness, the people will find it no burden to
follow.
…
“If Your Majesty wishes to put these matters into practice, reexamine the root of the matter.
…When a ruler attends to the education given in village schools and sees that it is extended by
the example of behavior that is filial to parents and deferential to elders, then none with white
hair will carry heavy loads along the roads. There has never been a ruler who did not rule as a
True King when the aged wore silk and ate meat, and when the people were never hungry or
cold.”
1B.3 King Xuan of Qi asked, “Do you have a formula for diplomacy with neighboring states?”
“Mencius replied, “I do. Only a man of humanity is able properly to put his large state at the
service of a smaller one. In this way Tang was able to serve the Ge people and King Wen was
able to serve the Kunyi people. Only the wise man is able properly to put his small state in the
service of a larger one. In this way King Tai was able to serve the Xunyu people and Goujian was
able to serve Wu. Those who put the large in the service of the small are those who take joy in
Tian; those who put the small in the service of the large are those who act in awe of Tian. Those
who take joy in Tian are the protectors of the world; those who act in awe of Tian are the
protectors of their states. The Poetry says:
Act in awe of the majesty of Tian
And in this way protect it.”
The King said, “Your words are great! Yet I have a weakness. I have a love of valor.”
Mencius replied, “I beg that Your Majesty not be fond of petty valor. To stroke one’s sword hilt
and glare, saying, ‘How dare that man oppose me!’ is the valor of the vulgar man, enough only to
match a single enemy. Your Majesty, you need to go beyond this. The Poetry says:
The King blazed in anger
And set his troops in ranks
To stop the enemy’s march on Ju,
Deepen the blessings of the Zhou,
And answer the wish of the world.
And the Documents says: ‘Tian sent down the people of the world, and made for them a ruler
and thereby a teacher, that he might assist the Lord on High in cherishing them. “In all the four
quarters of the world, for the guilty and the innocent, the burden falls on me alone!” Who in all
the world dared cross his will?’
“When one man in the world bullied others, King Wu of the Zhou felt ashamed of it. This was
the valor of King Wu – and indeed, in a single outburst of rage, he brought peace to the world.
Now if you too would bring peace to the world in a single outburst of rage, the people will fear
only that you are not fond of valor.”
1B.6 Mencius addressed King Xuan of Qi. “Suppose a subject of Your Majesty entrusted his wife and
children to a friend and traveled south to Chu, and when he returned, his friend had left his wife and
child to suffer in cold and hunger. What should this man do?”
41
The King said, “Discard him as a friend.”
“And what if the Master of the Guard could not keep order among his men, what then?” “Dismiss
him.”
“And what if there were disorder within the borders of the state, what then?
The King turned to his other courtiers and changed the subject.
1B.7 Mencius appeared in audience before King Xuan of Qi and said, “We don’t call a state
‘traditional’ because its trees are tall and old; it is because its court ministers come from families
that serve from generation to generation. Your Majesty has no intimate court ministers because
those you appointed in the past have already disappeared, who knows where?”
The King said, “How could I have known they lacked talent when I appointed them?”
Mencius said, “A ruler promotes men on the basis of worth only when absolutely necessary. One
must be so cautious when promoting the lowly over the exalted and the unfamiliar over the
familiar! Even if all your close advisors say he is worthy, that is not enough. Even if all the grandees
of state say he is worthy, that is not enough. If all the people of the state say he is worthy,
investigate, and if you find that he is indeed worthy, only then appoint him. On the other hand,
even if all your close advisors say a minister in office is unworthy, that is not enough to dismiss
him. Even if all the grandees of state say he is unworthy, that is not enough either. But if all the
people of the state say he is unworthy, investigate, and if you find that he is indeed unworthy, only
then dismiss him.
“Likewise, if all your close advisors say a man should be executed, that is not grounds enough to
kill him. Even if all the grandees of state say he should be executed, that is not enough either. But if
all the people of the state say he should be executed, investigate, and if you find that he is indeed
worthy of execution, only then kill him. This is why records of the past sometimes say, ‘The people
of the state killed him.’
“Only in this way can you become father and mother to the people.”
2A.5 Mencius said, “If a ruler honors the worthy and employs the able, placing outstanding men in
office, then the gentlemen of the world will all appreciate him and wish to find a place at his court.
If, in his markets, where there are taxes on stall inventories there is no tax on goods sold, and
where there is a tax upon the land that stalls occupy stall inventory is not taxed, then the merchants
of the world will appreciate him and wish to store their goods at his markets. If his border customs
officers examine travelers but do not tax them, then the wayfarers of the world will appreciate him
and wish to journey on his roads. If he taxes ploughmen with corvée work on his lands and does
not tax their crops, then the farmers of the world will appreciate him and seek to plough the
untilled lands in his realm. If he eliminates the corvée levy on those who do not work and the tax
on cultivated mulberry trees, then the people of the world will appreciate him and wish to become
his subjects.
“If a ruler were indeed able to put these five measures into practice, then the people in
neighboring states would look up to him as their father and mother, and since the birth of
humankind, none has ever been able to induce children to attack their fathers and mothers.
“In this way, such a ruler will be without any enemy in the world. Such a man is the agent of Tian,
and never has there been such a one who did not rule as a True King.”
42
BOOK 2 GONGSUN CHOU PART A
2A.6 Mencius said: “All people possess within them a moral sense that cannot bear the suffering of
others. The former kings had such a moral sense and thus they devised means of government that
would not allow people to suffer. If a ruler were to employ the moral sense that makes human
suffering unendurable in order to implement such humane government, he would find bringing the
entire world into order to be simple, as though he were turning the world in his hand.
“Why do I say that all people possess within them a moral sense that cannot bear the suffering of
others? Well, imagine now a person who, all of a sudden, sees a small child on the verge of falling
down into a well. Any such person would experience a sudden sense of fright and dismay. This
feeling would not be something he summoned up in order to establish good relations with the
child’s parents. He would not purposefully feel this way in order to win the praise of their friends
and neighbors. Nor would he feel this way because the screams of the child would be unpleasant.
“By imagining this situation we can see that one who lacked a sense of dismayed commiseration in
such a case simply could not be a person. Moreover, anyone who lacks the sense of shame cannot
be a person; anyone who lacks a sense of deference cannot not be a person; anyone who lacks a
sense of right and wrong cannot not be a person.
“The sense of commiseration is the seed of humanity, the sense of shame is the seed of
righteousness, the sense of deference is the seed of ritual, and the sense of right and wrong is the
seed of wisdom. Everyone possesses these four moral senses just as they possess their four limbs.
To possess such seeds and yet claim to be unable to call them forth is to rob oneself; and for a
person to claim that his ruler is incapable of such moral feelings is to rob his ruler.
“As we possess these four senses within us, if only we realize that we need to extend and fulfill
them, then the force of these senses will burst through us like a wildfire first catching or a spring
first bursting forth through the ground. If a person can bring these impulses to fulfillment, they will
be adequate to bring all the four quarters under his protection. But if a person fails to develop these
senses, he will fail even to serve his own parents.”
BOOK 6 GAOZI PART A
6A.1 Gaozi said, “Human nature is like the willow tree and righteousness is like cups and bowls.
Drawing humanity and right from human nature is like making cups and bowls from willow
wood.”
Mencius said, “Can you make cups and bowls from willow wood by following its natural grain or is
it only after you have hacked the willow wood that you can make a cup or bowl? If you must hack
the willow to make cups and bowls from it, must you hack people in order to make them humane
and righteous? Your words will surely lead the people of the world to destroy humanity and right.”
6A.6 Gongduzi said, “Gaozi says that human nature is neither good nor bad. Others say human
nature is such that people can become good or become bad, and that this is why when the sage
Kings Wen and Wu arose the people loved to be good, and when the tyrannical Kings You and Li
arose people loved to be violent…Now you say human nature is good – is everyone else wrong?”
Mencius said, “What I mean by saying it is good is that there is that in our nature which is
spontaneously part of us and can become good. The fact that we can become bad is not a defect in
our natural endowment. All men possess a sense of commiseration; all men possess a sense of
43
shame; all men possess a sense of respect; all men possess a sense of right and wrong. The sense of
commiseration is the seed of humanity; the sense of shame is the seed of righteousness; the sense
of respect is the seed of ritual; the sense of right and wrong is the seed of wisdom. Thus humanity,
righteousness, ritual, and wisdom are not welded to us from outside. We possess them inherently;
… This is the meaning of the saying, ‘Seek for it and you will get it; let it go and you will lose it.’ The
reason why some men are twice as good as others – or five or countless times better – is simply
that some men do not exhaust their endowment to the full. The Poetry says:
Tian gave birth to the teeming people,
For every thing there is a norm.
The constant for people, within their grasp,
Is love of beautiful virtue’s form.
Confucius said, ‘The man who wrote this poem certainly understood the Dao!’ Thus for every type
of thing there is a norm; that is why the constant that lies within people’s grasp is inherently a love
of beautiful virtue.”
BOOK 7 EXHAUSTING THE MIND PART B
7B.14 Mencius said, “The people are most important; the state altars to the spirits of earth and grain
come next; the ruler is last of all. For this reason, any man who gains the support of the great mass
of people reigns as the Son of Heaven. Those who gain the confidence of the Son of Heaven
become the lords of states, and those who gain their confidence become grandees. When the lord of
a state endangers its altars, he should be replaced. When fat animals have been offered in sacrifice,
the grain offerings have been pure, and the ceremonies performed on schedule, yet drought or
floods ensue, then the altars should be replaced.”
44
Excerpts from The Xunzi, The Complete Works translated by Footnotes have been removed.
Chapter 1.
Pages 5-6
Where does learning begin? Where does learning end? I say: Its order begins with reciting the
classics, and ends with studying ritual. Its purpose begins with becoming a well-bred man, and ends
with becoming a sage. If you truly accumulate effort for a long time, then you will advance. Learning
proceeds until death and only then does it stop. And so, the order of learning has a stopping point,
but its purpose cannot be given up for even a moment. To pursue it is to be human, to give it up is
to be a beast. Thus:
The Documents is the record of government affairs.
The Odes is the repository of balanced sound.
Rituals are the great divisions in the model for things.
Outlines of things’ proper classes are in the rituals found.
And so, learning comes to ritual and then stops, for this is called the ultimate point in pursuit of the
Way and virtue. In the reverence and refinement of ritual, the balance and harmony of music, the
broad content of the Odes and Documents, the subtleties of the Spring and Autumn Annals, all things
between Heaven and Earth are complete. The learning of the gentleman enters through his ears,
fastens to his heart, spreads through his four limbs, and manifests itself in his actions. His slightest
word, his most subtle movement, all can serve as a model for others. The learning of the petty
person enters through his ears and passes out his mouth. From mouth to ears is only four inches—
how could it be enough to improve a whole body much larger than that? Students in ancient times
learned for their own sake, but the students of today learn for the sake of impressing others. Thus
the learning of the gentleman is used to improve his own person, while the learning of the petty man
is used like gift oxen. To speak without being asked is what people call being pre-sumptuous, and to
speak two things when asked only one is what people call being wordy. Being presumptuous is
wrong, and being wordy is wrong. The gentleman is simply like an echo. In learning, nothing is more
expedient than to draw near to the right person. Rituals and music provide proper models but give
no precepts. The Odes and Documents contain ancient stories but no ex-planation of their present
application. The Spring and Autumn Annals is terse and cannot be quickly understood. However, if
you imitate the right person in his practice of the precepts of the gentleman, then you will come to
honor these things for their comprehensiveness, and see them as encompassing the whole world.
Thus, in learning, noth-ing is more expedient than to draw near to the right person.
Chapter 4:
Page 23
Arrogance and haughtiness are the downfall of people, but reverence and restraint can halt even the
five weapons, for the sharpness of spears and lances is not as good as the keen-ness of reverence
and restraint. Thus, giving someone kind words is more warming than hemp-cloth and silk, while
hurtful words cut people more deeply than spears and halberds. So if there is some place on the
broad, flat earth where you cannot tread, it is not because the ground itself is not safe. Rather, it is
entirely your own words that endanger your step and leave you nowhere to tread. On the great roads
people will jostle each other, and the small roads are dangerous, so that even if you desire to be
indiscreet, still there are certain words that are not to be employed.
45
Uncontrolled rage will cause you to perish, even though you are full of life. Jealousy will cause you
to be maimed, even though you have keen intelligence. Slandering others will cause you to face
impasses, even though you are broadly learned. An uncontrolled mouth will cause you to be stained
all the more, even though you try to purify yourself. Indiscriminate associations will cause you to
starve all the more, even though you try to fatten yourself. Being combative will cause you to be
unpersuasive, even though you argue well. An attitude of superiority will cause you not to be
recognized, even though you take an upright stance. Oppressiveness will cause you not to be
honored, even though you are principled. Greediness will cause you not to be feared, even though
you are courageous. Inflexibility will cause you not to be respected, even though you are
trustworthy. These things are what the petty man works at, but what the gentleman will not do.
…
25-26
Heaven gave birth to the multitude of people, and there is a way to obtain them. Making one’s
thoughts and intentions extremely cultivated, making one’s practice of virtue extremely abundant,
making one’s knowledge and deliberations extremely enlightened—these are the means by which the
Son of Heaven obtains all under Heaven.
Making one’s government lawful, making one’s policies timely, hearing and deciding cases without
prejudice, complying with the orders of the Son of Heaven above, guarding the common people
below—these are the means by which the feudal lords obtain their states.
Making one’s intentions and conduct cultivated, fulfilling one’s official post in accordance with
proper order, complying with one’s superiors above, guarding one’s position below—these are the
means by which the officers and grand ministers obtain their landholdings.
Adhering to the laws, standards, punishments, and written records, not fully understanding their
purpose but carefully guarding their arrangement, being cautious and not daring to subtract from or
add to them, handing them down from father to son in support of the kings and dukes, so that even
after the passing of three generations, the same order and law still exist—these are the means by
which the officials and functionaries obtain their salaries and stations.
Chapter 7:
Page 50:
In seeking to fulfill a position of heavy responsibility well, to set in good order important affairs, or
to hold favor in a state of ten thou-sand chariots, there is a method for making sure one has no later
worries: nothing is as good as liking and cooperating with the right people. Aid the worthy and be
broadly generous. Eliminate resentments and do no harm to others. If you are capable and are equal
to your responsibilities, then carefully put into practice this way. If you are capable but are not equal
to your responsibilities, and moreover are afraid of losing favor, then nothing is as good as
cooperating with the right people early. Recommend those who are worthy, defer to those who are
capable, and quietly follow behind them. If you do this, then if you hold favor, it is sure to be truly
joyful, and even if you lose favor, you are sure to be blameless. This is the most precious thing for
one serving a lord, and is the method for making sure one has no later worries. Thus, the way that
the wise person conducts affairs is that when he is most successful, then he takes thought for
humility. When there is calm, then he takes thought for hazards. When there is safety, then he takes
46
thought for danger. He makes comprehensive and abundant preparation, as though fearful of
encountering disaster, and for this reason in a hundred acts he never meets with a downfall.
Confucius said, “Those who are clever but fond of proper measure are sure to be well regulated.
Those who are brave but fond of cooperating are sure to be victorious. Those who are
knowledgeable but fond of humility are sure to be worthy.” This expresses my meaning.
…
Page 51.
There is a method most effective in all the world. Use it to serve your lord, and you are sure to be
successful. Use it to practice ren, and you are sure to achieve sagehood. That is: set up the exalted
standard and do not depart from it. Then use respect and reverence to advance it, use loyalty and
trustworthiness to unify it, use diligence and caution to practice it, and use scrupulousness and
honesty to preserve it. In times of difficulty then follow it up with vigorous effort in order to extend
and redouble it. Even if your lord does not appreciate you, let your heart be without resentment and
hatred. Even if your meritorious deeds are great, let not your countenance boast of your virtue.
Have few requests, but many meritorious deeds. Be respectful and caring without tiring. If you are
thus, then things will always go smoothly for you. Use it to serve your lord, and you are sure to be
successful. Use it to practice ren, and you are sure to achieve sage-hood. This is called the most
effective method in all the world.
Chapter 9:
p. 68
Let us inquire into how to conduct the government. I say: Promote the worthy and the capable
without waiting for them to rise through the ranks. Dismiss the unfit and the incapable without
waiting for even a single moment. Execute those who incite others to bad deeds without waiting to
teach them. Transform the ordinary people with-out waiting for government controls. If social
divisions are not yet set, then take control of illuminating the proper bonds. Even the sons and
grandsons of kings, dukes, gentry, and grand ministers, if they cannot submit to ritual and yi, should
be assigned the status of commoners. Even the sons and grandsons of commoners, if they
accumulate culture and learning, correct their person and conduct, and can submit to ritual and yi,
should be assigned the status of prime minister, gentry, or grand ministers. And so, for those
engaging in vile teachings, vile doctrines, vile works, and vile skills, and for those among the
common people who are rebellious and perverse, give them each an occupation and teach them, and
take a while to wait for them. Encourage them with accolades and rewards, and discipline them with
punishments and penalties. If they rest secure in their occupations, then nurture them. If they do not
rest secure in their occupations, then abandon them. The five types of handicapped people should
be received by their superiors and nurtured, put to work according to their talents. Employ and feed
and clothe them. Cover all of them without any omissions. Those who in their talents and conduct
go against the times should die without pardon. This is called Heavenly virtue,3 the government of a
true king.
p. 71
He who seeks to become a true king seizes upon the right people. He who seeks to become a
hegemon seizes upon good relations. He who seeks to rule by brute strength seizes upon territory.
He who seizes upon the right people will make the feudal lords his ministers. He who seizes upon
47
good relations will make the feudal lords his friends. He who seizes upon territory will make the
feudal lords his enemies. He who can make the feudal lords his ministers is a true king. He who can
make the feudal lords his friends is a hegemon. He who makes the feudal lords his enemies is
endangering himself. In using brute strength, when another person defends his cities or comes out
to do battle, and I use sheer force to overcome him, then the harm done to his people will surely be
great. If the harm done to his people is great, then his people are sure to have great hatred for me. If
his people have great hatred for me, then daily they will wish all the more to fight against me. On the
other hand, when another person defends his cities or comes out to do battle, and I use sheer force
to overcome him, then the harm done to my own people will surely be great. If the harm done to
my own people is great, then my own people are sure to have great hatred for me. If my own people
have great hatred for me, then daily they will wish all the less to fight for me. When his people daily
wish all the more to fight against me, and my own people daily wish all the less to fight for me, then
this is why those who try to rule by brute strength on the contrary only become weaker. The
territory may come to them, but the people will abandon them. They may have accumulated much,
but they will have accomplished little. So even though the land they have to defend is increased,
their means to defend it are reduced, and this is why those who hold to enlarging themselves on the
contrary only become diminished.
All the feudal lords remember past dealings and keep resentments and do not forget their enemies.
They look for holes in the big and strong state, and they take advantage of the big and strong state’s
errors. That is a dangerous time for the big and strong state. He who truly understands how to be
big and strong does not work at being strong. He deliberates with a view to obtaining the kingly
mandate. He keeps his strength undivided and solidifies his virtue. Since he keeps his strength
undivided, then the feudal lords cannot weaken him. Since he solidifies his virtue, the feudal lords
cannot diminish him. If there is no true king or hegemonic ruler in the world, then he will always be
victorious. Such is one who understands the way of being strong.
…
Page 73
The character of a true king is that he ornaments his every move with ritual and yi. He hears and
decides cases in accordance with their proper kinds. He holds up for clear inspection the fine points
of things. His policies adapt to changes endlessly. This is called having a proper source [of action].
Such is the character of a true king.
Chapter 15:
Pages: 145-146
Lord Linwu and Xunzi held a debate on military affairs before King Xiaocheng of Zhao. The king
said, “May I ask about the crucial points in military affairs?”
Lord Linwu said, “Above, obtain the right season from Heaven. Below, obtain beneficial terrain
from Earth. Observe the enemy’s changes and movements. Wait for them to set out, but arrive at
the battlefield before them. This is the crucial method in using military forces.”
Xunzi said, “Not so! I have heard that in the way of the ancients, the fundamental task for all use of
military forces and offensive warfare lies with unifying the people. If the bow and arrow are not
properly adjusted, then even Archer Yi could not hit a small target. If the six horses do not work in
harmony, then even Zao Fu could not drive very far. Without the affection and adherence of well-
bred men and the common people, even Tang and Wu could not achieve certain victory. And so,
the person who is good at obtaining the people’s adherence is the person who is good at using
48
military forces. Thus, the crucial point in military affairs is to be good at obtaining the people’s
adherence, and that is all.”
Lord Linwu said, “Not so! In military affairs, what is to be valued is favorable circumstances, and
what is to be practiced is shiftiness and deception. One who is good at using military forces creates
feelings of confusion and spreads about obfuscation, so nobody knows whence he will launch his
attack. Sun and Wu used this approach, and so everywhere they obliterated their enemies. How
could it be necessary to wait upon obtaining the people’s adherence?”
Xunzi said, “Not so! That of which I speak is the military affairs of someone who is ren, and the
intentions of a true king. What you propose to value is favorable circumstances in scheming after
power, and what you propose to practice is shiftiness and deception in offensive invasions, and
these are the affairs of mere feudal lords.
“In military affairs, the person who is ren cannot be deceived. The ones who can be deceived are
those who are indolent and arrogant, who are spent and unsound, and for whom relations among
lord and ministers, superiors and subordinates, are disordered and characterized by a divisive spirit.
Thus, for a tyrant Jie trying to deceive an-other tyrant Jie, good fortune may still depend on whether
he is cun-ning or inept, but a Jie trying to deceive a Yao can be compared to throwing eggs against a
rock or using one’s finger to stir a boiling pot. It is like walking into water or fire—he who enters
upon it will simply drown or burn!
“And so, when a ren person is in charge of those below,a the hun-dred generals share one heart, and
the three armies merge their strengths. The way that ministers treat their lord, the way that
subordinates treat their superiors, is like a son serving his father, or like a younger brother serving
his elder brother. It is like the way that the hands and arms protect the head and eyes and shield the
chest and belly. Trying to deceive such a person and ambush him will have the same result as if one
first alerted him and then attacked him.
Moreover, if the ren person comes to have the use of a state ten li in size, then his hearing will cover
the area of a hundred li. If he has the use of a state a hundred li in size, then his hearing will cover
the area of a thousand li. If he has the use of a state a thousand li in size, then his hearing will cover
everywhere within the four seas. Such a person will surely have keen hearing, sharp sight, and be on
guard. Collecting and harmonizing, he will form a unified force.
Chapter 16:
Page 163
There are three kinds of power to inspire awe. There is the power to inspire awe that comes from
the Way and virtue. There is the power to inspire awe that comes from being harsh and stringent.
There is the power to inspire awe that comes from being wild and reckless. One must not fail to
examine thoroughly these three kinds of power to inspire awe.
Page 169
The method based on brute strength reaches an impasse. The method based on yi goes through.
How can I say this? I say: The state of Qin is just what I mean. In its strength and power to inspire
awe, it exceeds Tang and Wu. In its breadth and bulk, it exceeds Shun and Yu. Nevertheless, its
worries and troubles are innumerable. Full of apprehension, it constantly fears that all under Heaven
49
will unite and combine to roll over it. This is what I mean by saying that the method based on brute
strength reaches an impasse. How can I say that, in its strength and power to inspire awe, it exceeds
Tang and Wu? Tang and Wu were merely able to get those who were pleased with them to serve in
their employ. Now Chu’s patriarch died at the hands of Qin, Chu’s capital was upturned by Qin, and
Chu carried away the temple ancestor tablets of its several kings and took refuge between Chen and
Cai. Since then, Chu watches for opportunities and looks for openings, for it desires to sharpen its
foot and stomp on Qin’s belly. Nevertheless, when Qin orders it to the left, accordingly it moves
left, and when Qin orders it to the right, accordingly it moves right. This is a case of making one’s
enemies into one’s servants. This is what I mean by saying that,
How can I say that, in its breadth and bulk, it exceeds Shun and Yu? In the past, when the hundred
kings united all under Heaven and made the feudal lords their ministers, there were never any
among them whose territory exceeded a thousand li in area. Nowadays in the case of Qin, to the
south it has Shayi to serve as its shared border— this amounts to possessing the area south of the
Yangtze River.d To the north, it is neighbors with the Hu and Mo peoples, and to the West, it has
the Ba and Rong peoples. To the east, its holdings in Chu lands border on Qi. Its holdings in Han
lands go beyond Mount Chang and include Linlü. As for its holdings in Wei lands, it occupies Yujin,
which is only a hundred and twenty li away from Daliang. As for its holdings in Zhao lands, it sliced
off and took possession of Ling, and it occupies the border forests of pine and cedar. Qin backs up
against the western sea and uses Mount Chang as a fortification. Thus, its land is everywhere under
Heaven. This is what I mean by saying that, in its breadth and bulk, it exceeds Shun and Yu. Qin’s
power to inspire awe rattles all within the four seas, and its strength threatens the central states.
Nevertheless, its worries and troubles are innumerable. Full of apprehension, it constantly fears that
all under Heaven will unite and combine to roll over it. That being the case, what can it do about
this? I say: Let it curtail its use of awe-inspiring power and return to good form, and accordingly let
it employ gentlemen who are upright, have integrity, possess trust-worthiness, and perfect
themselves, and let it bring order to all under Heaven through them. In the course of this, let Qin
allow these gentlemen to participate in the governance of the state, to set straight what is right and
what is wrong, to keep in order what is crooked and what is straight, and to judge the affairs of
Xianyang. As for those who are compliant, let it leave them be, and when there are people who are
not compliant, let it only then execute them. If things are like this, then without its soldiers going
outside its borders again, its orders will be carried out everywhere under Heaven. If things are like
this, then even if one were to build for Qin a Hall of Light outside its borders and summon the
feudal lords to court there, that might succeed. In the current era, working at increasing one’s
territory is not as good as working at increasing one’s trustworthiness.
…
p. 171-172
“Thus, Qin has been victorious for four generations, and this is due not to luck, but rather to the
arrangements it has made. This is what I have seen. And so I say: To be at ease, yet bring about
order; to act with restraint, yet take care of all the details; to be free of worry, yet achieve meritorious
accomplishments—such is the ultimate in good government. Qin indeed resembles this, but even
so, there is still something it fears. It combines the preceding accomplishments and possesses them
fully. Nevertheless, if one hangs it up for com-parison with the accomplishments and fame of true
kings, then the distance by which it does not match up is far indeed. Why is this? Might it be because
Qin lacks any ru? Thus it is said, ‘He who pos-sesses them purely will be a true king, he who
possesses them in adulterated form will be a hegemon, and he who does not have even a single one
of them will perish.’ This is perhaps something in which Qin falls short.”
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Chapter 23.
Pages 248-249
People’s nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Now people’s nature is such
that they are born with a fondness for profit in them. If they follow along with this, then struggle
and contention will arise, and yielding and deference will perish therein. They are born with feelings
of hate and dislike in them. If they follow along with these, then cruelty and villainy will arise, and
loyalty and trustworthiness will perish therein. They are born with desires of the eyes and ears, a
fondness for beautiful sights and sounds. If they follow along with these, then lasciviousness and
chaos will arise, and ritual and yi, proper form and order, will perish therein. Thus, if people follow
along with their inborn dispositions and obey their nature, they are sure to come to struggle and
contention, turn to disrupting social divisions and order, and end up becoming violent. So, it is
necessary to await the transforming influence of teachers and models and the guidance of ritual and
yi, and only then will they come to yielding and deference, turn to proper form and order, and end
up becoming controlled. Looking at it in this way, it is clear that people’s nature is bad, and their
goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Thus, crooked wood must await steaming and straightening
on the shaping frame, and only then does it become straight. Blunt metal must await honing and
grinding, and only then does it become sharp. Now since people’s nature is bad, they must await
teachers and proper models, and only then do they become correct. They must obtain ritual and yi,
and only then do they become well ordered. Now without teachers or proper models for people,
they will be deviant, dangerous, and not correct. Without ritual and yi, they will be unruly, chaotic,
and not well ordered. In ancient times, the sage kings saw that because people’s nature is bad, they
were deviant, dangerous, and not correct, unruly, chaotic, and not well ordered. Therefore, for their
sake they set up ritual and yi, and established proper models and measures. They did this in order to
straighten out and beautify people’s inborn dispositions and nature and thereby correct them, and in
order to train and transform people’s inborn dispositions and nature and thereby guide them, so that
for the first time they all came to order and conformed to the Way. Among people of today, those
who are transformed by teachers and proper models, who accumulate culture and learning, and who
make ritual and yi their path, become gentlemen. Those who give rein to their nature and inborn
dispositions, who take comfort in being utterly unrestrained, and who violate ritual and yi, become
petty men. Looking at it in this way, it is clear that people’s nature is bad, and their goodness is a
matter of deliberate effort.
Mencius says: When people engage in learning, this manifests the goodness of their nature. I say:
This is not so. This is a case of not attaining knowledge of people’s nature and of not inspecting
clearly the division between people’s nature and their deliberate efforts. In every case, the nature of a
thing is the accomplishment of Heaven. It cannot be learned. It cannot be worked at. Ritual and yi
are what the sage produces. They are things that people become capable of through learning, things
that are achieved through working at them. Those things in people which cannot be learned and
cannot be worked at are called their “nature.” Those things in people which they become capable of
through learning and which they achieve through working at them are called their “deliberate
efforts.” This is the divi-sion between nature and deliberate effort.
Now people’s nature is such that their eyes can see, and their ears can hear. The brightness by which
they see does not depart from their eyes, and the acuity by which they hear does not depart from
their ears. Their eyes are simply bright, and their ears are simply acute. One does not learn this
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brightness. Mencius says: people’s nature is good, but they all wind up losing their nature and
original state. I say: if it is like this, then he is simply mistaken. People’s nature is such that they are
born and then depart from their original simplicity, depart from their original material; they are sure
to lose them. Looking at it in this way, it is clear that people’s nature is bad. The so- called goodness
of people’s nature would mean for one not to depart from one’s original simplicity and instead
beautify it, not to depart from one’s original material and instead make use of it. It would be to cause
the relation of one’s original simplicity and original material to beauty, and the relation of the heart’s
thoughts to goodness, to be like the way the brightness by which one sees does not depart from
one’s eyes, and the acuity by which one hears does not depart from one’s ears. Thus I have said:
“The eyes are simply bright and the ears are simply keen.”
…
Page 252
Mencius says: people’s nature is good. I say: this is not so. In every case, both in ancient times and in
the present, what everyone under Heaven calls good is being correct, ordered, peaceful, and
controlled. What they call bad is being deviant, dangerous, unruly, and chaotic. This is the division
between good and bad. Now does he really think that people’s nature is originally correct, ordered,
peaceful, and con-trolled? Then what use would there be for sage kings? What use for ritual and yi?
Even though there might exist sage kings and ritual and yi, whatever could these add to its correct,
ordered, peaceful, and controlled state? Now that is not the case, because people’s nature is bad.
Thus, in ancient times the sage kings saw that because their nature is bad, people were deviant,
dangerous, and not correct, unruly, chaotic, and not well-ordered. Therefore, for the people’s sake
they set up the power of lords and superiors in order to oversee them. They made ritual and yi clear
in order to transform them. They set up laws and standards in order to make them well ordered.
They multi-plied punishments and fines in order to restrain them. As a result, they caused all under
Heaven to come to order and conform to good-ness. Such are the ordering influence of the sage
kings and the trans-formative effects of ritual and yi.
Now suppose one were to try doing away with the power of lords and superiors, try doing without
the transformation from ritual and yi, try doing away with the order of laws and standards, try doing
without the restraint of punishments and fines, then relying on these things and observing how all
the people of the world treat each other. If it were like this, then the strong would harm the weak
and take from them. The many would tyrannize the few and shout them down. One would not have
to wait even a moment for all under Heaven to arrive at unruliness and chaos and perish. Looking at
it in this way, it is clear that people’s nature is bad, and that their goodness is a matter of deliberate
effort.
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Part II. Daoist Texts
The earliest known biography of Laozi (Lao tzu) appeared in Sima Qina’s Records of the Grand
Historian (Shiji), compiled during the Han dynasty. This text claims that Laozi was roughly a
contemporary of Confucius, living in the sixth, fifth, and possible fourth centuries BCE. This short
biographical text still is valuable for a gloss on his philosophy, and its relationship to Confucianism.
It also serves as a model for how Daoists spoke and interacted with other officials.
Daodejing
The Daodejing (sometimes referred to as the Laozi) was supposedly composed by Laozi, although this
has been long doubted. It is a relatively brief book, composed of 81 short chapters, many of which
are enigmatic and with elusive meanings. In a superficial reading, the Daodejing may suggests
withdrawal from the world, and an interest in cultivating self through contemplation of nature. Many
of the passages, however, are explicitly advice for sages, rulers, and teachers. The third chapter is, for
example, advice about governance. And in general the Daedejing provides advice for rulers on how to
restore harmony and peace by overturning Confucian ethics and education, which brought artifice
into the world. The sage can teach the people the Way (the great Dao), and help humanity restore
the naturalness of their lives. This is a message for kings, courtiers, and sages alike, on how to end
the strife by instilling the principle of the Way among the population through wuwei (often translated
as non-action or non-thriving).
Zhuangzi
The Zhuangzi, named after its purported author Master Zhuang, lived about a century before the
events of this game, and although some of the work (including the so-called inner chapters, the first
seven chapters) was probably written by him, some or perhaps many of the others chapters were
written by others in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, inspired by his style. It uses some of the same
rhetorical devices as other Warring States texts (such as dialogue), but expands this through
philosophical contemplation and argument, as well as through parables and anecdotes. Follow the
course that life takes, a central theme, does not appear to be advice directly relevant for ruling.
Nonetheless, the Zhuangzi, was well known in the Warring States period, and was read by the sages,
rulers, and courtiers of the Chinese states. Famously, Master Zhuang was offered the prime
ministership of Chu, an opportunity he turned-down.
“Robber Zhi”
The “Robber Zhi” appears in the Zhuangzi, although it is generally not attributed to Master Zhuang.
The heart of the piece is Zhi’s criticism of Confucius and Confucianism. Its disdain for the artifice
of Confucian virtue resonates with the other Daoist texts, although Robber Zhi’s speech is more
analytical and logical than other stories in the Zhuangzi. It may serve as a partial model for combating
the Confucian concept of leadership and governance.
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“Laozi memoir,” Sima Qian, The Grand Scribe’s Records (63) (William Nienhauser, ed.)
Laozi was a native of the hamlet of Chu-ren in the village of Li, in Hu County of the State of Chu.
… He was a scribe in the Zhou office of archives.
Confucius went to Zhou, intending to ask Laozi about the rites. Laozi said, “Those of whom you
speak have all already rotted away, both the men and their bones. Only their words are here.
Moreover, when a gentleman obtains his season, he will harness his horses. When he does not
obtain it, he will move on like tumbleweed rolling in the wind.
I have beard that:
An able merchant has the deepest storerooms, but they look empty;
A gentleman has the fullest virtue, but he appears foolish.
Cast off your arrogant airs and many desires, sir, your contrived posturing and your overweening
ambition. All of these are of no benefit to your person. What I have to tell you is this, and nothing
more.”
Confucius departed. He told his disciples, “Birds I know can fly, fish I know can swim, and beasts I
know can run. For that which runs, one can make snares. For that which swims, one can cast lines.
For that which flies, one can make arrows with strings attached. As for the dragon, I can never
know how it mounts the wind and clouds and ascends into the sky. Today I have seen Laozi; is he
perhaps like the dragon?”
Laozi cultivated the Way and its virtue. His teachings emphasized hiding oneself and avoiding fame.
After living in Zhou for a long time, be saw Zhou’s decline, and left. When he reached the pass, the
Prefect of the Pass Yin Xi said, “Since you are going to retire from the world, I beg you to endeavor
to write a book for us.” Laozi thus wrote a book in two sections which spoke of the meaning of the
Way and its virtue in five thousand and some characters and then departed. No one knows where he
finally ended.
Some say [Laozi] was Lao Lai Zu, also a man of Chu. He composed a book in fifteen sections which
spoke of the ideas of Daoism and was a contemporary of Confucius.
Supposedly, Laozi lived to be a 160 years old, some say over 200; his great longevity came through
cultivating the way.
The scribes record that 129 years after Confucius died Dan, the Grand Scribe of Zhou, had an
audience with Duke Xian of Qin (r. 384-362 B.C.) and said, “In the beginning Qin and Zhou were
united. After 500 years of union, they separated. Seventy years after they have separated, a Hegemon
will emerge there [Qin].” Some say that Dan was Laozi. Others say he was not. Our generation does
not know the truth of the matter.
…
54
Those nowadays who study Laozi denigrate Confucianism, and Confucianism also denigrates Laozi.
Can this be what is meant by “Those whose ways are not the same do not take counsel with each
other.”? Laozi “did nothing, and (the people) transformed themselves, kept still, and [the people]
rectified themselves.”
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Excerpts from the Daodejing
1.
a> A dao that may be spoken is not the enduring Dao. A name that may be named is not an
enduring name.
No names – this is the beginning of heaven and earth. Having names – this is the mother of the
things of the world
b> Make freedom from desire your constant norm; thereby you will see what is subtle. Make having
desires your constant norm; thereby you will see what is manifest.
These two arise from the same source but have different names. Together they may be termed ‘the
mysterious’.
Mystery and more mystery: the gate of all that is subtle.
2.
a> All in the world deem the beautiful to be beautiful; it is ugly. All deem the good to be good; it is
bad.
b> What is and what is not give birth to one another, What is difficult and what is easy complete
one another, Long and short complement one another, High and low incline towards one another,
Note and noise harmonize with one another, Before and after follow one another.
c> Therefore the sage dwells in the midst of non-action (wuwei) and practices the wordless
teaching.
d> Herein arise the things of the world, it does not turn from them; what it gives birth to it does
not possess; what it does it does not retain. The achievements complete, it makes no claim to them.
Because it makes no claim to them, they never leave it.
3.
a> Do not honor the worthy. This will keep the people from contention. Do not prize rare things.
This will keep the people from becoming thieves. Do not display the desirable. The hearts of the
people will not be turbulent.
b> Hence the governance of the sage: Empty their minds and fill their bellies, Weaken their wills
and strengthen their bones. Always render the people free of knowledge and desire. Ensure that the
clever do not dare to act.
c> Engage in non-action (wuwei) and nothing will go unruled.
7. Heaven endures; earth long abides. Heaven endures and earth long abides because they do not
give birth to themselves. Hence they are long lived. Hence the sage places his person last, and it
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comes first; he treats it as something external to him and it endures. Does he not employ
selflessness? Hence he attains his self-regarding ends.
15.
a> In the past, those who were good at being gentlemen were subtle, marvelous, mysterious,
penetrating – so deep they could not be fathomed. Just because they cannot be fathomed, I strain to
describe their appearance: Hesitant, as though crossing a winter stream; Timid, as though fearing all
nearby; Reverent, like a guest; Rent, like river ice soon to melt; Solid, like an uncarved block; Vacant,
like a valley; Turbid, like muddied water.
b> Who can be turbid, yet settling slowly clear? Who can be at rest, yet moving slowly come to life?
c> One who protects this dao does not wish to become full. It is precisely because he is not full that
he can be tattered yet new made.
17. The best: those below are aware that he is there. Next best: they love and praise him. Next best,
they fear him. Next best: they insult him. Insufficient faith above, unfaithfulness below. Far off, he
speaks but rarely. When the work is accomplished and the task is complete, the people all say, “We
did it of ourselves.”
18. When the Great Dao was discarded, only then came ren and right. When wisdom and insight
emerged, only then came the Great Artifice. When the six kinship classes fell out of harmony, only
then came filiality and parental kindness. When the state is darkened with chaos, only then do the
loyal ministers appear.
19. Cut off sagehood! Cast out wisdom! The people will benefit a hundredfold. Cut off ren! Cast out
right! The people will return to filiality and parental kindness.
Cut off cleverness! Cast out profit! Brigands and thieves will nowhere be found. As patterns, these
three are insufficient and only make the people seek to add to them.
Exhibit the plainness of undyed cloth; embrace the uncarved block. Be little self-regarding and
make your desires few.
27.
a> Good traveling leaves no wheel ruts; good talking makes no slips; good counting uses no
counters. Good shutting uses no bolts, yet cannot be opened; good tying uses no cords, yet cannot
be undone.
b> Therefore, the sage is always good at rescuing people, thus he never abandons any person; he is
always good at rescuing affairs, thus he never abandons any affair. This is called stretching
enlightenment. Thus the good person is the teacher of those who are not good, and those who are
not good are grist to the good person. Not to honor one’s teacher, not to cherish one’s grist –
though one may be clever, this is to be lost adrift. This is called the pivotal mystery.
29.
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a> The wish to grasp the world and control it – I see its futility. The world is a spiritlike vessel; it
cannot be controlled. One who would control it would ruin it; one who would grasp it would lose it.
b> Thus things may lead or follow, blow hot or cold, be strong or weak, sustain or destroy.
Therefore the sage discards the excessive, the extravagant, the overbearing.
30.
a> He who assists a ruler by means of the Dao does not coerce the world by means of arms.
Consequences come back around like a ring. Where troops encamp, brambles grow; After great
armies, crops always fail. The good man is simply resolute; he never employs coercion. Be resolute
without boast, resolute without threat, resolute without pride. Resolute from necessity, be resolute
without coercion.
b> When things in their prime grow old, they are called ‘contrary to the Dao’. What is contrary to
the Dao comes to an early end.
31. Weapons are ill fortuned tools. Things may detest them, hence the man of the Dao does not rely
on them. When a junzi is at leisure he honors what is at his left; use of weapons honors the right.
Thus weapons are not tools of a junzi. Weapons are ill fortuned tools; they must be used only from
necessity. It is best to use them without gusto, to prevail without relish. To relish victory is to take
joy in killing men. The man who takes joy in killing men will never attain his ambition in the world.
Affairs of good fortune honor the left; affairs of ill fortune honor the right. The lieutenant’s place is
to the left, the commander’s place is to the right. This means that mourning rites are the model.
When the masses of another lord are killed, one should mourn them with wailing – for victory in
battle, mourning rites are the model.
33. He who knows men is wise; he who knows himself is enlightened. He who conquers men has
strength; he who conquers himself is strong. He who knows when he has enough is wealthy; he who
perseveres has strong will. He who does not lose his place is lasting; he who lasts beyond his death is
long lived.
38. The highest virtue (de) is without virtue, hence it has virtue. The lowest virtue never deviates
from virtue, hence it lacks virtue. The highest virtue does not act (wuwei) and has no reason to act;
the lowest virtue acts and has reason to act. The highest ren acts without any reason to act. The
highest right (yi) acts and has reason to act. The highest li acts, and if no persons respond, rolls up
its sleeves and twists their arms. Hence, only after the Dao is lost is there virtue; only after virtue is
lost is there ren; only after ren is lost is there right; only after right is lost is there li. Li is the thinning
of loyalty and faithfulness, when chaos first raises its head. Foreknowledge is the blossom of the
Dao, when ignorance first begins. Therefore, the great man dwells in the thick, not in the thin;
abides in the fruit, not in the blossom. Thus he discards the one and grasps the other.
46.
a> When the Dao prevails in the world, fast horses are corralled for manure; when the Dao does
not prevail in the world, steeds of war are born in the city pastures.
b> There is no calamity greater than not knowing what is sufficient; there is no fault greater than
wishing to acquire. Thus the sufficiency of knowing what is sufficient is eternal sufficiency.
58
47. Without going out your door, know the world; without looking out the window, know the Dao
of Tian. The further you travel, the less you know. Hence the sage knows without going to it, names
it without seeing, does nothing and it is achieved.
49. The sage has no constant mind: he takes the mind of the people as his mind. When I treat the
good as good and I also treat those who are not good as good, my virtue is good. When I treat the
faithful as faithful and I also treat the unfaithful as faithful, my virtue is faithful. The sage appears
shut to the world, and towards the world he blanks his mind in a daze. The people all entrust their
eyes and ears to him; he treats them as children.
55.
a> One who possesses virtue in abundance may be compared to a new born babe. Wasps and
scorpions, poisonous snakes: none will bite him. Fierce beasts will not maul him, predatory birds will
not swoop down upon him. His bones are weak, his muscles pliable, and his grasp is firm. He
knows nothing of the female and the male, yet his male organ stirs. His essence is at its most pure.
He can scream all day and not become hoarse. This is harmony at its height.
b> Knowing harmony is called constant; knowing the constant is called enlightened. To increase
one’s nature is called inauspicious; when the mind directs the qi it is called self-coercion.
c> When things in their prime grow old, they are called ‘contrary to the Dao’. What is contrary to
the Dao comes to an early end.
57.
a> To order a state use uprightness; to lead troops use stratagems; to control the world undertake
nothing. How do I know it is so? By means of this.
b> As the world is filled with more taboos the people grow poorer; as the people possess more
sharp weapons the state grows benighted; as men use more crafty skills strange goods increasingly
appear; as laws are proclaimed with increasing clarity bandits become more common.
c> Hence the sage says: If I take no action the people will transform of themselves; if I love
tranquility the people will be upright of themselves; if I undertake nothing the people will create
wealth of themselves; if I have no desires the people will of themselves become uncarved blocks.
60.
a> Governing a large state is like cooking a small fish.
b> When one approaches governing the world by means of the Dao, ghosts will have no potency. It
is not that they have no potency, but that their potency will not harm people, It is not that their
potency will not harm people, but that the sage too will not harm people. These two will do no
mutual harm, and therein will virtue (de) commingle and return.
65.
a> Men of the past who were good at following the Dao did not use it to enlighten the people, they
used it to make them ignorant. People are difficult to govern is when they have much knowledge.
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b> Hence one who governs by means of knowledge plunders the state; one who does not govern by
means of knowledge brings fortune to the state. Indeed, these two constitute the standard – to be
always aware of the standard is called dark virtue (de).
c> Dark virtue is profound, far reaching; it revolves together with things. Only then does it attain
great compliance.
68. A good warrior does not act fearsome; one good at battle does not become angry; one good at
defeating the enemy does not contest; one good at directing people takes the lower position. This is
the virtue of not contending; this is called directing the strength of others; this is called companion
to Tian – the utmost limit of the past.
69.
a> Military strategists have a saying: I dare not act as the host, but rather the guest; I dare not
advance an inch, but rather retreat a foot. This is called walking where there is no road, rolling up
the sleeve where there is no arm, grasping where there is no weapon, struggling where there is no
enemy.
b> There is no calamity greater than having no enemy, without an enemy, I have almost lost my
treasure. Thus when two matched armies contest, it is he victor that mourns.
75. When the people starve it is because their ruler extracts too much in taxes, that is why they
starve. When the people are hard to govern it is because their ruler takes action, that is why they are
hard to govern. When the people regard death as unimportant it is because they seek life too
assiduously, that is why they regard death as unimportant. It is precisely doing nothing for the sake
of life that makes one worthier than those who value life.
79.
a> When making peace between disputants, there is always some remaining sense of dispute – how
can this constitute a good act?
b> Therefore, the sage keeps hold of the creditor’s tally but never calls in the debts others owe him.
c> One with virtue (de) oversees the tally, one without virtue oversees the payment.
d> The dao of Tian has no favorites; it always shifts to the good person.
80. Make the state small and the people few. Let there be arms for troops in tens and hundreds, but
unused. Make the people treat death seriously and not move to distant places. Though there be
boats and carriages, they shall not be ridden. Though there be armor and weaponry, they shall not be
deployed. Let the people return to keeping records by knotted rope. Their food sweet to them, their
clothes beautiful to them, their homes comfortable to them, their customs joyful to them. Though
neighboring states be in sight of one another and the sounds of the cocks and dogs heard from one
to the other, the people of one will never visit the other, even as they grow old and die.
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Excerpts from the Zhuangzi’s the Inner Chapters as translated by Bob Eno.
Chapter 1
Free and Easy Wandering
1.2 Yao and Xu You
Yao ceded the empire to Xu You. “A small torch burning on after the sun is out finds making the
day brighter a difficult task indeed. A man who keeps on irrigating fields after the seasonal rains
have come finds making the crops richer tedious indeed. If you, sir, once took the throne, thereupon
would the world be in order. Yet I like an imposter continue in charge, despite seeing my own
inadequacy. I beg to turn the world over to you.”
Xu You said, “You rule the world and the world is already well ruled. Would I want to replace you
for reputation’s sake? Reputation is merely the guest of reality – would I want to play the guest?
When a wren builds its nest, although the woods may be deep it uses no more than one branch.
When a mole goes to drink though it goes to a river it fills its belly and drinks no more. Go home
and let the matter drop, my lord! I have no use for the world. Though the cook may not manage his
job well, the sacrificial priest doesn’t leap over the altar wine and meats to take his place.”
1.4 The hat salesman of Song
There was a man from Song who sold ceremonial hats of the ancient style for a living, and he
traveled to market his goods among the Yue peoples of the south. But the Yue peoples wear their
hair cut short and tattoo their bodies – they had no use for his hats.
The Emperor Yao set the people of the world in order and unified governance throughout the lands
within the seas. Then he traveled to visit the Four Masters who lived on distant Guyi Mountain
north beyond the River Fen, and in bewilderment he lost track of the world he possessed.
Chapter 2
Treatise on Making Things Equal
2.7: Escaping relativity through the non-assertion
A this is a that; a that is a this. That implies one set of assertions and denials; this implies another set
of assertions and denials. After all, is there this and that or, after all, is there no this and that? When
neither this nor that possesses its double it is called the pivot of the Dao.
The pivot first grasps the center of the ring and thereby responds without end. Asserting “this” is
one endlessness; denying it is another endlessness. That is why I say, “Nothing is better than
opening to the light.”
Rather than use meaning to argue “the meaning is not the meaning,” use “not the meaning” to argue
“the meaning is not the meaning.” Rather than use horse to argue “a horse is not horse,” use “not
horse” to argue “a horse is not horse.”* Heaven and earth are one meaning; the things of the world
are one horse.
2.8: Dividing through assertion; uniting through practice
“Allowable” lies in allowing; “unallowable” lies in not allowing. A dao is created as we walk it; things
become so as they are referred to. Wherein are they so? In being affirmed as so. Wherein are they
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not so? In being denied as so. Things inherently are in some way so, things inherently are in some
way allowable. There is no thing that is not so, no thing that is not allowable.
We contrive an asserted “this is so” and distinguish a stalk from a pillar, a leper from the beauty Xi
Shi. But with the grandness of the bizarre, the Dao comprehends them together as one.
When the one is divided, things are brought to completion, and in being brought to completion, the
one is destroyed. When things are not subject to completion or destruction, they are once again
comprehended as one. Only the man of attainment knows how to comprehend them as one. He
asserts no “this is so.” His assertion is lodged in ordinary practice. Ordinary practice means use; use
is comprehension; to comprehend is to grasp – once you grasp it, you’re nearly there! Reliance on
assertion ends, and when it ends and you do not even know it is so – that is called dao.
2.10: Transcending perfection and imperfection
The knowledge of the ancients reached the limit. What was the limit? There were those who
believed that no thing had yet begun to be. The limit! Exhausted! Nothing to add! The next believed
there was something, but there had not yet begun to be boundaries. The next believed there were
boundaries, but there had not yet begun to be an affirmable “this” or deniable “that.” It is in the
patterns of affirmation and denial that a dao becomes imperfect. The source of this imperfection is
what brings to perfection attachment. But after all, is there perfection and imperfection or is there
not?
Let us say that there is perfection and imperfection. This is like the master lute player Zhao Wen
playing the lute.* Let us say that there is truly neither perfection nor imperfection. This would be
like the master lute player Zhao not playing the lute. Zhao Wen playing the lute, Music Master
Kuang beating the time, Hui Shi leaning on the wutong tree: the knowledge of these three men was
close to perfection. It flourished in them, and they bore their knowledge to the end of their days.
Only, different from others in their love of their knowledge, from love of their knowledge came a
wish to enlighten others. But they enlightened others by means of that which was not the means of
enlightenment, and thus Hui Shi ended with the darkness of logical disputations, and in the case of
Zhao Wen, in the end his own son was left with merely the strings of the lute. And so, in the end,
these masters achieved no perfection after all. If what they achieved was perfection, then even I
have perfection. And if such as they cannot be said to have achieved perfection, then neither have I
nor has any thing.
Thus the Sage sees by the glimmer of chaos and doubt. He does not affirm of anything: “this is it”;
his affirmation is lodged in ordinary practice. This is to view things in the light.
2.16: Yao and Shun: the power of light
Yao once asked Shun, “I wish to punish the states of Zong, Kuai, and Xu’ao, as I sit uneasy on my
throne. What is the cause of this?”
“These three rulers,” Shun replied, “are still living in the midst of brambles. Why should they make
you uneasy? Of old, ten suns rose together and the things of the world were all illuminated. How
much more true of virtue that approaches the brilliance of the sun?”
2.20: The butterfly dream
Once Zhuang Zhou dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting gaily.* He knew nothing of Zhou.
Suddenly, he awoke, and all at once he was Zhou. But he didn’t know whether Zhou had dreamt he
was a butterfly or a butterfly was dreaming he was Zhou. Surely there is a difference between Zhou
and a butterfly – this is what we call the transformation of things!
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Chapter 3
The Pivot of Nurturing Life
3.3 The Commander of the Right
Wengong Xuan saw the Commander of the Right and cried out in surprise, “What sort of man is
this! How is it that he is one-footed? Was this the doing of Heaven or of man?
The Commander of the Right replied, “This is Heaven’s doing, not man’s. It was the life that
Heaven gave me that caused me to lose my foot. The appearance of a person is bestowed upon him
by Heaven, so you can be sure this was the work of Heaven and not man.”
Chapter 4
In the World of Man
4.1 Confucius instructs Yan Hui
Yan Hui went to see Confucius and asked for permission to travel.
Confucius asked him, “Where are you going?”
“To the state of Wey.”
“What will you do there?”
“I have heard that the lord of Wey is in the prime of youth and his behavior is impetuous. He is
quick to send his armies off to war and fails to see his faults. He regards it as a light matter that his
people should die; corpses fill the marshlands like dried reeds and there is nothing his people can do.
I have heard it from you, Master: ‘Depart the well ordered state and go to the state in disarray. The
gate of the doctor is filled with the ill.’ I wish to put into practice the teachings I have learned, and
so, perhaps effect some healing in Wey?”
“Ach!” said Confucius. “You’re just going to get yourself executed. What you don’t want in a Dao is
some assortment of teachings. An assortment is just a profusion of notions, and if you follow a
profusion of notions you’ll lose control of them. When you lose control you’ll be governed by
anxiety, and once that happens you’re be beyond help. In the old days the Perfect Person cultivated
the way within himself before he tried to cultivate it in others. When you haven’t yet settled what’s
within you yourself, what leisure have you to concern yourself with the conduct of a tyrant?
“Do you know what staggers virtue and what intellect comes from? Virtue is staggered by fame and
intellect arises from strife. People crush one another with fame and wisdom is a weapon of struggle.
These are two tools of ill omen, they are not tools for success. Though your virtue may be deep and
your good faith unshakable, you’ve yet to grasp the nature of men’s qi. You are known as a man who
does not contend with others, but you’ve yet to grasp the nature of men’s minds. If you appear
before a tyrant stubbornly peddling the standards of ren and righteousness, you’ll simply be using his
faults to show off your own superiority. Such a person is called a disaster to others, and others will
surely bring disaster to him in return. It seems to me you’re heading this way.
“And then again, if it actually turns out that he is one who can be pleased by worthy men such as
you and who detests the unworthy, then what need is there for you to seek to change him?
“You had best not undertake to remonstrate at all. You see, ruling lords seize the advantage they
have over men to attack any lapse in argument and prevail. Your sight will become dazzled, the
blood will drain from your face, you’ll begin to babble in your defense, your bearing will become
more and more submissive, and then you’ll find yourself agreeing with him. This is like fighting fire
with fire or pouring water on a flood; it is called ‘adding to excess,’ and once you start to give in to
it, there will be no stopping. On the other hand, if you were to put yourself in danger by repeating
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the earnest advice that he refuses to accept, such a tyrant would simply have you cut down in front
of his eyes.
“In times past, Jie, the king of the Xia, put Guan Longfeng to death and the Shang king Zhòu put
Prince Bi Gan to death. Both Guan Longfeng and Prince Bi Gan cultivated in themselves the ability
to be humble in bringing comfort to the people below them, while challenging the rulers above
them. Their rulers trapped them by exploiting the very virtues they had cultivated – it was all
because those men valued their reputations. Again, in times past Emperor Yao attacked Cong, Zhi,
and Xu’ao, and Emperor Yu attacked Youhu. In the territories of these chiefs their cities were left in
ruins, their people slaughtered, and they themselves were punished with death. For these men, the
cause was their ceaseless warfare and insatiable search for gain. These are examples of both men
who sought good reputation and men who sought gain – are you the only one who hasn’t heard
about them? Even sages can’t overcome the pursuit of reputation and gain, much less a person like
you!
“However, you must have some plan in mind. Why don’t you tell me what it is?”
Yan Hui said, “If I remain formal and unperturbed, steadfast and focused, will that work?”
“What!” said Confucius. “How could that work? This is a man whose power fills his bearing, and
because his temper is completely unpredictable, no one ventures to cross him. So you will seek to
anticipate his responses and accommodate his dispositions. You’ll say this is using ‘virtue enough to
lead him forward each day.’ But that won’t work – much less great virtue. He will hold to his habits
and resist change. Though outwardly he may seem agreeable, inwardly he’ll accept nothing. How
could that work?”
“All right,” said Yan Hui. “But what if I am inwardly upright, outwardly accommodating, and tie my
speech to the lessons of the past?
“Inwardly upright – such a one is a disciple of Heaven. He understands that the Son of Heaven and
he are alike in being sons of Heaven. What concern would such a person have whether his requests
will meet with approval or not? Though people may dismiss me as a naive child, this is merely to say
that I am a disciple of Heaven.
“Outwardly compliant – such a one is a disciple of man. Kneeling to raise one’s tablet of credentials,
bowing with hands clasped – such are the ritual li of the minister. Everyone performs them, how
could I fail to? If I do what other people do they certainly have no basis to criticize me. This is to be
a disciple of men.
“Tying speech to the lessons of the past – this is to be a disciple of antiquity. Though my words may
in effect be admonitions and reproaches, they belong to antiquity, not to me. In this way, though
straightforward I cannot be faulted. That is to be a disciple of antiquity.
“If I go proceed in this manner, will that work?”
“What!” said Confucius. “How could that work? You have an excess of strategies, but no insight.
Indeed, although your plans are simpleminded, you might escape blame this way, but that’s the
extent of it. How could these methods actually transform him? You are still letting your own mind
be your teacher!”
Yan Hui said, “I have nothing more to offer. May I ask the proper method?”
Confucius said, “You must fast! Let me tell you. Can any action be accomplished with ease if
pursued by means of the mind’s intentions? If you think it is, bright Heaven will not befriend you.”
Yan Hui said, “My family is poor, and I have not drunk wine or eaten meat for several months.
Doesn’t that constitute fasting?”
“That is the fasting one does before performing rites of sacrifice. It is not the fasting of the mind.”
“May I ask, what is the fasting of the mind?”
Confucius said, “Unify your will. Don’t listen with your ears, listen with your mind – don’t listen
with your mind, listen with your qi. The ears are limited to listening; the mind is limited to sorting.
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But the qi, all empty it awaits things. The Dao gathers in emptiness – emptiness: that is the fasting of
the mind.”
“Before hearing this,” said Yan Hui, “and grasping it in full, I was solidly I myself. But now that I
have grasped it – why, there has never been any I at all! Is this the emptiness you mean?”
“You’ve got it!” said Confucius. “I tell you, now you may go to roam inside his coop, and you’ll
never be moved by fame. If he listens, then sing; if not, be still. Have no gate, have no doorway –
make oneness your home and lodge in the unavoidable. That’s as close to it as can be!”
It’s easy to walk without leaving footprints; it’s hard to walk without touching the ground. Deceit is
easy when you work for men, but hard when you work for Heaven. You’ve heard of flying with
wings, but you have never heard of flying without wings. You’ve heard of understanding by means
of knowledge, but you have never heard of the understanding that comes from not knowing. Look
into the closed room, the empty chamber where light is born. Fortune and blessings gather where
there is stillness. But if you do not keep still – that is called galloping where you sit. Let your ears
and eyes communicate with what is inside and put mind and knowledge on the outside. Then even
the spirits will come to dwell with you, not to speak of men. Such is change in the world of things –
the pivot of Emperors Yu and Shun, the constant practice of the sages Fu Xi and Ji Qu. How much
more should it be a rule for others!
4.7 Confucius and the madman of Chu, Jie Yu
Confucius traveled to dwell in Chu and there the madman Jie Yu came wandering to his gate.
“Phoenix! Phoenix! How virtue has declined.
It can’t wait for the future or catch up with what’s behind.
When the Dao works in the world, the sage man works his ways,
When the Dao has disappeared the Sage lives out his days –
In times like these just keep far from the shackles and the blade.
Good fortune’s lighter than a feather, but none knows how to bear it,
Disaster’s heavier than the earth, but none knows how to dodge it.
Enough! Enough! These toils of virtue serving man,
Danger! Danger! Escape! – draw the line in the sand.
Brambles, brambles, don’t cut me as I go,
Twisting, twisting, my feet stay free of woe.
“Mountain trees plunder themselves, torch grease burns itself up. Cinnamon is good to eat and the
cinnamon tree is felled; lacquer is good to use and the lacquer tree is hacked.
“Men all know the utility of usefulness, but none knows the utility of uselessness!”
Chapter 6
The Prime Master
6.1 The True Man
To know what is the work of Heaven and what is the work of man: that is perfection. One who
knows the work of Heaven lives according to Heaven; one who knows the work of man takes that
which he knows to nurture that which he does not. To reach the end of your Heaven-allotted years
and not die in the middle of one’s journey is the utmost of wisdom.
Although this is so, there remains a problem. Knowledge has that upon which it relies for accuracy,
but that which it relies on is not fixed. How can I know that what I consider Heaven is not actually
human and what I consider human is not actually Heavenly?
In the end one must be a True Man to have true wisdom. What do I mean by a True Man? The True
Man of antiquity did not try to stave off poverty, did not try to force success, did not try to devise
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schemes. A person like that feels no regret when he errs and no self-satisfaction when his actions are
on target. He feels no fear when he climbs to great heights. He can plunge into water and never get
wet; he can walk into fire and never feel the heat. Wisdom that can ascend to the Dao itself is like
this.
The True Man of antiquity slept without dreaming and woke without anxiety; he sought no
sweetness in his food and he breathed as deeply as could be. The True Man breathes from his heels,
where the common person breathes from his throat. Those who have surrendered gasp out speech
as though choking; their desires are deep, but their Heavenly sensitivities are shallow.
The True Man of antiquity did not know to take pleasure in life or to detest death. He took no
pleasure is the actions he did and he put up no defense against the doings of others, he simply came
and went in freedom. He did not forget his beginnings and he did not seek to know his end. Happy
with what had been given to him, returning to it in forgetfulness: of his it said that he did not allow
his mind to deplete the Dao, and he did not allow the human to assist the Heavenly. One such as
this is called the True Man. Such a one has a heart that forgets and a countenance that is calm; his
neck rising straight and high. He is cool like autumn and warm like spring; his emotions follow like
the seasons. His action always aligns appropriately with affairs and no one knows his limit.*
The True Man of antiquity was thus: In his bearing he towered, but never buckled; seemed as
though lacking, but took nothing to add. Compliant, he was solitary but not rigid; expansive, he
remained empty and never showy. Warm, he seemed pleased by anything; pressed, acting only when
unavoidable. Collected, he seemed to welcome us; kind, he was a host for our virtue (de). Stern, how
he differed from the world; proud, how he could not be controlled. Focused, he appeared deep in
silent thought; muddled, he appeared foolish in forgetting to speak.
In liking things he was unified; in disliking things he was unified. His unity was unified, his disunity
was unified. In his unity he was a follower of Heaven, in his disunity he was a follower of man.
Heaven and man never prevailing over one another: that is what we call a True Man.
Chapter 7
In Response to High Kings
7.1 Puyizi instructs Nie Que
Nie Que asked Wang Ni four questions and four times replied that he did not know the answer.* So
Nie Que leapt up in great delight and ran off to tell Puyizi.
Puyizi said, “Do you understand now? Emperor Shun of the Youyu clan cannot equal the emperor
from the Tai clan. Shun stored up humaneness (ren) in order to gain sway over humanity. Indeed, he
gained sway over humanity, but he never began to escape from the world of all that is not human.
The emperor from the Tai clan lay down to sleep in comfort and ease and woke in tranquil
satisfaction. One moment he saw himself as a horse, the next as an ox. His understanding was pure
and trustworthy, his power (de) so genuine – and he never began to enter into the world of all that is
not human.
7.2 Jian Wu visits Jie Yu
Jian Wu went to see the madman Jie Yu. Jie Yu asked him, “What did Rizhongshi tell you?”
Jian Wu said, “He said that one who rules over other men creates governing rules and formal
regulations based on his own standing – who then dares to disobey and fail to change?”
“That type of power (de) is fraud!” said the madman. “Trying to govern that way is like trying to ford
the ocean, dig a river, or make a mosquito lift a mountain on its back! Now, when the Sage governs
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does he govern by external things? He acts only after he is properly set himself and simply sets each
person on precisely the task they can do.
“Birds fly high to escape the wound of the archer’s arrow, and the mouse burrows deep below the
mound of the spirit altar to dodge the danger of those who dig down to smoke him out. Do you
have less sense than these two creatures?”
7.4 Lao Dan on the sage king
Yang Ziju went to visit Lao Dan. “Let’s say there were a man quick and brave, whose insight into
things was clear, who understood affairs, and who studied the Dao untiringly. Could one such as this
be compared to an enlightened king?”
Lao Dan replied, “From the point of view of a Sage, such talents are the skills of the clerk, wearing
out his body and exhausting his mind with alarm. It is the patterned pelts of tigers and leopard that
attract the hunters; it is the agility of monkeys and dogs that attract the leash-bearing captors. How
can such a one be compared to an enlightened king?”
Yang Ziju’s brow furrowed. “Then may I ask about the governance of the enlightened king?”
Lao Dan replied, “The work of the enlightened king’s rule covers the earth, but it as if he played no
part in it; his transformations supply people with everything, but they feel no reliance upon him. He
is present, but none praise him; he lets the things of the world find their own delight. He stands in
the unfathomable and roams where Being is not.”
7.6 The Perfect Man as mirror
Do not be the host of fame; do not be a storehouse of schemes; do not be in charge of affairs; do
not be the master of knowledge. Embody to the full the limitless and wander where nothing is
foreshadowed. Exhaust what you have received from Heaven and be free of all gain – just be empty,
that’s all.
The mind of the Perfect Man is like a mirror: it does reach out, it does not welcome in: it responds
and stores nothing. Therefore, he prevails over all things and suffers no harm.
Find Full Translation here:
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23427/Zhuangzi-
updated ?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
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https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23427/Zhuangzi-updated ?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23427/Zhuangzi-updated ?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
“The Robber Zhi” from Zhuangzi
Confucius was on terms of friendship with Liu-xia Ji, who had a brother named Dao Zhi. This Dao
Zhi had 9,000 followers, who marched at their will through the kingdom, assailing and oppressing
the different princes. They dug through walls and broke into houses; they drove away people’s cattle
and horses; they carried off people’s wives and daughters. In their greed to get, they forgot the
claims of kinship, and paid no regard to their parents and brethren. They did not sacrifice to their
ancestors. Wherever they passed through the country, in the larger states the people guarded their
city walls, and in the smaller the people took to their strongholds. All were distressed by them.
Confucius spoke to Liu-xia Ji, saying, ‘Fathers should be able to lay down the law to their sons, and
elder to instruct their younger brothers. If they are unable to do so, they do not fulfil the duties of
the relationships which they sustain. You, Sir, are one of the most talented officers of the age, and
your younger brother is this Robber Zhi. He is a pest in the kingdom, and you are not able to
instruct him better; I cannot but be ashamed of you, and I beg to go for you and give him counsel.’
Liu-xia Ji replied, ‘You say, Sir, that fathers must be able to lay down the law to their sons, and elder
to instruct their younger brothers, but if sons will not listen to the orders of their fathers, nor the
younger receive the lessons of their elder brothers, though one may have your powers of persuasion,
what is to be done? And, moreover, Zhi is a man whose mind is like a gushing fountain, and his will
like a whirlwind; he is strong enough to resist all enemies, and clever enough to gloss over his
wrong-doings. If you agree with him, he is glad; if you oppose him, he is enraged; and he readily
meets men with the language of abuse. You must not go to him.’
Confucius, however, did not attend to this advice. With Yan Hui as his charioteer, and Zi-gong
seated on the right, he went to see Dao Zhi, whom he found with his followers halted on the south
of Tai-shan, and mincing men’s livers, which he gave them to eat. Confucius alighted from his
carriage, and went forward, till he saw the usher, to whom he said, ‘I, Kong Qiu [Confucius] of Lu,
have heard of the general’s lofty righteousness,’ bowing twice respectfully to the man as he said so.
The usher went in and announced the visitor. But when Dao Zhi heard of the arrival, he flew into a
great rage; his eyes became like blazing stars, and his hair rose up and touched his cap. ‘Is not this
fellow,’ said he, ‘Kong Qiu, that artful hypocrite of Lu? Tell him from me, “You invent speeches and
babble away, appealing without ground to (the examples of) Wen and Wu. The ornaments on your
cap are as many as the branches of a tree, and your girdle is (a piece of skin) from the ribs of a dead
ox, The more you talk, the more nonsense you utter. You get your food without (the labour of)
ploughing, and your clothes without (that of) weaving. You wag your lips and make your tongue a
drum-stick. You arbitrarily decide what is right and what is wrong, thereby leading astray the princes
throughout the kingdom, and making its learned scholars not occupy their thoughts with their
proper business. You recklessly set up your filial piety and fraternal duty, and curry favour with the
feudal princes, the wealthy and the noble. Your offence is great; your crime is very heavy. Take
yourself off home at once. If you do not do so, I will take your liver, and add it to the provision for
to-day’s food.”‘
But Confucius sent in another message, saying, ‘I enjoy the good will of (your brother) Ji, and I wish
and hope to tread the ground beneath your tent.’ When the usher had communicated this message,
Dao Zhi said, ‘Make him come forward.’ On this Confucius hastened forwards. Declining to take a
mat, he drew hastily back, and bowed twice to Dao Zhi, who in a great rage stretched his legs apart,
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laid his hand on his sword, and with glaring eyes and a voice like the growl of a nursing tigress, said,
‘Come forwards, Zhi. If what you say be in accordance with my mind, you shall live; but, if it be
contrary to it, you shall die.’
Confucius replied, ‘I have heard that everywhere under the sky there are three (most excellent)
qualities. To be naturally tall and large, to be elegant and handsome without a peer, so that young
and old, noble and mean, are pleased to look upon him – this is the highest of those qualities. To
comprehend both heaven and earth in his wisdom, and to be able to speak eloquently on all subjects
– this is the middle one of them. To be brave and courageous, resolute and daring, gathering the
multitudes round him, and leading on his troops – this is the lowest of them. Whoever possesses one
of these qualities is fit to stand with his face to the south, and style himself a Prince. But you,
General, unite in yourself all the three. Your person is eight cubits and two inches in height; there is
a brightness about your face and a light in your eyes; your lips look as if stained with vermilion; your
teeth are like rows of precious shells; your voice is attuned to the musical tubes, and yet you are
named “The Robber Zhi.” I am ashamed of you, General, and cannot approve of you. If you are
inclined to listen to me, I should like to go as your commissioner to Wu and Yue in the south; to Qi
and Lu in the north; to Sung and Wei in the cast; and to Jin and Chu in the west. I will get them to
build for you a great city several hundred li in size, to establish under it towns containing several
hundred thousands of inhabitants, and honour you there as a feudal lord. The kingdom will see you
begin your career afresh; you will cease from your wars and disband your soldiers; you will collect
and nourish your brethren, and along with them offer the sacrifices to your ancestors: this will be a
course befitting a sage and an officer of ability, and will fulfil the wishes of the whole kingdom.’
‘Come forward, Qiu,’ said Dao Zhi, greatly enraged. ‘Those who can be persuaded by considerations
of gain, and to whom remonstrances may be addressed with success, are all ignorant, low, and
ordinary people. That I am tall and large, elegant and handsome, so that all who see me are pleased
with me – this is an effect of the body left me by my parents. Though you were not to praise me for
it, do I not know it myself? And I have heard that he who likes to praise men to their face will also
like to speak ill of them behind their back. And when you tell me of a great wall and a multitudinous
people, this is to try to persuade me by considerations of gain, and to cocker me as one of the
ordinary people. But how could such advantages last for long? Of all great cities there is none so
great as the whole kingdom, which was possessed by Yao and Shun, while their descendants (now)
have not so much territory as would admit an awl. Tang and Wu were both set up as the Sons of
Heaven, but in after ages (their posterity) were cut off and extinguished – was not this because the
gain of their position was so great a prize?
‘And moreover I have heard that anciently birds and beasts were numerous, and men were few, so
that they lived in nests in order to avoid the animals. In the daytime they gathered acorns and
chestnuts, and in the night they roosted on the trees; and on account of this they are called the
people of the Nest-builder. Anciently the people did not know the use of clothes. In summer they
collected great stores of faggots, and in winter kept themselves warm by means of them; and on
account of this they are called the people who knew how to take care of their lives. In the age of
Shen Nong, the people lay down in simple innocence, and rose up in quiet security. They knew their
mothers, but did not know their fathers. They dwelt along with the elks and deer. They ploughed
and ate; they wove and made clothes; they had no idea of injuring one another: this was the grand
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time of Perfect virtue. Huang-Di, however, was not able to perpetuate this virtuous state. He fought
with Chi-you in the wild ofZhuo-lu till the blood flowed over a hundred li. When Yao and Shun
arose, they instituted their crowd of ministers. Tang banished his lord. King Wu killed Zhou. Since
that time the strong have oppressed the weak, and the many tyrannised over the few. From Tang
and Wu downwards, (the rulers) have all been promoters of disorder and confusion.
‘You yourself now cultivate and inculcate the ways of Wen and Wu; you handle whatever subjects
are anywhere discussed for the instruction of future ages. With your peculiar robe and narrow girdle,
with your deceitful speech and hypocritical conduct, you delude the lords of the different states, and
are seeking for riches and honours. There is no greater robber than you are – why does not all the
world call you the Robber Zhi, instead of styling me the Robber Zhi? You prevailed by your sweet
speeches on Zi-lu, and made him your follower; you made him put away his high cap, lay aside his
long sword, and receive your instructions, so that all the world said, “Kong Qiu is able to arrest
violence and repress the wrong-doer;” but in the end, when Zi-lu wished to slay the ruler of Wei,
and the affair proved unsuccessful, his body was exhibited in pickle over the eastern gate of the
capital – so did your teaching of him come to nothing. Do you call yourself a scholar of talent, a
sage? Why, you were twice driven out of Lu; you had to run away from Wei; you were reduced to
extremity in Qi; you were held in a state of siege between Chen and Cai; there is no resting-place for
your person in the kingdom; your instructions brought Zi-lu to pickle. Such have been the
misfortunes (attending your course). You have done no good either for yourself or for others – how
can your doctrines be worth being thought much of?
‘There is no one whom the world exalts so much as it does Huang-Di, and still he was not able to
perfect his virtue, but fought in the wilderness of Zhuo-lu, till the blood flowed over a hundred li.
Yao was not kind to his son. Shun was not filial. Yu was paralysed on one side. Tang banished his
sovereign. King Wu smote Zhou. King Wen was imprisoned in You-li. These are the six men of
whom the world thinks the most highly, yet when we accurately consider their history, we see that
for the sake of gain they all disallowed their true (nature), and did violence to its proper qualities and
tendencies: their conduct cannot be thought of but with deep shame.
‘Among those whom the world calls men of ability and virtue were (the brothers) Bo-yi and Shu-Qi.
They declined the rule of Gu-zhu, and died of starvation on the hill of Shou-yang, leaving their
bones and flesh unburied. Bao Qiao vaunted his conduct, and condemned the world, but he died
with his arms round a tree. When Shen-tu Di’s remonstrances were not listened to, he fastened a
stone on his back, and threw himself into the He, where he was eaten by the fishes and turtles. Jie
Zi-tui was the most devoted (of followers), and cut a piece from his thigh as food for duke Wen. But
when the duke afterwards overlooked him (in his distribution of favours), he was angry, and went
away, and was burned to death with a tree in his arms. Wei Sheng had made an appointment with a
girl to meet him under a bridge; but when she did not come, and the water rose around him, he
would not go away, and died with his arms round one of the pillars. (The deaths of) these four men
were not different from those of the dog that is torn in pieces, the pig that is borne away by a
current, or the beggar (drowned in a ditch) with his alms-gourd in his hand. They were all caught as
in a net by their (desire for) fame, not caring to nourish their life to its end, as they were bound to
do.
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‘Among those whom the world calls faithful ministers there have been none like the prince Bi-gan
and Wu Zi-xu. But Zi-xu’s (dead) body was cast into the Jiang, and the heart of Bi-gan was cut out.
These two were what the world calls loyal ministers, but the end has been that everybody laughs at
them. Looking at all the above cases, down to those of Zi-xu and Bi-gan, there is not one worthy to
be honoured.
‘And as to the admonitions which you, Qiu, wish to impress on me, if you tell me about the state of
the dead, I am unable to know anything about it; if you tell me about the things of men (alive), they
are only such as I have stated, what I have heard and know all about. I will now tell you, Sir, my
views about the condition of man. The eyes wish to look on beauty; the ears to hear music; the
mouth to enjoy flavours; the will to be gratified. The greatest longevity man can reach is a hundred
years; a medium longevity is eighty years; the lowest longevity is sixty. Take away sickness, pining,
bereavement, mourning, anxieties, and calamities, the times when, in any of these, one can open his
mouth and laugh, are only four or five days in a month. Heaven and earth have no limit of duration,
but the death of man has its (appointed) time. Take the longest amount of a limited time, and
compare it with what is unlimited, its brief existence is not different from the passing of a crevice by
one of king Mu’s horses. Those who cannot gratify their will and natural aims, and nourish their
appointed longevity, are all unacquainted with the (right) Way (of life). I cast from me, Zhi, all that
you say. Be quick and go. Hurry back and say not a word more. Your Way is only a wild
recklessness, deceitful, artful, vain, and hypocritical. It is not available to complete the true (nature of
man); it is not worth talking about!’
Confucius bowed twice, and hurried away. He went out at the door, and mounted his carriage.
Thrice he missed the reins as he tried to take hold of them. His eyes were dazed, and he could not
see; and his colour was that of slaked lime. He laid hold of the cross-bar, holding his head down,
and unable to draw his breath. When he got back, outside the east gate of (the capital of) Lu, he
encountered Liu-xia Ji, who said to him, ‘Here you are, right in the gate. For some days I have not
seen you. Your carriage and horses are travel-stained – have you not been to see Dao Zhi?’
Confucius looked up to heaven, sighed, and said, ‘Yes.’ The other went on, ‘And did he not set
himself in opposition to all your views, as I said he would do?’ ‘He did. My case has been that of the
man who cauterised himself without being ill. I rushed away, stroked the tiger’s head, played with his
whiskers, and narrowly escaped his mouth.’
Chinese Text Project, after the James Legge translation, https://ctext.org/zhuangzi/robber-zhi
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Part III. Legalist Texts
The Book of Lord Shang
Lord Shang, called Gong sun Yang in the text (390 – 338 BCE), was the chief minister in Qin state a
little more than a century before the game takes place. Originally from Wei, he was a government
reformer who saw standard and clear laws (and the enforcement of laws) to centralize and
strengthen Qin state. The legalist school of thinking is known as Fa, the Chinese word for law. To
Lord Shange, laws were the principal means for rulers to exert control. Moreover, laws should apply
to everyone (even ministers and other elites), and this, along with his belief in using merit and
accomplishment in appointing officials and statesmen (Book 9) put him in opposition to the
hereditary aristocracy of the Qin. His hostility to the traditional virtues of the sages and statesmen
(such as rites, filial piety, benevolence, etc.) with the argument that it siphoned off strength and
prosperity, also put him at odds with Confucianism, which did not sanction laws. He argued that
government should reward the capable and punish lawbreakers.
Han Feizi
Han Feizi (280 – 233 BCE) was a major synthesizer of Legalist thought, who studied with Xunxi,
and was employed in his home state of Han. He tried to convince the Han king to various reforms,
especially proposed to strengthen it in the face of Qin aggression. His thought develops Lord
Shang’s ideas about laws and merit, but is also interested in combining these with Confucian and
other philosophies about governance and human nature. For Han Feizi, governing authority flowed
from more than just laws, and in combination with Xunzi’s insight about the selfishness of human
nature (and thus the importance of punishments and rewards), meant that effective rules should
model good behavior, organize the ministries efficiently, and cultivate non-action (wuwei), the
traditional practice of Daoism. According to Sima Qian, word of Han Feizi’s brilliant persuasions
reached King Zheng about 10 years before the events of this game, and Han Feizi was invited to the
Qin court. His former classmate and friend Li Si then used one of Han’s persuasion to suggest he
was a traitor, which led him to forced suicide.
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The Book of Lord Shang from the Chinese Text Project
https://ctext.org/shang-jun-shu
Gong sun Yang is Lord Shang
Book 1, Reforming the Law
Duke Xiao discussed his policy. The three Great Officers, Gong sun Yang, Gan Long and Du Zhi,
were in attendance on the Prince. Their thoughts dwelt on the vicissitudes of the world’s affairs; they
discussed the principles of rectifying the law, and they sought for the way of directing the people.
The prince said: “Not to forget, at his succession, the tutelary spirits of the soil and of grain, is the
way of a prince; to shape the laws and to see to it that an intelligent ruler reigns, are the tasks of a
minister. I intend, now, to alter the laws, so as to obtain orderly government, and to reform the rites,
so as to teach the people; but I am afraid the empire will criticize me.”
Gong sun Yang said: “I have heard it said that he who hesitates in action, does not accomplish
anything, and that he who hesitates in affairs, gains no merit. Let Your Highness settle Your
thoughts quickly about altering the laws and perhaps not heed the criticism of the empire. Moreover,
he who conducts himself as an outstanding man is, as a matter of course, disapproved of by the
world; he who has thoughts of independent knowledge is certainly despised by the world. The saying
runs: ‘The stupid do not even understand an affair when it has been completed, but the wise see it
even before it has sprouted.’ One cannot let the people share in the thoughts about the beginnings
of an affair, but they should be allowed to share in the rejoicings over the completion of
it…Therefore a sage, if he is able to strengthen the state thereby, does not model himself on
antiquity, and if he is able to benefit the people thereby, does not adhere to the established rites.”
But Gan Long said: “Not so. I have heard it said: ‘A sage teaches without changing the people, and a
wise man obtains good government without altering the laws.’ If one teaches in accordance with the
spirit of the people, success will be achieved without effort; if one governs, holding on to the law,
officials will be well versed in it and the people will live quietly. Now, if Your Highness alters the
laws without adhering to the old customs of the Qin state, and reforms the rites in order to teach the
people, I am afraid that the empire will criticize Your Highness, and I wish that You would reflect
maturely.”
Gong sun Yang replied: “What you, sir, hold is the point of view of the man in the street. Indeed,
ordinary people abide by old practices, and students are immersed in the study of what is reported
from antiquity…The Three Dynasties have attained supremacy by different rites, and the five Lords
Protector have attained their protectorships by different laws. Therefore, a wise man creates laws,
but a foolish man is controlled by them; a man of talent reforms rites, but a worthless man is
enslaved by them. With a man who is enslaved by rites, it is not worth while to speak about matters;
with a man who is controlled by laws, it is not worth while to discuss reform. Let Your Highness not
hesitate.”
Du Zhi said: “Unless the advantage be a hundredfold, one should not reform the law; unless the
benefit be tenfold, one should not alter an instrument. I have heard it said that in taking antiquity as
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https://ctext.org/shang-jun-shu
an example, one makes no mistakes, and in following established rites one commits no offence. Let
Your Highness aim at that.”
Gong sun Yang said: “Former generations did not follow the same doctrines, so what antiquity
should one imitate?…Therefore, I say: ‘There is more than one way to govern the world and there is
no necessity to imitate antiquity, in order to take appropriate measures for the state.’
…Consequently, those who acted counter to antiquity do not necessarily deserve blame, nor do
those who followed established rites merit much praise. Let Your Highness not hesitate.”
Duke Xiao said: “Excellent !…One should, in one’s plans, be directed by the needs of the times – I
have no doubts about it.”
Thereupon, in consequence, he issued the order to bring waste lands under cultivation.
Book 4, Elimination of Strength
To remove the strong by means of a strong people brings weakness; to remove the strong by means
of a weak people brings strength. If the country practices virtue, criminals are many. If the country is
rich, but is administered as if it were poor, then it is said to be doubly rich, and the doubly rich are
strong…A ruler values many changes, but the country values few changes…If in war its army is
efficient, a country will be strong; but if fighting is disorderly and the army unwilling, the country
will be dismembered.
Farming, trade and office are the three permanent functions in a state, and these three functions give
rise to six parasitic functions, which are called: care for old age, living on others, beauty, love,
ambition and virtuous conduct. If these six parasites find an attachment, there will be
dismemberment. The three functions are attached to three different men, but these six functions
may attach themselves to one man. To abolish law by means of the law means strength; to establish
law by means of the law means dismemberment. If officials are permanent, law is abolished; but if
officials are often transferred, laws are established. In administering a great country, it becomes
small; in administering a small country, it becomes great…If the country is strong and war is not
waged, the poison will be carried into the territory; rites and music and the parasitic functions will
arise, and dismemberment will be inevitable. But if the country (being strong) thereupon wages war,
the poison will be carried to the enemy, and not suffering from rites and music and the parasitic
functions, it will be strong…
If in a country there are the following ten evils: rites, music, odes, history, virtue, moral culture, filial
piety, brotherly duty, integrity and sophistry, the ruler cannot make the people fight and
dismemberment is inevitable; and this brings extinction in its train. If the country has not these ten
things and the ruler can make the people fight, he will be so prosperous that he will attain
supremacy. A country where the virtuous govern the wicked, will suffer from disorder, so that it will
be dismembered; but a country where the wicked govern the virtuous, will be orderly, so that it will
become strong. A country which is administered by the aid of odes, history, rites, music, filial piety,
brotherly duty, virtue and moral culture, will, as soon as the enemy approaches, be dismembered; if
he does not approach, the country will be poor. But if a country is administered without these eight ,
the enemy dares not approach, and even if he should, he would certainly be driven off when it
mobilizes its army and attacks, it will capture its objective, and having captured it, will be able to
hold it; when it holds its army in reserve, and makes no attack, it will be rich. A country that loves
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force is said to attack with what is difficult; a country that loves words is said to attack with what is
easy. A country that attacks with what is difficult will gain ten points for every one point that it
undertakes, whereas a country that attacks with what is easy will lose a hundred men for every ten
that it marches out.
…
A country which knows how to produce strength but not how to reduce it, may be said to be a
country that attacks itself, and it is certain that it will be dismembered; but a country that knows how
to produce strength and how to reduce it may be said to be one that attacks the enemy, and it is
certain that it will become strong. Therefore, the combating of the parasites, the curtailing of its
energies and the attacking of its enemy – if a country employs two of these methods and sets aside
only one, it will be strong; but that which employs all three methods will have so much prestige that
it will attain supremacy.
…
If the whole population is registered at birth and erased at death, there would be no people who
would escape agriculture, and in the fields there would be no fallow land. Thus the country would be
rich, and being rich it would be strong. If penalties are removed by means of penalties, the country
will enjoy order, but if penalties are set up by means of penalties, the country will be in disorder.
Therefore is it said: ‘In applying penalties, punish heavily the light offences.’ If punishments are
abolished, affairs will succeed and the country will be strong. But if heavy offences are punished
heavily and light offences lightly, penalties will appear, trouble will arise and such a state will be
dismembered. Punishment produces force, force produces strength, strength produces awe, awe
produces kindness. Kindness has its origin in force.
…
A strong country knows thirteen figures: the number of granaries within its borders, the number of
able-bodied men and of women, the number of old and of weak people, the number of officials and
of officers, the number of those making a livelihood by talking, the number of useful people, the
number of horses and of oxen, the quantity of fodder and of straw. If he who wishes to make his
country strong, does not know these thirteen figures, though his geographical position may be
favourable and the population numerous, his state will become weaker and weaker, until it is
dismembered.
…
Book 9, Establishing Laws
I have heard that when the intelligent princes of antiquity established laws, the people were not
wicked; when they undertook an enterprise, the required ability was practised spontaneously; when
they distributed rewards, the army was strong. These three principles were the root of government.
Indeed, why people were not wicked, when laws were established, was because the laws were clear
and people profited by them; why the required ability was practised spontaneously, when an
enterprise was undertaken, was because merits were clearly defined; and because these were clearly
defined, the people exerted their forces; and this being so, the required ability was spontaneously
practised; why the army was strong when rewards were distributed refers to titles and emoluments.
Titles and emoluments are the goal of a soldier’s ambition. Therefore, the principle on which princes
distributed titles and emoluments was clear; when this was clear, the country became daily stronger,
but when it was obscure, the country became daily weaker. Therefore, the principle on which titles
and emoluments are distributed is the key to the state’s preservation or ruin. The reason why a
country is weak or a prince is ruined is not that there are no titles or emoluments, but that the
principles followed therein are wrong. The principle followed by the Three Kings and the five Lords
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Protector was no other than that of giving titles and emoluments, and the reason that people
emulated each other in merit was because the principles which they followed were clear. Thus the
way in which intelligent princes utilized their ministers was that their employment was made
dependent on the work which they had done, and rewards were bestowed on the merits which they
had acquired. When the relation between merit and reward was clear, then the people emulated each
other in merit. If, in administering a state, one succeeds in causing the people to exert their strength
so that they emulate each other in merit, then the army will certainly be strong.
…
Among the princes of men there are some who bestow titles, but whose army is weak; there are
some who grant emoluments, but whose state is poor; there are some who have fixed laws, but who
yet suffer disorder. These three things are calamities for a country. For if a ruler of men places the
making easy of audiences before the acquiring of merit, then although he bestows titles, his army will
be weak; if people, without risking their lives in dangers, can obtain profit and emoluments, then the
granting of emoluments will only make the country poor. If the law has neither measures nor
figures, then affairs will daily become more complicated, and although laws have been established,
yet the result will be that the administration will be in disorder. Therefore, an intelligent prince, in
directing his people, will so direct them that they will exert their strength to the utmost, in order to
strive for a particular merit; and if, when they have acquired merit, riches and honour follow upon it,
there will be no bravery in private causes. Therefore, if this teaching spreads and becomes
successful, then when that is the case, ministers will be loyal, princes intelligent, order manifest, and
the army strong.
…
Book 10, Method of Warfare
The army of a real king does not boast of victory, nor does it harbour rancour for defeat. That it
does not boast of victory is because it ascribes it to its clever tactics; that it does not harbour rancour
for defeat is because it knows why it has failed. If the relative strength of the armies is well-matched,
the side that has clever leadership will win, and the side that has inferior leadership will lose. If the
organization has its origin in the calculations made in the temple, then it will win, whether the
leadership is clever or inferior. He who holds victorious tactics will be so strong that he will attain
supremacy. If people are submissive and obey their ruler, then the country will become rich and the
army victorious; and if this state of affairs is maintained for long, he will surely attain supremacy. But
it is a mistake for an army to penetrate deeply into the enemy’s country, in difficult and
unsurmountable terrain and cut off in a cul-de-sac; the men will become exhausted, hungry and
thirsty as well, and will, moreover, fall victims to disease. This is the way to defeat. Therefore he who
intends to direct the people… and he who mounts a good horse cannot but be on his guard.
Book 13, Making Orders Strict
If orders are made strict, orderly government is not delayed, and if laws are equable, officials are not
wicked. Once the law is fixed, one should not damage it with virtuous words; if men of merit are
appointed to office, people will have little to say; but if men of virtue are appointed to office, people
will have much to say. The practice of good government begins with making judgments…He who
procrastinates in creating order will be dismembered. Govern by punishments and wage war by
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rewards; seek transgressors and do not seek the virtuous… If in the country there are no wicked
people, there is no wicked trade in the capital. If affairs are many and secondary things are
numerous, if agriculture is relaxed and criminals gain the upper hand, then the country will certainly
be dismembered…if through their own efforts they can count upon obtaining office and rank,
farmers will not be lazy…
…
The six parasites are: rites and music, odes and history, moral culture and virtue, filial piety and
brotherly love, sincerity and faith, chastity and integrity, benevolence and righteousness, criticism of
the army and being ashamed of fighting. If there are these twelve things, the ruler is unable to make
people farm and fight, and then the state will be so poor that it will be dismembered. If these twelve
things come together, then it may be said that the prince’s administration is not stronger than his
ministers and that the administration of his officials is not stronger than his people. This is said to be
a condition where the six parasites are stronger than the government. When these twelve gain an
attachment, then dismemberment ensues. Therefore to make a country prosperous, these twelve
things should not be practised; then the state will have much strength, and no one in the empire will
be able to invade it. When its soldiers march out, they will capture their objective, and having
captured it, will be able to hold it. When it keeps its soldiers in reserve and does not attack, it will
certainly become rich. The court officials do not reject any merits, however few they may be, nor do
they detract from any merits, however many they may be. Office and rank are obtained according to
the acquired merit, and even though there may be sophistical talk, it will be impossible thereby to
obtain undue precedence. This is said to be government by statistics. In attacking with force, ten
points are gained for every one point undertaken, but in attacking with words, a hundred are lost for
every one marched out. If a state loves force, it is said to attack with what is difficult; if a state loves
words, it is said to attack with what is easy.
If penalties are heavy and rewards few, then the ruler loves his people and they will die for him; if
rewards are heavy and penalties light, then the ruler does not love his people nor will they die for
him…If heavy penalties are clear, there will be great control, but if they are not clear, there will be the
six parasites. If the six kinds of parasites come together, then the people are not fit for employment.
Therefore, in a prosperous country, when punishments are applied, the people will be closely
associated with the ruler, and when rewards are applied they will reap profit. In applying
punishments, light offences should be punished heavily; if light offences do not appear, heavy
punishments will not come. This is said to be abolishing penalties by means of penalties, and if
penalties are abolished, affairs will succeed. If crimes are serious and penalities light, penalties will
appear and trouble will arise. This is said to be bringing about penalties by means of penalties, and
such a state will surely be dismembered.
A sage-prince understands what is essential in affairs…A sage-prince, by his ruling of men, is certain
to win their hearts; consequently he is able to use force. Force produces strength, strength produces
prestige, prestige produces virtue, and so virtue has its origin in force, which a sage-prince alone
possesses, and therefore he is able to transmit benevolence and righteousness to the empire.
Book 16, Rewards and Punishment
The way in which a sage administers a state is by unifying rewards, unifying punishments, and
unifying education. The effect of unifying rewards is that the army will have no equal; the effect of
unifying punishments is that orders will be carried out; the effect of unifying education is that
inferiors will obey superiors…The climax in the understanding of rewards is to bring about a
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condition of having no rewards; the climax in the understanding of punishments is to bring about a
condition of having no punishments; the climax in the understanding of education is to bring about
a condition of having no education.
What I mean by the unifying of rewards is that profits and emoluments, office and rank, should be
determined exclusively by military merit, and that there should not be different reasons for
distributing them…A country of ten thousand chariots will not dare to assemble its soldiers in the
plains of the Middle Kingdom; nor will a country of a thousand chariots dare to defend a walled city.
Should a country of ten thousand chariots assemble its soldiers in the plains of the Middle Kingdom,
one would in battle, rout its army; and should a country of a thousand chariots defend a walled city,
one would in the assault, capture that town. If, in battles, one always routs the other’s army and, in
assaults, one always captures the other’s towns, with the result that finally one has all the cities, and
all their riches accrue, then what expense or loss can one suffer, even though there are rich
congratulatory rewards?
…
What I mean by the unification of punishments is that punishments should know no degree or
grade, but that from ministers of state and generals down to great officers and ordinary folk,
whosoever does not obey the king’s commands, violates the interdicts of the state, or rebels against
the statutes fixed by the ruler, should be guilty of death and should not be pardoned. Merit acquired
in the past should not cause a decrease in the punishment for demerit later, nor should good
behaviour in the past cause any derogation of the law for wrong done later. If loyal ministers and
filial sons do wrong, they should be judged according to the full measure of their guilt, and if
amongst the officials who have to maintain the law and to uphold an office, there are those who do
not carry out the king’s law, they are guilty of death and should not be pardoned, but their
punishment should be extended to their family for three generations…If punishments are heavy and
rigorously applied, then people will not dare to try (how far they can go), with the result that, in the
state, there will be no people punished. Because there are no people punished in the state, I say that
if one understands punishments, there is no capital punishment.
…
This is what I mean by the three teachings. A sage cannot have a universal knowledge of the needs
of ten thousand beings, therefore in his administration of a state, he selects what is important for
dealing with the ten thousand beings. So there is little instruction, but much successful effort. The
way in which a sage governs a state is easy to know, but difficult to practice. Therefore, that sages
need not be increased, common-place rulers need not be abolished, that the killing of men is no
violence and the rewarding of men no benevolence, follow from the fact that the law is clear. The
sage confers office and grants rank according to merit, therefore men of talent are not anxious. The
sage is not indulgent with transgressions and does not pardon crimes, and so villainy does not spring
up. The sage, in administering a state, investigates the possibilities of uniformity, and that alone.
Book 17, Policies
… if by war one wishes to abolish war, even war is permissible; if by killing one wants to abolish
killing, even killing is permissible; if by punishments one wishes to abolish punishments, even heavy
punishments are permissible.
…
He who is called a virtuous ruler has no loyal ministers, and a compassionate father has no filial
sons. If it is desired to do away with clever talkers, then all should control one another by means of
the law, and should correct one another by means of mandates. Being unable to do wrong alone,
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one will not do wrong in the company of others… What is called strength is to conquer the empire;
by conquering the empire, all the forces are united, and as a result the brave and strong will not dare
to commit any violence, nor will sages and wise men dare to deceive or to be employed on empty
grounds. When the multitudes of the empire are united, none will dare not to do what he (the ruler)
likes, but all will avoid what he dislikes…The one who gains the empire is he, who regards it as his
first duty to gain himself; the one who succeeds in conquering a strong enemy is he, who regards it
as his first duty to conquer himself.
A sage knows the right principles which must be followed, and the right time and circumstances for
action…Therefore is it said: ‘The benevolent may be benevolent towards others, but cannot cause
others to be benevolent; the righteous may love others, but cannot cause others to love.’…A sage-
king does not value righteousness, but he values the law. If with the law one sees to it that it is clear,
and with commands that they are carried out, then it will be all right.
Book 19, Weakening the People
A weak people means a strong state and a strong state means a weak people. Therefore, a country,
which has the right way, is concerned with weakening the people. If they are simple they become
strong, and if they are licentious they become weak. Being weak, they are law-abiding; being
licentious, they let their ambition go too far; being weak, they are serviceable, but if they let their
ambition go too far, they will become strong. Therefore is it said: ‘To remove the strong by means
of a strong people brings weakness; to remove the strong by means of a weak people brings
strength.’
…
If the people live in humiliation, they value rank; if they are weak, they honour office; and if they are
poor, they prize rewards. If the people are governed by means of punishments, they enjoy service,
and if the people are made to fight by means of rewards, they scorn death. Therefore if, in war, one’s
army is efficient, one is called strong…
…
If the law is crooked, order turns into disorder; if reliance is placed on virtue, there is much talking;
if government measures are numerous, the state is in disorder; and if there is much talking, the army
is weak. But if the law is clear, government measures are limited; if reliance is placed on force,
talking ceases; if government measures are limited, the country enjoys orderly administration; and if
talking ceases, the army is strong. Therefore, in ruling a great country, it becomes small and in ruling
a small country, it becomes great…Therefore, by strengthening the people, one becomes doubly
weak, and perishes; by weakening the people, one becomes doubly strong and attains supremacy.
With a strong people to attack the strong brings weakness, whereas on the other side strength
remains; with a weak people to attack the strong brings strength, whereas on the other side strength
is removed. If strength remains on the other side, one perishes, but if strength is removed on the
other side, one attains supremacy. Therefore, with a strong people to attack the strong brings
dismemberment, but with a weak people to attack the strong brings supremacy.
The way in which an intelligent ruler uses his ministers is by always giving them employment for
merits, which they have acquired, and by always fully recognizing their exertions by rewards, and if a
ruler of men makes his people believe in this, as firmly as they do in the sun and moon, then he will
have no equal.
…
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Now, to have a numerous population and a strong army is the great capital of an emperor or king,
but if he does not have clear laws by which to keep them, he is next-door to peril and ruin.
Therefore an intelligent ruler studies the law and thus understands how to bring it about that the
people within his borders have no perverse and depraved hearts, that idly-living scholars are pressed
into the battle line, and that the ten thousand subjects are alert in ploughing and warfare.
The people of the state of Chu, who were alert and well-balanced and fast as a whirlwind, were, with
their iron lances made of the steel from Yuan, as sharp as a bee’s sting. As armour they wore the
skin of sharks and the hide of rhinoceros, which are as strong as metal and stone. The Yangtze and
the Han Rivers were its moats, and the Ru and the Ying its boundaries, the Forest of Deng was its
screen, and the Wall of the Fang Mountains was its frontier. Yet when the army of Qin marched on
Yen and Ying, it took those cities as easily as if it had been merely the shaking of a dead tree. Tang
Mie met his death at Chui-sha, Zhuang Qiao rose in the interior, and Chu was divided into five
parts. This was not because its territory was not large or that the population was not numerous, or
that the armour and weapons and resources were not many, but the reason, that in fighting it did not
win and in defending it was unable to hold its own, was due to the fact that it did not have law.
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Excerpts from The Hanfeizi as translated by Bob Eno
From https://chinatxt.sitehost.iu.edu/Thought/Legalism
The Two Handles
On rewards and punishments
The enlightened ruler guides and controls his ministers by means of two handles alone. The
two handles are punishment and reward. What do I mean by punishment and reward? To inflict
mutilation and death on men is called punishment; to bestow honor and wealth is called reward.
Those who act as ministers fear penalties and hope to profit from rewards. Thus if the ruler himself
wields his punishments and rewards, the ministers will fear his awesomeness and flock to receive his
benefits. But the perfidious ministers of this age are different. They persuade the ruler to let them
inflict punishment themselves on men they hate and bestow favors on men they like. Now if the
ruler does not insist upon reserving to himself the authority to dispense profit in the form of
rewards and show his awesome power in punishments, but instead allows his ministers to hand
these out, then the people of the state will all fear the ministers and treat the ruler with disrespect;
they will flock to the ministers and desert the ruler. This is the danger that arises when the ruler loses
control of punishments and rewards.
The tiger is able to overpower the dog because of his claws and teeth, but if he discards his
claws and teeth and lets the dog use them, then he will be overpowered by the dog. The ruler of
men uses punishments and rewards to control his ministers, but if he discards his punishments and
rewards and lets his ministers dispense them, then he will fall under the control of his ministers.
Tian Chang petitioned the ruler for various offices and stipends which he then dispensed to
the lesser ministers, and he used oversize measures when he doled out grain to the common people.
In this way the ruler, Duke Jian of Qi, lost the exclusive right to dispense favors, and it passed into
Tian Chang’s hands. Thus it was that Duke Jian came to be assassinated.
Zihan said to the lord of Song, “Since the people all delight in rewards and gifts, you should
bestow them yourself; but since they hate punishments and death sentences, allow me to dispense
these for you.” Thereupon the lord of Song gave up control over penalties and it passed into the
hands of Zihan. Thus it was that the ruler of Song came under the power of others.
Tian Chang got hold of the power to reward and Duke Jian was assassinated; Zihan got hold of the
power to punish and the ruler of Song fell under his power. Ministers today are permitted to gain
control over both punishment and reward; their rulers put themselves in greater peril than Duke Jian
and the lord of Song. When rulers are coerced, assassinated, obstructed, or subject to deception, it
has invariably because they lost control over punishment and reward to their ministers, and thus
brought about their own peril and downfall.
On speech and action
If a ruler wishes to put an end to depravity, then he must be careful to align name and form,
that is to say, word and deed. When ministers come forward to present proposals, the ruler assigns
them tasks on the basis of their words and measures their merit solely on the basis of the
accomplishment of the tasks. If the accomplishment fits the task, and the task fits the words, then
he rewards them; but if the accomplishment fails to fit the task or the task the words he punishes
them. Hence, if ministers offer big words but only produce small accomplishments the ruler
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https://chinatxt.sitehost.iu.edu/Thought/Legalism
punishes them. This is not because the accomplishments are small, but because they do not match
the name that was given to the undertaking. Likewise, if ministers come forward with small words
but produce great accomplishments they too are punished. This is not because the ruler is displeased
with great accomplishments, but because he considers the harm of giving too small a name to the
undertaking to be more serious than the benefit of great accomplishments.
Once Marquis Zhao of Han got drunk and fell asleep. The Keeper of the Hat, seeing that
the duke was cold, laid a robe over him. When the marquis awoke, he was pleased and asked his
attendants, “Who covered me with a robe?” His attendants replied, “The Keeper of the Hat.” The
marquis thereupon punished both the Keeper of the Hat and the Keeper of the Robe. He punished
the Keeper of the Robe for failing to do his duty, and the Keeper of the Hat for overstepping his
office. It was not that he did not dislike the cold, but he considered the harm of one official
encroaching upon the duties of another to be a greater danger than cold.
Hence an enlightened ruler, in handling his ministers, does not permit them to gain merit by
overstepping their offices, or to speak words that do not tally with their actions. To overstep one’s
office is to die; speech that does not tally with action is punished. When ministers execute their
proper duties and must ensure that deeds are true to words, then they cannot form factions and
work for each other’s benefit.
On concealing preferences
The ruler of men has two worries: If he employs only worthies as ministers, then they will
use their worthy reputations to control the ruler. However, if he promotes men unreasonably state
affairs will become blocked and nothing will get done. Hence, if the ruler values worthies, his
ministers will all ornament their actions in order to exploit his desires. In this way, they will never
show their true characters, so the ruler will have no way to distinguish the qualities of his ministers.
Because the king of Yue admired valor, many of his subjects looked on death lightly.
Because King Ling of Chu liked slim waists, his state was full of people starving themselves. Because
Duke Huan of Qi was jealous and loved his ladies in waiting, Shudiao castrated himself in order to
be put in charge of the harem; because Duke Huan was fond of unusual food, Yiya steamed his
son’s head and served it to him. Because Zikuai of Yan admired worthy men, his minister Zizhi
made it clear that he would not accept the throne were it offered to him.
Thus if the ruler reveals what he dislikes, his ministers will be careful to disguise their
motives; if he shows what he likes, his ministers will feign abilities they do not have. In short, if he
lets his desires be known, his ministers will know how what attitude to assume in order to hide their
true characters.
Hence Zizhi, by playing the part of a worthy, was able to seize the throne from his
sovereign. Shudiao and Yiya, by catering to the ruler’s desires, were able to encroach upon his
authority. In the end, Zikuai died in the chaos that ensued, and Duke Huan was left unburied for so
long that maggots came crawling out beneath the door of his coffin chamber. were the causes?
These are examples of calamity that comes when a ruler reveals his true feelings to his ministers.
Ministers do not necessarily feel true love for their ruler; they serve him only in the hope of
substantial gain. Now if the ruler of men does not hide his feelings and conceal his motives, but
instead gives his ministers a means encroach upon his authority, then they will have no difficulty in
doing what Zizhi and Tian Chang did. Hence it is said: Do away with likes, do away with hates, and
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the ministers will reveal their unadorned characters. And when the ministers reveal their unadorned
characters, the great ruler’s vision will be unobstructed.
Wielding Power
The wuwei ruler
There is a fixed order that governs the action of Tian; there is a fixed order that governs man
as well. Fragrant aromas and delicate flavors, strong wine and fat meat delight the mouth but sicken
the body. Sleek skin and pearly teeth satisfy desire but dissipate the essence. Therefore discard all
excess; only then can your keep your body unharmed.
Power should not be displayed; be plain, like undyed cloth, and actionless (wuwei).
Government affairs reach to the four quarters, but the pivot lies at the center. The sage grasps the
pivot and the four quarters come to serve him. Await them in emptiness and they will spontaneously
take up their tasks. Once all within the four seas are within your store, follows the Dao of yin to
manifest yang. When subordinates to your left and right are in their places, open the gate of court
and all will be settled. Change nothing, alter nothing, but unceasingly act by the “two handles”; this
is called walking the path of principle.
Things have their proper places, talents their proper uses. When all are properly settled, then
high office or low, all will be free from action. Let the cock cry out the dawn, let the cat catch rats –
when each exercises his ability there is nothing the ruler needs to do. If the ruler excels in any way,
affairs lose their proper fit. If he prides himself on love of talent, he invites his ministers’ deceit. If
he shows mercy and care of others’ lives, his ministers will impose upon his kind nature. Once
superior and inferior exchange their roles, the state will surely never be ordered.
Use the Dao of One and let names be its beginning. When names are rectified things stay in
place; when names are twisted, things shift about.* Hence the sage holds to the One in stillness; he
lets words spontaneously fit with their proper sense and affairs become settled on their own. He
does not display his colors and so his ministers are plain like undyed cloth. He assigns them tasks
according to their ability and lets affairs complete themselves; he bestows rewards according to the
results and lets promotions follow spontaneously. He establishes the standard, abides by it, and lets
all things settle themselves.
A ruler makes his appointments on the basis of names, and where the name is not clear, he
investigates achievement. When achievement and name tally, he dispenses the reward or punishment
deserved. When these are utterly predictable, subordinates will dedicate themselves entire.
Attend diligently to affairs and await the decree of Tian; do not lose held of the pivot and
thus become a sage. The Dao of the sage discards wisdom and wit, for if you do not, you will find it
hard to remain constant. When the people use wisdom and wit, they fall into great danger; when the
ruler uses them, his state faces the peril of destruction. Follow Tian’s Dao, return to the principle
behind forms; match word to deed, and every end will become a renewal. Be empty, following
behind in tranquility; never follow personal inclinations. All of the worries of the ruler stem from
acting like others. Employ others and never be like them, and then the people will follow you as one.
The Dao is vast and without form; its power (de) creates order and extends everywhere. It
extends to all living beings, and they partake of it in their measure. Though all things flourish
through it, it does not come to rest in any of them. The Dao pervades all affairs here below,
destinies being set by a constant standard, life and death governed by proper season. Compare
names, differentiate events, and you will comprehend their underlying unity.
Thus it is said: The Dao does not identify itself with any of the things of the world; its power
does not identify with either yin or yang – no more than a scale identifies itself with heaviness or
lightness, a measuring string with bumps and hollows, tuning pipes with dampness or dryness, or a
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ruler with his ministers. All these six are products of the Dao, but the Dao itself never takes a
double; therefore it is called the One. For this reason the enlightened ruler prizes solitariness, which
is the figure of the Dao. Ruler and ministers do not follow the same Dao. Ministers’ requests are like
words of prayer: the ruler holds fast to the words, and the ministers present him with results. When
words and results match, superior and inferior achieve harmony.
The Dao of holding court: take the statements that come forth and compare them with
reports that come back. Examine names carefully in order to set ranks, clarify duties in order to
distinguish worth.
This is the Dao of listening to the words of others: be silent as though in a drunken stupor.
Lips! teeth! Do not be the first to move! Lips! teeth! Be ever more numb! Let others explain and
detail – I will gain knowledge thereby.
Though assertions and denials swirl about him, the ruler does not argue. Empty and still,
inactive (wuwei), such is the true character of the Dao. Study, compare, line things up to match,
examine thus the forms of deeds done. Compare with matching affairs, aligning them to join with
emptiness. Where the root and base are firmly anchored, there will be no error of movement or
stillness. Whether moving or still, all is corrected though wuwei.
If you show pleasure in some, your troubles will grow; if you show hatred of others,
resentment will rise. Therefore discard both pleasure and hatred and with an empty mind become an
abode of the Dao.
When the ruler does not work side by side with his people, the people treasure him. He does
not discuss affairs with them, but leaves them to act by themselves. He bars shut his inner door and
from his room looks out into the court; rules and measures all provided, all go straight to their
places. Those who merit reward are rewarded; those who deserve punishment are punished. Reward
and punishment follow the deed; each man brings them upon himself. When pleasant or hateful
consequences follow with inevitability, who dares fail to match word and deed? When compass and
rule have marked out one corner, the other three are evident of themselves.
If the ruler does not appear spirit-like (shen), his subordinates will find leverage points. If his
management of affairs is not impartial, they will track his preferences. Be like heaven, be like earth,
all coils will untangle. Be like heaven, be like earth, who will be intimate, who estranged? He who
can be an image of heaven and earth may be called a sage.
Controlling ministers
If you wish to govern your inner palace, have no intimates among your officers. If you wish
to govern your realm, appoint one man to each office. Let none do as he pleases, and none will
exceed his office or control another. Take warning when there are many men gathered at the gates
of high ministers. The utmost of governance is to allow no subordinates means to seek favor. Make
certain that word and deed match, and the people will guard their offices. To discard this and seek
elsewhere is profound delusion. Wily men will ever increase, and treachery will crowd by your side.
Hence it is said: Never enrich a man so he can become your creditor; never ennoble a man so he can
become your oppressor; never put all your trust in a single man and thereby lose your state.
When the shin grows stouter than the thigh, it is hard to run; when the ruler loses his spirit-
like mien, tigers prowl behind him. If the ruler remains unaware, the tigers will run in packs like
dogs. If the ruler does not soon halt, like dogs they will grow in number. When tigers form a band
they will assassinate their own mothers. Now, a ruler who has no ministers – how could he keep
possession of a state? The ruler must apply the laws, then the greatest tigers turn timid. If the ruler
applies punishments, the greatest tigers will grow docile. If laws and punishments are unfailingly
applied, then tigers will be transformed into men again and revert to their true form.
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If you wish to govern the state, you must make certain to destroy factions; if you do not
destroy factions, they will grow ever more numerous. If you wish to govern the land, you must make
certain that your rewards pass into the right hands; if you do not do so, then unruly men will seek
gain. If you grant what they seek, you will be lending a battle-ax to your enemies; you must not lend
it, for it will only be used to attack you.
The Yellow Emperor had a saying, “Superior and inferior fight a hundred battles a day.” The
subordinates hide their private desires and see what they can get from the ruler; the ruler grasps his
standards and measures to constrain his subordinates. Thus to set standards and measures is the
ruler’s treasure; to form factions is the ministers’ treasure. The only reason the ministers do not
assassinate their ruler is that their cliques are not strong enough. Hence, if the ruler loses an inch, his
subordinates gain a yard.
The ruler who knows how to govern his state does not let his cities grow too large; the ruler
who understands the Dao does not enrich powerful families or ennoble his ministers. Were he to
enrich and ennoble them, they would oppose and displace him. Guard against danger, fear peril,
make haste to designate an heir, and misfortune will have no means to arise. In searching the palace
to expel traitors within, hold fast to your standards and measurements. Pare away those who have
too much, enrich those who have too little, and let both be according to measure, so they will not
form cliques to deceive their ruler. Pare the great as moon wanes, enrich the meager as the frost
thaws. Simplify the laws and be cautious in executions, but carry out punishments to the full. Never
loosen your bow or you will find two cocks in a single roost; when two cocks share a single roost,
they fight in a frenzy of cries. While the wildcat and wolf roam within the fold the sheep will never
increase. When one house has two senior elders, its affairs will never prosper. When husband and
wife both order the family, the children cannot know whom to obey.
A ruler of men must often prune his trees and not let the branches grow too long, for if they
do they will block the gate of court. If the gates of private men are crowded with visitors the ruler’s
courts will stand empty, and he will be shut in and encircled. He must often prune his trees and not
let them become obstacles, for if they do, they will encroach upon his place. He must often prune
his trees and not let the branches grow larger than the trunk for, if they do, they will not be able to
stand before a spring wind; when they cannot, the braches have injured the heart of the tree. When
cadet branches of the ruler’s lineage become too numerous the royal family will face anxiety and
grief. The Dao to preventing this is often to prune your trees and not let the branches grow
luxurious. If the trees are often pruned, cliques and factions will be dispersed. If you dig up the
roots, the tree is no longer vital (shen). Fill up the pools, and do not let water collect in them. Search
out the hearts of others, seize their power. The ruler who does so is like lightning, like thunder.
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Part IV. Mohist Texts
Little is known of the life of Mozi, but it is thought he was born at about the time of Confucius’s
death, during the 5th c. BCE. His philosophy developed in reaction to Confucianism. Although it did
not survive the Qin ascendancy (and became a largely forgotten Chinese philosophy), it was widely
known and influential during the Warring States period. The Mozi is a collection of his writings and
teachings. Mozi’s political philosophy, like the Confucian school, is built from an ethical framework.
But unlike Confucianism’s interest building up exemplary moral beings, Mozi and his followers
argued humans should be treated by equal standards—this is connected to his concept of universal
love (Book 4), which he saw as the way to promote order. Notwithstanding this moral universalism,
the Mozi is still a set of persuasions directed at rulers and statesman; the goal of Mozi’s followers was
to convince rulers to adopt this ethical framework for governance, which included numerous
concrete policies (including his admonition not to wage offensive wars).
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Excerpts from The Mozi from Chinese Text Project
https://ctext.org/mozi
Book 1:
Chapter 1, Befriending the Learned
If one does not preserve the learned in a state he will be injuring the state; if one is not zealous (to
recommend) the virtuous upon seeing one, he will be neglecting the ruler. Enthusiasm is to be
shown only to the virtuous, and plans for the country are only to be shared with the learned. Few
are those, who, neglecting the virtuous and slighting the learned, could still maintain the existence of
their countries.
….
I have heard it said: It is not that there is no peaceful abode but that I have no peaceful heart (over
others’ homelessness); it is not that my wealth is not sufficient but that my passion yearns for more
(to improve others’ conditions). Therefore the superior man is strict with one’s self but lenient with
others (in matters of conduct) while the multitude are lenient with themselves but strict with others.
The superior man carries out his ambitions successfully in action and studies the situation when he is
at leisure. Even when he is taken as a mediocre individual he feels no dissatisfaction. This is because
he has self-confidence. Therefore, those who attempt what seems difficult to them will obtain what
they desire, but few who aim at what they desire can avoid what they dislike. Therefore, artful
ministers are harmful to the lord and flattering subordinates are injurious to the ruler. The lord
should have uncompromising ministers; the ruler should have stern subordinates. Only when
counsel is given with farsightedness and advice administered with sternness, can the life of the state
be secure and permanent.
…
Even the kind ruler will not show favours to ministers without merit. Even the affectionate father
will not love his useless sons. He who occupies a position but is not equal to the task is not the
proper person for the position… Now, to discard those who agree with the right but employ those
who agree with one’s self is not the way to be a great ruler. (Just as) Heaven and earth do not dazzle,
great bodies of water do not boil and foam, and great conflagrations do not coruscate, (so) the
imperial character does not lift itself up beyond reach.
…
Chapter 3, On the Necessity of Standards
Mozi said: To accomplish anything whatsoever one must have standards. None have yet
accomplished anything without them…Thus all artisans follow the standards in their work.
Now, the government of the empire and that of the large states do not observe their standards. This
shows the governors are even less intelligent than the artisans. What, then, should be taken as the
proper standard in government? How will it do for everybody to imitate his parents? There are
numerous parents in the world but few are magnanimous. For everybody to imitate his parents is to
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https://ctext.org/mozi
imitate the unmagnanimous. Imitating the unmagnanimous can not be said to be following the
proper standard. How will it do for everybody to follow his teacher? There are numerous teachers in
the world but few are magnanimous. For everybody to imitate his teacher is to imitate the
unmagnanimous. Imitating the unmagnanimous cannot be taken as following the proper standard.
How will it do for everybody to imitate his ruler? There are many rulers in the world but few are
magnanimous. For everybody to imitate the ruler is to imitate the unmagnanimous. Imitating the
unmagnanimous cannot be taken as following the right standard. So then neither the parents nor the
teacher nor the ruler should be accepted as the standard in government.
…
Since Heaven does claim all and accepts offerings from all, what then can make us say that it does
not desire men to love and benefit one another? Hence those who love and benefit others Heaven
will bless. Those who hate and harm others Heaven will curse… Thus we are certain that Heaven
desires to have men love and benefit one another and abominates to have them hate and harm one
another.
The ancient sage-kings, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu loved the people of the world universally, leading
them to reverence Heaven and worship the spirits. Many were their benefits to the people. And,
thereupon Heaven blessed them, establishing them emperors; and all the feudal lords of the empire
showed them respect. (On the other hand) the wicked kings, Jie, Zhou, You, and Li, hated all the
people in the world, seducing the people to curse Heaven and ridicule the spirits. Great were their
injuries to the people. Thereupon Heaven brought them calamity, depriving them of their empire
and their lives; and posterity condemned them to this day…
Chapter 4, Seven Causes of Anxiety
Mozi said: There are seven causes of worry to a state. What are these seven causes of worry? When
the outer and the inner city walls are not defensible, this is the first worry; When an enemy state is
approaching and yet one’s neighbours do not come to the rescue, this is the second worry; When the
resources of the people have all been spent on useless enterprises and gifts all squandered upon
incapable men, when people’s resources are exhausted without producing any profit and the treasury
is emptied by entertaining idle company, this is the third worry; When the officials value only their
salaries, and the sophists only friendship, and when the subordinates dare not remonstrate against
the laws the ruler has made for persecution, this is the fourth worry; When the lord is over-
confident of his own wisdom and holds no consultation, when he feels he is secure and makes no
preparations against attack; and when he does not know that he must be watchful while neighbours
are planning against him, this is the fifth worry; When those trusted are not loyal and the loyal are
not trusted, this is the sixth worry; And when the crops are not sufficient for food and the ministers
can not be charged with responsibilities, and when awards fail to make people happy and
punishment to make them afraid, this is the seventh worry. With these seven causes present in the
maintenance of the state, the state will perish, and, in the defence of a city, the city will be reduced to
ruin by the approaching enemy. Wherever these seven causes are found, the country will face
calamity.
…
The present rulers squander great amounts of wealth to reward the undeserving, empty the treasury
to acquire carriages and horses, exhaust the labourers to build palaces and furnish amusements. … By
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this the people are embittered and the treasury is left lean…Such a state will fall under any attack and
such people will perish by famine. And all this is due to the absence of preparation. Moreover, food
is what the sages treasured. The history of Zhou says, “Without three years’ food (in store) a state
cannot be a state (as it is in danger of losing its sovereignty). A family being without food in store to
be sufficient for three years its children cannot be its children (who are in danger of being
abandoned or sold to others).” Such, then, is the preparation of a country.
Book 4, Universal Love
Chapter 1
The wise man who has charge of governing the empire should know the cause of disorder before he
can put it in order. Unless he knows its cause, he cannot regulate it. It is similar to the problem of a
physician who is attending a patient. He has to know the cause of the ailment before he can cure
it… How is the situation different for him who is to regulate disorder? He too has to know the
cause of the disorder before he can regulate it…The wise man who has charge of governing the
empire must, then, investigate the cause of disorder.
Suppose we try to locate the cause of disorder, we shall find it lies in the want of mutual love. What
is called disorder is just the lack of filial piety on the part of the minister and the son towards the
emperor and the father; As he loves himself and not his father the son benefits himself to the
disadvantage of his father. As he loves himself and not his elder brother, the younger brother
benefits himself to the disadvantage of his elder brother. As he loves himself and not his emperor,
the minister benefits himself to the disadvantage of his emperor. And these are what is called
disorder. When the father shows no affection to the son, when the elder brother shows no affection
to the younger brother, and when the emperor shows no affection to the minister, on the other
hand, it is also called disorder. When the father loves only himself and not the son, he benefits
himself to the disadvantage of the son. When the elder brother loves only himself and not his
younger brother, he benefits himself to the disadvantage of the younger brother. When the emperor
loves only himself and not his minister, he benefits himself to the disadvantage of his minister, and
the reason for all these is want of mutual love.
…This again is true in the mutual disturbance among the houses of the ministers and the mutual
invasions among the states of the feudal lords. As he loves only his own house and not the others,
the minister disturbs the other houses to profit his own. As he loves only his own state and not the
others, the feudal lord attacks the other states to profit his own. These instances exhaust the
confusion in the world. And when we look into the causes we find they all arise from want of
mutual love.
Suppose everybody in the world loves universally, loving others as one’s self. Will there yet be any
unfilial individual? When every one regards his father, elder brother, and emperor as himself,
whereto can he direct any unfilial feeling? Will there still be any unaffectionate individual? When
every one regards his younger brother, son, and minister as himself, whereto can he direct any
disaffection? Therefore there will not be any unfilial feeling or disaffection. Will there then be any
thieves and robbers? When every one regards other families as his own family, who will steal? When
every one regards other persons as his own person, who will rob? Therefore there will not be any
thieves or robbers. Will there be mutual disturbance among the houses of the ministers and invasion
among the states of the feudal lords? When every one regards the houses of others as one’s own,
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who will be disturbing? When every one regards the states of others as one’s own, who will invade?
Therefore there will be neither disturbances among the houses of the ministers nor invasion among
the states of the feudal lords.
If every one in the world will love universally; states not attacking one another; houses not
disturbing one another; thieves and robbers becoming extinct; emperor and ministers, fathers and
sons, all being affectionate and filial — if all this comes to pass the world will be orderly. Therefore,
how can the wise man who has charge of governing the empire fail to restrain hate and encourage
love? So, when there is universal love in the world it will be orderly, and when there is mutual hate
in the world it will be disorderly. This is why Mozi insisted on persuading people to love others.
Chapter 2
Mozi said: The purpose of the magnanimous is to be found in procuring benefits for the world and
eliminating its calamities. But what are the benefits of the world and what its calamities? Mozi said:
Mutual attacks among states, mutual usurpation among houses, mutual injuries among individuals;
the lack of grace and loyalty between ruler and ruled, the lack of affection and filial piety between
father and son, the lack of harmony between elder and younger brothers – these are the major
calamities in the world.
But whence did these calamities arise, out of mutual love? Mozi said: They arise out of want of
mutual love. At present feudal lords have learned only to love their own states and not those of
others. Therefore they do not scruple about attacking other states…Therefore all the calamities,
strifes, complaints, and hatred in the world have arisen out of want of mutual love. Therefore the
benevolent disapproved of this want.
Now that there is disapproval, how can we have the condition altered? Mozi said it is to be altered
by the way of universal love and mutual aid. But what is the way of universal love and mutual aid?
Mozi said: It is to regard the state of others as one’s own, the houses of others as one’s own, the
persons of others as one’s self. When feudal lords love one another there will be no more war; when
heads of houses love one another there will be no more mutual usurpation; when individuals love
one another there will be no more mutual injury. When ruler and ruled love each other they will be
gracious and loyal; when father and son love each other they will be affectionate and filial; when
older and younger brothers love each other they will be harmonious. When all the people in the
world love one another, then the strong will not overpower the weak, the many will not oppress the
few, the wealthy will not mock the poor, the honoured will not disdain the humble, and the cunning
will not deceive the simple. And it is all due to mutual love that calamities, strife, complaints, and
hatred are prevented from arising. Therefore the benevolent exalt it.
But the gentlemen of the world would say: “So far so good. It is of course very excellent when love
becomes universal. But it is only a difficult and distant ideal.” Mozi said: This is simply because the
gentlemen of the world do not recognize what is to the benefit of the world, or understand what is
its calamity. Now, to besiege a city, to fight in the fields, or to achieve a name at the cost of death —
these are what men find difficult. Yet when the superior encourages them, the multitude can do
them. Besides, universal love and mutual aid is quite different from these. Whoever loves others is
loved by others; whoever benefits others is benefited by others; whoever hates others is hated by
others; whoever injures others is injured by others. Then, what difficulty is there with it (universal
love)? Only, the ruler fails to embody it in his government and the ordinary man in his conduct.
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…
Nevertheless. the gentlemen in the empire think that, though it would be an excellent thing if love
can be universalized, it is something quite impracticable. It is like carrying Mt. Tai and leaping over
the Ji River. Mozi said: The illustration is a faulty one…But universal love and mutual aid are quite
different from this. And the ancient sage-kings did practise it. How do we know they did? When Yu
was working to bring the Deluge under control, he dug the West River and the Youdou River in the
west in order to let off the water from the Qu, Sun, and Huang Rivers. In the north he built a dam
across the Yuan and Gu Rivers in order to fill the Houzhidi (a basin) and the Huzhi River. Mt.
Dizhu was made use of as a water divide, and a tunnel was dug through Mt. Lungmen. All these
were done to benefit the peoples west of the (Yellow) River and various barbarian tribes, Yan, Dai,
Hu, Ho, of the north. In the east he drained the great Plain and built dykes along the Mengzhu
River. The watercourse was divided into nine canals in order to regulate the water in the east and in
order to benefit the people of the District of Ji. In the south he completed the Yangtze, Han, Huai,
and Ru Rivers. These ran eastward and emptied themselves into the Five Lakes. This was done in
order to benefit the peoples of Jing, Qi, Gan, Yue, and the barbarians of the south. All these are the
deeds of Yu. We can, then, universalize love in conduct…
Therefore Mozi said: If the rulers sincerely desire the empire to be wealthy and dislike to have it
poor, desire to have it orderly and dislike to have it chaotic, they should bring about universal love
and mutual aid. This is the way of the sage-kings and the way to order for the world, and it should
not be neglected.
Chapter 3
Mozi said: The purpose of the magnanimous lies in procuring benefits for the world and eliminating
its calamities. Now among all the current calamities, which are the most important? The attack on
the small states by the large ones, disturbances of the small houses by the large ones, oppression of
the weak by the strong, misuse of the few by the many, deception of the simple by the cunning,
disdain towards the humble by the honoured – these are the misfortunes in the empire. Again, the
lack of grace on the part of the ruler, the lack of loyalty on the part of the minIster, the lack of
affection on the part of the father, the lack of filial piety on the part of the son – these are further
calamities in the empire. Also, the mutual injury and harm which the unscrupulous do to one
another with weapons, poison, water, and fire is still another calamity in the empire. When we come
to think about the cause of all these calamities, how have they arisen? Have they arisen out of love
of others and benefiting others? Of course we should say no. We should say they have arisen out of
hate of others and injuring others. If we should classify one by one all those who hate others and
injure others, should we find them to be universal in love or partial? Of course we should say they
are partial. Now, since partiality against one another is the cause of the major calamities in the
empire, then partiality is wrong.
…
Therefore, universal love is really the way of the sage-kings. It is what gives peace to the rulers and
sustenance to the people. The gentleman would do well to understand and practise universal love;
then he would be gracious as a ruler, loyal as a minister, affectionate as a father, filial as a son,
courteous as an elder brother, and respectful as a younger brother. So, if the gentleman desires to be
a gracious ruler, a loyal minister, an affectionate father, a filial son, a courteous elder brother, and a
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respectful younger brother, universal love must be practised. It is the way of the sage-kings and the
great blessing of the people.
Book 5, Condemnation of Offensive Wars
Chapter 1
Suppose a man enters the orchard of another and steals the other’s peaches and plums. Hearing of it
the public will condemn it; laying hold of him the authorities will punish him. Why? Because he
injures others to profit himself. As to seizing dogs, pigs, chickens, and young pigs from another, it is
even more unrighteous than to steal peaches and plums from his orchard. Why? Because it causes
others to suffer more, and it is more inhumane and criminal…But when it comes to the great attack
of states, they do not know that they should condemn it. On the contrary, they applaud it, calling it
righteous. Can this be said to be knowing the difference between righteousness and
unrighteousness?
The murder of one person is called unrighteous and incurs one death penalty. Following this
argument, the murder of ten persons will be ten times as unrighteous and there should be ten death
penalties; the murder of a hundred persons will be a hundred times as unrighteous and there should
be a hundred death penalties. All the gentlemen of the world know that they should condemn these
things, calling them unrighteous. But when it comes to the great unrighteousness of attacking states,
they do not know that they should condemn it. On the contrary, they applaud it, calling it righteous.
And they are really ignorant of its being unrighteous…Can this be said to be knowing the difference
between the righteous and the unrighteous? Hence we know the gentlemen of the world are
confused about the difference between righteousness and unrighteousness.
Chapter 2
Mozi said: If the rulers of to-day sincerely wish to be careful in condemnation and commendation,
judicious in rewards and punishments, and temperate in government and jurisdiction. Therefore
Mozi said: There is an ancient saying that, when one is not successful in making out plans then
predict the future by the past and learn about the absent from what is present. When one plans like
this then one can be intelligent.
Now, about a country going to war. If it is in winter it will be too cold ; if it is in summer it will be
too hot. So it should be neither in winter nor in summer. If it is in spring it will take people away
from sowing and planting; if it is in autumn it will take people away from reaping and harvesting.
Should they be taken away in either of these seasons, innumerable people would die of hunger and
cold, And, when the army sets out, the bamboo arrows, the feather flags, the house tents, the
armour, the shields, the sword hilts –innumerable quantities of these will break and rot and never
come back…Then, the army will be lost in large numbers or entirely; in either case the number will
be innumerable. And this means the spirits will lose their worshippers, and the number of these will
also be innumerable.
Why then does the government deprive the people of their opportunities and benefits to such a
great extent? It has been answered: “I covet the fame of the victor and the possessions obtainable
through the conquest. So I do it.” Mozi said: But when we consider the victory as such, there is
nothing useful about it. When we consider the possessions obtained through it, it does not even
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make up for the loss. Now about the siege of a city of three li or a guo of seven li — if these could be
obtained without the use of weapons or the killing of lives, it would be all right. But (as a matter of
fact) those killed must be counted by the ten thousand, those widowed or left solitary must be
counted by the thousand, before a city of three li or a guo of seven li could be captured. Moreover
the states of ten thousand chariots now have empty towns to be counted by the thousand, which
can be entered without conquest; and their extensive lands to be counted by the ten thousand (of
mu), which can be cultivated without conquest. So, land is abundant but people are few. Now to
pursue the people to death and aggravate the danger feared by both superiors and subordinates in
order to obtain an empty city — this is to give up what is needed and to treasure what is already in
abundance. Such an undertaking is not in accordance with the interest of the country.
…
Therefore Mozi said: If the rulers now really desire gain and avert loss, desire security and avert
danger, they cannot but condemn offensive wars.
…
Chapter 3
…
Now that the armies are intended for mutual destruction, it is evident…Now the calamity to the
people and the world is tremendous. Yet the rulers enjoy doing it. This means they enjoy injuring
and exterminating the people; is this not perversity?
…
The warring lords would again gloss over (their conduct) with arguments, saying: “(I wage war) not
because I am still discontented with my gold and jade, my children and my land. I want to have my
name as a righteous ruler established in the world and draw the other feudal lords to me with my
virtue.” Mozi said: If there were some one who would establish his righteous name for justice in the
world and draw the feudal lords to him with his virtue, the submission of the whole world to him
could be awaited while standing…When some large state acts unrighteously, he would join in the
sorrow; when some large state attacks some smaller one he would join in the rescue; when the outer
and the inner walls of the city of the small state are in ruin he would demand their repair; when cloth
and grains are exhausted he would supply them; when money and silk are insufficient he would
share his own – to befriend the large state in this way, the large state will be pleased, to befriend the
small state in this way, the small state will be pleased…This is what will benefit the world, yet the
rulers do not understand making use of it: such may be said to be ignorance of the great thing in the
world. Therefore Mozi said: Now if the rulers and the gentlemen of the world sincerely desire to
procure benefits and avert calamities for the world – if they desire to do righteousness and be
superior men, if they desire to strike the way of the sage-kings on the one hand and bless the people
on the other – if so, the doctrine of Condemnation of Offensive War should not be left unheeded.
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Part V. Military Theorists
Sunzi, Sun Bin and Wu Qi memoir
These are short, partial biographies of Sunzi and Wu Qi (as well as a third military leader, Sun Bin),
which appeared in Sima Qian’s Shi ji, compiled during the Han dynasty. Sima Qian records some of
the most poignant anecdotes about their leadership styles and their military victories, including the
famous anecdote about Sunzi’s audition to be a strategist employed by the King of Wu.
Wuzi
While the Warring States period did not see anything like continuous warfare, wars between the
states were sufficiently common, that planning for wars of offense, or shoring up defensive
positions, was integral to statecraft. Military commanders were for some of the state’s critical
officials. And a number of them authored strategy texts. Probably best known is Sunzi’s Art of War
(probably from c. 500 BCE), but a later text the Wuzi, attributed to Wu Qi (440 – 380 BCE), may
have been in wider circulation during the late Warring States period. In addition to a lot of specific
advice to the Warring States’ conflicts, it also integrates Confucian and other philosophical thinking
for leading and governing in a time of war.
Sunzi’s The Art of War
Sunzi’s The Art of War has long been a celebrated military text, and was widely known and discussed
during the later Warring States period. Sunzi is reputed to have been roughly a contemporary of
Confucius. It may be the work of more than one author (or possibly a text originally written by one
individual with additional material added by later commentators). But by the time of the game in 223
BCE, this text already existed in this form.
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“Sunzi, Sun Bin, and Wu Qi” memoir, Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, 5
Sunzi
Sunzi was a native of Qi. He was granted an audience by Helu King of Wu (r. 514-496 B.C.) because
of his arts of war.
Helu said, “I have read all of your thirteen chapters [of The Art of War]. Could you give a small
demonstration of their use in drilling troops?”
“I could,” he replied.
Helu said, “Could you demonstrate them with women?”
“I could,” he said.
At this, Helu granted him permission [to proceed] and had the palace beauties come out, obtaining
180 women. Sunzi divided them into two companies, made the king’s two favorite ladies the
company commanders, and had them all hold up halberds. He issued his orders. “Do you know
where your front, left, right, and rear is?”
The women said, “We do.”
Sunzi said, “When you go forward, face to the front. When you go left, face your left hand. When
you go right, face your right band; When you go back, face behind you.”
The women said, “Yes, sir.”
The standing orders having been proclaimed, be set out axes, then repeated the signals four or five
times. After this, he gave the drum beat for a right tum. The women burst out laughing.
Sunzi said, “When the standing orders are not clear, and the signals not familiar, it is the
commander’s fault.”
Once more, he repeated the signals four or five times, then gave the drum beat for a left tum. Once
more the women burst out laughing.
Sunzi said, “When the standing orders are not clear, and the signals not familiar, it is the
commander’s fault. When they are clear yet are not followed, it is the officers’ fault.”
He prepared to behead the left and right company commanders.
The King of Wu bad been observing from his terrace. When he saw that they were preparing to
behead his favorite ladies he was aghast and hastily dispatched a messenger to pass on his orders.
“We already know you can command troops, general. Without these two ladies, our food will be
tasteless. We prefer you do not behead them.”
Sunzi said, “Your servant bas already received his appointment as commander. ‘When a commander
is in his camp, there will be orders from his sovereign he will not accept.’
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He then beheaded the two company commanders as a warning, made the next in line the company
commanders, and once more beat the drum. When the women went left, right, forward, back, knelt,
and stood, (their movements were as if) marked out by a carpenter’s square, compass, and plumb
line. None dared make a sound. After this, Sunzi sent a messenger to report to the king: “The troops
having been trained, Your Majesty might try coming down to observe them; however Your Majesty
would like to employ them, even marching them through fire and water, could all be done.”
The King of Wu said, “Enough, general. Retire to your hostel, we do not wish come down and
observe.”
Sunzi said, “The king only loves the words, he cannot make use of the reality. After this, Helu knew
that Sunzi could command troops and in the end appointed him commander. [Later when Wu]
defeated mighty Chu to its west and entered its capital Ying [Chu’s old capital], awed Qi and Jin to
its north and spread its fame among the feudal lords, it was due in part to Sunzi.
Sun Bin
More than a hundred years after Sunzi died there was Sun Bin. Bin was born between 0 and Juan.
He was a descendant of Sunzi. Sun Bin once studied the arts of war together with Pang Juan. After
Pang Juan took up service in Wei, he obtained a command under King Hui (r. 370-335 B.C.), but
thought his own ability inferior to Sun Bin’s and secretly had [a man] summon Sun Bin. When Bin
arrived, Pang Juan grew fearful that [Sun] was more worthy than himself. Jealous of him, he bad
both his feet cut off and his face tattooed as punishment by law, hoping [Sun Bin] would retire and
refuse to appear.
An envoy from Qi went to Wei. Sun Bin, since he was a convict who had suffered the punishment
of mutilation, met with the Qi envoy in secret and advised him. The Qi envoy thought him
remarkable and secretly carried [Bin] to Qi with him in his carriage. Qi’s general Tian Ji thought
much of [Sun Bin] and made him his guest. Ji raced horses and gambled heavily with the Noble
Scions of Qi several times. Sun Bin noticed that the horses’ speed was not much different and that
the horses fell into high, middle and low grades. After this, Sun Bin told Tian Ji, “Just bet heavily,
My Lord, and I can make you the winner.”
Tian Ji confidently agreed and bet a thousand chin with King Wei [r. 378-343 B.C.] and the Noble
Scions [of Qi] on a race. Just before the wager Sun Bin said, “Now match their high-grade horses
with your low-grade horses, take your high-grade horses to match their middle-grade horses and take
your middle-grade horses to match their low-grade horses.”
After they raced the three grades [of horses]. Tian Ji lost once but won twice and eventually gained
the king’s thousand chin. After this, Chi presented Sun Bin to King Wei. King Wei questioned him
on the arts of war and made him his counselor.
Some time later, Wei attacked Zhao. Zhao was hard pressed and sought help from Qi. King Wei of
Qi wanted to mate Sun Bin commander but Sun Bin declined: ‘A mutilated criminal will never do.’
[King Wei] then made Tian Ji commander and Sun Bin his counselor.
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[Sun] occupied a wagon where he sat and drew up plans and strategies. Tian Ji wanted to lead the
troops to Zhao. Sun Bin said, “To untangle a snarled mess, one does not raise his fists and to stop a
fight one does not grab or bind. Seize him at his throat and charge him where he is defenseless; his
formations attacked, his power constrained, he will retire of his own accord. [Wei] and Zhao are
attacking each other now; their swift soldiers and picked troops are sure to be exhausted outside [on
the battlefield], their aged and infirm exhausted inside [the cities]. It would be better for My Lord to
lead the troops in a rush to Ta Liang; block its roads and highways, and strike it when still
undefended. Wei is sure to release Zhao and save itself. We would thus in one swoop raise the siege
of Zhao and exhaust Wei.
Tian Ji followed his advice and Wei did indeed leave Han Dan and fought with Qi at Gui Ling. Qi
crushed the [Wei] army.
Thirteen years later, Wei and Zhao attacked Hann. Hann informed Qi of its straits. Qi had Tian Ji
take command and go [to Hann’s rescue]. He rushed straight to Ta Liang. Wei’s commander Pang
Juan heard this, left Hann and returned [to Wei], but Qi’s army had already passed him and
[advanced) west [into Wei].
Sun Bin told Tian Ji, “These troops of Three Jin have always been both fierce and courageous, and
have little regard for Qi, [since) Qi has a name for cowardice. A skilled fighter acts according to the
situation and directs the course of events by offering (the enemy) advantages. According to the arts
of war, ‘when one races after advantage for a hundred li, the commander falls; when one races after
advantage for fifty U, only half the army arrives.’ When Qi’s army enters Wei territory, have them
make cooking fires for a hundred thousand; the next day make fires for fifty thousand, and the day
after make fires for thirty thousand.
On the third day of Pang Juan’s march, [Pang] rejoiced. “I knew Qi’s troops were cowards; three
days after entering our territory, over half their officers and men have fled.” He abandoned his
infantry and covered two days’ distance in one day with lightly armed picked soldiers, pursuing Qi’s
troops. Sun Bin judged that they would reach Ma-ling at dusk. The road through Ma-ling was
narrow and there were numerous barriers on both sides where troops could be hidden. [Sun)
stripped the bark off a great tree and carved on it: “Pang Juan died at the foot of this tree.” After
this he ordered the best archers in Qi’s army to hide along both sides of the road with ten-thousand
crossbows and arranged a signal. “When you see a brand at dusk, fire in concert.”
As he expected, Pang Juan reached the foot of the stripped tree at night, saw the inscription, and
struck a fire to illuminate it. Before he had finished reading Sun’s inscription, the Qi army’s ten-
thousand crossbows all fired at once and Wei’s army was thrown into chaos and confusion. Pang
Juan, realizing that he had been outwitted and his troops defeated, cut his throat: “Now this whelp’s
name is made!”
The Qi army, following up on their victory, crushed Pang’s army, captured Wei’s Heir, Shen, and
returned. Sun Bin’s name was renowned throughout the world because of this; his Sun Bin’s Art of
War [different from Sunzi’s Art of War] is transmitted by the present generation.
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Wu Qi
Wu Qi was a native of [the small state of] Wey. He loved to command troops. He once studied
under Tseng Tzu, [then) served the Lord of Lu. When the men of Qi attacked Lu (408 B.C.), Lu
intended to make Wu Qi its general, but Wu Qi had married a woman of Qi and Lu distrusted him.
Wu Qi wanted to win fame and killed his wife, showing by this that he was not a partisan of Qi. Lu
finally made him general, and he commanded the attack against Qi, crushing its troops.
A man in Lu denounced Wu Qi:
“Qi is by nature a suspicious and ruthless man. When he was young, his family saved up thousands
of chin. He traveled abroad seeking office without success, and beggared his family. His neighbors
laughed at him and Wu Qi killed more than thirty of those who had ridiculed them, then departed
east through the gate of Wey’s outer city wall. When he bade farewell to his mother, he bit his arm
and swore an oath. ‘If I, Qi, do not win high office, I will never again enter Wey.’ After this, be
served Tseng Tzu [as a disciple]. After a short time had passed his mother died, but Qi never went
home. Tseng Tzu was contemptuous of such behavior, and broke off with Qi. Qi then went to [the
capital of] Lu, studied the arts of war, and sought service with the Lord of Lu. When the Lord of Lu
distrusted him, he sought the position of general by killing his wife. Now Lu is a small country, but
having gained fame as a victor in battle, the feudal lords will plot against Lu. Moreover, Lu and Wey
are brother states, but by employing Wu Qi, My Lord abandons Wey.”
The Lord of Lu distrusted Wu Qi and declined [to employ] him.
After this, Wu Qi beard that Marquis Wen of Wei (r. 424-387 B.C.) was worthy and decided to seek
service with him.
Marquis Wen asked Li Ke, “What kind of man is Wu Qi?”
Li Ke said, “Qi is greedy and lecherous, but in commanding troops, even Marshal Jang cannot
surpass him.”
After this, Marquis Wen of Wei made him general and he attacked Qin, taking five walled cities.
As general, Wu Qi wore the same clothes and ate the same food as officers and men of the lowest
rank. When sleeping be did not spread out a mat, and when marching he did not ride a horse or
carriage. He carried his own provisions and shared his officers’ and men’s labors and hardships. One
of his foot soldiers suffered from an abscess; [Wu] Qi sucked it clean for him. When the soldier’s
mother heard this she wailed.
A man said, “Your son is a foot soldier, and the general himself sucked his abscess clean. What are
you wailing for?”
The mother replied, “It is not as you think. Last year Master Wu sucked his father’s abscess clean
and his father fought without turning until he died before the enemy. Now Master Wu has sucked
my son’s abscess clean, too, but I do not know where [my son] will die. This is why I wailed.””
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Because of Wu Qi’s skill in commanding troops, his integrity and impartiality, and his ability to win
his men’s total loyalty, Marquis Wen appointed him Governor of Xi He to resist Qin and Hann.
After the Marquis Wen of Wei died, Qi served his son, the Marquis Wu (r. 386-371 B.C.).
The Marquis Wu floated down the lower Yellow River. In midstream, he turned around and told
Wu Qi, “How beautiful, these mountain and river strongholds! These are the treasures of the state
of Wei!”
Qi replied, “[Its treasures] lie in virtue, not in redoubts. In ancient times The San had Lake [Tung-
t’ing] to his left and Lake Peng Li to his right. He did not cultivate virtue or righteousness, and Yü
destroyed him. The dwelling of Jie of Xia had the Yellow River and the Ji River to its left, Mount [T’
ai-hua] to its right; Mount [Yi-ch’ueh] was to its south and the [Yang-ch’ang] Path was to its north.
Jie practiced government without humanity, and Tang banished him. The capital of [Chow] of Yin
had Mount [Meng-men] to its left, the [T’ai-haog] Mountains to its right. Mount [Ch’ang] was to its
north and the Great Ho [River] passed through its south. He practiced government without virtue,
and King Wu killed him. Judging from this, (the state’s treasures) lie in virtue, not in redoubts. If My
Lord does not cultivate virtue, [even] the people in this boat will go over to your enemies.”
“Well put,” said Marquis Wu said, and enfeoffed Wu Qi.
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Excerpts from Wu zi’s The Book of Wuzi
From Sun Tzu, et al. Military Strategy Classics of Ancient China. Edited by Shawn Conners and
Translated by Chen Song, 2013.
This book is attributed to Wu Qi a 5th c. military strategist.
Part 1. Strengthening the Nation
Introduction:
Wearing the attire of a Confucian scholar, Wu Qi attended an audience with Lord
Wen of Wei to discuss military matters. At the outset the audience, Lord Wen of
Wei announced, “I do not have much interest in military matters.”
Wu Qi replied, “From plain visible facts, I can deduce the hidden. From the past, I
may foretell the future. How can your lordship sincerely say that he has no interest
in this subject?
“All through the four seasons, you have gathered the skins of wild animals, covered
them in lacquer, painted them with colors and embellished them with glistening
images of rhinoceros and elephants. Wearing these in winter does not keep one
warm; wearing them in summer does not keep one cool. Further my Lord has
ordered the making of twelce and twenty four feet long halberds, and has had the
chariots covered in leather. These chariots are not grand and beautiful for
ceremonies. These chariots are not mobile enough for hunting. If they are to be
used for war, I have no idea what use you have for them. Your Lordship, does not
seek capable people who are adept in using them. As such, it is similar to a nesting
hen fighting against the fox, or a puppy fighting a tiger: although they have great
fighting spirit, they will still perish.
“In times past, the Lord of Cheng Sang Clan concentrated on improving domestic
culture and domestic issues but neglected military matters, thereby leading to the
extinction of the state. The Lord of the Yu Hu Clan was belligerent, thus he
concentrated only on military matters and neglected domestic matters. He also led
to his state extinction.
“An enlightened ruler would use such examples to remind himself that he should
tend to both domestic matters and military matters together. It does not count as
righteousness when an enemy attacks and you do not fight back. It does not count
as benevolence if you are only concerned with the lives of your soldiers after they
have been killed.”….
Four Virtues of a Ruler
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Wu Qi said: “The Way is simply the proper manner in which things should be done.
It is the means by which one can return to the foundation and start from the
beginning. Righteousness is simply a matter of ethical behavior. It is a means by
which great accomplishments may be achieved. Strategizing is simply a means of
keeping harm at a distance, and gaining benefits. Principles are simply the means of
preserving duty and maintaining achievements. If one’s behavior is not in accord
with the Way and righteousness, but dwells in magnificence and the enjoyment of
power, disaster will inevitably befall him. Thus the wise ruler will manage the state
according to the Way, managing the state with righteousness, ordering the people
with propriety and ruling the people with benevolence. Cultivating these virtues will
cause the state to flourish; neglecting them will cause the state to decline.
“This was why the people of Xia rejoiced when Shang Tang exterminated Xia Jie,
and why the people did not condemn King Wu of Zhou when he removed King
Zhou from the Yin Shang dynasty. The people saw that these actions were in
accord with proper morals and were the Mandate of Heaven. Thus they achieved
success.
…
Reasons for War
Wu Qi said: “There are five reasons why wars are started : to repair injustice, to win
fame, to seek revenge, to gain wealth and to quell internal strife. The wars that are
fought for these reasons are called: righteous, bully, anger, plundering and contrary
wars.
“The righteous army is raised to save people from disorder and chaos. The bully
army is raised to control, comment and all the people. The anger army is raised by
then intemperate ruler muley from some displeasure. The pondering army is right
raised out of greed to seek profit without consideration for moral and ethics the
contrary army is raised when the state is in turmoil, the mass is exhausted and the
moral of the people has been depleted.
“There are appropriate strategies to counter wars that have been started for these
reasons. In the case of the ‘righteous’, you must use propriety and reason to subdue
them. For the ‘bully’, you must be respectful and even deferential to subdue them .
With the ‘anger’ army, you must use persuasion and patience to seduce them.
Against the plundering army you must use your wits and guile to subdue them.
Against the ‘contrary’, you must confront them firmly and impose your authority to
subdue them.”
Strength in Attack and Defense
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Lord Wu then inquired : “I would like to hear your views on preparing stable battle
formations, making impregnable defenses and gaining certain victory in battle.”
Wu Qi replied: “My methods are more than mere talk; employing my methods will
allow you to see immediate effects. When you have worthy men holding high
positions and relatively less worthy men occupying lower positions, then your battle
formations will be stable. When the people are satisfied with their respective
positions and honor their officials, then the defense will be solid. When the people
support the policies of their government and are not envious of the conditions in
other states, then in battle you are certain to be victorious.”
Chapter 1-Importance of Seeking Talent
There was once a time when Lord was planning state affairs, and found that the advice offered by
his ministers was not equal to his own considerations. After dismissing the court, he wore a pleased
and self-satisfied countenance.
Wu Qi saw this and said: “There was a time when Lord Zhuang of Chu who, who was planning
state affairs with his ministers, discovered that none of his ministers were his equal in intelligence.
After he had dismissed the court, he looked very troubled.
“His chief official, Shen, then asked him: ‘why does your Lordship wear such a trouble
countenance?’ Lord Zhuang replied: ‘I have heard that there is no deficiency of sages at any one
time and there is not a deficiency of talent in any states period to have such as teachers would allow
one to become a King, while having such as friends would allow one to achieve hegemony. Now I
am Not particularly talented, yet none of my ministers are equal to me. Our state is in deep trouble!’
“Lord Zhuang was troubled by this same circumstance but my Lordship seems to be rather proud of
it. This worries me.”
On hearing this, Lord Wu was ashamed.
Chapter 2-Knowing the Enemy
National Alertness
Lord Wu addressed Wu Qi: “In our current situation, the state of Qin threatens us on the West, Chu
intrudes upon us in the South, Chao menaces in the North, Qi trespasses upon us from the East,
Yan endangers our rear and Han jeopardizes our front. Being surrounded by these six states worries
me. We have no choice but to defend against them. What can be done about this precarious
situation?”
Wu Qi said: “In general, vigilance in the face of danger is a true measure of good governance: it is
essential to the security of state. Since you are alert to the danger and have recognized the
importance of being cautious, you have already taken the first step in avoiding disaster period now I
will describe the characteristics of each of the six states.
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…
Six-States Characteristics & Counter Strategies
“Although the Qi people are strong and the country is prosperous, the ruler and officials are
arrogant and do not care about the people. The state policies are not uniform and not strictly
enforced…This causes disharmony and disunity. Although they are numerous, they are not strong.
To defeat them, we should divide our army into three groups … once their battle formations are
thrown into disarray, or central group will be in position to attack and victory will follow.
“The Qin people are a different matter. They are tough and their terrain is treacherous. The Qin
government is well organized. They are strict and their orders are enforced. The people believe in
their states rewards and punishment systems. The Qin troops are brave and have fighting spirit.
They are able to scatter and engage in combat individually. In order to defeat them, we must entice
various groups with small benefits; the greedy will abandon their post to pursue them. We can then
capitalize on this opportunity by hunting each group down individually and then capturing the
generals that have been isolated. Finally, we must array our army to ambush their commander.
“The Chu people are not strong. Their land stretch far and wide, and the government cannot
effectively administer the expanse. Their troops are weary and although their formations are well
ordered, they do not have the resources to maintain their positions for long. In order to defeat them,
we must strike swiftly, unexpectedly and retreat quickly before they can counter attack. This will
create chaos in their formations and reduce their fighting spirit. If we strike repeatedly, it will wear
them out. Thus, with persistence their army can be defeated.
“The Yan are a sincere and straightforward people. They are cautious, love courage and
righteousness and rarely employ deception…incapable of innovation. To defeat them, we must be
unconventional…When they turned to face our attacks, we should keep a distance. When they
withdraw to face another threat, chase them. This will confuse them and create fear in their
ranks…we can capture their generals insure victory.
“The Han and the Zhao are gentle people. Their populations are weary from war and experienced in
arms, but they have little regard for their generals…Although their troops are experienced, they
cannot be expected to fight to the death. To defeat them, we must concentrate large numbers of
troops in our attacks to present them with certain peril… When they retreat, we must pursue and
give them no rest. This will grind them down.”
The enemy you can attack
“in general, there are eight conditions under which one may engage the enemy in battle without
having to make prolonged assessments :
1. When in violent winds and extreme cold, they arise early and embark upon the
march while barely awake, and having to break ice to cross streams.
2. When in the burning hit of summer, they arise late and press forward with haste,
through hunger and thirst, concentrating on reaching far off objectives.
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3. When the army has been out in the fields for an extended period; their food
supplies are exhausted; the people are resentful and angry; numerous baleful
portents arise among the officers unable to squash them.
4. When the army’s resources have already been exhausted; firewood and hay are
scarce; weather is frequently cloudy and rainy; and when if they wanted to plunder
over supplies, there is nowhere to do it.
5. When the number of troops mobilized is not large; the terrain and water not
advantageous; the men and horses are sick and worn out and no assistance is
available from their allies.
6. When the road is far in the sun is setting; the officers and men have labored long
and are fearful; they are tired and have not eaten enough and have just cast aside
their armor.
7. When the generals are weak, the officials irresponsible, the officers and troops are
not solid, the whole armies frequently in fear and the troops lack support
8. When their formations are not yet arranged; their encampment not yet finished or
they are passing through dangerous territory, and only half of their troops are out
of it
The Enemy You Cannot Attack
1. When the land is broad and vast and the people are wealthy and numerous.
2. When the government loves the people and the ruler’s kindness extends and flows to all.
3. When the rewards and punishment system is fair and transparent and is implemented in
a timely fashion
4. When the people are rewarded according to their accomplishment, and the talented and
able are employed.
5. When the forces are massive and well-equipped
6. when they have the assistance of all their neighbors or the support of a powerful state
…
Weaknesses you can Attack
Lord Wu asked “Under what circumstances can one invariably attack the enemy?
Wu Qi replied: “When you know the enemy strengths and weaknesses, these are the situations [that]
give you the opportunity to attack:
1. When the enemy has just arrived on the field andtheir battle formations are not yet properly
formed and deployed, they can be attacked.
2. When they have just eaten and have not yet established their encampment, they can be
attacked.
3. When they are on the move and their formation is in disarray, they can be attacked.
4. When they have labored hard and are exhausted, they can be attacked.
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5. When they have failed to see the advantages of the terrain, they can be attacked.
6. When they have not seized upon the critical timing, they can be attacked.
7. When their flags and banners move about chaotically, they can be attacked.
8. When they have just traveled a great distance, with their supplies and reinforcements having
just arrived, and the troops have not rested, they can be attacked.
9. When they are crossing the River an only half of them have crossed, they can be attacked.
10. When they are on treacherous terrain or narrow roads, they can be attacked.
11. When their formations change frequently, they can be attacked.
12. When the general is distant from his troops, they can be attacked.
13. When they are frightened or afraid, they can be attacked.
…
Part II:
Chapter 2-Responding to Changes in War
When Outnumbered by the Enemy
Lord Wu asked: “What should we do it for troops are unnumbered?”
Wu Qi replied: “You should avoid engaging them on open flat terrain. Instead you should attack
them in narrow quarters. Thus it is said for one to attack ten, a narrow pas is advantageous. For ten
to attack one hundred a deep ravine is superb…Even with superior numbers, they will be startled.
Thus it is said, large numbers of troops are best employed in open flat terrain …
How to win against a strong enemy
Lord Wu asked: “If the enemy forces are numerous, well trained and courageous; …If the enemy is
well fortified and has many crossbows in defensive positions; If they are as steady as a mountain
when they withdraw … this makes them formidable. What can be done?”
Wu Qi replied: “This is a serious problem. An enemy such as this cannot be overcome by force
alone, but only by wise plans. … If the enemy’s strengthen his defenses to stabilize the morale of his
troops, we should send an emissary to inveigh him to surrender. If he listens to our appeals, he will
abandon his position and leave. He does not listen, he will kill our emissary and burn our treaties.
“In this event we should use or five divisions to engage the enemy on five fronts all at once. Should
they attempt to flee, we should not give chase. If we cannot defeat them by sheer force, we should
fail to retreat to entice their troops to give chase. If they should take the bait, we should
counterattack with one division engages their front with another division moving to cut off their
rear while or other two divisions flank them. If our five divisions strike simultaneously, we will
certainly gain the advantage. In this way, we can attack the strong.”
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Excerpts from Sunzi, The Art of War translated by Lionel Giles (1910)
Chapter 1
1. Sun Tzu said: The art of war is of vital importance to the State.
2. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a
subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected.
3. The art of war, then, is governed by five constant factors, to be taken into account in
one’s deliberations, when seeking to determine the conditions obtaining in the field.
4. These are: (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth; (4) The Commander; (5)
Method and discipline.
5. The MORAL LAW causes the people to be in complete accord with their ruler, so
that they will follow him regardless of their lives, undismayed by any danger.
6. HEAVEN signifies night and day, cold and heat, times and seasons.
7. EARTH comprises distances, great and small; danger and security; open ground
and narrow passes; the chances of life and death.
8. The COMMANDER stands for the virtues of wisdom, sincerity, benevolence,
courage and strictness.
9. By METHOD AND DISCIPLINE are to be understood the marshaling of the army
in its proper subdivisions, the graduations of rank among the officers, the
maintenance of roads by which supplies may reach the army, and the control of
military expenditure.
10. These five heads should be familiar to every general: he who knows them will be
victorious; he who knows them not will fail.
11. Therefore, in your deliberations, when seeking to determine the military
conditions, let them be made the basis of a comparison, in this wise:
12. (1) Which of the two sovereigns is imbued with the Moral law? (2) Which of the
two generals has most ability? (3) With whom lie the advantages derived from Heaven
and Earth? (4) On which side is discipline most rigorously enforced? (5) Which army is
stronger? (6) On which side are officers and men more highly trained? (7) In which
army is there the greater constancy both in reward and punishment?
13. By means of these seven considerations I can forecast victory or defeat.
14. The general that hearkens to my counsel and acts upon it, will conquer: let such a
one be retained in command! The general that hearkens not to my counsel nor acts
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upon it, will suffer defeat: let such a one be dismissed!
15. While heeding the profit of my counsel, avail yourself also of any helpful
circumstances over and beyond the ordinary rules.
16. According as circumstances are favorable, one should modify one’s plans.
17. All warfare is based on deception.
18. Hence, when able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must
seem inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away;
when far away, we must make him believe we are near.
19. Hold out baits to entice the enemy. Feign disorder, and crush him.
20. If he is secure at all points, be prepared for him. If he is in superior strength, evade
him.
21. If your opponent is of choleric temper, seek to irritate him. Pretend to be weak, that
he may grow arrogant.
22. If he is taking his ease, give him no rest. If his forces are united, separate them.
23. Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where you are not expected.
24. These military devices, leading to victory, must not be divulged beforehand.
25. Now the general who wins a battle makes many calculations in his temple ere the
battle is fought. The general who loses a battle makes but few calculations
beforehand. Thus do many calculations lead to victory, and few calculations to defeat:
how much more no calculation at all! It is by attention to this point that I can foresee
who is likely to win or lose.
Chapter 2: Waging War
1. Sun Tzu said: In the operations of war, where there are in the field a thousand
swift chariots, as many heavy chariots, and a hundred thousand mail-clad soldiers,
with provisions enough to carry them a thousand LI, the expenditure at home and at
the front, including entertainment of guests, small items such as glue and paint, and
sums spent on chariots and armor, will reach the total of a thousand ounces of silver
per day. Such is the cost of raising an army of 100,000 men.
5.Thus, though we have heard of stupid haste in war, cleverness has never been seen
associated with long delays.
6. There is no instance of a country having benefited from prolonged warfare.
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7. It is only one who is thoroughly acquainted with the evils of war that can
thoroughly understand the profitable way of carrying it on.
9. Bring war material with you from home, but forage on the enemy. Thus the army
will have food enough for its needs.
11. On the other hand, the proximity of an army causes prices to go up; and high
prices cause the people’s substance to be drained away.
13, 14. With this loss of substance and exhaustion of strength, the homes of the
people will be stripped bare, and three-tenths of their income will be dissipated;
while government expenses for broken chariots, worn-out horses, breast-plates and
helmets, bows and arrows, spears and shields, protective mantles, draught-oxen and
heavy wagons, will amount to four-tenths of its total revenue.
15. Hence a wise general makes a point of foraging on the enemy. One cartload of the
enemy’s provisions is equivalent to twenty of one’s own, and likewise a single PICUL
of his provender is equivalent to twenty from one’s own store.
19. In war, then, let your great object be victory, not lengthy campaigns.
20. Thus it may be known that the leader of armies is the arbiter of the people’s fate,
the man on whom it depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril.
Chapter 3, Attack by Stratagem
1. Sun Tzu said: In the practical art of war, the best thing of all is to take the
enemy’s country whole and intact; to shatter and destroy it is not so good. So, too, it
is better to recapture an army entire than to destroy it, to capture a regiment, a
detachment or a company entire than to destroy them.
2. Hence to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme
excellence consists in breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting.
4. The rule is, not to besiege walled cities if it can possibly be avoided. The
preparation of mantlets, movable shelters, and various implements of war, will take
up three whole months; and the piling up of mounds over against the walls will take
three months more.
6. Therefore the skillful leader subdues the enemy’s troops without any fighting; he
captures their cities without laying siege to them; he overthrows their kingdom
without lengthy operations in the field.
8. It is the rule in war, if our forces are ten to the enemy’s one, to surround him; if
five to one, to attack him; if twice as numerous, to divide our army into two.
9. If equally matched, we can offer battle; if slightly inferior in numbers, we can
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avoid the enemy; if quite unequal in every way, we can flee from him.
10. Hence, though an obstinate fight may be made by a small force, in the end it must
be captured by the larger force.
12. There are three ways in which a ruler can bring misfortune upon his army:
13. (1) By commanding the army to advance or to retreat, being ignorant of the fact
that it cannot obey. This is called hobbling the army.
14. (2) By attempting to govern an army in the same way as he administers a
kingdom, being ignorant of the conditions which obtain in an army. This causes
restlessness in the soldier’s minds.
15. (3) By employing the officers of his army without discrimination, through
ignorance of the military principle of adaptation to circumstances. This shakes the
confidence of the soldiers.
17. Thus we may know that there are five essentials for victory: (1) He will win who
knows when to fight and when not to fight. (2) He will win who knows how to handle
both superior and inferior forces. (3) He will win whose army is animated by the
same spirit throughout all its ranks. (4) He will win who, prepared himself, waits to
take the enemy unprepared. (5) He will win who has military capacity and is not
interfered with by the sovereign.
18. Hence the saying: If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear
the result of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every
victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor
yourself, you will succumb in every battle.
Chapter 4, Tactical Dispositions
1. Sun Tzu said: The good fighters of old first put themselves beyond the possibility
of defeat, and then waited for an opportunity of defeating the enemy.
2. To secure ourselves against defeat lies in our own hands, but the opportunity of
defeating the enemy is provided by the enemy himself.
3. Thus the good fighter is able to secure himself against defeat, but cannot make
certain of defeating the enemy.
4. Hence the saying: One may KNOW how to conquer without being able to DO it.
5. Security against defeat implies defensive tactics; ability to defeat the enemy
means taking the offensive.
6. Standing on the defensive indicates insufficient strength; attacking, a
superabundance of strength.
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8. To see victory only when it is within the ken of the common herd is not the acme
of excellence.
11. What the ancients called a clever fighter is one who not only wins, but excels in
winning with ease.
16. The consummate leader cultivates the moral law, and strictly adheres to method
and discipline; thus it is in his power to control success.
20. The onrush of a conquering force is like the bursting of pent- up waters into a
chasm a thousand fathoms deep.
Chapter 6, Weak Points and Strong
1. Sun Tzu said: Whoever is first in the field and awaits the coming of the enemy,
will be fresh for the fight; whoever is second in the field and has to hasten to battle
will arrive exhausted.
2. Therefore the clever combatant imposes his will on the enemy, but does not allow
the enemy’s will to be imposed on him.
3. By holding out advantages to him, he can cause the enemy to approach of his own
accord; or, by inflicting damage, he can make it impossible for the enemy to draw
near.
6. An army may march great distances without distress, if it marches through
country where the enemy is not.
7. You can be sure of succeeding in your attacks if you only attack places which are
undefended. You can ensure the safety of your defense if you only hold positions that
cannot be attacked.
8. Hence that general is skillful in attack whose opponent does not know what to
defend; and he is skillful in defense whose opponent does not know what to attack.
9. O divine art of subtlety and secrecy! Through you we learn to be invisible,
through you inaudible; and hence we can hold the enemy’s fate in our hands.
16. The spot where we intend to fight must not be made known; for then the enemy
will have to prepare against a possible attack at several different points; and his
forces being thus distributed in many directions, the numbers we shall have to face at
any given point will be proportionately few.
18. Numerical weakness comes from having to prepare against possible attacks;
numerical strength, from compelling our adversary to make these preparations
against us.
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24. Carefully compare the opposing army with your own, so that you may know
where strength is superabundant and where it is deficient.
30. So in war, the way is to avoid what is strong and to strike at what is weak.
Chapter 7, Maneuvering
1. Sun Tzu said: In war, the general receives his commands from the sovereign.
3. After that, comes tactical maneuvering, than which there is nothing more
difficult. The difficulty of tactical maneuvering consists in turning the devious into
the direct, and misfortune into gain.
8. The stronger men will be in front, the jaded ones will fall behind, and on this plan
only one-tenth of your army will reach its destination
12. We cannot enter into alliances until we are acquainted with the designs of our
neighbors.
15. In war, practice dissimulation, and you will succeed.
17. Let your rapidity be that of the wind, your compactness that of the forest.
19. Let your plans be dark and impenetrable as night, and when you move, fall like a
thunderbolt.
22. He will conquer who has learnt the artifice of deviation. Such is the art of
maneuvering.
33. It is a military axiom not to advance uphill against the enemy, nor to oppose him
when he comes downhill.
36. When you surround an army, leave an outlet free. Do not press a desperate foe
too hard.
37. Such is the art of warfare.
Chapter 8, Variations in Tactic
1. Sun Tzu said: In war, the general receives his commands from the sovereign,
collects his army and concentrates his forces.
2. When in difficult country, do not encamp. In country where high roads intersect,
join hands with your allies. Do not linger in dangerously isolated positions. In
hemmed-in situations, you must resort to stratagem. In desperate position, you must
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fight.
7. Hence in the wise leader’s plans, considerations of advantage and of disadvantage
will be blended together. 8.If our expectation of advantage be tempered in this way,
we may succeed in accomplishing the essential part of our schemes.
12. There are five dangerous faults which may affect a general: (1) Recklessness,
which leads to destruction; (2) cowardice, which leads to capture; (3) a hasty temper,
which can be provoked by insults; (4) a delicacy of honor which is sensitive to shame;
(5) over-solicitude for his men, which exposes him to worry and trouble.
13. These are the five besetting sins of a general, ruinous to the conduct of war.
14. When an army is overthrown and its leader slain, the cause will surely be found
among these five dangerous faults. Let them be a subject of meditation.
Chapter 10, Terrain
1. Sun Tzu said: We may distinguish six kinds of terrain, to wit: (1) Accessible
ground; (2) entangling ground; (3) temporizing ground; (4) narrow passes; (5)
precipitous heights; (6) positions at a great distance from the enemy.
2. Ground which can be freely traversed by both sides is called ACCESSIBLE. 3.
With regard to ground of this nature, be before the enemy in occupying the raised
and sunny spots, and carefully guard your line of supplies. Then you will be able to
fight with advantage.
4. Ground which can be abandoned but is hard to re-occupy is called
ENTANGLING.
5. From a position of this sort, if the enemy is unprepared, you may sally forth and
defeat him. But if the enemy is prepared for your coming, and you fail to defeat him,
then, return being impossible, disaster will ensue.
31. Hence the saying: If you know the enemy and know yourself, your victory will not
stand in doubt; if you know Heaven and know Earth, you may make your victory
complete.
Chapter 11, The Nine Situations
1. Sun Tzu said: The art of war recognizes nine varieties of ground: (1) Dispersive
ground; (2) facile ground; (3) contentious ground; (4) open ground; (5) ground of
intersecting highways; (6) serious ground; (7) difficult ground; (8) hemmed-in
ground; (9) desperate ground.
19. Rapidity is the essence of war: take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness, make
your way by unexpected routes, and attack unguarded spots.
20. The following are the principles to be observed by an invading force: The further
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you penetrate into a country, the greater will be the solidarity of your troops, and
thus the defenders will not prevail against you.
21. Make forays in fertile country in order to supply your army with food.
60. Success in warfare is gained by carefully accommodating ourselves to the
enemy’s purpose.
68. At first, then, exhibit the coyness of a maiden, until the enemy gives you an
opening; afterwards emulate the rapidity of a running hare, and it will be too late for
the enemy to oppose you.
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Part VI. Chinese Poetry
Book of Odes
These are the oldest recorded Chinese poems, many of which are to the period before and during
the Spring and Autumn period (771 to 476 BCE), with some possibly dating from the 10th c. BCE.
The selected poems here are ones that deal more explicitly with governance, leadership, and politics,
in the period before Confucius. Although the politics of this period were surpassed during the
Warring States period, it was exactly from this era that Confucius and many others looked for
inspiration. These poems thus remained well known during the Warring States period, and The Book
of Odes is considered one of the five classics of Confucian thinking.
The Chuci
These are poems from Chu, a collection of many poems, also known as Elegies of Chu. Traditionally
the authorship of many was ascribed to Qu Yuan, a Chu official who advocated that Chu form a
vertical alliance in opposition to the Qin. Most modern authors doubt that he authored many (or
even any) of these poems. Regardless, they remain a major source for understanding the culture and
religion of Chu state, which had distinct traditions from the Chinese states in the north.
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Excerpts from the Book of Odes Translated by L. Cranmer-Byng, 1908
KING’S MESSENGER
GALLOPING, galloping, gallant steed;
Six reins slackened and dull with sweat,
Galloping, galloping still we speed,
Seeking, counselling, onward set.
Galloping, galloping, piebald steed;
Six reins, silken reins, start and strain,
Galloping, galloping, still we speed,
News—what news—from the King’s domain.
Galloping, galloping, white and black;
Six reins glossy and flaked with foam,
Galloping, galloping, look not back!
On for the King—for the King we roam.
Galloping, galloping, dappled grey;
Six reins true to the hand alone,
Galloping, galloping, night and day,
Seeking, questioning, galloping, gone!
FLIGHT
COLD and keen the north wind blows,
Silent falls the shroud of snows.
You who gave me your heart
Let us join hands and depart!
Is this a time for delay?
Now, while we may,
Let us away.
Wailingly the north wind goes,
Wailing through a whirl of snows.
You who gave me your heart
Let us join hands and depart!
Is this a time for delay?
Now, while we may,
Let us away.
Only the lonely fox is red,
Black but the crow-flight overhead.
You who gave me your heart,
The chariot creaks to depart,
Is this a time for delay?
Now, while we may,
Let us away.
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THE SLANDERERS
THE blue flies buzz upon the wing,
From fence to fence they wander;
O happy King! O courteous King!
Give heed to no man’s slander.
The noisy blue flies rumble round,
Upon the gum-trees lighting;
A tongue of evil hath no bound,
And sets the realm a-fighting.
The clumsy blue flies buzzing round
Upon the hazels blunder;
O cursèd tongue that knows no bound,
And sets us two asunder.
LOVE AND THE MAGISTRATE
WHEN the great carriage rumbles by,
I see him in his robes of state,
Calm, pitiless, sedate.
Man of the cold far-piercing eye,
O but I long for you,
Right for you, wrong for you,
Naught could keep us apart,
But the cold eye reading my heart.
When the great carriage rumbles on,
In robes of state carnation red
I see the man of dread,
Bright gleaming robes and glance of stone,
O then I long for you,
Right for you, wrong for you,
Naught could keep us apart
But the cold eye reading my heart.
Together we may never bide,
Nor you and me one roof contain,
But death shall not divide;
The same close grave shall wed the twain.
Say! am I cold to you?
Nay! I will hold to you,
By the bright sun I swear,
O my life, my love, my despair.
CITY OF CHOW [ZHOU]
Modern transliteration has been added in brackets.
COLD from the spring the waters pass
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Over the waving pampas grass.
All night long in dream I lie,
Ah me! ah me! to awake and sigh—
Sigh for the City of Chow [Zhou].
Cold from the spring the rising flood
Covers the tangled southernwood.
All night long in dream I lie,
Ah me! ah me! to awake and sigh—
Sigh for the City of Chow [Zhou].
Cold from its source the stream meanders,
Darkly down through the oleanders.
All night long in dream I lie,
Ah me! ah me! to awake and sigh—
Sigh for the City of Chow [Zhou].
THROUGH EASTERN GATES
THROUGH eastern gates I wandered far,
Where cloud-like beauties thronged the way;
Although like clouds their faces are,
My thoughts among them would not stay.
She in rough silk and kerchief blue
Gave me the only joy I knew.
I wandered by the curtain tower,
Like flowering rushes were the maids;
Although they match the rushes’ flower,
Soon from my mind their beauty fades.
In humble silk and madder dye,
She fills my heart with ecstasy.
THE PRINCES
THEY gather the beans, gather the beans,
In their baskets square and round:
The princes all are coming to court,
And where shall their gifts be found?
The coaches of state and their teams go by,
What more for my lords have I?
Dark coloured robes with a dragon fine,
And silken skirts with the hatchet sign.
Clear bubbles the spring, bubbles the spring,
Around they gather the cress:
The princes all are coming to court,
Their banners the winds caress.
The dragon flag in the breezes swells,
To the hwuy-hwuy sound of the bells.
With two outside, the teams go past,
These are the princes come at last.
Red covers the knee, covers the knee:
Their buskins are red below.
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Lofty bearing and stately mien,
Yonder my princes go.
In such the Son of Heaven delights,
The king shall renew their rights.
May the pleasure and power for my lords increase,
May the land yield corn and the years bring peace.
BULWARKS OF EMPIRE
GOOD men are bulwarks; while the multitudes
Are walls that ring the land; great states are screens;
Each family a buttress; the pursuit
Of righteousness secures repose; like towers
Of strong defence the royal kinsmen stand
Immune from peril. May they still remain
Nor leave the king, a lonely citadel
Abandoned to his enemies.
Give heed
Unto the wrath of Heaven! nor presume
To idle; but revere the Heavenly moods,
Ephemeral though they seem. Be not of those
That roam at random. Heaven understands
And doth companion all the ways we go,
And seeth all things clearly…
GOOD KING WU
IN the city of Haou he built his hall,
With circling waters round the wall:
From north to south, from east to west
There was never a tongue but called him blest.
Great King Wu was a monarch true.
With divination deep, I trow,
Afar he sought the sight of Haou.
With tortoise-shell the site he chose,
And tier by tier the city rose.
Great King Wu was a monarch true.
By the waters of Fung white millet grew.
Statesmen wise were the choice of Wu,
The future reaped whate’er he planned;
His son was lord of a grateful land.
Good King Wu was a monarch true.
UNAVAILING
HE stabs me with a scornful smile.
Winds are wailing at the door.
Scornful words and whispers vile,
Ye have thrust me to the core.
Whirling dust the northwind blows.
Surely he will seek his mate!
But he neither comes nor goes,
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Through the long dumb hours that wait.
Blew the wind and veiled the sky;
One hour’s gleam, then clouds again.
Sleep went trailing softly by,
Left me to the old dull pain.
Clouds across the darkness sweep,
Thunder rolls its monotone.
Who shall put my heart to sleep?
Heart that aches, and aches alone.
https://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/boo/index.htm
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https://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/boo/index.htm
Excerpts from The Chuci
Excerpts from Jiuge: Nine Songs
…
The Lord in the Clouds
After the thoroughwort bath, her hair washed in fragrant herbs,
In robes of many colors, hung with galangal,
A shaman dances writhing—the god already within her,
His aura spreading in rays clear, unending.
Yes, he will take his ease in the Temple of Longevity,
Paired with sun or moon, his light as bright.
Driving a dragon chariot, dressed in the colors of the Sky Lords,
He soars now, wandering everywhere,
For as soon as the spirit descends in his splendor,
He rushes away, rising into the clouds,
Looking down on us in Jizhou and beyond,
For he goes where he pleases over four seas—what limit has he?
Lord of our yearning, we sigh long sighs,
Our hearts worn out by sorrow after sorrow.
…
The Lady of the Xiang River
The son of a Sky Lord descends on North Islet.
I narrow my eyes to see him—it saddens me.
In light gusts comes the autumn breeze,
Waters of Lake Dongting ripple under leaf fall,
I climb a hill of white sedge to let my gaze run free.
We promised to meet, the splendid one and I,
to raise a tent for our nighttime.
But why would a bird perch on floating duckweed?
Why would a fisherman cast his net on a tree?
Fragrant roots grow by the River Yuan, thoroughworts by the Li.
I long for the prince but dare not speak.
I scan the distance. Th ere he is, or is he?
I watch the water flow endless and slow.
What does an elk in an empty courtyard eat?
What does the flood dragon do on the shore?
At dawn I gallop my horses to the high bank
In the evening cross the river to the western strand.
If I hear the splendid one calling me,
I will rush away with him on a leaping chariot.
In the middle of the river we would build a house,
And roof it over with lotus leaves.
Its walls would be of lure leaf, its courtyard of purple cowry,
And we’d sprinkle pepper flowers through all the chambers.
Under cinnamon roof beams and thoroughwort rafters,
And in the angelica bedroom with its magnolia lintels,
We’d hang bed curtains of woven creeping-fi g vines.
And spreading apart the entry drapes of basil,
We’d see mat weights of white jade,
Orchids scattered for fragrance,
A ceiling covered with aromatic roots fastened with cords of asarum,
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A hundred herbs gathered to fill the garden,
And side rooms built for every fragrance.
But they come for him now,
the welcome party of Nine Doubts,
A flock of spirits like a cloud.
My outer robe I throw into the Long River,
My inner robe I drop on the banks of the Li,
And gather galangal on the flat islet
To give to the one far away from me.
Time once gone does not come back,
For the moment I wander far and carefree.
The Great Minister of Life Spans
He:
Open wide the Gates of the Sky,
I ride the dark crowding clouds.
Let the whirlwinds charge ahead,
And hailstones sprinkle the dusty ground.
She:
Th e Lord circles and descends,
Leaping Hollow Mulberry to take me, a woman, for company.
Th e Nine Regions swarm with mortals.
Whose long life or early death depends on me?
He flies high tracing slow rings,
In a chariot of pure qi ,
with yin and yang under his reins.
In reverence and awe I attend on the Lord,
As he guides the Sovereign of the Skies
to the Nine Mounts,
His spirit robes flowing,
His belt laden with cords of jade.
He:
In all the world of darkness and all the world of light,
Common hearts know not what I do.
I pick the yao gem flower of the spirit hemp,
To give to you who dwell beyond.
She:
Age slow as the gnomon’s shadow is already here,
We grow in time not closer but farther apart.
In a rumbling chariot he drives his dragons,
Galloping high, ramming into the sky.
Long I stand knotting cassia sprigs.
Yes, the more I think of him the sadder I am.
Sadder, but what can I do?
A day like this I wish would never end,
But fate is always fitting.
Whether we meet or part is not for me to say.
…
Mountain Spirit
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There seems to be someone in the mountain hollow
Draped in creeping fi g with pine-gauze sash,
Peering through narrowed eyes, and sweetly smiling too.
“You desire me, for you love my lithe beauty.”
Drawn by red panthers, followed by striped wild cats,
Her magnolia wagon flies a flag of woven cinnamon bark.
Cloaked in orchids, asarum sash around her waist,
She picks the sweetest flowers and herbs to give her love.
“I live deep in a bamboo grove and never see the sky.
Th e road was hard and dangerous—I was the late one.
“I stand on the mountain exposed and alone,
Th e clouds a land of shifting shapes beneath my feet.
Vast is the darkness, yes, daylight benighted—
A breeze from the east, the spirits bring rain.
Stay with me, Spirit Adorned, and find such ease you’ll forget your
home.
Once I am late in years, who will make me flower again?
“I pick the spirit mushrooms in the mountains
Amid rock piles and spreading kudzu.
I am angry, Lord’s son, so hurt I forget I have a home.
You long for me, but find no time.
“We in the mountains love the fragrance of galangal,
We find drink in stone springs and shade beneath cypress and pine.
Afraid to act you long for me.
“Thunder rolls through rain’s dark veils,
Hear the gray gibbon weep and the black gibbon’s night cry
Against the soughing wind and the whistling trees.
Longing for you, Lord’s son, I suffer in vain.”
…
Other Poems:
Summoning the Soul
In my youth I was pure and honest.
I clothed myself in a righteousness whose fragrance did not fade,
And I was secure in this great virtue.
But when the vulgar dragged me through their fi lth,
My sovereign had no way to see this great virtue,
And long were the troubles and bitter pain I endured . . .
Th e Lord of the Skies told Shaman Yang:
Th ere is someone in the world below
Whom I wish to help.
His dark and bright souls have abandoned his body and scattered.
Find them with divining slips and bring them back.
Shaman Yang answered:
This is the responsibility of the Minister of Dreams.
Your order is difficult for me to follow.
If you insist that I divine and bring his souls back . . .
[The lord interrupted her:]
I fear that if we wait longer, his body shall have withered away
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And returning his souls will be of no use to him.
So Shaman Yang descended into the world and called out:
Come home, bright soul!
You have left your body.
Why wander the four directions,
Leaving your place of enjoyment,
To encounter unlucky things?
Come home, come home!
In the east you will find no haven.
Giants are there, a thousand fathoms tall,
Who seek only souls to snare.
Ten suns rise together there
Making metal flow and boulders melt.
They are used to that there,
But you will surely fall apart.
Come home, come home,
You will find no haven there.
Come home, come home!
In the south you will find no haven.
They scarify foreheads there, and blacken teeth,
And sacrifice human flesh
And use the bones to make a sauce.
Vipers swarm there,
And giant foxes run a thousand miles,
And poison snakes have nine heads there
And move about at uncanny speed.
And the more people they eat the more they want.
Come home, come home!
That is no place to linger long.
Come home, bright soul!
…
In a vastness that never ends.
Come home, come home!
For I fear you’ll suffer injury there.
…
Sympathetic hearts chanting their poems,
Fine the wine drunk and pleasures enjoyed
To delight our departed ancestor.
Come home, bright soul!
Back to your old abode.
Leaving My Sorrow
I am latter day kin of the god-lord Gaoyang,
My late father, august shade, was the Elder Rong.
When the Grip Stars pointed at the first moon of spring,
On the gengyin day, I descended from the sky.
Th e August Ones, observing and judging my ways at the outset,
revealed in the tortoise shell cracks their fi ne names for me:
They named me True Norm,
Spirit Fair-Share they chose for my cognomen.
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This beauty within is not my all,
I add refinements the eye can see,
I cover myself with lovage and fragrant wild roots,
And braid the autumn thoroughwort for belt charms.
Rapid waters I’ll never outrun, it seems—
Th e years, I fear, will not wait for me.
At dawn on terraced hills I gathered magnolias,
At twilight uprooted slough grass on an islet midriver.
Never idle sun and moon hurry,
Fall goes to spring and spring, to fall.
See the grass and trees fading and shedding,
Fear the twilight of your beautiful ones.
Never weeding, you offer no comfort as they flower,
Why not change such ways?
With thoroughbreds under your reins, you could drive at full gallop,
Come, let me guide your chariot on the road ahead.
Th e sagely purity of the Three Ancient Lords
Was the clear result of various fragrances crowding near,
They intermingled even prickly ash and cassia bark.
What cord did they twine of basil and angelica alone?
Yao and Shun with their staunch integrity,
Found their path by following the Way.
How madly Jie and Djou wandered with their sashes undone,
into dead ends along the side roads.
Consider the fleeting pleasures this cabal enjoys,
on their dark and dangerously narrow road.
Do I quail at the calamity they’ve set there for me?
No. Th at they will overturn your godly chariot—that I fear.
Around it I would run, eye on the road, front and rear,
Till it rolled in the tracks of the ancient kings,
But, Lure Leaf, you do not look to see what I harbor within,
No, trusting slander instead you boil in sudden rage.
I know indeed frank talk brings trouble,
But bear it I will; I can’t stop now.
I point to the Nine Skies, let them be my witness.
Spirit Adorned, all that I do is for you,
(You say: “Let us meet at dusk,” yes, but midway you go up another
road.)
First you give me your promise,
Later regret changes your mind. You avoid me—you have someone
else.
It is not being abandoned I take hard,
It is the ever fickle shifting, Spirit Adorned, that leaves an open
wound.
I grew nine wan of boneset,
I planted one hundred mu of basil,
Kept separate the plots of peonies and loosestrife
And mixed asarum with the scent roots,
Hoping for tall-standing stems and bristling leaves,
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I was willing to wait for the season to reap them.
Why would I grieve if they nonetheless withered?
I’d mourn only if all the fragrant ones changed to weeds
Th e crowd wrangles toward you in their greed,
Seeking and demanding with unslakeable fury.
Yes, each looks within for the rule to measure others
Finding there nothing save a heart hopping with envy.
At full gallop they chase,
Yet it doesn’t worry me,
Old age is on its sun-slow way,
Th at my adornment will never be sung is what I fear.
At sunrise I drink the dew magnolia blossoms shed,
At sunset eat the withered petals of fall chrysanthemums.
As long as beauty is true in my heart and pure at my waist,
What harm is there in looking sallow and gaunt?
I pick dry tree roots to knot together rootstocks of angelica,
On which to string the creeping figs’ fallen flowers.
With straightened cinnamon bark I twist basil into chains,
To twine into long, gleaming ropes of garlic stems and snow
parsley.
Yes, I take as my model adornments of the past,
Not what the vulgar wear now.
Even if they off end the taste of people today,
Gladly I hold to norms Peng and Xian have passed down.
Deeply I sigh, brushing tears away,
Lamenting mortal life’s many hardships.
Despite my love of adornment, they force on me the bridle and bit,
Yes, they vilify me by day, and send me away into the night.
They send me away because of my horse bellyband of basil,
Which I lengthened with the angelica roots I gathered
For this is what my heart loves still,
And I will never regret it, though made to die nine times.
It is your recklessness I resent, Spirit Adorned,
You who never look to see what they hold in their hearts
They, a crowd of women who envy my moth eyebrows,
Singing slanderous songs that call me a slut.
Surely they are the vulgar idea of skilled craftsmen these days,
Who, confronted with compass and try square, place one where
the other should go.
They turn away from ink string to follow the crooks in the wood,
And judge others on how well they shift shapes to conform.
Though I am anxious, choked with sorrow, reeling in despair,
Alone, and at a dead end in these times,
I’d rather drop dead and thereby escape—
Such postures I could not bear to assume.
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The buzzard does not flock,
It has always been so.
How can round and square congrue?
With strangers on a strange path what safety have you?
Those who curb the heart and repress the will,
Who endure the rebukes and take the insults home in a bag,
Yet prostrate themselves before the pure, and die for what is right,
Surely they were most honored by the sages of old.
Regretting I did not watch the road more carefully,
I stop and stand a long time—but now I am going back,
Turning my chariot around, retracing my tracks,
Before I find myself too far lost.
I walk my horse slowly through the Thoroughwort Marshes,
Then gallop to rest in the Pepper Hills.
If I approached they would abuse me, shutting me out,
So I’ll reteat to fashion anew the things I used to wear—
I make a jacket of water-chestnut leaves,
And pick lotus flowers to fashion a robe.
If they think me worthless, let it be,
As long as the heart within me is truly fragrant.
My tottering headdress I’ll make taller,
My motley dragging sashes, longer,
Adding fragrant plants that mix with mire,
But never lose their luster.
Suddenly turning, I let my eyes wander.
I will go and look as far as the Four Wilds,
Waist bristling with luxuriant adornments,
Their fragrance overpowering, wafting everywhere.
Everyone knows from birth what brings them delight.
I, loving adornment alone, make it my constant.
Though they dismembered my body, that would not change.
How could that chasten a heart such as mine?
Sister Nü Xu, bewildered,
Chided me again and again,
Saying, “Gun being stubborn was heedless of his own welfare,
And wound up dead in the Feather Mountain wilds.
“So how is it that you, lover of adornment, speak the unadorned truth?
You alone bear this tangle of beautiful trappings;
Th e others fill our house with puncture vine, hairy joint grass, and
Cocklebur.
Yet here you stand, conspicuous and lonely, refusing to wear
them.
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“There are too many, you cannot explain yourself door to door,
Who among them cares to look inside our hearts?
They’re a generation of side-by-sides on the rise, loving their little
gang,
How can you be so lofty and aloof that you won’t listen even to me?”
“Better to look to the sages of long ago to fairly judge my case,”
I thought, sighing with sinking heart that it had come to this.
Crossing the Yuan and Xiang Rivers I journeyed south,
And when I reached Chonghua, I laid my case before him:
“When Lord Qi let them hear the Nine Variations and Nine Songs,
Th e House of Xia gave itself to untethered pleasure.
He ignored, as he plotted the future, the oncoming disaster,
As his five sons waged war within his own house.
“In his zest for the fields, Bowman Yi grew addicted to hunting,
Th e giant foxes, his favorite game.
Good endings are rare for the depraved and reckless—
But Zhuo made it worse when he debauched the bowman’s
wife.
“Ao wore the toughest armor on his chest,
but could not curb his lust once he freed the reins.
In the daily revel he lost himself,
And then his head fell off and hit the ground.
“King Jie’s perversions,
Ended in catastrophe for the royal house of Xia.
Lord Xin dissected and pickled his ministers in vats of brine,
And thus cut short the Yin royal line.
“Kings Tang and Yu were majestic and reverent.
Th e House of Zhou found their path by choosing the Way.
Elevating the worthy, employing the able,
They cut along the ink string’s line and never strayed.
“Th e August Heavens have no favorites.
Where they see someone of virtue there they send their help.
Only the sagely and wise strive to do likewise,
If they win sway over these lands below.
“Look to the past, turn your eyes to the future,
Keep in view the ultimate purpose of anyone’s plan!
Who can be employed who is unprincipled?
What can be worn that is not fine?
“Standing close to the cliff ’s edge I risk death,
But looking back at how we began I have no regrets.
Cutting the haft before measuring the socket
Was always why the Adorned of old wound up in brine.”
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Sigh over sob, gagging on grief,
Lamenting the unfitness of my times,
I raised the soft basil to brush away snivel and tears
Th at wave over wave soaked my robe’s lapels.
I was kneeling, robe skirts outspread, stating my case,
When in a blaze of light I received his verdict as follows:
Riding a motley shade bird, hitched to a jade dragon quadriga,
I’m suddenly journeying upward on a dust-flown wind.
I set forth in the morning from Cangwu,
And by nightfall reach the Hovering Gardens.
And would linger awhile near the Spirit Doors,
But the sun is on its way down.
So I order Xihe to slow her chariot’s pace,
And keep her eye on Yanzi Mountain, but linger far away,
For on and on the road stretches far,
where I’ll search high and low.
I water my horse at the Xian Pool
Tie its reins to the fusang tree,
Break off Ruo-tree branches to brush the sun dry,
And for a moment wander free and easy.
Ahead I send Wangshu, the moon’s charioteer, as my herald,
Behind, Feilian, the Wind God, to serve as rear guard.
Male simurghs are my forerunners,
And the Lord of Th under will warn me of the unforeseen.
Then I make my phoenix bird soar higher,
Without stopping, through day and night.
Now the Whirlwind mustering his entourage,
Comes to receive me, leading clouds and rainbows.
The clouds, a great confusion of many shapes, some parting, some
merging—
The rainbows, above and below, luminous colors in long arching
bands.
I order the gateman of the Sky Lord to open the Sky Gates,
But leaning against them he stares at me distantly.
Long I wait, as the darkening hours close the day,
knotting hidden boneset fl owers.
(Chonghua seemed to be saying, People in these times having muddied
the waters make no distinctions,
All envy and jealousy, they set barriers in the way of the beautiful.)
Morning, I am about to cross the White Waters,
And climb Langfeng Peak to tether my horses.
Not long after looking around, my tears are streaming,
I am grieving there are no women on this high peak,
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When suddenly, here I am, wandering in this Palace of Spring.
I break off branches from the jade tree to add to my belt charms.
Before the blooming flowers fall,
I will seek to give them to a deserving woman on a lower plane.
I order Fenglong, Lord of Th under, to ride a cloud,
To find the place where Consort Fu dwells.
I unknot my ornate belt for an engagement gift,
And order Bell Stones to be my intermediary.
Th e consort is a great confusion of many shapes, some parting, some
merging,
And suddenly perverse and contrary she is diffi cult to move.
In the evening she goes home to spend the night at Qiongshi;
But washes her hair at Weipan in the morning.
Let her keep her beauty, arrogance, and pride,
And amuse herself lewdly in daily revels.
Beautiful indeed she is, but lacks decorum.
Come, let us leave her and look elsewhere.
I look, examining, observing, as far as the four limits,
Wandering over all the sky, and then descend.
I see in the distance the involute majesty of the Jade Tower,
Where I catch sight of the beautiful daughters of Lord Song,
I order the zhen bird to be my go-between.
Th e zhen bird tells me she is no good for such work.
But the male jiu bird cries, “I’ll go,”
Yet, since I despise his deviousness,
My heart swithers in doubt;
I want to go myself, but that is never done.
Th e phoenix soon accepts my gift for the sisters,
But fearing Gao Xin has reached them before me,
It tries to perch far away but there was no place to rest.
So it floats awhile idling adrift.
I might make the two Yao women of Youyu mine
Before Shao Kang marries them,
But my messengers are timid and my go-betweens inept—
I fear their introductions would assure me nothing.
(Chonghua seemed to be saying, People in these times having muddied
the waters envy the worthy,
Setting barriers in the path of the beautiful, their praise goes to the
ugly.)
His inner chamber is deep underground,
Nor will the wise king ever rise from his slumber.
Hiding, to air never, the love in my heart,
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How can I go on like this forever?
I searched for the qiong straw and slips of bamboo,
And had Ling Fen cast them to interpret my vision.
Th e oracle said, “Two beauties will find each other.
Is mate-finding labor for those of true beauty?
“Th ink of the vastness of the Nine Regions,
How could it be there are women here only?”
Ling Fen interpreted: “Force yourself to go far away and have no
doubts;
Why would a seeker of beauty reject you?
“What place is so unique as to have no fragrant herbs?
What is there to cherish in your old home?
A generation reared in darkness whose eyes can’t bear bright light?
Who among them can distinguish good from bad in us?
“Could it be that people are not all the same in their likes and dislikes?
Consider the singular oddity of this cabal—
They wear mugwort, filling their sashes with it,
And deem wild thoroughwort unwearable.
“If their eyes cannot tell one plant from another,
How could they appraise the quality of jade?
They gather dung and soil into scent bags and wear them,
And call Shen pepper unfragrant.”
I wanted to follow Ling Fen’s auspicious oracle,
But my heart swithered in doubt.
Shaman Xian was bound to descend that evening,
So I welcomed her with crossed lapels stuff ed with pepper and
rice.
Her spirit crowd, like a vast canopy, descended over us,
As the spirits of Nine Doubts thronged to welcome her.
Th e Majestic One manifesting her power in blazing light,
Told me why the oracle was auspicious:
She said, “Force yourself to ascend and descend, search high and low,
Till you find someone whose try square is as true as yours.
Tang and Yu earnestly sought their match in others,
And with Zhi and Gao Yao they found harmony.
“As long as they saw one bent on beautifying the heart,
What need had they to send the matchmakers?
Though Yue labored pounding earth walls at Fuyan,
Wu Ding made him his minister and had no doubts.
“Though Lü Wang swung a butcher’s knife at Zhaoge,
When he met Wen of Zhou he managed to rise high.
Translated poems come from: Qu Yuan et al., The Songs of Chu: An Anthology of Ancient Chinese Poetry
(Translations from the Asian Classics), translated by Sukhu Gopal. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017.
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Part VII. Persuaders and Persuasions
Mencius, Master Zou, Chunyu Kun
These are descriptions of a number of famous persuaders, in Sima Qian’s Shi ji. The first section
(labeled Mencius) is about Mencius and some of his contemporary persuaders, who all served
different statesmen. The next section focuses on the interactions between Zou Yan and various
statesmen. It provides a synopsis not only of the Yin-Yang philosophical trend associated with Zou
Yan, but how these ideas influenced kings and other rulers.
The Story of Su Qin (excerpt from Zhan Guo Ce or the Annals of the Warring States)
The Annals of the Warring States is an anthology of essays, persuasions, and anecdotes from diverse
writers, most of which are directly about the politics and war and diplomacy in the Warring States.
There are 497 sections. Modern scholars have questioned the historical accuracy of these stories,
although many of the individuals, places (and some of the events) are known to us through other
sources. Authorship, or at least the compilation of the texts, was long attributed to the persuader
and political advisor Su Qin (380 – 284 BCE), although that has never been confirmed. Some
scholars have argued that the historical accuracy of the text is beside the point, and that its various
sections were meant to serve as model persuasions for aspiring sages. It does appear likely that they
were copied and circulated in part as textbook examples of how philosophers and sages could
persuade statesmen to follow a certain course of action. The excerpted section is the story of Su Qin
(Su Ch’in the text), and his development of the horizontal and vertical alliance strategies. It starts
with his effort to convince the then king of Qin to form a horizontal alliance with a number of other
states. After failing to do so, he travels to Zhao state (rendered here as Chao), where he develops the
vertical alliance of states opposed to the Qin.
Book of Qi (excerpts from Zhan Guo Ce or the Annals of the Warring States)
The state of Qi was the dominant state political, militarily, and culturally in the northeast of China.
Qi state was widely admired for its astute (and sometimes devious) political leadership, and because
it’s capital city Linzi had the famous Jixia Academy, which was an important center for scholarship
and trained many persuaders of numerous different philosophical trends, Qi political philosophy was
famed throughout China. The included excerpts are from the collection of stories about the Warring
States celebrating Qi prowess.
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“Mencius, Master Zou, and Chunyu Kun,” Memoir, 14
Mencius
Mencius was a native of Zou. He received instruction from a disciple of Master Si. After he had
mastered the Way, he went abroad and served King Xuan of Qi (r. 342-324 B.C.). King Xuan was
unable to use him and he went to Liang. King Hui of Wei [Liang] did not think his speech fruitful.
He was thought of as impractical and removed from the reality of events.
At this time Qin employed the Lord of Shang to enrich the state and strengthen its forces. Chu and
Wei used Wu Qi to win battles and weaken their enemies. King Wei (r. ~378-324 B.C.) and King
Xuan of Qi used people like Sunzi and Tian Ji and the feudal lords faced east and paid homage to
Qi. The world was caught up in alliances and counter-alliances and thought attacks and expeditions
worthy affairs. Yet Mencius laid out the virtues of Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun and the Three
Dynasties. Thus wherever he went he did not fit in. He retired and together with disciples such as
Wan Jang discussed the Odes and Documents and laid out the ideas of Confucius, composing Mencius
in seven sections.
After Mencius, there were men like the Masters Zou.
Master Zou
There were three “Master Zou’s” in Qi. The first of these was Zou Ji, who sought favor with King
Wei by plucking his zither. He rose to the government of the state, was enfeoffed as the Marquis of
Ch’eng, and received the prime minister’s seal. He was prior to Mencius.
The next of these was Zou Yan (305-240 B.C.), who was after Mencius. Zou Yan saw that those
who possessed states had become even more dissolute und were unable to exalt virtue, while those
who possessed great refinement had put their virtue in order and extended it to the black-haired
common folk. He therefore carefully observed the growth and decay of the yin and yang and wrote
of the strange and uncanny in essays like “Ends and Beginnings” and “The Great Sage” in over
100,000 characters.
His words were transcendent and unconventional. He was sure to first illustrate them through small
things, extending these to larger things, reaching finally to infinity. He first narrated what was
current, then reached back to The Huang-ti, from whom all scholars derive their methodology, and
[narrated] the rise and fall of many generations. Accordingly, he recorded a system for interpreting
omens, and inferred [from it] far back to before the birth of Heaven and Earth into darkness too
remote to trace [otherwise].
He first ranked the famous mountains and the great rivers of the Central Region, the birds and
beasts of the deep valleys, the things produced by water and earth, and the species and objects
people held precious. Based on these he went on to things which were beyond the seas and which
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man could not behold. He described from the splitting of Heaven and Earth, the ways the Five
Essences revolve, how during each era there was a government appropriate to [each revolution], and
how human response to the heavenly omens should also be appropriate to [each revolution]. He
thought that the Central Region which scholars spoke of occupied just one of the eighty-one parts
of the world. The Central Region he called “The Sacred Township of the Red County.” The “Sacred
Township of the Red County” itself contained nine lands, the nine which Yu ordered, but these
could not be counted as lands. Outside the Central Region there were nine places like “The Sacred
Township of the Red Country” and these were what be called the “nine lands.” There was a small
ocean around each of them and men and animals could not travel between them, each located as if
placed in the midst of a sphere. There were nine places like these and then a great ocean
surrounding them. Heaven and Earth met there. His methods were all like this. But in summing up
his intents he was sure to turn to humanity, righteousness, frugality, and the six relationships of lord
and vassal, superior and inferior. In the beginning he was wild, that was all. When kings, nobles, and
great men first saw his method, they were amazed and turned to his teaching, but afterwards we.re
not able to carry it out.
Thus Master Zou was honored in Qi. When he went to Wei, King Hui met him in the suburbs,
[condescending to treat him) on an equal footing as would normal host and guest. When he went to
Zhao, the Lord of Ping-yuan [escorted him in] walking sideways and dusted off his mat. When he
went to Yan, King Zhao (r. 311-279 B.C.) went before him holding a broom and asked to be ranked
among the seats of his disciples and reinstruction. [King Zhao] built Chieh-shih Residence where he
went and attended on Zou Yan as Master. He wrote “The Dominant Cosmic Influence.” Such was
the respect and honor he received when he traveled among the feudal lords, different indeed from
Confucius, who grew pale [from hunger] in Chen and Cai and Mencius who was hard pressed in Qi
and Liang!
Thus when King Wu [of Zhou] punished Chow [of Yin] with humanity and righteousness and
became king. Po Yi refused to eat Zhou’s grain despite his hunger. When Duke Ling of Wei (r . 534-
492 B.C.) asked about military formations, Confucius did not answer. When King Hui of Liang
sought counsel on his desire attack Chao, Mencius described the Great King’s departure from Pin.
Was this because they intended to flatter worldly men or placate them promiscuously? Take a square
stick and try to put it in a round hole; will it go in? Some say Yi Yin carried his cauldrons and urged
Tang on to Kingship. Pai-li Hsi fed cows by a can and through him Duke Mu became Hegemon. In
rising, first placate him and then lead him onto the Great Way. As for Zou Yan, although his
teachings were not reliable, perhaps he too had the same intentions as the men with cows and
cauldrons.
Starting from Zou Yan and the teachers by [the) Chi [Gate], men like Chunyu Kun, Shen Tao, Huan
Yuan, Master Chieh, T’ien P’ien and Zou Shih all composed books teaching on matters of [political]
order and disorder with which they sought favor from the rulers of the time. There are too many to
discuss them all.
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Chunyu Kun
Chunyu Kun was a native of Qi. He had broad learning and a strong memory, and did not follow
any school in his studies. In his remonstrances and persuasions, he admired the conduct of Yeo
Ying, but worked hardest at deducing intent and observing expressions.
A retainer presented Kun to King Hui of Wei [or Liang]. King Hui barred his retainers and sat alone
[with him]. He granted audience to him twice, but [Kun] never said a word. King Hui wondered at
this and complained to his retainer: “When you spoke of Master Chunyu Kun, you said Kuan
[Chung] and Yan [Ying] were not his equal. Yet when he appeared before us, we obtained nothing.
Can it be We are not worth speaking to? Why is Ibis?” The retainer told this to Kun. Kun said, “Of
course. When I saw the king the first time, his mind was on the chase. When I saw him again, the
king’s mind was on music and song. Thus I was silent. The retainer reported this to the king. Tee
king was astounded. Alas, Master Chunyu is indeed a sage! When Master Chunyu came the first
time, someone had presented a fine horse. We had not yet seen it when the Master arrived. When
the Master came the next time, someone had presented a singer. Before We had time to listen, the
master arrived again. Although We barred our courtiers, Our private thoughts were indeed on this. lt
is true.” When Kun appeared before the king again, he spoke for three days and three nights without
fatigue. King Hui wished to honor him with the position of a minister. Kun refused and left. Thus
[the king] set him off in a “safe wagon” bitched to four horses, with bundles of fabric, jade rings,
and one-hundred yi of gold. He did not take office for the rest of his life.
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“The Story of Su Qin,” from The Annals of the Warring States, 47
When Su Qin first devised the Horizontal strategy he spoke to King Hui of Qin.
“Your majesty’s state has the wealth of Ba, Shu, and Han Zhong on its west and the steeds of Dai
and the furs of Hu in the north. To the south it is bounded by Mt. Wu and the lands of Qian Zhong
and to the east it is sealed by the peaks of Yao and the canyon of Han Gu. Fat fields, flourishing
people, ten thousand chariots, and a million mettlesome troops; a thousand miles of rich fallow-land
and an abundance laid up within defensible borders-truly an arsenal of nature, the most awesome
state in the world!
“Your majesty’s genius, his people’s multitude, the skill of his riders and chariots and the training of
his troops could regulate the Lords and swallow up the world and you could declare yourself
emperor. I beg your majesty to hold this thought in his mind, for his servant will set forth how this
shall be fulfilled.”
“We have heard it said,” replied the king, “‘First fledge pinions then fly aloft, first gentle your nature
then punish crime, first deepen virtue then bid your people act, first be conversant with good rule
then importune great ministers.’ You, sir, have come to my court with stem purpose, reckoning the
great distance as nothing, and I would hear your instruction on another day.”
“I doubt your majesty’s ability to make use of these resources,” said Su Qin. “Yet Shen Nong did
attack the Bu Sui, the Yellow Emperor fought at Zhou Lu and seized Chi You, Yao attacked Huan
Tou, Shun attacked the Three Miao, Yu fought Gong Gong, Tang went against the Xia, King Wen
against Chong, King Wu against Zhou, and Duke Huan of Qi took up arms to become Hegemon of
the whole empire! Indeed, who has not gone to war?
“The hosts of old drove their chariots shaft against shaft but their word was binding and the empire
was as one. Then began alliances of north and south and treaties of east and west though arms and
armor were never put aside. Soon learned pedants embellished their words and the Lords fell into
confusion. A myriad pretexts came to hand—more than any could understand. Statute bred
ordinance and the people learned deceit: edicts multiplied and became murky till the populace knew
not what they stood for: Anxiety vexed low and high; the citizens knew not what to stand by.
Graceful phrases and elegant words kept troops in armor and hands on swords; arguments grew
more specious, robes more impressive and wars more frequent. More clever became the sayings and
less controlled by the land. Tongues were worn off, ears deafened and all remained undone. They
preached righteousness, prated fidelity, but the empire belonged to none.
“Finally rulers rejected the literate and cozened. The warrior who lashed together his breastplate by
day, honed his blade by night, and knew nothing but the battleground. Then gain came unbidden
where they stood and their lands broadened while they sat at ease. The Five Emperors, the Three
Kings, the Five Hegemons, brilliant ruler or sage prince–one and all wished to win provinces, and if
their authority would not do so they did battle to extend their lands. For much land they plied their
armies, for a little they smote with halberds; and when this was done great success attended them.
Therefore let your arms be victorious abroad, let fidelity be strong at home, let those above be
awesome and those below submissive!
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“Today, if you would be pre-eminent among great states, threaten mighty countries, overset enemy
nations, control all within the four seas, make all men your children and the Lords your vassals, you
must do so by force of arms. Today’s rulers, heritors of the past, are heedless of the supreme Way;
they were schooled in confusion and rule in disorder, are bemused by words; besotted with verbiage,
sunk in disputation and smothered with speech . . . and from your majesty’s comments I conclude
that you too will never reach hegemony!”
Ten times Su Qin sent his persuasions to the king of Qin who acted on none. His sable cloak worn
bare, his coffer emptied and his purse exhausted, Su Qin turned homewards with bandaged feet in
grass sandals. With his memorials in a tattered sack, with haggard visage worn and black, with his
frame gaunt and ugly he reached home. Nor did his wife rise from spinning, nor did his sister fan up
the hearth, nor did his parents speak with him.
Su Qin choked and sighed: “No husband to my wife, no brother to my sister, no child to my
parents–these insults all spring from the country of Qin.”
That night he brought forth his books to the number of some two score boxes and found within
them the Secret Talisman of Tai Gong. Bowed over it he recited the schemes therein, thumbed and
pored to fit and fathom them. If ever he dozed while at study he drew forth a gimlet and stabbed his
thigh till the blood ran off at his heel, and asked, “Where stands the man who persuades a ruler and
will not put forth whatever wealth he has for honor and ministry?”
When a year was passed and his study was complete he said, “Here are persuasions meet for the
rulers of our time!” Thereupon he passed through the Rook and Swallow Gates and got audience in
the Palace of Splendor to persuade the King of Zhao. He spoke to the rhythm of his practiced
gestures and greatly pleased the king of Zhao who thereafter titled him Prince Wu An and gave him
the seal of chief minister.
One hundred armored chariots had he to follow in his retinue, a bolts of brocade silk, of white jade
pieces a hundred pair, and ten ounces of yellow gold.
He aligned the Vertical states and deranged the Horizontal in order to mighty Qin to its knees.
While Su Qin held power in Zhao, all passes were closed to Qin.
And in those times the vastness of the empire, the multitude of its people, the authority of the
powers and princes and the skill of its advisers were all devoted to the plans of Su Qin. Not a dipper
of grain was wasted nor a weapon raised. Not a soldier fought, not a bowstring parted, not a dart
was broken; and the Lords cherished one another. Closer were they than brother is to brother. Thus
it was that “a sage was present and the empire submitted, one man was used all men followed him.”
It is said that “if a man be diligent in ruling he need never be tested in war; if he serve in his own
court he need never serve outside his own marches!”
In the day of Qin’s pre-eminence a daily toll of yellow gold was used to keep the highroads all
agleam with chariots’ brazen hubs and lines of mounted men. But soon all China east of Yao knew
the fame and magnified the state of Zhao.
Su Qin came from the alleys of poverty where homes are holes to courtyard walls, where mats of
mulberry serve for walls and roll up or down on insubstantial hinge-pins, where dwellers cringed to
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cartshafts and bowed to bits and halters. Yet now he traveled throughout China speaking at length
before princes of men, confounding their courtiers, outwitting all others.
While he was on an embassy to the king of Chu, Su Qin’s road took him through Luo Yang. His
family heard the news, swept the hearth and dooryard prepared a banquet and went forth thirty li to
greet him on the highroad. His wife averted her glance in deference and harkened to his every word.
His sister crawled to him and prostrated herself, greeted him in greatest reverence and made
apology.
“Why is my sister now so humble who was once so haughty?” he asked.
“My brother’s estate is lofty and his wealth great,” she replied.
“Alas,” said Su Qin, “in poverty even my parents would not own me; yet in wealth my whole family
stands in awe and fear of me. Then can any man born on earth neglect power and despise wealth?”
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Excerpts modernized from H.S. Bonsall’s translation from Chinese of Zhanguoce/Records from the
Warring States full translation available here: https://lib.hku.hk/bonsall/zhanguoce/index1.html
Book of Qi I–from Zhanguoce vol. 8
8.
When Handan was in difficulties Zhao sought succor from Qi. The Marquis of Tian summoned the great
minister and took counsel with them, saying: “Is it better to deliver Zhao or not to deliver it?’ Zouzi said:
“It is better not to deliver it.” Duangan Lun said: “Not to deliver it will be to our disadvantage.” The
Marquis of Tian said: “How so?” “If the House of Wei annexes Handan what profit will that be to Qi?”
The Marquis of Tian said: “Good” and raised troops, saying: “Encamp in the suburbs of Handan.”
Duangan Lun said: “When your servant was seeking what was profitable and what was not profitable,
this was not (my meaning). If in the rescue of Handan you encamp in its suburbs, Zhao in that case will
not be taken, but Wei will be intact. Therefore the better plan is to make an attack in the South on
Xiangling so as to wear Wei out and when Handan has been taken, avail yourself of the exhaustion of
Wei. In that case Zhao will be broken and Wei will be weak.” Marquis of Tian said: “Good” and raised
troops for an attack in the South on Xiangling. In the seventh month Handan was taken. Qi then availed
itself of Wei’s exhaustion to inflict a great defeat on it at Guiling.”
17.
Zhang Yi was making an alliance for Qin of East and West. He spoke to the King of Qi and said: “Among
the powerful States of the world there is none to surpass Qi. In respect of great ministers, fathers and
brethren (of the Royal Family), great multitudes, wealth and pleasure, there is none to surpass Qi. And
yet those who frame Your Majesty’s policy all speak of what is good for a short time and do not regard
the advantage of then thousand generations. Those in favor of an alliance of North and South who speak
to Your Majesty are sure to say that Qi is a State which has the powerful state of Zhao on the West, has
Han and Wei on the South, and backs on to the sea, that its territory is extensive, its people are
numerous, its weapons are powerful and its soldiers brave, that though there were a hundred Qin they
could no do anything to you. Your Majesty considers what they say but does not look closely to the
facts. Those who advocate an alliance of North and South work together in a clique…Your servant has
heard that Qi fought three battles with Lu and that Ly was three times victorious, but the state was
endangered and ruin followed in the train of the victories. Although it had the reputation of victory it
had the reality of ruin. What was the reason? Qi was great and Ly was small. Now Zhao’s relation with
Qin is like that of Qi with Lu. After the four battles Zhao had lost several hundred thousand men and
Handan was scarcely preserved. Although it had the reputation of victory over Qin, the State was
nevertheless broken. What was the reason? Qin was strong and Zhao was weak.
Now Qin and Chu have intermarried and have become brother states. Han has given Yiyang. Wei
has offered Hewai. Zhao has paid homage at Mengchi surrendering Hejian in its service of Qin. If your
majesty does not serve Qin, Qin will drive Han and Wei to attack the southern lands of Qin, raise all Zhao
to cross Heguan…Linzi and Zhimo will not be Your Majesty’s possessions. If your state is one day
attacked, even though you wish to serve Qin, you will not be able. For this reason, I would that Your
Majesty gave it your mature consideration.
The King of Qi said: “Qi is a mean, remote lace, resting on the eastern sea. I have never heard
what was to the far-reaching advantage to the altars. Now happily you, my distinguished guest, have
instructed me. Allow me to offer my altars in the service of Qin.” He presented to Qin three hundred li
of lands producing fish and salt.
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Book of Qi II–from Zhanguoce vol. 9
7.
Qin attacked Changping in Zhao. Qi and Chu came to the rescue. Qin’s policy was: Qi and Chu are coming
to the rescue of Zhao. If they get on well together we will lead back our troops. If they do not get on well
together we will proceed to attack them.
Zhao had no provisions and asked for grain from Qi, but Qi would not listen. Su Qin spoke to the
King of Qi and said: “You had better listen to them so as to make the army of Qin withdraw. If you do
not listen, the army of Qin will not withdraw, in which case Qin’s plan will have hit the mark and the
plans of Qi and Chu will have gone wrong. Moreover Zhao is a protection of Yan and Qi just as the teeth
have the lips. If the lips are lost the teeth are cold. If today Zhao is ruined, tomorrow ruin will reach to Qi
and Chu. Besides, the rescue of Zhao is an enterprise which ought to be compared with holding up a
leaking jar or pouring water into a scorched cauldron. The rescue of Zhao is a deed of exalted
righteousness. To make the troops of Qin withdraw is an illustrious reputation. In your righteousness
rescue Zhao from ruin. By your prestige make the troops of mighty Qin withdraw. Not to concentrate on
this but to concentrate on gruding grain is a mistaken policy of the State. “
8.
Someone spoke to the King of Qi and said: “Zhou and Han have powerful Qin on the West. They have
Zhao and Wei on the East. Qin is attacking the west of Zhou and Hand. Zhao and Wei do not attack Zhou
and Han because of the harm to themselves if Han is cut up and Zhou is driven back. After Han has
driven back and Zhou has been cut up, Han and Wei also will not avoid having Qin as source of trouble. If
now Qi and Qin attack Zhao and Wei, that also is no different from an attack on Zhou and Han by Zhao
and Wei in response to Qin. If you cause Qi to join in with Qin to attack Zhao and Wei, after Zhao and
Wei have been ruined, when Qin faces East and attacks Qi, how will Qi get from the states? “
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Part VIII. Guanzi
Neiye
This is a old Warring States text, whose title means inner training, or inner cultivation, thought to
have been first written in this form in the 3rd or 4th c. BCE (although possibly with sections originally
older). It is best known for explaining the how to understand and train your spirit (shen), essence
(jing), and your qi (which in this translation is translated as “breath of life”) for the purposes of
linking yourself to the larger universe and the way of the world. It has traditionally been thought of
as either a proto-Daoist or proto-Legalist text, although it makes no reference to any of those
trends, and some have even seen echoes of realist Confucian principles in the work.
Yuan Kuan calendar
This will be of interest to the astrologer and other occultist. It describes a reading/interpretation of a
divination calendar from the Warring States era.
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Neiye (trans. Ricketts)
It is ever so that the essence of things is what gives them life.
Below it gives life to the five grains; above it creates the ranked stars.
When floating between Heaven and earth, we call it the spirit.
When stored in the breast [of a person], we call it the sage.
For this reason, this breath of life
How bright! As if mounting the heavens.
How dark! As if entering an abyss.
How vast! As if residing in the ocean.
How compact! As if residing within itself.
For this reason, this breath of life
Is never to be restrained through physical force,
But may be brought to rest by the Power.
It is never to be summoned by one’s call,
But may be made welcome by the intellect.
Respectfully preserve it and never lose it!
Such is called perfecting the Power.
Power being perfected so that wisdom develops,
All things obtain their fulfilment.
It is ever so that the form of the heart
Is naturally full and naturally replete,
Naturally born and naturally perfected.
It loses [these qualities] through sorrow and happiness,
Joy and anger, desire and profitseeking.
If we are able to get rid of sorrow and happiness,
Joy and anger, desire and profitseeking,
Our hearts will again become complete.
The emotions of the heart are benefited by rest and quiet.
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If there is neither trouble nor confusion, harmoniousness will naturally result.
…
Now forms are fulfilled by means of the ·Way,
Yet men are unable to hold it firmly.
Once it is gone it may not return.
Once it has come it may not remain.
How silent! No one hears its sound.
How compact! It resides, then, in the heart.
How obscure! No one sees its form.
How bounteous! It is born together with me.
Its form cannot be seen, its sound cannot be heard
Yet we may trace its achievements-
Such we call the Way.
It is ever so that the Way has no fixed place,
Yet it will peacefully settle in a good heart.
The heart being quiescent, the breath of life is regular,
And thus the Way may be made to stay.
The Way is never far distant
People must have it in order to be born:
The Way is never detached—
People rely on it for knowledge.
For this reason,
How compact! As if it could be bound together by a cord
How distant! As if exhausting infinity.
The essence of the Way, how can it have intellect or voice?
Cultivate the heart and quiet the intellect.
Thus the Way may be obtained.
The Way cannot be expressed by the mouth,
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Seen by the eye nor heard by the ear.
It is the means to cultivate the heart so as to rectify forms.
Having lost it, men will die;
Having obtained it, they will live.
Having lost it, affairs will fail;
Having obtained it, they will succeed.
It is ever so that the Way has neither roots, nor stalks,
Leaves nor flowers.
Yet what gives life to all things and brings them to perfection
Is termed the Way.
The supreme quality of Heaven is correctness,
Of earth equality,
Of man quiescence.
Spring, autumn, winter, and summer are the seasons of Heaven.
Mountains and river valleys are the limbs of earth.
Joy and anger, taking and giving [underlie] the schemes of man.
For this reason, the sage
Changes with the times yet is not transformed.
He accords with things yet is not moved.
Able to be correct and quiescent,
He is thus able to remain stable.
A stable heart lying within, his ears and eyes are sharp and clear,
His four limbs strong and firm.
And [his heart] thereby becomes the dwelling place of the essence
By essence is meant the essence of the breath of life.
When the breath of life and Way [concur), then there is life.
With life there comes thought;
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With thought, there comes knowledge, and with knowledge, then, comes a stopping point.
It is ever so that if the form of the heart
Acquires excessive knowledge, life is lost.
What enables transformation in unity (yi) with things is called Spirit.
What enables change in unity with affairs is called wisdom.
To transform without altering one’s breadth of life,
To change without altering one’s wisdom,
Only the man of quality who grasps the Unity of Nature (yi) is able to do this!
Since he grasps the Unity of Nature and does not lose it,
He is able to become prince over all things.
The man of quality manipulates things, but is not manipulated by them.
Since he has obtained the principle of the Unity of Nature,
A well-regulated heart lies within,
Well-regulated words issue from his mouth,
And well-regulated affairs are applied to men.
Thus then the world is well regulated.
He obtains the one word and the world submits;
He fixes the one word and the world obeys.
This is the meaning of fairness to all.
If the form is not correct, the Power will not come.
If the self within is not quiescent, the heart will not be well regulated.
When the form is correct and the Power acquired,
The humaneness of Heaven and righteousness of earth
Will bounteously arrive of their own accord.
The ultimate accomplishment of the Spirit-
How brilliant! It knows all things.
Preserve it within
And there will be no miscalculations.
Do not let things confuse the senses.
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Do not let the senses confuse the heart.
This is called obtaining fulfilment within.
…
When the essence exists [within] and gives life naturally,
The outer appearance will then glow.
Being stored internally, it acts as a fountainhead.
How great!
Being peaceful it acts as a wellspring for the breath of life.
So long as the wellspring does not dry up, the four parts of the body then remain firm.
So long as the wellspring is not exhausted, the passages of the nine apertures then remain clear.
Thus it is possible to explore the limits of Heaven and earth and reach all within the four seas.
If within there are no doubts, there will be no calamities without.
If the heart is complete within, the form will be complete without.
Neither encountering the calamities of Heaven nor meeting with harm from men-
We call such a person a sage.
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Yu Kuan calendar
Inner Center
Calendar: Since it is the season when [the number] five is brought into harmony, the prince wears
the color yellow, tastes sweet flavors, and listens to the kung note. He governs with the
harmonizing ether and utilizes the number five. He drinks from the well of the Yellow Ruler and
uses the fire of hairless animals when cooking. His temper is mild and yielding. His activities are
devoted to caring for and nurturing [his people].
As the equable ether [of the element earth] circulates and permeates, all creatures [appropriate to this
season] leave the state of quiescence and their forms acquire markings.
Interpretation: Those who dwelt in emptiness, preserved quiescence, and [were in perfect accord
with] all men and things became sovereigns. Those who adhered to constant standards, perfected
their commands, honored the worthy, and bestowed [ranks and salaries] on the virtuous became
emperors. Those who embodied humaneness, practiced righteousness, gained the adherence of the
loyal, and employed the trustworthy became kings. Those who examined stratagems, made clear the
rules of propriety, selected knights, and sharpened their weapons became lord protectors.
Those who were able to give security to the living, find a resting place for the dead, take care of the
worthy, and form the group of five, [gained] a large population. Those who were trustworthy in
issuing rewards, were discriminating in exacting punishments, gave ranks to the talented and salaries
to the able became strong. Those who kept a record of all [expenditures] and tallied the results, paid
attention to essential [activities], and regulated those that were non-essential became prosperous.
Those who made the laws clear, examined the estimates [of their officials], set up constant
standards, and prepared men of ability achieved a well-ordered government. Those who allotted the
offices in accordance with similarities or differences [in affairs] became secure.
Extend your influence to the people] by means of the moral Way (dao). Care for them with kindness:
Draw them to you with humaneness. Nurture them with righteousness. Requite them with virtue
(te). Bind them with trustworthiness. Receive them with propriety. Harmonize them with music. Set
a time limit for them in affairs. Test them with words. Send them forth with strength. Overawe
them with warnings.
When the first [of the nine bases of government] is set forth, superiors and inferiors will [both] be
able to complete [their affairs). When the second is set forth, there will be no one among the people
who will not be compliant. When the third is set forth, land will be opened up and the government
perfected. When the fourth is set forth, farmers will enjoy leisure time yet the grains will be fruitful.
When the fifth is set forth, [corvee] services may be lightened yet [the government’s] funds will be
plentiful. When the sixth is set forth, fluctuations in affairs may be measured and understood. When
the seventh is set forth, [people from both] outside and inside [the country] may be employed. When
the eighth is set forth, [the prince’s] supremacy will become operative and his prestige established.
When the ninth is set forth, undertakings of the emperor will achieve fruition.
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It is for the ruler of men to preserve the wide application of the nine bases [of government]. It is for
the prime minister to preserve the eight divisions [of office-holders]. It is for the general to preserve
the development of martial attitudes in connection with the seven supremacies. It is for the worthy
to preserve the meticulous examination of the six records. It is for the common people to preserve
unremitting effort toward the five summaries.
There are three ·bases for order and disorder, four relationships between the lowly and honored;
five summaries for becoming rich or poor, six records of flourishing and decay, seven devices for
determining safety or danger, eight obligations which will determine strength or weakness, nine
calculations involved in existence or extinction.
Train yourself in these so they may be promulgated-among the many categories of [government]
offices, [including] all offices having to do with estimates and materials. Kill [your officials] if they
amass [private] wealth. Exhort them to be diligent in improving [the morals of] the masses. Have
two categories [of officials record] all essential [matters]. When spreading beneficence be certain to
examine into the details. When exercising authority be certain to understand the [golden] mean.
The preceding is situated in the central part of the chart.
Inner East
Calendar: In spring, if government [suitable only to] winter is carried out, things will shrivel with
cold. If government [suitable only to] autumn is carried out, there will be thunder. If government
[suitable only to] summer is carried out, [growth] will be stifled [byan excess of the Yang principle].
During the twelve [days] when the ether of earth is coming forth, issue warnings about spring
affairs. During the twelve [days] of the lesser spring season go out to plough. During the twelve
[days] when the ether of Heaven descends, bestow favors. During the twelve [days] when the good
ether arrives, repair the gates. During the twelve [days] of clear brightness, issue prohibitions.
During the twelve [days] of the first spring season, unite the men and women. During the twelve
[days each] of the middle and final spring seasons, carry out the same activities.
Since it is the season when [the number] eight is elevated, the prince wears the color green, tastes
sour flavours, and listens to the chiao note. He governs with the ether of desiccation and utilizes the
number eight. He drinks from the well of the Green Ruler and uses the fire of feathered animals
when cooking. His temper is unrestrained. His activities are devoted to caring for and nurturing [the
people].
As the equable ether [of the element wood] circulates and permeates, all creatures [appropriate to
this season] leave the state of quiescence and their forms acquire markings.
Interpretation: Unite [the people] at home and bring those abroad within your orbit. Then strong
countries will become like members of your family& while weak ones will become dependencies.
When you move, there is no one who will not follow; when you are at rest there is no one who will
not be the same.
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Initiate [affairs] and issue [orders] in accordance with the rules of propriety. Then timeliness and
propriety will certainly be achieved; Be harmonious and agreeable and refrain from perniciousness.
Then the honored and lowly will not engage in litigations. [If these are done] the fluctuations in
seasonal affairs will occur on the proper day.
The preceding is situated on the outer side of the eastern part of the chart.
Inner North
Calendar: In winter, if government [suitable only to] autumn is carried out, there will be fog. If
government [suitable only to] summer is carried out, there will be thunder. If government [suitable
only to] spring is carried out, there will be steamy mists and exudations.
During the twelve [days] of the first cold, complete the punishments. During the twelve [days] of the
lesser winter season, bestow favors. During the twelve [days] of the middle cold, gather [firewood}.
During the twelve [days] of the middle winter season [conduct] the great collection. During the
twelve [days] when the cold arrives, be quiescent. During the [first] twelve [days] of the greater cold,
utilize the Yin principle. During the [last] twelve [days] of the greater cold, [the complete dominance
of the Yin principle] comes to an end. During these three colds, carry out the same activities.
Since it is the season when [the number) six is functioning, the prince wears the color black, tastes
salty flavors, and listens to the chih note. He governs with the Yin ether and utilizes the number six.
He drinks from the well of the Black Ruler and uses the fire of scaly animals when cooking. His
temper is compassionate and kind. His activities are simple and sincere.
As the equable ether [of the element water] circulates and permeates, all creatures [appropriate to
this season] leave the state of quiescence and their forms acquire markings.
Interpretation: The weapons should be completed in grand style. The instructions should be
carried out in minute detail. [The ruler’s] movement and rest should not be recorded; his movements
should not be measured. Issue warnings at [the beginning of] the four seasons, in order to
differentiate [the forms of] life [proper to each]. Distinguish between exports and imports in order
to discriminate [between these two forms of] trade. Make clear [the need for] nurturing life in order
to loosen up those who are stingy. Examine receipts and bequests in order to summarize them.
At the first meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Unless the command comes from
the Dark Emperor, do not embark on a single day of military activity.
At the second meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Nurture the orphaned and old.
Feed the chronically ill and take in widowers and widows.
At the third meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: The land tax shall be five per
cent, the market tax two per cent, and the customs tax one per cent. Do not become deficient in
implements for ploughing and weaving.
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At the fourth meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Build roads. Make your
measurements uniform. Standardize your weights. Do not tax the marshlands and open and close
them according to the seasons.
At the fifth meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: When arranging the regular
sacrificial offerings of spring, autumn, winter, and summer, and the ancient sacrifices to Heaven,
soil, mountains, and rivers, be sure to accord with the proper time.
At the sixth meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Supply the Dark Palace with the
products of your soil and request the four aides to take them for use in ceremonies to the Lord on
High.
At the seventh meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Those who lack propriety in
managing the four branches [of conduct] should be banished to a life of hardship.
At the eighth -meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Those who are not devious in
instituting the four [kinds of] righteousness should be elevated to the Dark Palace to wait upon the
three supreme ministers.
At the ninth meeting of the feudal lords the order was proclaimed: Use as presents [to the court] the
products of your fiefs and possessions of your states.
The great commands of the nine meetings having thereupon been issued, it regularly happened that:
The feudal lords who lived over a thousand li [from court} but within two thousand li came to court
every three years to study the commands.
Every two years their three ministers of state were dispatched to the four aides [of the Zhou king to
receive orders]. Every year a senior great officer on the first day of the first month came [to court] to
review and receive commands from· the three supreme ministers.
Those feudal lords who lived over two thousand li [from the court] but within three thousand li
came to meet every five years to study the commands. Every three years a specially appointed
minister made requests about affairs. Every two years a great officer reported the fortunes or
misfortunes [of his state].
Those feudal lords living further away than three thousand li arrived [at court] once in a generation.
Every ten years the primary heir entered [the court] so as to receive correction [on matters]
concerning propriety and righteousness. Every five years a great officer requested to receive any
changes [in the commands].
[The feudal lords] would install a great officer [in the capital as an official or possibly hostage is
meant] to inquire into the safety of the court. They would present tribute and receive commands.
The preceding is situated on the outer side of the northern part of the chart.
Outer Center
(no calendar detail given)
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Interpretation: Practice by officials is a necessity for victory. Utilization of the proper time is the
keystone for victory. Flexibility is the secret of victory; Practice of righteousness is the principle of
victory. Making terminology accord with actualities is a vital [concern] for victory. Timely division
[of spoils) is an [essential] matter for victory. Investigation [of paces] for attack is a [prerequisite]
activity for victory. Being complete in preparations is the source of victory. Inscrutability is the basis
for victory.
By being sure of your unique prestige, you will be ·victorious. By being sure to calculate your wealth,
you will be victorious. By being sure to ascertain [the enemy’s situation], you will be victorious. By
being sure of the selection of your knights, you will be victorious. By being sure to regulate salaries,
you will be victorious. By being sure of the direction of your expenditures, you will be victorious. By
being sure of guiding principles, you will be victorious. By being sure [to differentiate] between life
and death, success and failure, conformity and non-conformity, reality and emptiness, growth and
decay, you will be victorious.
Be conscientious about essentials when developing tactics. Then the enemy will not be able to
measure them. Be completely conscientious when utilizing your advantages. Then the enemy will not
be able to contend against you. Clarify terminology and publicize their actualities. Then your knights
will be willing to sacrifice their lives. Conduct attacks in an unanticipated manner. Then the knights
will welcome being in your employ. Exchange materials in accordance with the areas [where they are
produced]. Then weapons will be well prepared. Rely upon the able and take advantage of
preparations. Then what you seek will certainly be obtained. In handling [governmental] business,
make clear its basic principles. Then the knights will not be remiss. Do not have a fixed pattern to
your preparations. [Then] you will be flexible in meeting [the enemy].
Listen for the minutest [sound] and you will thereby be able to hear what has not yet come within
bounds. Look for the newest and you will thereby be able to see what has not yet taken form. Think
about the abstruse and you will thereby be able to understand what has not yet begun. Attack [when
the enemy] is in a state of alarm and you will thereby be able to achieve [your objective] without
being detected. Move when [your power] is in the ascendancy and you will thereby be able to gain
their treasure. Establish yourself by means of stratagems and you will thereby be able to realize [your
purpose] with no one able to attack you.
See that the weapons are complete and instructions observed. Then no road or village will be too far
removed. See that orders are examined and instructions widely applied. Then no mountain or river
will be too dangerous. Be single-minded and steadfast. Then you will be able to move freely and be
unrivalled [in battle]. Be careful of your orders and examine the symbols [on your signal flags]. Then
in case of attack you need not wait upon powerful allies. Make clear the necessity for victory. Then
the mild-mannered will become bold, Have no (tricky] techniques for your weapons. Then even the
stupid will [use] them wisely. Attack where [the enemy] is defenseless. Then even the clumsy will
become skilful. Such is the calculation.
Be diligently careful concerning the ten orders. Clearly investigate the nine symbols. .Systematically
practise the ten weapons. Be well practised in the five instructions. Respectfully cultivate the three
means of commands.
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It is necessary to set up a permanent commander. The estimates must necessarily be made
beforehand. Seek for the finest materials in the world. Examine the sharp weapons of the various
artisans. When the weapons have been completed, distinguish the bad from the good through
competitive trials. Collect the martial heroes of the world. Gain possession of the recognized talent
in the world. Move like the wind and rain; issue forth like thunder and lightning.
The preceding is situated in the center of the chart.
[The Yu Kuan calendar contains five additional section describing Inner South, Outer East, Outer
South, Outer West, and Outer North, not included in this excerpt]
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Part IX. Heroes and Anti-Heroes
Li Si memoir
Li Si was, and in the timeline of the game, is, the great Qi persuader and statesman who served
under King Zheng. He was originally from Chu, and studied with Xunzi, before seeking
employment in Qin state. In this excerpt from Sima Qian’s Shi ji, it details not only his life, but his
success in winning the trust of Prince Zheng. The excerpt includes a persuasion he submitted to
Prince Zheng concerning the status of foreigners and foreign ideas in Qin. It is a model persuasion,
and also reveals Li Si’s philosophy (part Xunzi, part Lord Shang, part Han Feizi) as well as his
opposition to Qin’s feudal lords.
Tian Dan
Tian Dan (c. 310 – 250 BCE) was a Qi military commander, who helped Qi restore its power after
being defeated the Yan state, setting the stage for Qi dominance in northeast China in the 3rd c.
BCE. This excerpt from the Shi ji includes the famous flaming oxen stratagem.
The Assassin-Retainers Memoir
The story of Jing Ke, in the assassin retainers chapter of the Shiji, is one the most detailed and vivid
descriptions of the conflict between Qin state and its neighbors in the last few decades of the
Warring States period. The context is the conflict between Qin and Yan state, in particular between
King Zheng of Qin, and the heir-apparent of Yan, known as Dan. Dan and Zheng had known each
other since they were children, as Dan had been a hostage in both Zhao and Qin state, and had
grown-up with Zheng. Dan had managed to flee and returned home to Yan, where he sought ways
to defeat Zheng. Dan offers refuge to a renegade Qin General Fan, further inciting the anger of
Zheng. Dan does not want to turn out Fan, but realizes he has created a knotty political problem by
giving General Fan safe harbor. For advice, Dan turns to his tutor and other persuaders, eventually
being referred to Jing Ke, a philosopher-musician-ruffian who had settled in Yan. Jing Ke develops
an elaborate assassination plan, which includes carrying General Fan’s head to Zheng. And the text
then narrates in great detail the near success of the assassination attempt, by Jing Ke. A coda
narrates a subsequent effort by Jing Ke’s old drinking buddy, Gao Jianli. This is one of the most
beloved stories of the Warring States period, inspiration for numerous plays, books, and films about
King Zheng.
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Li Si memoir, Sima Qian, Grand Historian, 27
Li Si was a native of Shang Cai in Chu. In his youth, when he served as a legal officer in his
commandery, he saw that rats which lived in the privy of the officers’ quarters ate filth and were close to
men and dogs, who often frightened or startled them. When Si entered the granary, he observed that
rats there ate the stored grain, lived under the great room, and knew nothing of the worry of men and
dogs. At this, Li Si sighed and said, “A man’s worthiness or unworthiness, as with rats, rests merely with
where he situates himself.”
Li Si then studied the arts of emperors and kings with His Excellency Xuan. After completing his
studies, judging that the King of Chu was not worth serving, that the Six States [Chu, Qi, Hann, Zhao,
Wei, and Yan] were all weak, and that none of them could provide an opportunity to establish his merit,
he decided to go west into Qin. He bade farewell to His Excellency Xuan: “I have heard that when one
obtains opportunity he cannot be slothful. Now that the “Ten Thousand Chariots are vying with each
other, the travelling [advisors] are masters of affairs. The King of Qin now desires to swallow up the
world and rule with the title of Emperor. This is the time for commoners to gallop forth and the season
of the travelling advisors. To be situated in a mean position and lay no plans, this is catching a deer just
to look at the meat, having a human face, but only being able to walk with difficulty. Thus there is no
greater shame than a mean position, nor deeper grief than destitution. To remain for long in a mean
position or state of destitution, criticizing the world and detesting profit, giving oneself over to non-
activity– such are not the sentiments of a gentleman. Thus I will go west to advise the King of Qin.”
Arriving in Qin just after King Zhuang Xiang (r. 249-247 B.C.) had died, Li Si then sought to become a
Houseman of Lü Bu Wei, Marquis Wen Xin and Prime Minister of Qin. Bu Wei thought him worthy
and appointed him a Gentleman. Li Si was thus able to present his advice.
He advised the King of Qin [i.e. Zheng]: “One who waits on others casts aside his opportunities. One
who accomplishes great deeds does so through seizing flaws and chinks and concluding matters without
mercy. Long ago, when Duke Mu li of Qin (r. 659-621 B.C.) was Hegemon, he never went east to
swallow up the Six States. Why was this? The feudal lords were still numerous and the moral force of
Zhou had not yet decayed. Hence the Five Hegemons arose one after another, but each in his turn
respected the House of Zhou. Since the time of Duke Xiao of Qin (r. 361-338 B.C.), the House of Zhou
has declined, the feudal lords have annexed one another, east of the Pass has become the Six States, and
for six generations Qin has followed through on its victories to control the feudal lords. Today the
feudal lords have submitted to Qin as if they were its commanderies and counties. Qin’s might and your
talent, Great King, like brushing off the top of a kitchen stove, are sufficient to destroy the feudal lords,
to accomplish the imperial enterprise, and to bring unity to the world. This is the chance of ten-
thousand generations! If you are negligent now and do not seize it at once, the feudal lords will regain
their might and join together in alliance; then even though you were as worthy as The Huang Ti, you
could not annex them.”
The King of Qin then appointed Li Si Chief of Scribes, listened to his stratagems, and secretly sent
strategists, carrying gold and jade, to travel about advising the feudal lords. When the famous knights of
the feudal lords could be bribed by material goods, [Qin’s strategists] gained their friendship with rich
gifts; when [the knights] were unwilling, they assassinated them with sharp swords. After [employing
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these] stratagems to alienate rulers and vassals, the King of Qin then sent his able generals following
after them. The King of Qin appointed Li Si a Foreign Excellency.
At this time, a native of [the state of] Hann named Zheng Guo had come as an agent into Qin, [but]
because he constructed a drainage and irrigation canal his status was discovered after a short while. The
clansmen of the House of Qin and the great vassals all said to the King of Qin: “Most of the men of the
feudal lords who come to serve Qin seek to advise or spy on Qin for their own rulers. We ask that you
expel all foreigners.” Li Si was also proposed as one of those to be expelled.
[Li) Si thus submitted a memorial which read:
I have heard that the officials propose to expel foreigners. In my humble opinion this would be
a mistake. Long ago, when Duke Mu [of Qin] sought knights, he won You Yu from the Rong in
the west, obtained Bai Li Xi from Yuan in the east, welcomed Jian Shu from the state of Song,
and attract Pei Bao and Gong sun Zhi from Jin. None of these five gentlemen were born In
Qin, but Duke Mu used them, swallowed up twenty states, and won hegemony over the Western
Jung.
Duke Xiao used the law of Shang Yang to modify usages and change customs. The people
thereby became prosperous and multiplied. The state thereby became wealthy and powerful. The
families of the one hundred cognomens served him with pleasure and the feudal lords submitted
to him in person. [Duke Xiao] captured the forces of Chu and Wei and occupied a territory of
one-thousand li [on a side]. [Thus Qin] has remained powerful until the present day.
King Hui used the stratagems of Chang Yi to take the territory of [San-cb’uan] and swallow Ba
and Shu in the west. He acquired Shang Qun [commandery] In the north and obtained Han
Zhong [commandery] in the south, embraced the Nine Yi, and controlled Yan and Ying. In the
east he held the redoubts of [Ch’eng-kao] and annexed fertile territory. He broke the alliance of
the Six States [i.e. the Vertical Alliance], made them face westward and serve Qin, and his merit
has extended down to the present time.
When King Zhao obtained Fan Sui, he dismissed the Marquis of Jang and expelled the Lord of
[1-):ua-yang]. He strengthened the ruling house and sealed private doors. He nibbled away at the
feudal lords and enabled Qin to accomplish the imperial enterprise.
These four lords all succeeded through using foreigners. Looking at it thus, how have foreigners
betrayed Qin? If in the past these four lords had rejected the foreigners instead of accepting
them, had ignored the knights instead of using them, it would have left the state without the
realities of wealth and profit and Qin without a reputation for might and greatness.
Your Majesty has obtained jade from the Kun Mountains and possesses the treasures of Sui and
Ho, wears the Bright-moon Pearl and girds the [T’ai-o] Sword. You ride the hone [Hsien-li], fly
flags decorated with feathers of the green phoenix, and set up drums made from the skin of the
“divine alligator.” Qin does not produce one of these: treasures, yet Your Majesty enjoys them.
Why is this?
If only things produced by the state of Qin could be used, tben jade rings which glow in the dark
would not ornament the court and rhinoceros horn and ivory objects would not serve as your
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baubles. The women of the states of Cheng and Wey would not fill the rear palaces, and
excellent horses such as the [chüeh-t’i] would not occupy the outer Stables. Copper and tin of
the South would not be used, and pigments of cinnabar and bice from Western Shu would not
be employed.
If that which can be used to ornament the rear palaces, to fill the lower ranks, to please the heart
and mind, and to delight the ear and the eye must be produced in Qin to be acceptable, then
these hairpins inlaid with yuan pearls, earrings with suspended elliptic pearls, clothing made with
fine, plain “0” silk and decorations made of embroidery and brocade would not be offered
before you, and the women of Chao, adapting to custom elegantly, beautiful and ravishing, shy
and retiring, would not stand beside you.
Beating on jugs, tapping on jars, plucking the zither, and striking thigh bones while singing and
crying ‘Woo! Woo!” to delight the ear, this is the true music of Qin. The [many styles] … are the
music of other states. But today [the people of Qin] have abandoned beating on jugs and tapping
on jars and have taken up the “Zheng” and “Wey.” They refuse to pluck the zither and accept
the “Shao” and “Yo.” Why is this so? Simply to enjoy what is before them, to suit their taste.
That is all.
But now it is not so in selecting men. Without asking whether they are suitable or not, without
considering whether they are wrong or right, those who are not from Qin are to be sent away
and those who are foreigners to be expelled. In this case, that given weight is feminine charms
and music or pearls and jade, and that treated lightly is men. This is not the path by which you
may overstride the lands within the seas or rule over the feudal lords.
I have heard it said that if the land is extensive, then grain will be abundant. If the state is large,
then the people will be numerous. If the army is mighty, then the knights will be courageous.
Thus Mount Tai does not decline a clod of earth, and so is able to achieve its greatness. The
rivers and seas do not choose among the tiny streams, and so are able to achieve their depth. A
king does not send off the common people, and so is able to manifest his virtue. For this reason,
when the land was not divided into four quarters and the people not divided into different
states: the four seasons were filled with good things, and the spiritual beings bestowed blessings;
this was the reason that the Five Emperors and Three Kings had no equals.
But now by abandoning the black-haired commoners, you aid enemy states; by sending away the
foreigners you bring achievements to the feudal lords, cause the knights of the world to retreat
and not dare to go west, cause their feet to be hobbled, and not to enter Qin. This is called
‘lending weapons to outlaws and offering provisions to bandits.’
There are many things which though not produced in Qin are still valuable. There are a host of
knights who though not born in Qin still wish to be loyal [to it]. If foreigners are now expelled,
thereby aiding enemy states, and your populace is reduced, thereby increasing your foes’, then
you would debilitate yourself at home and create more resentment with the feudal lords abroad.
To seek in this way to free your state from danger will never do.
The King of Qin then revoked the decree expelling foreigners, restored Li Si’s position, and eventually
adopted his schemes. [His] position reached Commandant of Justice.
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Tian Dan Memoir, Sima Qian, Grand historian, 22
Tian Dan was a distant relative of the Tians of Qi. During the time of King Min (r. ~323-284 B.C.),
Tan was a market clerk in Linzi [capital of Qi], but he remained unrecognized. When the state of
Yan sent Yue Yi to campaign to crush Qi, King Min of Qi fled, shortly after setting up defenses in
the walled city of Qu. As the Yan host pushed deep into Qi to subdue it, Tian Dan fled to Anping,
ordered his clansmen to cut off the ends of their carriage axles, and cover them with iron caps.
Shortly after, the Yan army attacked Anping. When the city walls had been breached, the men of Qi
ran, struggling [to be first] on the roads; as their caps broke off, their chariots collapsed, and they
were taken captive by Yan. Only the clansmen of Tian Dan, because of their iron hubcaps, were able
to get away, setting up defenses to the east at Jimo. Yan then caused all the other cities of Qi to
surrender; only Qu and Jimo did not submit. When the Yan army heard that the King of Qi was in
Qu, it regrouped to attack it. After Nao Qih slew King Min in Qu, [the people of the city] put up a
resolute defense and held off the Yan army for several years without submitting. Yan led their
troops eastward to lay siege to Jimo; the grand master of Jimo came out to battle with them but was
defeated and died. Those within the city walls joined together to choose Tian Dan [to replace him]:
“In the battle of Anping, Tian Dan’s clansmen were able to get away unscathed because of their iron
hubcaps; he is well versed in military strategy.” They made him [their] general and held off Yan from
Jimo.
Shortly thereafter, King Zhao of Yan (r. 311-279 B.C.) passed away and King Hui (r. 278-272 B.C.)
was enthroned. There was bad blood between him and Yue Yi. Tian Dan heard of it and released a
counter-agent to Yan who spread a rumor: “The King of Qi has died, only two walled cities remain
which have not been captured. Yue Yi fears execution and will not venture to return. Ostensibly
attacking Qi, he actually wants to gather the troops, face south and become the King of Qi. Since
the people of Qi do not yet support him, he puts off attacking Jimo and bides his time. The people
of Qi only fear that with the arrival of another general Jimo will be destroyed!” The King of Yan
considered this to be so and sent Chi Jie to replace Yue Yi.
Yue Yi accordingly went over to Chao and the men of Yan, officers and soldiers, were indignant.
And Tian Dan then ordered that the people within the city walls must sacrifice to their ancestors in
their courtyards whenever they ate. The flying birds all hovered and swooped inside the city walls,
before descending to eat [the sacrificial offerings]. The men of Yan marveled over it. Tian Dan
accordingly proclaimed: “A deity is coming down to instruct me.” Then he issued an order to the
people within the city walls: “There will be a divine man to serve as my teacher.” One of the foot
soldiers said, “May I serve as your teacher?” Because of this [question], he turned and ran. Tian Dan
stood up, led him back, sat him facing east, and served him as was appropriate for a teacher. The
soldier said, “I have deceived your lordship. I actually have no abilities.” “Say no more!” Tian Dan
replied. Then he treated him as his teacher. Whenever he issued a command, he referred to the
divine teacher.
He then announced, “My only fear is that the Yan army might cut off the noses of those Qi soldiers
they have taken captive and place them in the front ranks when they give us battle; [if so] Jimo will
be defeated.” The men of Yan heard this and did as he had said. When the people within the city
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walls saw that all those from Qi who had surrendered had lost their noses, they grew angry and more
determined to hold out, only fearing that they would be taken captive. Tan released another agent to
say: “I am afraid that the men of Yan might dig up our grave mounds outside the city walls and
disgrace our ancestors. My heart goes cold at the thought!” The army of Yan dug up all of the grave
tumuli and burned the corpses. The people of Jimo watched from the city walls. They all wept.
Everyone ached to go out to give battle and their anger grew tenfold.
Tian Dan, knowing his troops were ready to be put to use, carried planks and shovels to share the
work with his troops; he placed his wives and concubines among the rank and file, he distributed
food and drink to feed the soldiers. He ordered all his armored troops to hide, and sent the old, the
infirm, the women, and the children up onto the city walls [indefensive positions]. He dispatched an
envoy to negotiate surrender to Yan and the Yan army all shouted huzzahs. Tian Dan also collected
the people’s gold, obtaining more than one-thousand yi, which he ordered the wealthy of Jimo to
send to the Yan general saying: “If Jimo surrenders, we ask that you neither plunder the women nor
the homes of our clans, but leave us in peace!” The Yan general was greatly pleased and granted
their request. From this time on the Yan army became more and more negligent.
Tian Dan then searched everywhere within the city walls, obtaining more than one thousand head of
cattle, outfitted them in red silk, painted them as multi-colored dragons, tied knives to their horns,
poured animal fat onto reeds tied to their tails, and lit the ends. Having cut several dozen holes
through the city walls, he loosed the cattle [through them] at night; five thousand stalwart troops
followed in their wake. As the cattle felt their tails burning, in their fury they rushed towards the Yan
army, and the Yan army became terrified in the dark of night. The torches on the cattle’s tails blazing
brilliantly, the Yan army saw only dragon-like shapes when it looked at [the cattle]; all whom the
cattle ran into were killed or wounded. [Then] the five-thousand men, with bits in their mouths [to
silence them], attacked [the Yan army], others from within the city walls followed them drumming
and shouting; the old and the infirm all struck on bronze vessels to cause a din, a din which shook
heaven and earth. The Yan army was terrified and fled in defeat. The men of Qi then cut down their
general, Chi Jie. As the Yan army fled in disorder, the men of Qi chased and drove the fleeing
[Soldiers]. Every walled city that they passed rebelled against Yan and came over to Tian Dan; the
number of his soldiers swelled daily and he took full advantage of their victories. Yan’s losses
mounted daily until they finally reached the banks of the Ho. Qi’s seventy-odd walled cities were all
restored to Qi. King Xiang (r. 283-265 B.C.) was escorted from Qu and entered Linzi to preside
over the government.
The King of Qi enfeoffed Tian Dan, titling him the Lord of Anping.
His Honor the Grand Scribe says: “Battles are fought according to standard strategies, [but] won by
clever stratagems. Those who are skilled at it can come up with clever stratagems without end.
Clever stratagems and standard strategies in turn give birth to one another and like a ring have no
starting point. At the beginning [the troops] are like a [quiet] maiden to whom the enemy opens its
door. Later they are as [fast as) fleeing hares, so that the enemy has no time to resist. Might this not
be said of Tian Dan?”
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“The Assassin-Retainers,” Sima Qian, Shiji 26
Jing Ke was a native of Wey. His ancestors were natives of Qi. [They] moved to Wey. The natives of
Wey referred to him as Excellency Qing. When he went to Yan, the natives of Yan referred to him
as him as Excellency Jing. He loved reading and swordplay. He spoke on the arts of politics before
Lord YUan of Wey, but Lord YUan failed to employ of him. Later, Qin attacked Wei, established its
Eastern Commandery, and moved the clansmen of Lord YUan of Wey to [Yeh-wang].
During his travels, Jing Ke once stopped in [Yii-tz’u]. He ·discussed swordsmanship with [Kai
Nieh]. [Kai Nieh] became angry and glared at him. Jing Ke left. Someone spoke of summoning His
Excellency Jing again.
Kai Nieh said, “When I discussed swordsmanship with him just now while ago, we had a
disagreement and I glared at him. Try and find him, but he should have left. He wouldn’t dare to
have stayed!” He sent a messenger to [Jing Ke’s] host, but His Excellency Jing had already harnessed
his horses and left [YU-tz’u]. When the messenger returned to report, [Kai Nieh] said, “Of course he
left. I stared him down.”
Jing Ke visited the city of Han-Dan. Lu Goujian played liu-po with Jing Ke and contended for lanes
[on the board]. Lu Goujian became angry and shouted at him. Jing Ke was silent, then fled and
never met with him again.
Having reached Yan, Jing Ke became fond of a dog butcher and a skilled dulcimer player, Gao
Jianli. Jing Ke was fond of wine, and every day he drank with the dog butcher and Gao Jianli in the
marketplace of Yan. After they were well into their cups, Gao Jianli would strike his dulcimer and
Jing Ke would sing in harmony in the middle of the marketplace. They would enjoy themselves, then
after a while they would weep, as if there was no one around. Although Jing Ke associated with
drinkers, he was by nature recondite and fond of reading. In the [states of] the feudal lords to which
he traveled, he established ties to all the worthy, powerful and respected men. When he went to Yan,
venerable Tian Guang, a retired knight of Yan, treated him very well. [Tian] knew that he was not an
average fellow.
After some time had passed, it happened that Dan, the Heir of Yan, who had been a hostage in Qin,
fled back to Yan. Dan, the Heir of Yan, had [also] once been a hostage in Zhao. Zheng, the King of
Qin, was born in Zhao, and in his youth had been very friendly with Dan. When Zheng was
enthroned as king, Dan was a hostage in Qin. But the King of Qin treated him badly, thus he bore
resentment and fled [Qin], returning home. After his return, he sought a way to repay the King of
Qin, but his state was small and his strength insufficient. After this, Qin daily sent troops east of the
mountains, attacking Qi, Chu, and the Three Jin, gradually nibbling away at the feudal lords. When
they were about to reach Yan, the Lord of Yan and his vassals all feared the arrival of disaster. The
Heir Dan was dismayed and questioned his tutor Qu Wu.
Wu replied, “Qin’s lands cover the world and its majesty threatens the clans of Han, Wei, and Zhao.
To the north it has the strongholds of [Kan-Qiian] and [Ku-k’ou] to the south the fertility of the Jing
and Wei [river valleys]; it wields the wealth of Pa and Han; to the right it has the mountains of Lung
and Shu, and to the left the redoubts of the Pass and Yao [Mountain]. Its people are numerous, its
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knights fierce, and it has a surplus of weapons and armor. Should an opportunity for its ambitions
arise, there would be no place secure south of the Long Wall or north of the Yi River. How could
you wish to rub its scales the wrong way just because of your resentment at being humiliated?
“Then what other way is there?” said Dan.
“Let me withdraw and consider it,” he replied.
After some time had passed, the Qin general Fan Wuji offended the King of Qin and fled to Yan.
The Heir took him in and put him in a guesthouse. Qu Wu admonished the Heir:
“This won’t do! The King of Qin’s tyranny and accumulated anger against Yan are enough to chill
the heart. How much more will this be so when he hears where General Fan is? This is called
“throwing down meat to block a hungry tiger’s path.” Such a disaster would be beyond remedy.
Even if you had Kuan Chung and Yan Ying, they could devise no plans for you! I beg you, Heir, to
quickly dispatch General Fan to the Hsiung-nu to eliminate any pretexts [for Qin to attack]. I ask
you to form an alliance with the Three Jin to the west, join in coalition with Qi and Chu to the
south, and come to terms with the Shan-yU in the north; only then can plans be laid.”
The Heir said, “The Grand Tutor’s plan is time-consuming. My heart is impatient and, I fear, cannot
wait even a moment. But the problem does not only lie in this. General Fan, denied shelter by the
entire world, has turned to me. I will never abandon an acquainDance whom I love and pity because
I am pressed by mighty Qin. The day I settle him among the Hsiung-nu, this is surely the day I die. I
hope that you might consider this once more’, “Grand Tutor.”
Qu Wu said, “To risk hazard in pursuit of safety, to invite disaster in pursuit of good fortune, to
make shallow plans yet harbor profound resentment, to maintain a newly formed friendship with a
single man yet ignore a great threat to the royal family and state, this is what is known as ‘ feeding
resentment and aiding disaster’! If you heat a swan feather over stove coals, it will surely soon
disappear. Needless to say [what will happen] if you allow the raptor Qin to vent its cruel and
resentful anger [on us]. Yan has a Venerable Tian Guang, man of deep wisdom and profound
daring. You can consult with him. ”
The Heir said, “I hope that I might make the acquainDance of the Venerable Tian through you,
Grand Tutor. Is this possible?”
Qu Wu said, “I shall respectfully comply.” He left and saw the Venerable Tian, telling him, “The
Heir hopes to consult with you on affairs of state, Venerable Sir.”
“I respectfully receive his instructions,” said Tian Guang, and set out.
The Heir welcomed him, and, walking backwards, led him [to his place], knelt down, bent over, and
dusted off the mat.
When Tian Guang had taken his seat and there were no attendants present, the Heir moved off his
mat and made his request. “Yan and Qin cannot both exist! I hope you might devote your attention
to this.”
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Tian Guang said, “Your servant has heard that a black stallion can gallop a thousand li in one day in
its prime, but a plug can pass it when it is old and feeble. The Heir has heard of my prime and does
not realize that my vigor has vanished. Although this is now the case, and I would not dare to allow
you to consult me on affairs of state, my friend, Excellency Jing, could be employed in this matter.”
The Heir said, “I hope that I might make the acquainDance of His Excellency Jing through you,
Venerable Sir. Is this possible?”
Tian Guang said, “I shall respectfully comply.”
He rose immediately and hastened out. The Heir escorted hiin to the gate and warned him, “What I
have reported to you and what you have spoken of to me are crucial affairs of state, Venerable Sir. I
beg you not to let them be known.”
Tian Guang looked down and laughed. “I shall comply.”
Bowed with age; he set off to see His Excellency Jing. “My friendship with you is known to all in the
capital of Yan, sir. The Heir having heard of my prime, did not realize my frame is failing and
instructed me, saying ‘Yan and Qin cannot both survive, I would hope that you might devote your
attention to this, Venerable Sir.’ ·Presuming upon our friendship, I spoke of you to the Heir,
Honorable Sir. I hope that you might call on him at the palace.”
“I shall carefully receive your instructions,” said Jing Ke.
Tian Guang said, “I have heard that the actions of a man of honor do not cause other men to doubt
him. Today the Heir told me ‘What we have spoken of are crucial affairs of state, I beg you not to let
them be known, Venerable Sir.’ Thus the Heir doubts me. When his actions cause other men to
doubt him, this is no high-principled gallant.
Having decided to stir Jing Ke’s resolve by killing himself, Tian Guang said, “I hope that you will
hasten to call on the Heir, Honorable Sir, and inform him that Guang has died to ensure his
silence.” He then slit his throat and died.
Jing Ke then met with the Heir, told him that Tian Guang had died, and conveyed Guang’s words.
The Heir knelt and bowed twice, raised on’ his haunches and crawled forward on his knees, weeping
until snivel ran from his nose. He spoke only after some time. “The reason I warned Venerable Tian
not to speak was because I hoped that our vital plan might thus succeed. Now Venerable Tian has
ensured his silence with death; how could he have thought this was my intention!”
After Jing Ke was seated, the Heir moved off his mat, and knocked his forehead against the ground:
“Venerable Tian, ignoring my lack of worth, has made it possible for us to meet and to speak. It is in
this way that Heaven takes pity on Yan and refuses to abandon its orphan. ”
“Qin is greedy for profit, its desires can never be satisfied. Not until it has exhausted the world’s
lands, enslaved the world’s kings will it be satisfied. Qin has already captured the King of Han and
appropriated every inch of his land. It has raised troops and attacked Chu in the south and
confronted Zhao in the north. Wang Jian is leading a host of hundreds of thousands to the Chang
[River] and Yeh and Li Hsin has invaded through [T’ai-ylian] and [Yiin-cliung]. Zhao is unable to
160
resist Qin, and is sure to submit as a vassal. When it submits as a vassal, disaster’ is sure to strike
Yan. And when Zhao has gone under, Yan will sDand next in line for disaster!
“Yan is small and weak and has frequently been hard pressed to defend itself. Now I calculate that
mobilizing the entire state we would still be unable to withsDand Qin; the feudal lords have
submitted to Qin and none dare to join an alliance. By my own calculations I foolishly suggested
that if we can obtain the world’s bravest knight for a mission to Qin, and tempt Qin with great
profit, the King of Qin, in his greed, is sure to desire this. If we are then able to seize the King of
Qin and have him return all of the lands he seized from the feudal lords, as Ts’ao Mo did with Duke
Huan of Qi, this would be best of all. If this is not possible, he might seize the opportunity to kill
him. Qin’s great generals are commanding troops abroad and when strife arises at home, ruler and
vassals will doubt each other, allowing the feudal lords to join in alliance and ensuring the defeat of
Qin. This is my greatest hope, but I do not know to whom I might entrust such a mission. May I ask
that you consider this, Excellency Jing?”
After a long pause Jing Ke said, “This is a vital matter of state. Your servant is worn out and inferior
and he fears he would be inadequate to take on such a task.”
The Heir moved forward and knocked his forehead on the ground, imploring him not to decline,
and in the end he agreed. He then made Excellency Jing a Senior Excellency and lodged him in the
upper lodge. The Heir appeared daily at his gate, supplied him with T’ai-/ao offering other rare
objects, and frequently presenting carriages, horses and beautiful women, pandering to Jing Ke’s
every wish, all in order to meet his expectations.
After some time, Jing Ke still showed no signs of setting out. Qin’s general W;mg Jian defeated
Zhao, captured its king, and seized every inch of his entire territory, leading his troops north, seizing
land up to the southern border of Yan. Heir Dan was afraid and implored Jing Ke: “The troops of
Qin will cross the Yi River any day. And when they do, even though I might wish to continue
accompanying you, Honorable Sir, I will not be able to.”
Jing Ke said, “Even if you had not spoken, Heir, your servant would have requested an audience
with you.” If I set off today, without a token of trust, I will be unable to approach [the King of) Qin.
The King of Qin has offered a thousand chin of gold and a manor of ten-thousand households for
General Fan. If I could obtain General Fan’s head and a map of Yan’s Tu-k’ang 1lfft56 to offer to
the King of Qin, the King of Qin is sure to be happy to see me and I will have my opportunity to
repay you.”
The Heir said, “General Fan has come to me in his time of trouble. I could not bear to offend my
elder over my own private affairs. I urge you to reconsider, Honorable Sir!”
“Jing Ke knew that the Heir could not bear [to accept his plan], and saw Fan Wu Qi in private.
“Qin’s treatment of you may be called harsh indeed, General!” “Your parents and kinsmen have all
been killed or enslaved. Now I hear he would buy your head for a thousand chin of gold and a
manor of ten-thousand households. What will you do?”
Fan Wuqi raised his face to the sky, gave a deep sigh, and with tears running down his face, said,
“Each time I think of it, the pain cuts to my marrow! But I have no plan.”
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Jing Ke said, “If I could free the state of Yan from its peril and repay your foe with a single
sentence, how would that be, General?”
Fan Wuqi moved forward and said, “What is it?”
Jing Ke said, “I wish to have the General’s head to offer to the King of Qin. The King of Qin is sure
to be pleased and grant me an audience. With my left hand I will seize his sleeve, with my right hand
I will stab him in the chest, thus the General’s foe will be repaid and Yan’s humiliation will be
erased! Do you have such resolve, General?”
Fan Wuqi bared one shoulder, gripped his wrist, and stepped forward. “Day and night I have
gnashed my teeth and seared my heart for such a plan. At last I have been able to hear of it.” Then
he slit his throat.
When the Heir heard of it, he rushed in, leaned over the corpse, and wailed with the utmost sorrow.
Since nothing more could be done, they put Fan Wuqi’s head in a box and sealed it. Earlier he had
ordered a search for the sharpest dagger that could be found, and had purchased one from a man of
Zhao named Hsii Fu-jen for a hundred chin. He ordered his artisans to coat the blade with poison
and try it out on some men; though the thrust drew hardly enough blood to stain the robe of the
victim, every one of the men dropped dead on the spot. The prince then began to make formal
preparations for sending Master Jing on his mission. There was a. brave man of Yan named Qin
Wuyang who at the age of thirteen had killed someone, and was so fierce that no one dared even to
look at him crossly. This man the prince ordered to act as a second to Jing Ke.
There was a man Jing Ke was waiting for, intending to have him go along. Though this person lived
at a disDance and had not yet arrived, [Jing Ke] .made preparations for him in their journey. Some
time passed, but Jing Ke still did not set off. Thinking that Jing Ke had been delayed and suspecting
that he had changed his mind, the Heir again went to ask [Jing Ke]: “There is no time left. Does His
Excellency Jing still have his mind set on this? I would request to be allowed to send Qin Wuyang
on ahead.”
Jing Ke was angered and roared back at the Heir: “What is this about the Heir sending [Qin Wuyang
ahead]? One who sets off without considering his return is a whelp! Moreover, the reason I am
delayed in carrying a single dagger into the unfathomably mighty Qin is I am waiting for my
colleague who will go along. Now, since Your Majesty thinks I have been delayed, I beg permission
to take my leave.”
Then he set out.
The Heir and those of his retainers who knew of [Jing Ko’s] affairs all wore white robes and caps to
see them off. When they reached the Yi River, after sacrificing and choosing their route, Gao Jianli
plucked his zither and Jing Ke accompanied him in a song in the mournful key of F. Tears streamed
from the down the faces of all the knights. When they came forward [Jing Ke] sang for them:
The wind cries soughs and sighs,
The Yi River is cold.
Once we hearties leave
We’ll never return to our fold!
162
Shifting to the key of A he became more energetic and the eyes of the knights glared and their hair
bristled beneath their caps. At this time Jing Ke mounted his carriage and left off never once looking
back.
When he arrived in Qin he presented gifts worth a thousand chin to the Counselor of the Palace,
Meng Chia, one of the king’s favorite vassals. Meng Chia [then] spoke first on his behalf to the King
of Qin: “The King of Yan, trembling before the majesty of the Great King, has not dared to raise
troops to oppose our armies, but wishes to be allowed to sacrifice at and maintain the temple of his
ancestors, the former kings [of Yan] by offering his state as a vassal to Qin, placing it among the
ranks of the other feudal lords and presenting tribute and labor service like your commanderies and
counties. In his trepidation he has not dared to speak m person, but has respectfully cut off Fang
Wuqi’s head, and with it presents a map of the [Tu-k’ang] region in Yan. After [these things] were
sealed in boxes the King of Yan came forth and bowed respectfully in his courtyard, instructing his
envoy to report [these things] to the Great King. He [now] awaits your orders, Great King.”
When the King of Qin heard this, he was greatly pleased, put on his court robes and had nine-levels
of officials arrayed to receive the envoy of Yan in the Hsien-yang Palace. Jing Ke carried aloft the
box with Fan Wuqi’s head, while Qin Wu-yang bore the case with the map case, advancing one after
the other. When they reached the steps of the throne, Qin Wuyang turned pale and began to
tremble, and the assembled vassals felt it strange. Jing Ke looked at Wuyang and smiled, then
stepped forward to apologize: “This rustic fellow from the northern barbarian tribes has never seen
the Son of Heaven thus he is quaking. I ask that you, Great King, be a little tolerant of him and
allow him to fulfill his mission here before you.”
The king said to Jing Ke: “Get the map Wuyang is carrying!” When Jing Ke took the map and
presented it [to the king], the king unrolled map and at the end the dagger appeared. Accordingly
Jing Ke seized the king’s sleeve with his left hand and with his right he picked up the dagger and
stabbed at his chest. Before [the dagger] reached [its goal], the King of Qin was startled and pulled
himself to his feet, so that his sleeve tore away. He tried to draw his sword, but since it was too long,
he [could only] grasp its scabbard.
Since he was hurried at the time and the sword fit tightly in (its scabbard], he was not able to draw it
immediately. As Jing Ke pursued the King of Qin, the king went around a pillar and ran off. The
assembled vassals were all startled, since this was sudden and unexpected, so that they completely
lost their composure.
According to Qin law, none of the assembled vassals who waited upon the king in the upper hall
were allowed to carry even the smallest weapon. All the palace attendants who carried arms were
arrayed below the hall, and without a royal command they were not able to ascend. In the press of
the moment the king had no chance to command the soldiers below and for this reason Jing Ke was
then able to pursue him. And in their hurried alarm, [the assembled vassals] had nothing with which
to attack Jing Ke, so they joined to strike him with their bare fists. At this time the attending
physician, Hsia Wuji.i, threw the bag of medicine he was carrying at Jing Ke. The king had just
circled the pillar and in his hurried alarm did not know what to do. His attendants then said: “Put
the sword on your back!” When had put it on his back, then he drew it and used it to attack Jing Ke,
cutting open his left thigh. Jing Ke collapsed, then raised his dagger and threw it at the King of Qin,
163
but it missed, hitting the bronze pillar. The King of Qin attacked Jing Ke again and Jing Ke was
wounded eight times. Jing Ke, realizing that his attempt had failed, leaned against a pillar and
laughed; his legs spread before him, he cursed [the king]. “The reason my attempt failed was because
I tried without killing you to exact an agreement that I could take back to the Heir!” At this the
king’s attendants came forward to kill Jing Ke, [but] the king sulked for some time. After a little
while he selected who had won merit [in this] and who among the assembled vassals those present
to reward, but found them all wanting, then presented Hsia Wuji with two hundred yi of gold, saying
“Wu-chti loves me, so he threw his bag of medicine at Jing Ke.”
After this, the King of Qin, in a great rage, sent reinforcements to Zhao and commanded Wang
Jian’s army to attack Yan with them. In the tenth month, they seized [Chi-ch’eng], the King of Yan
(r. 254-222 B.C.), and his Heir, Dan, led their finest troops east and took refuge in [Liao-tu~g]. Qin’s
general Li Xin vigorously pursued and attacked the King of Yan. Jia the King of Dai sent a letter to
Xi, King of Yan. It read:
The reason that Qin pursues you so vigorously, Yan, is because of Heir Dan. If Your
Majesty kills Dan and presents [his head] to the King of Qin, the King of Qin is sure to
release you, and, if you are fortunate, your altars of soil and grain may continue to receive
their blood sacrifices.
Afterwards, when Li Xin was in pursuit of Dan, Dan hid in the Yan River. The King of Yan sent an
envoy to cut off Heir Dan’s head, intending to present it to Qin. Qin sent in more troops to attack
him.
…
Qin then began to pursue the retainers of Heir Dan and Jing Ke and they all fled. Gao Jianli
[drinking partner of Jing Ke] changed his name and became a barkeep for someone, hiding in
Sungtzu. After some time he was sick of his work and whenever he heard a retainer play the
dulcimer in the hall of their house, he would linger, unable to leave, instead frequently muttering
“He’s got that part good, that part bad.” The attendants told their master, “That barkeep knows
music. He criticizes [the musicians]!” The lady of the house had him come forward and play the
dulcimer. Everyone seated there declared him excellent, and he was granted some wine. And Gao
Jianli, mindful of his long hiding and the endless poverty that lay ahead, retired, took out his
dulcimer and his fine clothing from his bag, dressed himself and came forward. The seated guests
were astounded and treated him as their equal, and he was made Senior Retainer. They had him play
the dulcimer and sing and every one of the guests wept before departing. Sung-tzu took turns
hosting him and his renown reached the First Emperor of Qin [i.e. King Zheng]. The First Emperor
of Qin summoned him to an audience and someone recognized him and said, “It’s Gao Jianli!” The
Emperor of Qin was taken with his skill at playing the dulcimer, granted him a great pardon, and
had him blinded with acid. He had him play the dulcimer and all declared him excellent. [The
Emperor] gradually drew closer and closer to him. Gao Jianli put a piece of lead in his dulcimer.
When he was presented again and able to draw closer, he lifted his dulcimer and struck at the
Emperor of Qin, but missed him. [The Emperor] promptly executed Gao Jianli and for the rest of
his life never again allowed the men of the feudal states to draw closer to him.
164
Lu Goujian having heard of Jing Ke’s [attempt] to assassinate the, King of, Qin, said privately, “Alas,
what a shame he did not study carefully the method of assassination with a sword! How profound
has been my failure to undersDand men! When I shouted at him before, he must have thought I was
not [his kind ot] man!”
His Honor the Grand Scribe says: “When our generation speaks of Jing Ke, they claim that the fate
of Heir Dan was [a matter of] “heaven raining grain and horses growing horns.” This is going too
far! They also say that Jing Ke wounded the King of Qin, which is equally false. At first Kung-sun
Chi-kung and Scholar Tung !in studied with Hsia Wu-chti and all these events became known to
them.
From Ts’ao Mo down to Jing Ke, some of these five men were successful and some of them not in
their righteous endeavors. But it is perfectly clear that they had all determined upon the deed. They
did not sell their goals short. How could it be perverse that their names should be handed down to
later generations?”
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Game of Sages game book v4
Game of Sages documents 3.1 (1)
Gameof Sages, Philosophy and Diplomacy in China, 223 BCE Introduction and Schedule
for Online Synchronous Class:
I. List of Roles for the Class:
King Xiong Fuchu and his long-standing advisors and courtiers are indeterminates on the
question of how to reform Chu.
Xiong Fuchu is the king of the state of Chu and he presides over the council, which is
taking place in his capital city. He is responsible for running all sessions. He
has an opening speech, and will be the center of everyone’s attention during
the fifth session, when he must choose how to handle the Qin army.
Li Yuan is an old advisor of King Xiong, who has been tasked with working with
some of the new persuaders to develop a government reform plan. After the
results of the debates are known, and two finalists are announced, Li Yuan
will develop a reform plan based upon one of those faction’s ideas.
Yan Ju is an old advisor to the King of Xiong, previously employed by the State of
Zhao, by now for many years in King Xiong’s court. He has also been tasked
with working with some of the new persuaders to develop a government
reform plan. After the results of the debates are known, and two finalists are
announced, Yan Ju will develop a reform plan based upon one of those
faction’s ideas
Xiang Yan is an old advisor Chu general responsible for some decisive victories
during the last Qin attacks. He in general advocates for an aggressive stand
against the Qin, and is deeply distrustful of outsiders
Liu Biao is military strategist from the former state Wei, which was overrun by the
Qin two years earlier. He is now a Chu military advisor and advocates for
building defenses.
Wu Ai, Chu Shaman who believes that any important decision should be based upon
consultation with nature and ancestral spirits. She will advocate that Chu
respect the old spiritual ways.
Zhao Liying is one of the consorts to the King of Chu, daughter of King Dai of Zhao.
She is well-versed in Confucian philosophy and was the person responsible
for convincing Xiong Fuchu to try to reform Chu.
Qin Wushuang is a travelling musician, entertainer, and courtier, currently
performing in the court of the King of Chu, but originally from Yan state. He
performs a musical entertainment.
Tian Liang is a Qi hostage at the Chu court. He has won the trust of King Xiong and is
now acting as an informal advisor. Tian Liang is a proponent of the
government of Qi.
Li Weizhi, diplomatic expert of the state of Chu. This role will advocate for reform of
Chu so that the northern states of Zhao, Yan and especially Qi have greater
respect for Chu.
Sun Hao is a former general of the Qi state, and a descendant of the famous Qi
military strategist Sun Bin. He ran afoul of the Qi king…and is now in exile
serving as a minor military advisor to the King of Chu.
Li Mei is the former Queen Dowager of the State of Yan. She was forced into exile by
the King of Yan who believed she had too much influence over some of his
minister. She is now in exile in Chu serving as an informal advisor to the King
of Chu and teacher to Zhao Liying.
Yuan Shu is formerly of Zhao state, who knows first-hand the strength of the Qin
military. Zhao has been mostly conquered by Qin. He is temporarily serving
as an advisor to the King of Chu.
Wang Li is an astrologer formerly employed in Zhou. He has the means to develop
calendars which help plan the year.
Wei Ke is a military specialist and the brother of former king of Wei, one of the
states recently defeated and absorbed by the Qin
Ru Trend Persuaders (Confucians):
Meng Nan is a Mencius trend philosopher, from the state of Qi. He is devoted to the
ethical framework of the Mengzi—which emphasis the basic good nature of
all people.
Zhao Kuang is a Xunzi disciple and persuader who studied with Xunzi himself.
Fang Hongjian is a Xunzi trend philosopher, who is a disciple to Zhao Kuang (the
other Xunzi philosopher)
Wen Cheng is a Mencius trend philosopher
Su Nianzu is a former Jixia academician. He believes scholarly discussion and debate
will bring forth a solution.
Naturalist Trend Persuaders:
Zhou Ke is a follower and persuader of the Zhuangzi tradition, one of the classics of
Daoism.
Li Daoling is a Daoist philosopher, who uses the Laozi text to advocate for a
negotiated surrender.
Xie Wei is a Daoist trend philosopher.
Zhao Gao is the Zou Yan persuader, who promotes Yin-Yang and Five Phases
thinking.
Fu Delun is a Naturalist persuader.
Fa Trend Persuaders (Legalists):
Zheng Jiang is a disciple of Han Fei Zi, a major legalist scholar.
Su Yi is a follower of the Shang Yang Legalist tradition, which emphasizes strong
legal codes.
Gong Yanlin is a a traveling Legalist persuader who came from the state of Qi. Fan
Bo is a Legalist persuader.
Guo Yi is a Legalist persuader.
Mohist Trend Persuaders:
Lu Ban is from the Mohist school.
Liao Song is Mohist trend persuader.
Merchant Qu is a local Chu merchant.
Yan Qiang is a Mohist persuader.
Zheng Xianya is a Mohist Persuader.
Structure and Schedule for the Game
1. Normally, this game is played in 5 sessions. We will do the main speeches and debates during
our Zoom meetings and continue the plotting, the debate, and the alliance building on the
platform Slack. Using Slack, you can choose to come and go as your schedule permits to
participate in the full class debates and in any additional secret group channels created in our
Slack Workspace. I will create a few channels (public or private). One will be a public channel
for full class debates in character. One channel, “the archives of the state of Chu” will be where
the Game Book is located. The other channels will be private for faction members and later for
the reform groups created. You will be able to create your own secret channels as well. Do add
me, the Game Master, to all of them, so I can see your engagement levels. The requirement is
that you post at least twice in 48 hours. (See #2 for the caveats) Your game participation will
be based on what you do in Slack.
2. As mentioned above, your participation grade will be based on your posts on Slack. Each post
represents a tally mark on my spread sheet. If you post twice in the first forty-eight hours, but a
classmate posts 20 times during the same period…One of you will get the A, and one will not.
This is like class participation in a face-to-face class. The more you contribute thoughtfully to
the class discussion, the more engaged you are, the higher your participation grade is. Do not
post to say “I agree, great post.” Those will not be counted for participation. Don’t post the
same comment repeatedly. You would not get credit for those either. You can ask questions and
challenge the arguments made by your rival characters on Zoom and in Slack.
3. Our Game only requires one Formal speech. See Module 6 for details.
4. The Game Sessions:
In most class sessions, there will be five game sessions
Session 1: The introductory session, in which the new and old advisors begin to get to
know each other, there are three formal debates. Feb. 15th
Session 2: The first of the debates (which will take place during the second class session),
will feature presentations and advice from King Xiong’s long-serving advisors and
courtiers. They will describe how they think Chu can prosper in this chaotic age of strife
and warfare. Feb. 17th
Session 3 will feature a debate between the Confucians and the Legalists. They will answer
the question: Feb 22nd
Session 4, the Naturalists and Mohists will debate. Feb 24th
Be aware though that all advisors will participate in three of these debates, by offering
commentary and asking questions. As the King’s long-standing advisors, the
indeterminates will help the King select the most appropriate philosophy for Chu at the end
of Session 4.
Session 5: During the final session, the two factions who did best in the debate will present
their political reform. The presentation will be lead by the two advisors in charge of leading
the reforms with the help of the chosen factions, Li Yuan and Yan Ju. The king will select
one of those plans. The chosen faction (plus some additional advisors) will then become
senior ministers to the King of Chu. March 1st.
The end game scenario, the Game Master will use the end of scenario template based on the
decisions made in the Game to figure out the future of Chu. If time permit, this will be done the
last 10 minutes of Session 5. The Game Master will post a lecture on what happened in history
on D2L in the contents for Module 7.
M04 Assignment Instructions.html
Module 6: ASSIGNMENTs INSTRUCTIONS
1. The Speech
Individual students will have to write a speech as outlined in their role sheet and present that speech to the class on the day their particular character speaks. So the due date varies based on who you are: The King, an Indeterminate (a court advisor), a Confucian traveling persuader, a Legalist traveling persuader, a Daoist/Naturalist traveling persuader, or a Legalist traveling persuader.
The reform groups that will form at the end of Session 4 will help the characters of Yan Ju and Li Yuan with suggestions as these two write and then present a reform plan in Session 5.
Main assignment for the game: Your speech
The persuasive speech assignment should be at least 3 minutes long to 5 minutes at most. The written one should be at least 600 words and up to 1,000 words.
Your speech or letter should include the following content:
A brief biography (though make sure to leave out secret information).
Address the particular debate question assigned to your faction. (Details are on your role sheet)
Use the texts relevant to your character to make your speech/letter. (quote and paraphrase).
For example, The Master said, “quote from the Analects”…therefore I think we should x.
You should cite your sources (either footnotes or in-text citations are accepted).
ex for footnote: Confucius, “Book 1.1” in The Analects in the Game Book for Game of Sages: Philosophy and Diplomacy in 223 CE China edited by Catris and Goss, p. 28.
abb. footnote: Confucius, “Book 1.2”, Game Book, p. 28.
in text: (Confucius, Game Book, p. 28)
Some of the debates, the alliance building, and discussion of the issues will continue to take place in Slack’s public forum or by Direct Messages with other characters, or in private forums based on your factions.
Don’t forget to upload the written assignment on D2L.
2. The Reflection paper:
This can be the usual length (at least 250 words). You will need to write and explain who you were in the Game and the choices you made in the game. Finally, what did you learn?
3. The quiz covers basic knowledge about the four philosophies of the game (Daoism, Confucianism, Legalism, and Mohism).
How You Will Be Graded
The speeches will be graded according to the following criteria:
Proper use of the primary sources relevant to your role.
Persuasiveness of the letter and speech.
Citations
You will also be graded according to the following criteria:
Oratory skills
Creativity*
Persuasiveness of speech or letter. Use as much evidence as possible from relevant sources (philosophies)
*You are free to be as creative as you want. But be careful. Check with me if you have any doubt.
Good examples of creativity:
A student who played a military specialist made an armor out of old license plate.
A student used an app that created an animated cartoon character dressed in the style of Warring States era.
Bad Example:
Intentional or non-intentional racial stereotyping. (Like yellowface) e.g. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/23/yellowface-discrimination-asians-prejudice-racism
Due Date
The written speech or letter will be due on D2L by Wednesday 11:30 pm (for those who present on Tuesday) and by Friday 11:30 pm for those who present on Thursday. Your oral and written speeches are the same. The content should not differ. Same work but two formats.
Refer to the “Course Schedule” for specific dates.
How to Submit Your Assignment
Saving your file
Save your assignment as a Word or Pdf document.
Include your name inside the document.
How to Submit the Written Speech
Click on “Assessments” located on the navigation bar at the top of the page to open the dropdown menu.
Click on “Assignments.”
Select the assignment for this module.
Upload your assignment.
Double check you uploaded the right file.
Submit it.
If you are welcome to record some of your public debate responses for Slack:
Create your recorded response
go to YouTube
Upload your recorded response as an unlisted video: Here’s a tutorial on how to do it: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JOr7JluzEOM
Double check you uploaded the right file.
Copy the link to your recorded response and post it in the appropriate Slack Channel (for most of you it will be the channel titled “Court of the King of Chu”).
WuAi—Shaman from Chu, persuader (Courtier)
You come from an originally non-sinitic (non-Chinese) culture of the Southern Yangzi
River. Your state however has been one of the strongest and largest states since the fall of
the Zhou Dynasty. Your ruler is no longer vassal and is king of a beautiful and agricultural
rich region. While the Chu kings have adopted some aspects of Sinitic culture, hired
political and military advisers from northern states, many cultural practices have remained
distinctly Chu. You are a woman like many of the shamans of your state. You know the
poems of your state of Chu that speak of gods and spirits and imagine the possibility of a
Chu-centered “China.” You have been an advisor to an earlier King of Chu where you helped
with performing of shamanistic rituals of dance and communication with natural spirits
and ancestral spirits of the Chu Royal House to control the rains and other natural
phenomena. You have just come back to the Chu Court to serve King Xiong Fuchu.
Despite political infighting and corruption at court, you manage to keep being called to
court to work for several Kings of Chu, including King Kaolie of Chu (r. 237-228 BCE) and
his son King You of Chu (r. 228 BCE). You also know medicinal herbs and roots that can
help cure illness and prolong life. According to your reputation, you have traveled far and
wide through heaven and earth. You distrust many of the traveling persuaders and
foreigners in the Chu court who come from Northern states. You know they neither believe
in nor respect the nature spirits of your state and that they often call your culture barbaric.
You also particularly distrust foreign military specialists who despite Chu’s large territory
have disparaged Chu culture. You know in particular of a passage from the Wuzi that says
something about the Chu people not being strong. Now your King seeks these foreigners’
advice to reform Chu and face the Qin. You want to make sure your King does not abandon
his royal ancestors and the nature spirits. You also want to make sure that those who
despise Chu do not influence too much your King.
Affiliations
You are most likely to affiliate with people from Chu who often fear and respect you, like
Merchant Qu from your state, and of course with your King to whom you owe allegiance
and devotion. His consort, Zhao Liying, has at times sought your counsel. Although she is an
outsider, she seems genuinely interested in understanding the Nature Spirits. You distrust
your King’s ministers Li Yuan and Yan Ju, but you cannot show this openly. Your main rival
is the occultist and astrologer Wang Li.
Position
You want to support your King’ s decision to reform Chu’s institutions, but you also want to
make sure he does not cast away the Royal ancestors and the Nature Spirits. You will need
to be selected by either Li Yuan or Xiang Yan to limit the scopes of the reforms. You do
recognize that the Qin are a threat. Despite your mistrusts of foreigners and of
philosophical and military strategies against the state of Qin. You want to make sure that
your state survives an attack by the Qin. You only have the ears of the King of Chu and of
Chu officials close to the King. The traveling persuaders, except for the Mohists, will neither
look nor talk to you even though they know you are a trusted adviser to King Fuchu. You
know however that the Mohist do not trust in the power of the supernatural and disregard
rituals. You think King Fuchu has been a weak king, but it is your duty to make sure he
survives this crisis.
Responsibilities
a. Read: You must read three poems from the Chu Ci.
b. Find: In the poems, find two rituals you should perform that will help you guide the
King. Find at least one reason why the supernatural world should be listened over the
advice of mere learned and political men.
c. Prepare: a speech that highlights the importance of the ancient history and traditions
of the state of Chu and to its unique nature among the Central States. Use the Chu Ci
poems to illustrate the rituals of your people and call on the King to reform without
going too far away from Chu’s traditions.
d. Session 1: Introduce yourself to the Traveling Persuaders. Try to impress upon them
that the power of spirits are paying attention.
e. Session 2 Present your speech and Comment on other advisors’ speeches.
f. Throughout all of the sessions, Continue to help Chu against the Qin threat using
omens from the Nature Spirits and Royal Ancestors. Comment on the debates in
Sessions 3 and 4.
g. Throughout attempt to influence the King of Chu that he should listen to the will of
nature spirits and of the ancestors using the rituals found in The Chuci even if chooses
to reform Chu’s institutions.
Strategy for winning
You are wary of many of these outsiders…be careful not to allow them to exclude you. Be a
voice for the Royal Ancestors and the Nature spirits. Do not let your King ignore or cast
them aside.
To win, you will need to explain your idea of good rulership effectively, so you can be kept
into the Chu court and be part of a reform faction.
To win or draw, you must be alive at the end of the game. If you die, you lose regardless.
King Fuchu must also be alive.
To win, you must have King Fuchu and the court of Chu show they still listen to the
supernatural world. This could be fulfilled by being chosen to work on the reform council
(and to have your values included in it) and then have that reform plan chosen. Or there
may be other ways that you can get the King to show that he still supports the rituals and
beliefs, even if you are not directly involved with creating the reform efforts.
Special Powers
You can communicate with spirits. If you influence the King and communicate with spirits,
it will lead to your faction’s increased power of persuasion.
To Do
1. Before the session 1 meeting, Read the excerpts from The Chu Ci. Write a paper on
the history and traditions of the state of Chu and why reforms should not eradicate
traditions.
2. During the session 1 session, Introduce yourself.
3. Session 2: Give your speech
4. Throughout the game continue helping Chu by seeking guidance from the Nature
Spirits and Royal Ancestors and commenting on the debates
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