For the assignment answer the following question in a 250-300 word essay. You will have to you the textbook and only the textbook as your source of information. If you quote information from the textbook you must include a parenthetical citation and include a citation for the textbook at the end of your response (see below). My expectation is that you craft a quality response in your own words that does not simply copy large sections of textbook material.
Which are the most widely employed ways of using renewable resources to generate electricity? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using such resources? What sorts of physical environments and locations are best suited to each of the renewable energy sources?
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Introduction to
Geography
Mark Bjelland, David Kaplan,
Jon Malinowski, Arthur Getis
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Because learning changes everything.®
The Geography of
Natural Resources
Chapter 12
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
Overview
• Resource Terminology.
• Energy Resources and
Industrialization.
• Nonrenewable Energy
Resources.
• Renewable Energy
Resources.
• Nonfuel Mineral Resources.
• Land Resources.
• Resource Management.
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Resource Terminology
1
Resource
• Naturally occurring, exploitable material that a society perceives
to be useful to its economic and material well-being.
Availability of natural resources a function of:
• Physical characteristics of the resources.
• Human economic and technological conditions.
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Resource Terminology
2
Two kinds of natural resources
• Renewable.
• Nonrenewable.
Renewable resources
Replaced by natural processes.
Perpetual resources.
• From sources that are virtually inexhaustible.
Potentially renewable resources.
• Can last indefinitely if natural replacement rate is not exceeded.
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Resource Terminology
3
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Resource Terminology
4
Nonrenewable resources
Exist in finite amounts.
• May be reusable.
Resource reserves
Some have been identified, others undiscovered.
Proved (usable) reserves.
• Can be extracted profitably from known deposits.
Subeconomic.
• May become economic with improved technology or increased prices.
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Energy Resources and Industrialization
1
Energy
• Potential energy.
• Kinetic energy.
Energy is used to make all other resources
available.
Sun is ultimate source of all energy.
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Energy Resources and Industrialization
2
Wood
• Predominant source of fuel for most of human history.
Fossil fuels (nonrenewable resource)
• Economic base of wealth in industrialized countries.
Correlation between energy consumption and gross
national income per capita.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources
Crude oil, coal, natural gas, oil shale, tar sands, and
nuclear energy.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources: Crude
Oil (Petroleum)
• Today, crude oil is the leading source of primary
energy (excluding wood and other traditional
fuels) consumed in the world.
• Refined into waxes, tars, and various fuels.
• In U.S. transport fuels account for 2/3 of all oil
consumption.
• As of 2018, the U.S. consumed 20.5% of the
world’s oil.
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Producers and Consumers of Oil in
2018
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Crude Oil
1
Efficiency of pipelines, supertankers and other
modes of transportation plus low cost and high
energy density of oil have helped create a world
dependent on petroleum.
Gave oil-exporting countries tremendous power.
Oil “shocks” of 1973 to 1974 and 1979 to 1980.
• Encouraged research for alternative energy sources.
• Encouraged conservation and energy efficiency.
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Major International Crude Oil
Shipments, 2018
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Crude Oil
2
Reserves.
Finite.
Unevenly distributed around the world.
Proved reserves will only last about 50 years at current rate of
production.
Largest reserves are in the Middle East.
Pessimists: production could peak in 2020s.
Optimists: supplies will last far into the future.
• Advances in exploration, recovery and production.
• Oil below sea floor.
• Undiscovered oil fields.
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Regional Shares of Proved Oil Reserves,
in Billions of Barrels, December 31, 2018
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Crude Oil, Shale Gas, Coal Seam Gas
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking).
Fracturing rock by a pressurized liquid.
Horizontal drilling.
60% of all new oil and gas well worldwide.
Greatly increased oil and gas reserves.
Environmental impact.
• Contamination of ground water.
• Depletion of fresh water.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Coal
1
• Fuel basis for Industrial Revolution.
• Very large world supplies, yet concentrated in
middle latitudes of Northern Hemisphere.
• China and the U.S. are dominant producers.
• Enough coal in U.S. for 300 or more years.
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Regional Shares of Proved Coal
Reserves, December 31, 2018
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Coal
2
• Industrialized nations – Used to generate electricity and to
make coke for steel production.
• Less developed nations – Used for home heating and
cooking, to generate electricity and fuel factories.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Coal
3
Not a resource of constant quality.
Ranking reflects transformation of organic material:
• Peat through lignite through bituminous coal to anthracite.
Grade: based on content of waste materials (for
example, ash and sulfur).
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Coal
4
Good quality bituminous coals and anthracite
increasingly more expensive to mine.
Extraction.
• Surface (strip) mining.
• Underground (shaft) mining.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Coal
5
Ecological, health and safety problems associated
with mining and consumption of coal.
• Disruption of surface.
• Contamination of lakes and streams.
• Release of toxins into atmosphere.
Environmental protection laws.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Coal
6
Bulky and not as easily transported as non-solid
fuels.
Usually consumed in general vicinity of mines.
Development of major heavy industrial centers on or
near coal fields, example.:
• Pittsburgh.
• The Ruhr.
• English Midlands.
• Donets district of Ukraine.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Natural Gas
1
Highly efficient and versatile.
Requires little processing.
Burns cleanly.
Of fossil fuels has least impact on the environment.
Accounts for 25% of global energy consumption.
Mostly used for industrial and residential heating.
Used for generating electricity.
Chemically processed into products.
• Plastics, insecticides, synthetic fibers.
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Proved Natural Gas Reserves,
December 31, 2018
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Natural Gas
2
Flows easily and cheaply by pipeline.
International trade is difficult due to shipping challenges.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG).
• Liquefied by refrigeration for storage or transport.
• Extremely hazardous.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Natural Gas
3
Reserves.
• Difficult to estimate supplies, yet finite resource.
• Worldwide, the Middle East dominates the proved gas
reserves with 38% of world supplies.
• Will last about 50 years at current rates of production.
• Developing countries may have undiscovered
deposits.
• U.S.: Texas-Louisiana and Kansas-Oklahoma-New
Mexico regions dominate production.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources: Oil
Shale and Oil Sands
1
Oil shale.
Sedimentary rock rich in organic material (kerogen).
• Extracted and converted into a crude oil by distillation.
Enormous world reserves.
• U.S. – Rich deposits in Green River Formation (Colorado,
Utah, Wyoming).
• Brazil, Russia, China and Australia.
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Oil Shale Deposits
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources: Oil
Shale and Oil Sands
2
Oil sand.
Mixture of sand, clay and silt (85%), water (5%) and
bitumen (10%).
Bitumen is too thick to flow out of the rock, so the tar
sand must be mined, crushed, and heated to extract
petroleum.
Resources many times larger than conventional oil
resources.
• Major deposits in Alberta.
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Oil Sands
b: © Blackfox Images/Alamy Stock Photo
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources: Oil
Shale and Tar Sands
High monetary costs.
High environmental costs:
• Requires great deal of energy and fresh water.
• Disturbs large areas of land.
• Produces enormous amounts of waste.
• Production produces greenhouse gases.
• Pollutes air, water and surrounding soil.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Nuclear Energy
1
Nuclear fission.
Controlled splitting of an atom to release energy.
Uranium-235.
About 440 commercial nuclear reactors supply:
• About 16% of world’s electricity.
• About 20% of electricity in the U.S.
• More than 75% of electricity in France and Lithuania.
Some countries rejected nuclear option: Denmark, Italy,
Greece, Australia and New Zealand
Germany is decommissioning reactors
China and India are building new reactors
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Leading Producers and Consumers
of Nuclear Energy, 2018
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Nuclear Energy
2
Nuclear fission.
Recent revival of interest in nuclear power worldwide.
• Best way to reduce carbon emissions and slow rate of
climate change.
Public acceptance of nuclear energy has risen and
fallen with the technology’s safety record.
High costs, safety concerns, lack of safe storage for
radioactive waste, potential terrorist targets.
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Operating Nuclear Power Plants in
the United States
b: Source: Data from World Nuclear Association
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Nuclear Energy
3
Nuclear fusion.
Process used by sun and stars.
Combining two atoms to release energy.
• Deuterium + tritium form helium + energy.
Advantages.
• One cubic meter of ocean water, source of deuterium atoms,
contains as much potential energy as world’s entire known oil
reserves.
• Radioactive processes are short-lived.
• Waste products are benign.
• Does not emit carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide or nitric oxide.
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Nonrenewable Energy Resources:
Nuclear Energy
4
Nuclear fusion.
Disadvantages.
• Enormous construction costs.
• Potential health and environmental costs.
Technological problems with controlled fusion.
• Need material for containment vessel resistant to radiation and
temperatures ≥ 100 million degrees centigrade.
• Tremendous potential if overcome.
• International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor.
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Renewable Energy Resources
• Biomass fuels.
A biogas generator in Nepal
• Hydropower.
• Solar energy.
• Geothermal energy.
• Wind power.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Biomass Fuels
1
Organic material produced by plants, animals, or
microorganisms that can be burned directly as a
heat source or converted into a liquid or gas.
Most common renewable source of energy.
Two major sources of biomass.
• Trees, grain and sugar crops, and oil-bearing plants
such as sunflowers.
• Wastes, including crop residues, animal wastes,
garbage and human sewage.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Biomass Fuels
2
Wood.
• Source of most biomass energy.
• Key source of energy in developing countries, used for
space heating, cooking, water heating and lighting.
• Dependence on wood is leading to severe depletion of
forests in some places.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Biomass Fuels
3
Ethanol.
Alcohol produced from plants.
• Brazil:
• Ethanol derived from sugarcane.
• All gasoline contains 25% ethanol.
• By 2010 90% of new cars had flex-fuel engines.
• U.S.:
• In the United States, ethanol is blended with gasoline at a ratio of
5% to 10% as an oxygenate.
• Most ethanol derived from corn.
• Corn takes a lot of land to grow. To replace an additional 5% of U.S.
gasoline consumption, roughly 117 million acres would have to be
planted in corn.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Biomass Fuels
4
Ethanol.
Alcohol produced from plants (continued).
• Disadvantages of corn over sugarcane.
•
Sugarcane can be grown on marginal soils, corn requires good land and
heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides.
•
Corn requires a lot of land.
•
Sugarcane is more energy efficient.
•
Sugarcane is cheaper to process.
• Other disadvantages.
•
Corn fields may replace soil and wildlife conservation.
•
Converting corn to fuel may drive up prices of food.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Biomass Fuels
5
Waste.
• Fermenting crop residues and animal and human
refuse to produce methane gas (biogas).
• Backyard fermentation tanks (biodigesters) supply as
many as 35 million people in China.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Hydropower
1
• Second most commonly used renewable energy
source.
• Exploits energy in falling or flowing water to drive
turbines.
• Clean source of energy.
• Location-specific.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Hydropower
2
Global production.
4 countries account
for more than half
world total:
• China.
• Brazil.
• Canada.
• USA.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Hydropower
3
Contribution of hydropower to country’s energy
supplies varies greatly.
• ¾ of electricity in New Zealand, Switzerland, Brazil.
• Virtually all electricity in Paraguay and Norway.
About 7% of all electricity generated in the U.S.
• Vast majority of hydropowered electricity is produced in
Pacific Northwest.
• Six states generate about ⅔ of U.S. hydropower electricity.
• Grand Coulee Dam (Columbia River), Washington: 32% of
U.S. hydropower.
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Leading Hydropower Facilities in the
United States
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Renewable Energy Resources
Hydropower
4
Only about 10% of global potential is being used.
• Unexploited hydropower abundant in Central and
South America, Africa, India and China.
Other advantages of dams.
• Provide flood protection.
• Provide irrigation water.
Disadvantage of hydropower – Costly to transmit
electricity over long distances.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Hydropower
5
Environmental and social costs.
Reservoirs.
• Flood land and villages.
• Displace people.
• Disrupt downstream ecosystems.
• Prevent fish migration.
• Alter streamflow patterns.
• Trap silt.
• Release methane (a greenhouse gas).
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Renewable Energy Resources Solar
Energy
1
• Inexhaustible and nonpolluting.
• Ultimate origin of most forms of utilized energy.
• Chief drawback: diffuse and intermittent.
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Renewable Energy Resources Solar
Energy
2
Two types of solar-energy use:
Hot water and space heating.
Electricity generation.
• Convert solar energy into thermal energy and then
generate electricity, example:
• Parabolic troughs.
• Photovoltaic (PV) cells.
• Convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.
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Parabolic Trough Reflectors
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© Doug Sherman/Geofile RF
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Renewable Energy Resources Solar
Energy
3
Global installation:
• By 2020 Germany had greatest installed solar power capacity.
• Several states and cities in the U.S. offer tax rebates, subsidies
or other incentives to install solar panels on rooftops.
• Research and development needed before solar energy will
make significant contribution to a country’s supply of electricity.
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Renewable Energy Resources
Geothermal Energy
Generated by harnessing naturally occurring steam
or hot water produced by water contact with heated
rocks in the earth’s crust.
Usually available where magmas are near the surface.
• Example, recent volcanic activity above subduction zones.
Used for electricity generation, heating, and cooling.
• Example, Iceland.
• Geothermal heat pumps.
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Geothermal Energy
Figure 12.21a
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Renewable Energy Resources Wind
Power
1
Windmills can turn turbines directly, do not use any
fuel, can be built rather quickly.
Need strong steady winds to operate.
Advantages:
• Do not pollute air or water.
• Do not deplete scarce natural resources.
Technological advances in design.
• Lowered cost of electricity generation.
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Renewable Energy Resources Wind
Power
2
• Great Plains states in U.S. have the greatest total
installed capacity.
• 1990s – Commitment to reducing dependence on
fossil fuels and developing renewable resources
stimulated growth of wind-power installations in
Europe: Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden,
Germany, Spain, and U.K.
• Offshore wind turbine installations expected to
play growing role in the future.
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Renewable Energy Resources Wind
Power
3
b: Source of data: American Wind Energy Association
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Renewable Energy Resources Wind
Power
4
Chief disadvantages.
• Unreliable and intermittent because energy cannot be
easily stored.
• In some countries wind power is most plentiful in
remote areas far from existing power grid – Would
need to build costly new transmission lines.
• Aesthetic impact.
• Hazard to migrating birds (but far less so than the
pollution released by fossil fuels).
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The Relative Abundance, by Weight,
of Elements in the Earth’s Crust
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Nonfuel Mineral Resources
1
Ore.
• Mineral deposit that is concentrated high enough that
it can be extracted at a profit.
• Thus, what is or is not an ore depends on demand,
price and technology and changes over time.
Exploitation of a mineral resource involves six steps:
• Exploration, extraction, concentration,
smelting/refining, transporting, manufacturing.
• Each step requires input of energy and materials.
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Nonfuel Mineral Resources
2
Practicality and profitability of mining a specific
deposit of a mineral is determined by:
• Its value, quantity available, richness of the ore,
distance to market, land acquisition and royalty costs.
Nonrenewable resource.
• Some minerals are so abundant that a ready supply
will exist far into future, example., coal, sand, gravel
and potash.
• Other minerals have a limited number of “years
remaining,” example. silver, zinc and tin.
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Nonfuel Mineral Resources
Distribution of Nonfuel Minerals
1
Larger countries are more likely to contain
commercially exploitable deposits.
Russia, China, Canada, U.S., Brazil, Australia.
• Roughly half of the nonfuel mineral resources.
Many types of minerals are concentrated in a small
number of countries.
Example., South Africa.
• Gold ore, chromium and platinum-group metals.
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Leading Producers of Selected
Minerals
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Nonfuel Mineral Resources
Distribution of Nonfuel Minerals
2
Several countries with large populations are at a
disadvantage with respect to mineral reserves.
• For example, France and Japan (able to import reserves).
• For example, Nigeria and Bangladesh (less able to afford
imports).
No country contains all economically important
mineral resources.
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Nonfuel Mineral Resources
Distribution of Nonfuel Minerals
3
Increasing costs and declining availability
encourage search for substitutes.
• No adequate replacements for cobalt and chromium.
• Some substitutes depend on increasingly scarce and
costly hydrocarbons in their production.
• Many constitute environmental hazards in their use or
disposal.
• Many have high and increasing prices.
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Land Resources Soils
1
Formed by physical and chemical decomposition of
rock material and decay of organic matter.
• Formation equals or exceeds erosion under most
natural conditions.
Erosion is accelerated by removal of vegetation.
Pressures upon land have increased with population
growth.
• For example, clearing and conversion of tropical rain
forests has accelerated erosion.
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Land Resources Soils
2
Desertification.
Conversion of arid and semiarid lands into deserts.
• Due to climatic change and/or human activity (overgrazing,
deforestation, clear cutting).
Africa is most at risk.
Evidence of accelerated soil erosion is found in all
parts of the world.
• Recently at an all-time high in the U.S.
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Desertification
John Allen, Student Atlas of World Geography, 5/e, Map 81, p. 97
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Land Resources Soils
3
Secondary effects of soil erosion.
• Croplands become less productive.
• Siltation of streams and reservoirs accelerates.
• Erosion-borne silt pollutes water supplies.
• Danger of floods increases.
• Costs of maintaining navigation channels grow.
Salinization.
Concentration of salts in topsoil as a result of the evaporation
of surface water.
• Occurs in poorly drained soils in dry climates
• Often as a result of improper irrigation.
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Soil Degradation
Christopher Sutton, Student Atlas of World Geography, 8/e, Map 98, p. 121
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Land Resources Wetlands
1
Vegetated land surfaces periodically or permanently
covered by or saturated with standing water.
Inland wetlands.
• Freshwater bogs, marshes, swamps, floodplains.
Coastal wetlands.
Covered by either fresh or salt water.
Estuarine zone.
• Narrow area of wetlands along coastlines where salt water and
fresh water mix.
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Land Resources Wetlands
2
Perform a number of vital functions.
• Trap and filter silt, pollutants, and nutrients that rivers
bring downstream.
• Replenish aquifers.
• Provide habitat and food for a variety of plants and
animals.
• Absorb floodwaters.
• Stabilize shorelines.
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Land Resources Wetlands
3
Half of the wetlands of the world have been
destroyed.
Growing awareness of importance of wetlands.
• U.S. – Clean Water Act of 1972 plus amendments,
“No net loss” policy since 1989.
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Land Resources Forest Resources
1
Forests cover about ⅓ of world’s land area.
Commercial forests.
Restricted to two global belts:
• Upper mid-latitudes of Northern Hemisphere.
• Equatorial zones of South and Central America, Central Africa
and Southeast Asia.
Northern coniferous forests.
Temperate hardwood forests.
Tropical lowland hardwood forests.
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Major Commercial Forest Regions
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Land Resources Forest Resources
2
Serve a variety of purposes.
• Timber, soil and watershed conservation, wildlife
habitat, recreation, recycling of water, carbon, oxygen.
Clear cutting.
• All the trees removed from a given area.
Selective cutting.
• Medium and large trees cut singly or in small groups.
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Land Resources Forest Resources
3
U.S. Forests.
• Roughly ⅓ of U.S. is forested.
• 155 national forests owned by the public and
managed by the U.S. Forest Service.
• 1960 Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act – national
forests are to be managed for four purposes:
recreation, timber production, watershed protection
and wildlife habitat preservation.
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Land Resources Forest Resources
4
U.S. Forests.
Much timber has been cut in recent years.
• Old growth forests in Washington and Oregon.
Tongass National Forest in Alaska.
• Clear cutting and road building are controversial because
they endanger wildlife habitats.
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Land Resources Forest Resources
5
Tropical Rain Forests
Some countries subsidize conversion of forests.
• To farming, cattle ranching, mining, etc.
• Pressure from growing populations, need for more
agricultural land, expanded demand for fuel and
commercial wood.
Millions of acres are cleared every year.
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Land Resources Forest Resources
6
Tropical Rain Forests
Brazil has the largest area of tropical rain forests.
• One of the highest rates of clearing worldwide.
• Policy of developing the Amazon Basin.
Global concerns about clearing tropical forests.
• Oxygen and carbon balance.
• Contribution to air pollution and climate change.
• Loss of biological diversity.
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Land Resources Forest Resources
7
Deforestation
Incurs heavy environmental, economic and social costs
on local basis.
• Accelerates soil erosion and siltation of streams and
irrigation channels leaving an area vulnerable to flooding
and drought, leading to future shortages of food and
fuelwood.
• Land cleared for agriculture can become unsustainable for
agriculture.
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Resource Management
1
Growing realization that resources can be depleted
or polluted beyond use
Sustainable development
• Satisfies current needs without jeopardizing the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
• Sustainable use of resources – using them at rates within
their capacity for regeneration.
Wise management of resources entails:
• Conservation.
• Reuse.
• Substitution.
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Resource Management
2
Developed countries are in the best position to
promote sustainable development because they are
wealthy enough to invest in research and
technology.
Developing countries:
• See the consumption of material resources by developed
countries as responsible for dwindling supplies or
resources.
• Do not want to be told that they cannot follow the path
toward economic development and prosperity that other
countries have already taken.
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