Gerontology Paper

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6 What Are My Responsibilities as aPlanner?

© Brand X Pictures / Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe factors that affect the planning context.
Describe important considerations for planning the environment.
Explain the types of resources available to teachers for planning.
Describe a continuum of approaches to planning and how they are similar and different.

Introduction

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Preschool teachers Jennifer and Elise discuss the importance of communication
between teaching colleagues.

Now that you have met your children and their families, collected information, and considered many ways to connect
with them in the context of your community, it’s time to begin planning curriculum activities and how you will set up
the environment to support them. Remember from Chapter 2 that you have the printed material accompanying the
comprehensive curriculum used in your school and the supplementary literacy program that speci�ically targets at-risk
learners. You also have your administrator’s assurance that you will have a good bit of freedom to make your own
decisions as long as they are consistent with the curriculum’s goals.

Your teaching space has some nice features—notably access to a lavatory for the children inside the room, plenty of
natural light from windows along one wall, a door to the adjacent playground, a classroom sink with counter space, a
variety of child-sized furniture and movable storage units, and a storage closet. It also presents challenges that will
affect how you will arrange your space, including where some of the above features are located, a limited number of
electrical outlets, and permanently installed carpeting in one part of the room. With all of this in mind, how might you
begin making decisions about how to arrange the classroom?

In addition to thinking about how to organize the physical environment, you might ask yourself several additional
questions as you begin to plan your curriculum activities. What approach will you take to organize your ideas? How
will you plan curriculum activities in ways that are developmentally appropriate and �lexible? How will you make sure
you are addressing learning standards? This chapter focuses on practical strategies for effective planning.

From the Field

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How do you feel about working with another teacher or assistant teacher?

2. What will you do to begin establishing an effective, professional relationship?

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Program director Rita Palet explains the importance of
professional preparation, chemistry, and give-and-take
in teaching relationships.

More From the Field

6.1 Contextual Factors That Affect Planning

Regardless of where you teach, your circumstances (or context) will impact your planning. Among the most important
factors that affect planning are the curriculum, the children, their families, your teaching colleagues, and the physical
setting—the building and learning spaces.

The Planning Context

Whether you are given a curriculum to implement or expected to select or design curriculum yourself, planning
should be a responsive process. You will need to balance planned activities with what you observe about the needs,
interests, and characteristics of children. (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011).

To varying degrees, the type of early childhood setting in which you work will in�luence how planning occurs. Home-
care providers are typically independent and care for the widest age range of children in the same setting. They have
to plan and implement care and activities for infants and toddlers as well as preschoolers and school-age children.
Early childhood educators in child-care centers or preschools may have considerable �lexibility or be expected to
implement a particular curriculum. In primary classrooms, especially in the public schools, planning will likely be
closely correlated with prescribed curriculum, state learning standards, and designated assessment procedures.

Context can also in�luence the planning tools you use and your accountability for them. Some teachers may be given
or expected to use a planning book or speci�ic forms on which to write their plans. You might be required to turn in
plans weekly, monthly, or on some other schedule for review by a supervisor. Most state child-care licensing
regulations also require that current/ongoing activity plans be prominently displayed and shared with parents. For
example, the Pennsylvania Regulation (http://www.pacode.com/secure/data/055/chapter3270/s3270.111.html) reads as
follows:

3270.111 Daily activities.

(a) A written plan of daily activities and routines, including a time for free play shall be established for
each group. The plan shall be �lexible to accommodate the needs of individual children and the dynamics
of the group.

(b) The written plan shall be posted in the group space.

Even if you are wholly in charge of your class or
group of children, you may have a coteacher or
assistant, or you may be part of a bigger teaching
team, which means that other individuals will in�luence
or perhaps have some control over your planning.
Teachers in a center or school, for example, often plan
collaboratively, as a group, by grade or age level.
Further, the extent to which your ideas are
incorporated into plans may be in�luenced by the
group dynamics or competing points of view. For
example, if you plan with a team of two lead teachers
and two assistants, one of those individuals may tend
to dominate conversation or another may be reluctant
to consider trying new strategies. These are issues that

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Critical Thinking Question

1. What would you do if you were paired with a teacher
whose views about learning and curriculum differ
signi�icantly from yours?

would have to be worked out as you developed a
collaborative approach to sharing ideas.

Finally, the physical setting within which learning takes
place will impact your planning. You will have to
consider what space you have, how the classroom will
be arranged, what space you must share with other
classes, and so on. Your planning for both the physical
environment and activities will certainly have to
consider how to re�lect the diversity and cultural
characteristics, experiences, and interests of the
children and families in your group.

Integrating Developmental Principles
and Beliefs

In considering our opening vignette, you may have
wondered how an open-ended, comprehensive play-
based curriculum could be compatible with planning
and scheduling for a teacher-directed supplemental literacy program. Curricular activities may be conceptually
organized by developmental domains or by academic content areas, but the planning process for any curriculum
should prioritize and integrate developmentally appropriate principles and strategies.

For example, you can plan a literacy activity that focuses on identifying beginning word sounds as small-group or
one-on-one interactions at the beginning or end of a large block of free-choice time rather than as a whole-group
lesson. This way, children’s play is not interrupted; you maximize opportunities for interpersonal interactions and
control the time and frequency of these activities for the capabilities of each individual child. Likewise, a curriculum or
program that requires a whole-group “circle time” for 3-year-olds should challenge you to plan a format for such a
time that is interactive, enjoyable, meaningful, and no longer than the children can reasonably be expected to manage.

As the teacher, your thoughtful approach to planning will be based on your observations, record keeping, and
interactions with the children, ensuring that:

Themes and topics of study support program goals and curriculum objectives but curriculum is not “one-size �its all,”
so that children have ongoing opportunities for activities and experiences that support their individual interests and
developmental characteristics
Teacher-directed and child-initiated activities are balanced
The curriculum is �lexible and adaptable to accommodate learning opportunities that arise unexpectedly
Children can offer questions and ideas that are incorporated in planning of future activities
The environment and curriculum re�lect and honor the real lives of the children and their families
Planning balances active and quiet times and individual, small-group, and whole-group interactions
Exploratory play is supported as an important mode of learning

Effective planning integrates the key themes of this book: (1) understanding the theoretical and/or philosophical
foundation of the curriculum; (2) knowledge of human growth and development; (3) coordinating integration of the
roles you, as the teacher, families, and communities assume as curriculum informants; (4) identi�ication of curriculum
content that supports children’s needs and interests; and (5) choosing and enacting developmentally appropriate
teaching and assessment strategies.

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Table 2.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Jaruszewic.6108.18.2/sections/sec2.4#table2.7) in Chapter 2 provides a
simple format for organizing your essential ideas and beliefs so that you can compare them with ideas represented in
various curricula you may be interested in or asked to use. In planning, you apply these ideas as an action plan
(Nilsen, 2010). For example, Mary, a kindergarten teacher in South Carolina, knows that one of the physical science
standards relates to exploring matter, “Standard K.P.4: The student will demonstrate an understanding of the
observable properties of matter.” The indicator for this standard (K.P.4A.1) reads: “Analyze and interpret data to
compare the qualitative properties of objects (such as size, shape, color, texture, weight, �lexibility, attraction to
magnets, or ability to sink or �loat) and classify objects based on similar properties” (South Carolina Department of
Education, 2014, p. 10). She knows that this standard can be addressed through explicit teaching about the concept,
but her constructivist belief that children learn science concepts through exploration of the environment and
materials leads to intentional planning for that learning to occur naturally.

Table 6.1 represents what her broad plan for a given week might include to support open-ended inquiry about the
observable properties of water. She’ll build the activities around the use of a water table.

Table 6.1: Water Table Activities

Prompts and Facilitation Strategies Materials

Monday Generate and record ideas about why objects sink or
�loat in water; examine a variety of materials for
experimentation; chart children’s predictions

Paper clips; marbles; recycled
styrofoam packing peanuts trays and
soda/water bottles; paper plates;
bottle caps; wood scraps; aluminum
foil; paper cups; play dough; small
rocks and sticks; string; rubber
bands; tooth picks; plastic straws

Tuesday Discuss ideas about how children could make a boat
that will �loat in water; construct and test in the water
table; record observations; photograph or videotape
the water table as a work in progress

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday Construct a diagram (sink/�loat/both) with the children
to organize observations made over the week; compare
with their original predictions; begin a book with
images or drawings of the boats and transcription of
children’s tentative answers to the question of why a
boat �loats; generate new questions about sinking and
�loating to continue inquiry

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Children use a variety of materials to
explore concepts about water,
including different-sized containers (in
which they can pour the water back
and forth) and objects that sink and
�loat.

© Susan Woog-Wagner / Getty Images

6.2 Creating a Physical Environment for Your Curriculum

The physical environment is a powerful messenger, and “every environment
implies a set of values or beliefs about the people who use the space and the
activities that take place there . . . each environment also in�luences the people
who use it in subtle or dramatic ways” (Carter & Carter, 2003, p. 13).

Thinking and making decisions about how to design and arrange classroom
spaces has been in�luenced by many individuals. Friedrich Froebel introduced
the idea of materials speci�ically created to support the way young children
learn. Maria Montessori pioneered the use of child-sized furniture and the
careful organization of materials. Rudolph Steiner promoted the use of natural
materials and a homelike environment. Elizabeth Jones and Elizabeth Prescott’s
work in the 1970s also emphasized the importance of a homelike environment
and the idea that teachers should look to the environment as a source for
solving problems (Prescott, 2004). For example, if you observed that children in
an activity area were not sharing, a comparison of the number of things to do
with the number of children using the center might suggest that additional
materials need to be added (Prescott, 2004, p. 35).

Diane Trister-Dodge and David Weikert applied all of these ideas to the Creative
Curriculum and High Scope classrooms. Finally, the Reggio Emilia programs
demonstrate how planning an environment is driven by respect for the rights of
the child to a beautiful, welcoming space that promotes relationships and
attention to detail.

This section of the chapter will address how your curriculum in�luences the indoor physical environment, principles
of good design, and aesthetics. Considerations for planning the outdoor environment are addressed in Chapter 8.

Does Your Curriculum Dictate or Provide Direction?

Given the innumerable different kinds of locations, classroom shapes, sizes, and building designs, it would be almost
impossible for a curriculum to dictate exactly what a classroom or care space should look like. Curricula do, however,
to varying degrees, implicitly or explicitly suggest and guide decisions about what equipment and materials are
needed and how activity spaces should support children’s play, learning, and development.

For example, Montessori programs are expected to have at least a minimal set of designated materials arranged in a
de�ined sequence and according to particular design principles. Creative Curriculum identi�ies ten distinct activity
centers and gives teachers guidance about suggested materials for each. High Scope and Creative Curriculum teachers
are also expected to label shelves and materials with pictures and/or words. The literacy curriculum mentioned in the
opening vignette might come with a particular set of books, manipulative materials, and teacher resources with
directions to store or display them in a prescribed sequence or order.

Other curriculum approaches set forth desired goals for what the environment should be designed to achieve as well
as the particular elements it should include, but they assume that each classroom will also have its own unique
character. For instance, the atelier or miniatelier feature of Reggio Emilia programs and classrooms (introduced in

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Director Lucia Garay describes the elements of planning
that result in an effective learning environment.

More From the Field
Critical Thinking Question

1. Lucia says, “the environment becomes the curriculum.”
What does she mean by that?

Chapter 2) is expected to include art and an array of interesting recycled materials arranged in an organized and
aesthetically pleasing manner (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1998).

In Waldorf education, according to teacher Sarah Baldwin (2012), “A Waldorf kindergarten is typically furnished to
look much like a home, with silk curtains, wool rugs, a rocking chair, and wooden tables and chairs. Teachers
consciously choose playthings for the classroom that will nourish a young child’s senses and sheathe them in beauty.
Toys found in the classroom are made from natural �iber and materials.”

Regardless of a curriculum’s speci�ics, the teacher will plan the environment according to generally accepted ideas
about good design for developmentally appropriate spaces to be used by young children.

What General Principles Should Guide Environmental Planning?

Early childhood space planning is guided by general
principles adapted to the speci�ic needs of children and
curricular priorities at different ages. All early
childhood classrooms need a balance of functional,
formal, and informal spaces (Shalaway, 2012; Swim,
2012). The classroom or care space should include
functional areas for greeting and departure, storage of
children’s personal belongings, feeding/dining, and
toileting; it should be clean and organized. Furniture
and activity areas should be arranged to provide for
visual supervision at all times. Early childhood spaces
must include equipment appropriate to the size of the
children, with visual materials posted or displayed at
the child’s eye level.

Variations by Age

In an infant classroom, you would expect to see
furniture and designated areas for diapering, feeding,
sleeping, and playing with babies. A mobile might be
suspended over a crib or �loor mat in the child’s line
of sight, as infants spend some of their time lying on
their backs looking up. Furniture will include rocking
chairs for feeding, holding, and soothing and �loor
items and soft toys that encourage crawling, grasping,
and exploring.

Toddler spaces need access to a bathroom as well as diapering, and also equipment designed for children who are
now vertical and active much of the time, with designated areas for exploring their emerging interest in gross motor
activities, dramatic play, books, and sensory activities. Children may now be napping on cushioned mats or cots that
can be stored until needed. Small tables and chairs are appropriate for feeding times but may have to include high-
chair seating as well as small chairs. Pictures and mirrors can be mounted where children can see them on the walls,
and selected materials may be arranged on low shelves where toddlers can reach them.

Preschool furniture will be slightly larger than that for toddlers, with additional areas and materials that support a
wide variety of curricular activities, a longer attention span, more re�ined �ine-motor skills, a growing interest in

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These two spaces represent contrasting approaches to design, one which encourages running indoors
(Room A) and the other (Room B) with distinct pathways to direct children’s movements.

reading, writing, and collaborative play. Children at this age can tend to many of their personal needs independently,
and their expanded �ield of vision allows for additional possibilities for visual displays.

Safety First

All decisions about how a classroom space is arranged should be made with safety in mind. Water-absorbing
washable mats can be purchased that limit the risk of slipping or falling. Electrical cords or outlets should not be left
exposed, taped to the �loor, or used near water. Materials should always be approved for the age of children using
them. We mentioned in Chapter 4 the use of a choke tube for infants and toddlers; this device alerts the teacher or
caregiver to materials that are not safe for use.

Children with asthma or allergies may be especially vulnerable to things like powdered paints, chalk, or sprays. Every
teacher should have a working knowledge of applicable child-care regulations and current access to consumer
product safety announcements and recalls.

Controlled Movement

Well-thought-out spaces for young children are designed for controlled movement; they provide secure work/play
spaces and reduce opportunities for con�lict (Carter & Carter, 2003; Shalaway, 2005). Furniture and equipment are
arranged to provide visible boundaries so that children know where different types of activities are expected to occur
(Deviney, Duncan, Harris, Roday, & Rosenberry, 2010; Swim, 2012). Teachers use furniture, equipment, and �loor
coverings such as area rugs to de�ine spaces. Because young children are not yet abstract thinkers, they must be able
to see where one space ends and another begins.

The classroom is also designed to provide logical “traf�ic patterns” that promote ef�icient movement from one place to
another and don’t cause interference with normal activities. Imagine how upset a child setting up wooden train tracks
would be if other children came charging through the space and ruined her work!

Early childhood furniture is child-sized, so that an adult scanning the room can see everything, while from the child’s
perspective, there are “walls,” pathways, and “rooms.” Look at the two room plans shown in Figure 6.1. Which one
would encourage running or confuse children about where to play? Which one provides clear dividing lines between
activity areas? Which space encourages whole-group activities vs. small-group or individual interactions?

Figure 6.1: Floor Plans

Sensitivity to Physical Features

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“Crowd control” can be facilitated by providing picture/symbol signs that
indicate the capacity for each learning center. In this picture, three children
may paint in the easel center at one time.

Teachers should be aware of the major permanent features of the physical space and use common sense to arrange
furniture and equipment accordingly. These features include the location of electrical outlets, doors, natural and
arti�icial light and windows, access to water, and built-in storage spaces.

Potentially messy activity areas such as art, science, and sand/water stations should be located as close to the water
source as possible and on a �loor surface that can be mopped or cleaned easily. If there is no access to water in the
classroom, then those areas should be close to the nearest exit to where water is located. Activities that require
electrical power, such as a listening center with a plug-in tape recording/headphone station, should be adjacent to an
outlet, limiting the need for extension cords.

Furniture or learning center placement should complement usage, such as storage cubbies for children’s personal
belongings/outerwear adjacent to the classroom entrance, open shelving for blocks, and individual containers or small
trays for implements such as crayons, glue sticks, or scissors.

Designated Activity Areas and Capacity Limits

The number and size of learning centers depends on curriculum priorities as well as classroom and group size. We
want to maximize children’s opportunities to make choices and work/play independently but also minimize con�licts
over materials and space (Gestwicki, 2011; Swim, 2012). Each learning center should be equipped and sized to
accommodate a particular number of children, such as four in the art center, three in the manipulative area, two in
the listening center, and so on. The number of children an area accommodates should also take into consideration the
nature of the activity. For example, dramatic play and block building occur best with a small group of children, while a
light table or sand/water table will be limited by the size and capacity of the equipment.

The total number of children accommodated by learning centers should at least equal the number of children in the
group. Marking the center with a symbol/sign indicating the number of children per center helps children know if
they may enter or need to make a different choice until space is available. You can also provide physical cues or signs
(Figure 6.2), such as a small table with two sets of headphones and two chairs for a listening center, or a four-sided
easel with one piece of paper and set of paints/brushes on each side.

Promoting Independence and Responsibility

Spaces for early learning are designed to encourage independence and maximize the amount of time you can devote
to interacting or observing work/play in progress (Carter & Carter, 2003; Gestwicki, 2011). Carefully arranging sorted
materials in open baskets or clear totes on accessible shelves helps children know where things belong and conveys
our expectation that they will put them away properly when �inished. Taping a picture or tracing of the material that
belongs on each shelf or in each container promotes cognitive skills such as sorting and one-to-one correspondence
as well as providing organizational guidance. Children can also learn to internalize procedures such as toothbrushing,
handwashing, or self-serve snacks by posting a sequence of photo or prompts for each step in the process.

However obvious your system and organization might seem to you, children will still need direction and modeling to
help them learn how it works. Early childhood teachers spend time orienting new children to the classroom, showing
them how to select and use materials and activity areas and how to put things away when they are �inished.

Figure 6.2: Sign for Easel Painting Center

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Young children don’t have a well-developed sense of time; they also become deeply involved in activities and may
resist being asked to stop when they are in the middle of working or playing. So it also makes sense to provide them
with several minutes advance warning and a signal such as a small bell or �lipping the light switch before cleanup
times and a reasonable amount of time to �inish cleaning up.

Activity Area Compatibility

Some curriculum activities are naturally compatible and others are not, so balancing environmental factors such as
quiet/noisy or messy/dry is important (Conant, 2012; Swim, 2012). In a typical learning environment, noise and
interaction levels will naturally vary depending on the type of activity. For example, it is not unusual for dramatic play
and block centers to be noisy, and children may transport props (small �igurines, vehicles, animals, play food, and so
on) back and forth depending on the theme of play. Therefore, in most early childhood classrooms, these centers are
typically located in adjacent areas or at least in very close proximity. Conversely, children listening to audiotapes or
sitting on an adult’s lap listening to a story need quiet to hear and concentrate.

Separating noisy and quiet activities can be challenging, especially in smaller spaces. When possible, carpets or other
acoustically absorbent materials can considerably cut down on noise levels and should be used in noisy areas, but
they must also not impede activity. Thus, for example, a rug in the block center should be �lat and have a very low
pile so that block structures will be stable. Curtains, soft furniture, and pillows can also cut down noise in quiet areas
while also providing a cozy, comfortable feeling.

Aesthetics

Principles of design used to create aesthetically pleasing home or commercial environments can and should be
applied to classroom or care spaces. Children and adults alike bene�it from spaces that are soothing to the senses and
inviting without being overwhelming or arti�icial (Deviney, Duncan, Harris, Roday & Rosenberry, 2010; Edwards,
Gandini & Forman, 1998). Early childhood commercial catalogs tend to feature plastic, brightly colored materials in
primary colors (red, yellow, and blue) that are cheerful but do not necessarily promote the warmth and familiarity of
a more homelike setting.

In their 2010 book Inspiring Spaces for Young Children, Jessica Deviney and her colleagues identify seven principles of
good design to consider for establishing environments that are not only functional and ef�icient but also calming and
inspiring to children and adults alike:

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In these two photos of preschool classrooms, you can see that one is cluttered, crowded, and a kaleidoscope
of colors; the other has natural light, natural elements such as plants, and a low-key color scheme. Which
classroom better applies the principles described above?

Use natural items to bring the outdoors in, re�lect the local climate, and promote a sense of tranquility. Elements such
as plants, rocks, seashells, twigs, and �lowers provide pleasant sensory connections.
Color establishes mood and generates interest, but overdoing it creates “visual clutter.” A good rule of thumb is to
focus on a neutral color scheme and use primary colors conservatively.
Use furniture positioned at 45- or 90-degree angles to de�ine spaces and create cozy areas that remind children of
home. Include authentic items such as lamps, pillows, upholstered furniture, and decorative/functional items that
children recognize from the real world.
Texture adds depth and sensory stimulation. Items such as wall hangings, weavings, and mobiles made from natural
materials provide visual interest. Natural or recycled materials such as pine cones, corks, bark, and stones can
provide opportunities for observation and differentiating the physical properties of materials.
Displays, especially those that feature children’s collections and creations, personalize space. Items such as baskets,
buckets, and interesting containers can be used for sorting, classi�ication, and storage.
Lighting, scent, and sound dramatically in�luence the way the environment is experienced and perceived. Think
about ways to minimize the “surgery” effects of �luorescent lights and balance low- and high-level lighting.
Focal points invite engagement and attract the children’s attention. It is very important from time to time to view the
environment from their vantage point so you are aware of how they see the space.

© Hutchings Richard / Getty Images (left); © John Humble / Getty Images (right)

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Teachers must keep up with current
research of all kinds but especially as
it relates to the curricula they use.

Elsevier

6.3 Identifying and Understanding Resources

Teachers and caregivers use many different kinds of resources and materials that help them select, organize, and
evaluate activities to support curricular goals, objectives, and standards. Since early childhood curricular options (as
discussed in Chapter 1) range from open-ended approaches to speci�ic models, the types of materials teachers use to
plan can vary widely as well. This section describes a variety of concrete tools and how you can use them in your
planning.

Primary and Secondary Resources

Primary resources are works produced by the authors of a curriculum model
or approach that describe the theoretical premises, philosophy, and tenets that
guide the teacher to implement the curriculum with �idelity to its principles. For
example, The Hundred Languages of Children, initially published in 1994 by
Edwards, Gandini, and Forman (revised in 1998), and the writings of Loris
Malaguzzi are considered essential resources for Reggio Emilia educators.

Secondary resources can also be very useful but do not originate from the
founders or authors of a program. For example, secondary Reggio Emilia
resources would include such things as books and articles published by authors
outside of Reggio Emilia, and media such as blogs and program websites. These
resources provide helpful insights into the ways in which teacher educators,
program directors, and teachers interpret the Reggio Emilia approach for
American schools and classrooms.

Waldorf educators rely on the writings of Rudolph Steiner to make sure that the
classroom environment and activities they plan are consistent with the
program’s original vision and purpose. Similarly, of�icially sponsored training
programs for Montessori teachers are based on and informed by the ideas
expressed by Maria Montessori in the books she wrote over a span of many years.

Remember that planning for any curriculum includes keeping abreast of current studies (Chapter 2) and the ongoing
development of the theories that support them. For example, in the second edition of their book, Bodrova and Leong
(2006) described how Tools of the Mind was conceived from a Vygotskian perspective on social constructivism and
continues to evolve. They have produced many subsequent publications and media presentations reporting on the
achievement effects of implementation in various settings and how those results impact their ongoing
conceptualization of the curriculum. Teachers using the Tools curriculum would certainly want to incorporate those
evolving ideas as they plan activities.

The NAEYC publications describing developmentally appropriate principles and practices also serve as primary
resources for early childhood educators (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Since DAP is not a speci�ic curriculum but
offers guidelines for how to think about curriculum, it provides the overarching frame of reference from which all
planning decisions should be made.

Learning Standards

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As explained in previous chapters, as part of the No Child Left Behind legislation, most states wrote developmental
early learning standards and K-12 academic learning standards for each content area indicating what children are
expected to know and be able to do by the end of each age or grade level. As of 2012, that initiative was expanded to
adoption of uniform core standards (http://www.corestandards.org/the-standards) for kindergarten through grade 12
math and language arts in all but �ive states (Virginia, Wisconsin, Alaska, Texas, and Nebraska).

Learning standards provide teachers with planning guidance, as standards are typically framed to describe (1) exit
goals for high school graduates, (2) statements about what a child is expected to know or be able to do at
incremental points in time between kindergarten and high school graduation, and (3) indicators or benchmarks that
suggest what a teacher might observe that provides evidence a child is meeting standards. Table 6.2 displays
information excerpted from the 2009 Colorado Social Studies Standards representing one example of how the
standard for history is addressed from preschool through grade 1.

You can see that as this standard is worded, it does not specify what activities, themes, or lessons a teacher should
plan or what books, resources, or materials to use, but it does provide direction about what should be accomplished.
A standard does not dictate what to teach, when to teach it, how much time to spend on a topic, or even what
teaching strategies or materials to use. Those are decisions and plans made by schools, programs, and teachers.

Early learning standards address what children in preschool should know and be able to do and are written in a
format similar to K–12 academic standards. The National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center
(http://ectacenter.org) provides extensive information about early learning standards for each state. Using standards to
guide the planning and implementation of a curriculum is discussed in further detail in the last section of this chapter
and in later chapters as they apply to different areas of curriculum.

Instructor Resources and Supplemental Materials

Published curriculum products may include multiple components that provide speci�ic direction or guidance for
planning, such as:

Teaching manuals that present essential information and guidance about curricular goals, activities, strategies, and
assessments
Supplemental printed matter or masters for duplication (e.g., suggested unit or lesson plans, instructional support
such as worksheets, picture charts, and so on)
Recording and reporting forms
On-line technical support
Materials and/or equipment speci�ically designed for use with children, such as books, toys, learning games, and
math, science, music, or other items for learning centers

Table 6.2 Colorado History Standard for Preschool, Kindergarten, and Grade 1

Expectation for High School Graduates:
Develop an Understanding of How People View, Construct, and Interpret History

Grade Level Concept(s) to be mastered Benchmarks

http://www.corestandards.org/the-standards

http://ectacenter.org/

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Grade 1 Patterns and chronological order of events of the
recent past

Students can:

a. Identify similarities and differences between
themselves and others.

b. Discuss common and unique characteristics of
different cultures using multiple sources of
information.

c. Identify famous Americans from the past who
have shown courageous leadership.

d. Identify and explain the meaning of American
national symbols. Symbols to include but not
limited to the American �lag, bald eagle, Statue
of Liberty, Uncle Sam, the Capitol, and the White
House.

Family and cultural traditions in
the United States in the past

Students can:

a. Arrange life events in
chronological order.

b. Identify the components of a
calendar. Among topics to include:
days of the week, months, and
notable events.

c. Identify past events using a
calendar.

d. Use words related to time,
sequence, and change.

Kindergarten Ask questions, share information, and discuss
ideas about the past.

Students can:

a. Ask questions about the past using question
starters. Questions to include but not limited to:
What did? Where? When did? Which did? Who
did? Why did? How did?

b. Identify information from narrative stories that
answer questions about the past and add to our
collective memory and history.

c. Use the word because correctly in the context of
personal experience or stories of the past using
words. Among words to include: past, present,
future, change, �irst, next, last.

The �irst component in the concept
of chronology is to place
information in sequential order.

Students can:

a. Order sequence information using
words. Among words to include:
past, present future, days, weeks,
months, years, �irst, next, last,
before, after.

b. Explore differences and
similarities in the lives of children
and families of long ago and
today.

c. Explain why knowing the order of
events is important

Preschool Change and sequence over time.

Students can:

a. Use words and phrases correctly related to chronology and time. Among words to
include: past, present, future, before, now, later.

b. Select examples from pictures that illustrate past, present, and future.
c. Sequence a simple set of activities or events.
d. Identify an example of change over time that may include examples from the child’s own

growth.

Source: Adapted from Colorado Department of Education, 2009

These resource materials may be accompanied by opportunities for training and professional development designed
to assist teachers in planning and implementing activities. Head Start teachers might, for example, engage in several
days of regional in-service workshops conducted by Creative Curriculum or High Scope trainers prior to
implementation of the curriculum in their programs.

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Worksheets are most often used in elementary school classrooms, but they can be seen in preschools or
child-care programs as well. They are not considered to be developmentally appropriate.

Early childhood educators believe that the use of
materials from the real world provides more
meaningful learning than the use of worksheets.

© iStockphoto / Thinkstock

In consideration of developmentally appropriate principles, teachers
should evaluate and incorporate with discretion all materials
supplied by any curriculum. The widespread use of worksheets, in
particular, is very dif�icult to justify, as they often represent or
contain content or images disconnected from or not representative
of children’s real-world ideas and experiences and don’t point to a
single “right” answer (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

For instance, the worksheet in Figure 6.3 intended for a cut-and-
paste activity to reinforce the concept of a simple “a/b/a/b/a”
pattern sequence, could certainly provide a child with practice in
developing the �ine motor skills needed to cut out the paper squares

or serve as a simple assessment to determine whether the child recognizes an a/b/a/b/a pattern sequence. However,
from a developmentally appropriate perspective, these kinds of materials should be set aside in favor of those that
give children opportunities to observe patterns in the natural world and to manipulate real objects to replicate and
create patterns of different kinds. Apples, leaves, and small toys are all examples of real-world materials that are
easily found in or around early childhood classrooms and that children could use to develop their sense of the
a/b/a/b pattern sequence.

Scope and Sequence

A commercial curriculum may contain a scope and sequence, a graphic in chart form that represents how and when
particular concepts and skills are developed over time when the curriculum is implemented as intended. For example,
the website for the Success for All Curiosity Corner (http://www.successforall.org/our-approach/schoolwide-
programs/curiosity-corner/) preschool curriculum includes an excerpt for the scope and sequence of the reading
program for kindergarten.

Teachers may �ind a scope and sequence useful as a planning resource but must always keep in mind that the needs,
characteristics, and interests of their students are the primary priorities in planning (Copple & Bredkamp, 2009).
Knowledge and skills represented in a scope and sequence are developed from assumptions about children in
general; they may or may not accurately re�lect the actual children in your care.

Pacing Guides

Similarly—especially in public schools, including kindergarten and primary classrooms—some districts and programs
are developing and implementing pacing guides. These documents, in effect, prescribe or schedule when and how
state learning standards are to be addressed in planning for each academic content area over the course of a school
year. Theoretically, when they are implemented in the strictest sense, a principal or administrator could expect to visit
�ive �irst grade classrooms on a single day and see all the children in all the classes doing exactly the same thing at
the same time.

Figure 6.3: Worksheets

Curiosity Corner

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A graphic organizer provides a visual representation of ideas or information.
One example of such a device is a Venn diagram, which illustrates where
ideas or facts about two separate things overlap.

While the goal of pacing guides is to ensure that all children are experiencing the same curriculum, their use in the
primary grades is widely discouraged by early childhood experts and professional organizations (Datnow &
Castellano, 2000; David, 2008; David & Greene, 2007; Louis, Febey, & Schroeder, 2005; Sornson, 2016). From a
practical perspective, however, a comprehensive pacing guide can be very helpful as a resource (Kauffman, Johnson,
Kardos, Liu, & Peske, 2002). Pacing guides may include many ideas for activities, themes, and strategies that can be
implemented in developmentally appropriate ways.

Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are simple charts, diagrams, or templates that represent multiple concepts and the connections
between them (Figure 6.4). They are useful with young children to help them visualize ideas. You will see several
examples of different kinds of graphic organizers in this and later chapters. There are literally hundreds of examples
on websites; these often provide free downloadable examples that teachers can use for planning and organizing
activities. At the end of this chapter is a short list of online resources for graphic organizers.

Figure 6.4: Venn Diagram

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© iStockphoto / Thinkstock

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Teacher planning is like preparing for
a road trip. You can approach it in a
variety of ways.

© Flying Colours Ltd / Thinkstock

6.4 Approaches to Planning

You probably already know what kind of planning style might suit you best. Think about how you might approach
planning a road-trip vacation. Your goal is to see places you have not visited before and your objectives are what you
want to accomplish each day of the trip; there is more than one way, however to plan this journey. You might be the
kind of person who would predetermine the places you will visit; research information about sights, attractions, and
restaurants; map out your route to determine how far you will drive each day; and make hotel reservations ahead of
time.

Or maybe you would prefer to pack the car with plenty of provisions—food, drinks, snacks, your bike and camping
gear—with a general starting direction but no destination in mind, mapping out your trip as you go, and stopping at
places you �ind interesting. Either way, you may have fellow travelers and encounter other people, developments, or
events that challenge your plan or cause you to modify it as you go along. But you may also arrive home feeling
entirely satis�ied that the trip was worthwhile and lived up to or exceeded your initial expectations regardless of
which plan was followed.

Teacher planning is in many ways analogous to the road trip—we have common goals for what we want or expect
children to ultimately accomplish but different ways of getting there. The �irst approach described above represents
one end of the planning continuum, a linear (or “top down”) sequential process that begins with identi�ication of
standards and objectives and determines how each step or stage of an activity or series of activities will be carried
out. The second approach represents the other end of the continuum, a global (emergent or “bottom up”) process,
with anticipation and preparation for a range of possibilities, developing direction through facilitation and negotiation
of child-directed explorations and documenting how standards are being met over time.

Many teachers’ approach to planning will fall somewhere in between. While the
planning styles represent different approaches, teachers planning both kinds of
experiences will keep in mind the principles of developmentally appropriate
practice, so that learning is meaningful and provides a balance between child-
directed and teacher-initiated activities.

All approaches to teacher planning in early childhood should place a high value
on structuring the environment and activities to integrate, or connect, learning
across all areas of the curriculum. Good planning also relies on teacher
�lexibility to make ongoing decisions based on the knowledge and observation of
children, adapting the curriculum to maximize learning opportunities. In this
section, we will follow two long-term studies with preschool and kindergarten
children to illustrate the planning continuum. This type of learning can be
planned as a thematic unit or emergent study.

Long-term investigations offer the opportunity to focus on a topic in depth,
especially if the teacher maintains an open-ended time frame rather than a rigid
schedule (Katz & Chard, 2000; Pearlman, 2006). Topics can come from the
children, teachers, supplied curriculum materials, or ideas that emerge from
studying state standards and objectives. Planning for either a thematic unit or emergent study represents a
comprehensive investment of time; therefore it is very important that topics be relevant to the cultural contexts and
experiences of the children. A study of the ocean and marine life makes a great deal of sense for children who live in
coastal areas. It may not be as relevant to the daily lives of young children who live in landlocked states like New

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Mexico or Colorado. However, children are interested in many things they have no hands-on experience with
(dinosaurs, space travel, and so forth) and are exposed to a great deal of information vicariously through media
sources; therefore any topic that captures their interest should be open for discussion.

Thematic Unit: Ladybugs, Butter�lies, and Bees

As described above, a thematic unit is a long-term investigation of a topic intended to capture and engage children’s
interest and provide opportunities to develop skills and knowledge in multiple areas. Typically, planning for a thematic
unit represents a top-down approach, with the teacher making most or all of the decisions about how to proceed
according to a general decision-making sequence that includes the following:

1. Identifying goals: learning standards and objectives to be addressed.
2. Identifying important considerations about children’s developmental and cultural characteristics, interests, and

needs.
3. Selecting a topic or theme that provides opportunities to meet goals.
4. Brainstorming ideas for activities that support and connect different areas of the curriculum.
5. Creating and scheduling plans for lessons and activities.
6. Planning for a balance of individual, small-group, and large-group activities.
7. Planning for accommodations to address the needs of individual children.
8. Deciding on how to evaluate children’s learning to determine the extent to which the unit objectives and learning

standards are met.
9. Preparing materials and resources.

10. Arranging the environment.
11. Making adaptations to the plan as the unit progresses based on observations about learning and interests.

Identifying goals: Learning standards and objectives to be addressed This unit was implemented by teachers of
two groups of children between 3 (twelve children) and 4 years (�ifteen children) of age at the time of the study. For
this unit, one of the teachers (Phyllis) explained,

At this time of the year [late spring] I have been working on the early learning standards that support the
children’s increasing interest in non�iction books, beginning writing, and growing con�idence as problem
solvers. These kids are very good at patterns and we have been making graphs all year, so a couple of the
math standards for 4’s apply. I’m building on their interest in friendships to create opportunities for them to
work in groups. They also need practice with �ine-motor skills to be ready for the increased emphasis on
writing that they will be doing in their class next year.

Table 6.3 displays the state early learning standards that Phyllis has been working on.

Table 6.3 Early Learning Standards

Standard Substandards

Approaches to Learning
AL 2. Children show curiosity, eagerness,
and satisfaction as learners.
AL 3. Children demonstrate initiative,
engagement, and persistence in learning.
AL 5. Children extend their learning
through the use of memory, reasoning,
and problem-solving skills.

AL-3K-2.2 Demonstrate eagerness and interest as learners by
responding to what they observe.
AL-3K-3.3 Show ability to focus attention on favorite activities
for brief periods of time (5 to 10 minutes).
AL-3K-5.1 Talk about prior events and personal experiences.
AL-3K-5.2 Use prior knowledge to understand new experiences.

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Social and Emotional Development
SE2. Children demonstrate self-control,
respect, and responsibility.

SE-3K-2.2 Use classroom materials responsibly with modeling
and guidance from adults.

Language and Literacy
LL 1. Understanding and using literary
texts
LL2. Understanding and using
informational texts
LL3. Learning to read
LL4. Developing written communication
LL5. Producing written communication in
a variety of forms
LL6. Applying the skills of inquiry and
oral communication

ELA-3K-1.1 Explore realistic books and materials in classroom
centers.
ELA-3K-2.1 Explore realistic books and materials in classroom
centers.
ELA-3K-3.1 Rehearse vocabulary by identifying familiar objects
pictured in books.
ELA-3K-3.19 Begin connecting text read aloud with personal
experiences.
ELA-3K-4.3 Tells a brief story (one or two ideas).
ELA-3K-4.8 Participate in small-group re�lections on recent
event.
ELA-3K-5-3 Identify and brie�ly describe important people,
objects, and events in their world.
ELA-3K-6.1. Ask “why” questions about things in their world.
ELA-3K-6.3 Classify familiar objects by one or two observable
attributes.

Mathematics
M1. Mathematics processes
M3. Algebra
M4. Geometry
M5. Measurement
M6. Data analysis and probability

M-3K-1.2 Begin to make predictions based on appearance and
experience.
M-3K-1.5 Begin to see how similar items can be grouped
together.
M-3K-1.7 Show an awareness of numbers in a personally
meaningful context.
M-4K-3.2 Identify and copy a simple pattern.
M-3K-3.4 Recognize similar objects in the environment by color,
shape. or size.
M-3K-4.1 Recognize simple shapes in the environment.
M-3K-4.2 Match shapes in the environment.
M-3K-4.3 Begin to show an understanding of the common
positional words up, down, under, over, and in.
M-3K-5.2 Compare the size of objects.
M-3K-5.6 Begin to show awareness of time concepts.
M-4K-6.1 Organize and represent data with real objects.

Physical Growth and Health
PD 2. Fine motor control: Children use
their �ingers and hands in ways that
develop hand-eye coordination, strength,
control, and small-object manipulation.

PD-3K-2.2 Use hand-eye coordination to perform simple tasks.

Identifying important considerations about children’s developmental and cultural characteristics, interests, and
needs Phyllis explained what she had observed and learned from evaluating and re�lecting about recent activities
with the children:

This group of children gets along very well most of the time and can be frequently observed working intently
together in pairs or groups of three on a common focus, such as a light-table construction, or making a road
for the trucks on the playground. They spend a lot of time outside collecting and sorting small things like
leaves and acorns. In circle discussions, some of the children are really beginning to understand how a
question is different from a statement or anecdote. When I was writing down their favorite family recipes for
a cookbook, I also noticed narratives becoming less rambling and more focused and related to the topic. A

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A concept map is different from a plan for activities. It focuses on the goals or objectives of the unit.
Speci�ic activities are derived from the ideas represented.

Children are often fascinated by magnifying glasses;
one of their favorite pastimes is looking for insects.

© iStockphoto / Thinkstock

couple of them have asked me to put out more books about
nature. Some of them are really fascinated with “big words,”
and the magnifying glasses in the Discovery Center are very
popular lately.

Selection of a topic or theme that provides opportunities to meet
objectives
Phyllis continued,

We just �inished planting tomato and strawberry plants, bean
seeds, and an amaryllis bulb. We learned about pollination and
talked brie�ly about “good” insects. I noticed that a lot of the
children were curious about the insects they might see in our
garden, in particular ladybugs and butter�lies, and they have

been looking for both on the playground. They have been asking me to reread some of their favorite stories
about bugs. The weather is getting very warm, so we can spend lots of time outside, and I think this might
be a good time to pursue a study about insects, starting with a focus on ladybugs and butter�lies.

Brainstorming ideas for activities that support and connect different areas of the curriculum As Stephanie and
Phyllis began to plan the thematic unit, they brainstormed ideas and concepts that would support the standards they
are working on and what they have observed about the children lately. They used the �ive categories of the standards
listed in Table 6.3 to organize a concept map of ideas (Figure 6.5). When teachers brainstorm, they record any idea
that might be relevant to the topic and appropriate to the developmental levels of the children; at this stage it is not
necessary to have a speci�ic plan for an activity or to make a commitment to enact every idea on the map. It is simply
an ef�icient and effective strategy for generating and organizing possibilities that may or may not ultimately be feasible
to include in the unit plan.

As they continued to brainstorm, listing ideas for particular activities and experiences that would support the concept
map, they thought about the centers in their room and materials on hand or that could easily be procured or created
(Figure 6.6).

Creating and scheduling plans for lessons and activities—In this step of the planning process, the teachers took
their ideas for activities and experiences and blocked out a week-at-a-glance schedule for three weeks, using the daily
schedule as a framework:

Week one: Insects (focus on lifecycle)
Week two: Ladybugs
Week three: Butter�lies

Figure 6.5: Insects Concept Map

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This organizer represents ideas for activities that will support the concepts map and indicates where
they will take place.

As she continued to research resources for the topic, Phyllis was delighted to discover that she could order butter�ly
and ladybug larvae online. She decided that this would provide a great opportunity to link many of the activities
together and give the children �irst-hand experience with observation of the life cycle of insects. She added to her
plans a “release party” on the playground and recording the children’s daily observations of the metamorphosis
process in a class log/chart, with the possibility of making a book to tell the story of what the children observed.

Planning for a balance of individual, small-group, and large-group activities As the teachers created week-to-week
plans (Table 6.4), they made decisions about how activities and discussions would be best implemented as whole
group, small group, or individual format. They also thought carefully about how to provide for a balance of child-
directed exploratory play and teacher-directed learning experiences.

Figure 6.6: Brainstorming Ideas for Activities and Experiences

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Table 6.4: Week-at-a-Glance Plans for Insect Unit

Sun�lower Week-at-a-Glance Planner

Week April 30 to May 4 May 8 to May 11 May 14 to May 18

Study
topic

Butter�lies/Insects Insects: Ladybugs Insects: Butter�lies

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Special
center
activities

Caterpillars to study

Bugs, bug catchers, and sifters
in the sensory table

Butter�ly, ladybug, and other
insect puzzles

Special snack: butter�ly
crackers

Make coffee-�ilter butter�lies

Pretend to be butter�lies

Felt board butter�ly life cycle

Newly hatched
ladybugs to study

Bugs, bug catchers,
and sifters in the
sensory table

Butter�ly, ladybug, and
other insect puzzles

Special snack:
ladybugs made from
English muf�ins with
jam and chocolate
chips or raisins

Paint ladybugs at easel

Pretend to be
ladybugs and/or other
insects with wing
costumes, etc.

Magnetic ladybug
story

Newly hatched ladybugs to study

Bugs, bug catchers, and sifters in the
sensory table

Butter�ly, ladybug, and other insect
puzzles

Special snacks: butter�ly pasta,
drinking “nectar” from �lower straws

Make symmetrical butter�ly wings

Pretend to be butter�lies
Felt board butter�ly life cycle

Small Group

Monday Butter�ly matching/memory
game

No school Butter�ly shape graphing

Tuesday Continue butter�ly
matching/memory game

How many spots on
the ladybug? Craft and
math activity

Continue butter�ly shape graphing

Wednesday Yoga Yoga, garden bug-hunt
board game

Yoga

Thursday Make symmetrical butter�ly
wings

Make antennae for
ladybug matching
game

Butter�ly life-cycle sequencing

Friday Finish butter�ly wings Continue to make
antennae; ladybug
release in playground
garden

Finish butter�ly sequencing; butter�ly
release party

Large Group

Books of
the week

Butter�lies, I am a Caterpillar,
Waiting for Wings, Very
Hungry Caterpillar, Ten Little
Caterpillars, Butter�ly Alphabet,
The Butter�ly Kiss, Over in the
Garden, The Lamb and the
Butter�ly, Caterpillar to
Butter�ly

Ladybug on the Move,
Lara Ladybug, Bubba
and Trixie, Ladybug,
Ladybug, Where are
you Going? Five Little
Ladybugs, and various
ladybug information
books

Monarch Butter�ly, Waiting for Wings,
Very Hungry Caterpillar, Ten Little
Caterpillars, The Butter�ly Kiss, Over
in the Garden, The Lamb and the
Butter�ly, Caterpillar to Butter�ly,
Butter�ly Counting Book, Butter�lies,
the Caterpillar and the Pollywog

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Phyllis designs a simple task-based activity to use as an additional assessment activity, asking children
to place pictures of the stages of the life cycle in proper order.

Songs of
the week

“Gentle, Gentle Butter�ly,”
“Mr. Caterpillar”

“I Wish I Were a
Ladybug,”
“Five Little Ladybugs”

“Gentle, Gentle Butter�ly,”
“Mr. Caterpillar”

Large-
group
activities

Learning/discussing the
stages of a butter�ly’s life and
pretending to be each stage

Vocabulary: chrysalis,
proboscis, symmetry,
metamorphosis

Learning/discussing
the stages of a
ladybug’s life;
characteristics of an
insect

Vocabulary: larva,
pupa, aphid, antennae,
metamorphosis

Learning/discussing the stages of a
butter�ly’s life and pretending to be
each stage

Vocabulary: chrysalis, proboscis,
symmetry, metamorphosis

Planning for accommodations to address the needs of individual children There was one child in Phyllis’s class
with a sensory processing disorder and language delay; this child was easily overwhelmed and Phyllis made notes
about particular activities he might �ind soothing (sand table, sponge printing, easel painting). She also noted activities
he might not enjoy (matching/memory games and puzzles, using the magnifying glasses, and dancing). She included in
her planning looking for audiotapes at the public library for some of the stories they would be using to include in the
listening center so that he could use the headphones to screen out classroom noise.

Deciding on how to evaluate children’s learning to determine the extent to which the unit objectives and learning
standards are met Phyllis and Stephanie decided that the matching and memory games, observation log, felt board
stories, and whole group discussions could also serve as assessments. As Phyllis’s children were a bit older, she
devised an additional activity for cutting/pasting pictures to represent each stage of the life cycle on a timeline that
she could do with each child in small group or individually (Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7: Lifecycle Strip

Preparing materials and resources With plans in hand, the teachers then took stock of available materials and
supplies and made a list of those to add to the classroom centers and what was needed for teacher-directed small-
and large-group activities (Table 6.5). In the book list, they noted with an asterisk those they would have to get from
the public library. They also noted materials they would create/make for the unit with their classroom teaching
assistants.

Arranging the environment Finally, Phyllis ordered the insect larvae kit online and made a “to-do” list. Stephanie
made a trip to the public library and worked with her assistant to construct the teacher-made materials. They
referred to the plan for week one to set out the items needed in centers for exploration and play and organized what
would be needed for small- and large-group activities from day to day. In weekly newsletters, they announced the
coming study and invited parents to send in any books or interesting insect-related materials they might want to
share with the class. Figure 6.8 displays some of the materials and activities that were incorporated into the plan for
this unit.

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Activities focusing on honey and bumblebees were added to the unit, some as extensions of activities
already in place and others new.

Making adaptations to the plan as the unit progresses based on observations about learning and interests As the
unit progressed, both teachers made notations in their daily journals, jotting down anecdotes, observations, and
questions as they conducted activities and guided exploratory experiences. They rearranged some of the materials
and noticed in particular that the children were very excited and engaged in the progress of the ladybug and butter�ly
larvae. As anticipation built for their eventual release in the garden, Stephanie observed that the children framed the
event as a birthday party. She explored this idea at circle time and in small-group discussions and decided to help the
children make a birthday cake, decorations (ladybug hats and butter�ly antennae), and invitations to the party
(younger children in the adjacent classroom).

As the third week began, Phyllis observed that interest in insects had not waned but continued at a high level. Flowers
had emerged on the strawberries and tomato plants by this time, questions about pollination continued, and the
children began to ask questions about bees. In addition, they knew that unlike the innocuous ladybugs and butter�lies,
bees have stingers, and they wondered what they were for. Phyllis decided to continue the unit with her group of
children for another week to focus on bees, adding to her concept and activity maps. Figure 6.8 displays the
additional activities and materials she selected for learning about bees.

At the end of the fourth week, Phyllis was pleased that she had made the decision to extend the unit on insects, as
she recorded the following statements/quotes the children offered during discussion about what they learned:

What We Have Learned about Bees
They have 2 plus 3 eyes: that equals 5
You can see out of their wings
Girl bees sting and boy bees don’t
When the mommy or the eggs are in danger, the girl bee stings them
They make honey from nectar
They sprinkle pollen on the �lowers to make them grow
Boy bees (drones) don’t do much but girl bees (workers) do
The queen bee is the boss
There are lots of bees in the hive
They make honey in the honeycomb
The honeycomb is shaped like a hexagon
. . . and a hexagon has six sides

Figure 6.8: Week Four: Bees

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Table 6.5: Materials for Insect Unit

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Emergent Project: Power, Force, and Motion

Planning for an emergent study represents the other end of the road-trip analogy, a “bottom-up” process. This type of
planning focuses on identifying starting points for the exploration of an idea or topic, developing insightful
observations via teacher-child interactions, documentation about what is happening, and expanding the plan
accordingly. The teacher consistently asks:

What did I see?
What does it mean?
What does it tell me about the children’s needs, interests, knowledge, and skills?
What might happen next or how can I help children to further the inquiry/exploration? (Chaille, 2008; Gestwicki,
2011 Helm, 2007)

Planning for an emergent project generally proceeds as follows:

1. Observe/identify an interest through exploratory activities, active listening, focused discussions, and representation
of children’s initial ideas about their thinking.

2. Choose a tentative topic.
3. Provide materials and resources to support multiple possibilities for directions the inquiry might take.
4. Document what happens.

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5. Organize and re�lect on documentation.
6. Adjust future planning to adapt to the direction of the inquiry.
7. Account for learning standards as the project proceeds.

Observe/identify an interest or topic through exploratory activities, active listening, focused discussions, and
representations of children’s initial ideas about their thinking This study was initiated by a team of two teachers
(Mary and Jane) and their assistants, working with a group of twenty-eight 4- and 5-year-old children. It started with
observations they made early in the school year about the children’s play and interest in superheroes, documented in
the case study notes in Chapter 1. As time went on, the teachers continued to observe that this interest did not wane
but continued to evolve, especially in the dramatic play area, where many scenarios and characters were developed
and acted out. It also showed up during writing workshop time, where the children’s daily dictations and story writing
contained similar characters and story lines, and in daily play outside.

Late in the spring, Mary worked with some of the children who asked the teachers to convert the dramatic play area
to a woodland forest. They subsequently started requesting time several days in a row to present “plays” that
featured fairies, transformers, and animals of different kinds. Always the theme of these stories involved the exercise
of “special powers” to solve problems or explain phenomena the children did not understand. One of the stories
developed by �ive children (three girls and two boys) was dictated to the teachers as follows:

Captured in a Woodland Forest

Once upon a time, on a spring night, a troop of fairies were visiting a woodland forest. Owls hooted and
small animals were scurrying in the forest. The �ire�lies were dancing among the trees and the little fairies
tried to catch them. When they got bored, they began to play tag. A hungry cat was stalking a mouse in the
bushes when he got distracted by the darting fairies. He chased the fairies and when he caught one, he took
it off to a cave to play. Meanwhile, the transformers were in their hideout testing their new supersecret spy
equipment. They heard the fairies’ call for help. They grabbed their powers and �lew to the aid of the fairies.
They followed the trail of the cat and found him nibbling on the fairy’s leg. They used their powers to freeze
the cat. Two of them returned the fairy to her troop. While the fairies were celebrating the return of their
friend, the other transformers [used their powers again to] unfreeze the cat. Then they fed it some yummy
cat food and took him back to his home.

Concurrently, the teachers were observing extended play in the block area and on the playground that focused on the
building of ramps and catapults. They had also recorded children’s comments during the water-table activities
described in Table 6.1 (sinking and �loating). Among them were several comments about the amount of force it took
to sink a boat and a loud argument about the power of water to move or control heavy objects.

Grayson: When I pressed on the boat, it went down.

Sami: When you push down, the boat always sinks.

Luke: That’s because your hand is heavy.

Zach: But boats can come back up.

Finn: Well, can water move things up?

Jon: No, that won’t work because water won’t go uphill.

Eli (shouting): Then how does it come out of the shower?

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This graphic organizer indicates Mary and Jane’s initial thinking about open-ended activities that would
help direct the project.

Finally, Mary and Jane realized that the children were very intrigued by a new feature of the physical environment—
two large plastic barrels that had recently been installed on a platform on the playground for rainwater collection.
The children intently observed what happened to the water after rain showers, asked many questions, and offered
theories about how the barrels worked.

Choose a tentative topic As the teachers revisited their observation journals and looked back through the children’s
writing journals, their insight was that the concepts of power, force, and motion were themes the children had already
been exploring for months; but because the contexts for this exploration had seemed so disconnected, they had not
recognized it before. With several weeks left in the school year, they decided to focus planning on an exploration of
these three interrelated concepts.

They knew from what the children had done already that there would be many opportunities to address science,
math, and literacy standards. In focused discussions with the children, they created an initial KWL chart (Table 6.6)
with them—a graphic organizer that organizes thinking into three categories: “what we know,” “what we want to
know,” and “how we can �ind out.” The teachers transcribed the students’ exact words, which helped them make
speci�ic plans about how to begin the study.

Table 6.6: KWL Chart on Power, Force, and Motion

K: What We Know W: What We Want to Know L: How We Can Learn/Find
Out

Water is strong.
Water has invisible powers.
Water can’t go up.
Wind is strong.
Wind is invisible, like water, but you
can feel it.
Sails make boats go if they don’t have
a motor.
Things go down by “theirselves,” but
not up.
Superheroes have special powers that
regular kids don’t have.
Machines help us do work.

How does water move things?
How do you make water?
How can you make water go up?
Is power the same as magic?
What makes things go fast if they
don’t have a motor?
How come machines are stronger
than people?

Make a waterfall.
Make more boats.
Ask the engineer how the
barrels work.
See how fast we can make our
cars go.
Make a lot of ramps.
Make cool “constraptions” to
get things to go up.
Find some books about ramps.

Figure 6.9: Brainstorming for Exploring Power, Force, and Motion

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Provide materials and resources to support multiple possibilities for directions the inquiry might take As with
thematic unit planning, teachers use brainstorming to organize their ideas about potential activities and explorations.
Mary and Jane’s brainstorming included the ideas represented in Figure 6.9 to investigate the questions and theories
represented in the children’s KWL chart.

Since much of the KWL chart contained water-related questions and ideas, Mary and Jane decide to focus initial
planning on how water moves from one place to another. Materials and equipment they had on hand included:

A water table
Flexible tubing and an electric pump
Large interlocking playground blocks with modular sections designed to channel water
Hoses and water source outside the classroom
Large tubs
Funnels, buckets, watering cans, squirt bottles, and other assorted implements that can be used with water
Several wading pools
A garden sprinkler
Ping-Pong balls, small cars, and many other small waterproof objects

The teachers planned two initial activities with water on the playground over the course of the week, combining the
morning times when children are usually engaged in center-based activities and outside play. The framework for these
activities is represented in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10: Week One Water Activities

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During the �irst week, as Mary and Jane began predicting the direction of the long-term study, they
focused on moving water.

The challenge of designing water-moving systems was dif�icult, but the children were very invested in
this part of the initial activities and every design presented was subsequently built and tested.

Document what happens Mary and Jane review their notes and the drawings done by the children.

Figure 6.11: Designing a Water-Moving System

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Among their observations, they note that:

The children are highly motivated to get water to move uphill but realize that without the pump, no matter how they
adjust the block/channeling structure, it won’t happen.
They are very interested in trying to manipulate the water channels to increase the speed of the moving water so
that their balls and cars will go faster; they become focused on making steeper inclines but realize that the
strength/power of the pump is limited and that, at some point, it won’t work. They ask if there is a way to make the
pump have more power.
Some children become highly engaged with dumping water out of the pools and onto the ground as they notice that
the water spilling out of the pools runs downhill across the playground, moving the wood mulch ground cover and
creating erosion channels that go in different directions. They experiment with Ping-Pong balls to see how they can
make them move through the mud.
Some children express increased interest in the rain-barrel system as they observe the plumbing and realize that
somehow water inside the barrels must be moving up and down without the aid of a pump.
Children working in the water table �igure out that the spray bottles operate on the same principle as the water
pump, and they begin taking them to different places on the playground to experiment with their ability to move
leaves, wood mulch, rocks, sticks, etc. They ask if they can take them apart to see if they can �igure out where their
power comes from.

Organize and re�lect on documentation After several days of water activities, in their subsequent discussions with
the children, the KWL chart was revised to add:

K: Spray bottles are pumps (but we don’t know why they work); some water can go up without a pump; we
can make water go faster if we make it steeper; water can move dirt to make little rivers; some of our
designs worked really good, but others not at all; does the water in the sink and bathtub have a pump?

W: How does a pump work? How can water go up without a pump? Do rivers only go downhill? What
happens to the water in the rain barrels if they get full?

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L: We need to ask the engineer to come over and explain how the rain barrels work; we can look on the
Internet to �ind out more about pumps; maybe the engineer can tell us about pumps, too.

Adjust future planning to adapt to the direction of the inquiry To proceed with the inquiry, Mary and Jane decided
to focus on three things based on the interests represented in the children’s observations and questions: (1) how the
water harvesting system works, (2) how pumps work, and (3) how vertical drop affects the descent speed of objects.
Their next stage of planning included:

Consulting with the environmental science graduate students who installed the rain-barrel water collection system.
The students suggest painting a mural on the wall behind the rain barrels to diagram how the system works and
collaborating with the children on a book about water harvesting.
Identifying resources providing information about how pumps work. They printed off images and diagrams of
different kinds of simple pumps to add to the classroom library and share in group discussions.
Bringing in the bicycle pump that they use to blow up playground balls and let the children use it.
Bringing in several different common items with simple hand-pumping (nonpressurized for safety purposes)
mechanisms including toothpaste, hand lotion, insect repellent, sunscreen, and a variety of squirt guns, including a
supersoaker.
Adding �lexible plastic track to the block center that the children can build elevated systems for their small cars.
Adding wood panels on the playground to be used with the large interlocking playground blocks for constructing
larger ramps.
Continuing with waterfall exploration by building a water wall, providing recycled bottles and funnels, tubing, and a
�lexible dryer duct that the children could attach in different ways to a wood panel to channel water.
Encouraging children to use paper and markers to make large diagrams of the systems they are constructing to
show how they work.

Account for learning standards as the project proceeds As this project moved forward, Mary and Jane repeated this
cycle of steps several times as they continued to plan. The project continued for more than a month. They used a
checklist to indicate which of the South Carolina learning standards were being addressed. Like Phyllis and
Stephanie’s thematic unit, this work enabled them to make progress on meeting many of the standards for which they
are accountable. Their visual and written documentation of the children’s work provided ample evidence that the
standards were being met.

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Chapter Summary
Planning is a comprehensive process that includes making decisions about how to address curriculum, respond to
the needs and interests of children and their families, work with colleagues, and arrange the physical setting.
Planning also includes considering all the decisions you make within the context of developmentally appropriate
practices and your belief system.
The decisions you make about how to structure the physical environment of the classroom will be affected by the
curriculum you use, speci�ic principles of good design, and aesthetics.
Principles of design that are considered when planning the environment include a vision for the kind of environment
you want to create and attention to safety, movement, permanent features of the classroom, and planning space and
materials for the kinds of behaviors and activities you want to promote.
Teachers use primary resources from the authors of curricula, research about development and learning, and
spokespersons for the �ield of early childhood education in planning.
Learning standards serve as a guide, not a substitute for curriculum. Purchased curricula include many different
kinds of resources such as scope/sequence or pacing guides that can be helpful.
Approaches to planning can be considered as a continuum of thought. A top-down process begins with standards
and objectives as the teacher makes subsequent decisions about materials, activity plans, adaptations, and timing.
An emergent approach to curriculum represents a bottom-up process driven by the interests of children. The
teacher plans initial activities and the plan unfolds over time, as the teacher documents learning and standards,
re�lects, and adapts to pursue the direction it takes.

Discussion Questions

1. As you think about planning a classroom environment, what is your vision of the way it might look and feel? How
will you personalize it?

2. Find the kindergarten learning standards online at the state department of education for the state in which you live
or work. Choose a content (subject) or developmental area. Look at the standards and the indicators or benchmarks
for it. Brainstorm some ideas about topics and activities that might support learning about the standard.

3. Think about the planning styles described in this chapter; which do you think best represents your natural
inclinations about how to organize and plan activities? Why?

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

Atelier
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A special area in a Reggio Emilia school that is set up like an art studio and serves as a dedicated space for working
on projects

Benchmark
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A statement in learning standards about when expected progress should occur

Brainstorming
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Generating ideas about possibilities without necessarily committing to them as a plan

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Concept map
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Ideas about concepts that can be learned in a study organized to show how they relate to different areas of the
curriculum

Emergent study
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A long-term investigation about a topic that evolves over time rather than being entirely preplanned

Indicator
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A statement in standards about a typical behavior or action showing that a child is meeting the standard

KWL chart
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Jaruszewic.6108.18.2/sections/front_matter/books/Jaruszewic.6108.18.2/sections/front_ma

A graphic organizer that categorizes brainstorming ideas into “what we know, what we want to know, and how we
might learn”

Pacing guide
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A tool that provides sequencing information about when different aspects of a curriculum should be addressed

Primary resources
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Those resources that come directly from an author or developer of a curriculum

Scope and sequence
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Tool provided with some curricula that indicates when and how different skills and concepts are addressed

Secondary resources
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Information and resources about a curriculum that are developed by people other than the original authors

Thematic unit
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A long-term study that is generally planned in advance

Online Resources for Using Graphic Organizers

Birbili, M. (2006). Mapping knowledge: Concept maps in early childhood education. Early Childhood Research &
Practice, 8(2). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v8n2/birbili.html (http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v8n2/birbili.html) . This
article explains how a particular graphic organizer, a concept map, can be used to help children organize and
process their thinking.

EduPlace: An online site sponsored by Houghton-Mif�lin that provides different kinds of templates; many are designed
for elementary school and focus on English and language arts but might be adapted for use with preschoolers or

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http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v8n2/birbili.html

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as teacher planning tools. http://www.eduplace.com/kids/hme/k_5/graphorg/
(http://www.eduplace.com/kids/hme/k_5/graphorg/) .

EdHelper: Illustrated examples of graphic organizers with links to templates for many different kinds. Many are
designed for elementary-aged children and are not appropriate for preschoolers.
http://edhelper.com/teachers/graphic_organizers.htm (http://edhelper.com/teachers/graphic_organizers.htm) ;

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