Ethics and Moral Standard Memo

See the attached document for instructions and expectations for the Memo.

Adapted from Open Technical Communication, an open-source textbook written by Tiffani Reardon, Tamara Powell,

Jonathan Arnett, Monique Logan, and Cassie Race. Available online from: http://open-tc.com

Chapter 3: Ethics in Technical Communication
By: Tamara Powell

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, readers will be able to do the following:

1. Define ethics.
2. Analyze a situation with regard to utility, rights, justice, and care.
3. Explain the importance of ethical behavior.
4. Explain copyright law, why it is important, and how to make ethical decisions regarding it.
5. Explain how to ethically analyze data.
6. Explain how biases can lead to unethical decisions/behavior in technical communication.

Introduction to Ethics

Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us,
this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom
would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices, that which depends on excess and that which
depends on defect; and again, it is a mean because the vices respectively fall short of or exceed what is
right in both passions and actions, while virtue both finds and chooses that which is intermediate. Hence
in respect of its substance and the definition which states its essence virtue is a mean, with regard to
what is best and right an extreme.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II

Ethics is one of the most important topics in technical communication. When you can communicate
clearly and effectively, and when it is your task to help others to understand an object, process, or
procedure, it is your responsibility to do so in an ethical fashion.

After all, good writing isn’t just grammatically correct, or even functional. As Zuidema and Bush state, “If
we define good writing simply as writing that gets the audience to do or think what the writer wants, we
fail to take into consideration the needs or well-being of the audience, and we ignore the ways in which
writing may hurt others or cause harm” (Zuidema and Bush 95). But what does it mean to communicate
ethically with regard to technical communication? There is a lot of confusion regarding what “ethics”
means, and when you drill down to what ethical technical communication means, the answer becomes
very complicated.

We might think asking someone if he or she is an ethical person is the same as asking someone if he or
she is a good person. Certainly, my Aunt Maudie, who always held herself to be the definitive judge of
whether someone was a good person or not, would tell you that a good person does what he or she
feels is right in his or her heart. But the human heart can be very complicated. If you find a dollar on the
floor, what is the right thing to do?

• run around asking anyone if he or she lost a dollar? What if the person who says “yes” is lying
and didn’t lose the dollar? Was it right, then, to give the dollar to him or her? What about the
person who really lost the dollar? How do you know?

• turn the dollar into lost and found?
• keep the dollar, with the rationalization that you probably lost a dollar in the past, and this is

just karma returning that dollar to you?

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Adapted from Open Technical Communication, an open-source textbook written by Tiffani Reardon, Tamara Powell,
Jonathan Arnett, Monique Logan, and Cassie Race. Available online from: http://open-tc.com

• give the dollar to charity with the rationalization that by doing so, at least you know it will do
some good?

Any of these potential answers might feel right in your heart. Such a criterion really isn’t the best to use
to judge more complex ethical problems such as you might find in technical communication situations.

Also, note all of these potential answers are legal. Just because something is legal doesn’t make it
ethical. In the past, in the United States, it was legal for health care insurance companies to deny
coverage to persons who had health problems. That is, if a person had a heart attack and did not have
insurance, then he or she would not be able to purchase insurance afterward, even though it was clear
that he or she would not be able to afford health care without health insurance. Such a practice was
common and legal, but it was not at all ethical to deny sick persons the ability to afford the health care
they needed.

Key Concepts: Utility, Rights, Justice, and Caring
According to ethicist Manuel G. Velasquez, there are four basic kinds of moral standards: “utility” (61),
“rights, justice, and caring” (59). While each of these categories is complex, at the basic level, these
categories can be explained as follows:

• Utility: “The inclusive term used to refer to the net benefits of any sort produced by an action”
(61). This standard favors the solution that yields “the greatest net benefits to society or impose[s]
the lowest net costs” (61).

• Rights: This standard “look[s] at individual entitlements to freedom of choice and well-being” (68).
• Justice: This standard “look[s] at how the benefits and burdens are distributed among people” (68).
• Care: With regard to the “ethic of care,….the moral task is not to follow universal and impartial

moral principles, but instead to attend and respond to the good of particular concrete persons with
whom we are in a valuable and close relationship. Compassion, concern, love, friendship, and
kindness are all sentiments or virtues that normally manifest this dimension of morality” (102).

You may have noticed that these standards can quite easily contradict each other. Let’s think through a
rather silly example.

Let’s say you have a face-to-face technical communication class at a local college or university. It meets
twice a week, and you attend the scheduled class periods. One of your classmates, let’s call him Percival,
likes to sleep in class. More than that, he snores loudly while the professor is trying to teach.
The first-class period this problem manifests itself, the professor first tries calling on Percival to keep his
attention, and then the professor nicely suggests he go get a drink of water to wake himself up. Percival,
however, is having none of this. He evidently prefers to spend classtime sleeping—and snoring. The
snoring is really distracting, and everyone is finding it hard to learn in this environment. The second-
class period, the drama repeats itself, but the professor has come prepared. At the first loud, earsplitting
snore, the professor pulls out a water gun at Percival. She aims, fires, and SPLAT! Percival is awake! The
class laughs uproariously, and every time Percival snores, he gets water in the face. It’s still kind of hard
to concentrate, with the professor watergunning Percival every 15 minutes or so, but it’s very
entertaining.

This scenario is a little off the wall, but let’s evaluate it, anyway. The professor’s solution to the problem
is effective, at least in this one instance. But how does it stack up to an ethical evaluation?

• Rights—people in contemporary societies have a wide variety of rights. For example, students
have the right to a conducive learning environment. So on the one hand, students have the right

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to attend class and not have to fight through Percival’s snoring to hear the professor’s lecture.
On the other hand, students have the right to attend class and not be shot at with a water gun.

• Justice—the benefit to the professor’s solution to the problem is that it is effective. It stops
Percival’s plan to snore through class and make learning difficult for the other students. It also
seems, at first, to bring the class together against a common distraction and provide some
temporary amusement. Everyone is having fun at Percival’s expense. But let’s think. Students
have a right to attend class and not be subjected to abuse. Shooting a student with a water gun
is abuse. It’s very much outside of the appropriate treatment a student might expect from a
professor. And it is humiliating. Kant’s categorical imperative has been translated thus: “Act only
on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law,” (Kant 24). Granted, all sleeping students will be attacked with a water gun would be a
pretty silly maxim. Reasonable people wouldn’t even consider such a rule. But if they were to, it
would be clear that we wouldn’t want to be attacked with a water gun if we accidentally fell
asleep and started snoring, and we wouldn’t want our loved ones subjected to such treatment,
either. Certainly, Percival never consented to be attacked with a water gun. His rights are being
violated in this example. With regard to justice, sure, at first the water gun accomplishes the
goal, but it is also distracting. And how long will it take for students to wonder, who else will get
watergunned? Suddenly, the professor’s blatant disrespect for Percival can easily move to
disrespect for anyone. Morale can drop. The students can lose respect for the professor, and
then the learning environment is compromised. The entire class suffers, and the learning
outcomes also suffer, because the professor made the decision to employ a water gun.

• Utility: One of the ways to look at utility is to ask the question, “Is there a better solution that
helps everyone achieve the desired outcomes?” Or at least, is there a solution that minimizes
the disadvantages to the larger population? In this case, yes. At most institutions, the professor
has a variety of ways to deal with a disruptive student. After informing the student of the
consequences of repeating his or her disruptive actions, the professor may call campus security
to remove the student. The professor may also contact the student’s academic advisor to
discuss a solution, and at some institutions, the professor can have the student removed from
the class roster. While official solutions may not be as dramatic, as fun, and as quickly effective
as watergunning as student, they do protect all students’ dignity and right to a safe environment
conducive to learning.

• Care: At the end of the day, a professor is a human being, too. And he or she may be at wit’s end
trying to deal with students do not want to be in the class are actively working against the
professor’s efforts to do his or her job. It is frustrating. And it might even be understandable that
he or she wants to pull out a water gun and just solve the problem and blow off a little steam.
But the professor has a job, and that job brings in income. It’s highly likely that the professor has
a family to support. Watergunning a student will bring in negative publicity to the professor, the
class, the academic department, and the institution that he or she teaches in. With public
scrutiny, the professor might earn a reprimand or, at worst, lose his or her job. How will he or
she help to support his or her family?

As we analyze this situation, we quickly see that watergunning the student is unethical. It
violates the rights of the student and can impede upon the professor’s ability to care for his or
her family. Furthermore, it may lower morale in the classroom, which may rob all students in

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the class of an environment conducive to learning. And finally, there are better, accepted
channels to use to deal with this situation.

Such a simple scenario, but so many ways to look at the situation. Analyzing any situation with regard to
ethics should take time and care so that the best evaluation can be produced. And here, we have only
invoked some of the ethical aspects of Aristotle, Kant, and Velasquez. In this short introduction to ethics,
we are only scratching the surface of a much larger and very complicated and fascinating field.

Appropriate Language in Technical Communication

From Kueffer and Larsen:
Factual Correctness
Every metaphor simplifies by illustrating certain aspects of a scientific object while neglecting others.
Scientific metaphors can nonetheless, be interpreted in terms of their factual content, and, in this
respect, they can be considered wrong. At the start of the genomic era, for instance, Avise (2001)
proposed alternative genetic metaphors to replace prior mechanistic ones (e.g., the blueprint metaphor)
that he felt misrepresented new insights about the nature of the genome . . . . Metaphors should be
consistent with the state of knowledge to the degree of scientific accuracy required in a particular
context (e.g., research, popular science writing, science-based decision making).
Socially acceptable language
The same rules that apply to everyday life concerning socially acceptable language also apply to science.
Metaphors that are racist, sexist, or in other ways offensive should be avoided. Herbers (2007) for
example, condemns references to slavemaking and negro ants and reference to rape in animal behavior
studies.
Neutrality
It is often difficult to assess the neutrality of a metaphor. Scientists should, nonetheless, seek in their
communication to avoid language that is generally recognized to be loaded with emotion, such as
apocalyptic warnings and dramatic hyperbole. This language can distract from the perceived neutrality
of a scientist, who is expected to present research results that invite open and critical discussion. One
rhetorical function of such metaphors is to convince when evidence is missing or ambiguous; however,
this is inadvisable, insofar as it leads to scientific statements being supported with rhetoric instead of
facts.
Transparency
When a metaphor is used, it should be introduced as such and its connection with specific aspects of
scientific concepts should be illustrated. At least in longer texts, authors should explicitly reflect on the
connotations and performativity of their chosen metaphors. When metaphors are replaced by similes
(i.e., using an X is like Y statement), there is a lower risk that they will be taken literally (Carolan 2006).
(Kueffer and Larson 772)

To continue to address some specific aspects of ethics in technical communication, Kueffer and Larson
remind us that sometimes writers use inappropriate metaphors in technical communication that reduce
the credibility of the scientific writing or research that they are trying to communicate to the public. We
live in a time when, especially in advertising and popular culture, dramatic language is pervasive. It may
be tempting to overstate or dramatize a scientific finding to garner public attention to something very
important such as climate change. For example, a letter with the title, ” ‘Alien species: Monster fern
makes [International Union for Conservation of Nature] invader list’ ” really grabs the attention. But
Kueffer and Larson explain, “We consider this choice of words to be undesirable, because it merely
expresses a value judgment of the authors (i.e., that the species is like a monster because it is bad)

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rather than illustrating the science. The metaphor devalues this plant species in its entirety (like a
monster that is always bad) rather than specifying which aspects of its behavior are problematic” (721).
Kueffer and Larson continue, “It is better to communicate precisely, and to use appropriate metaphors
so that if, for example, later contradictory information becomes available, the public does not dismiss
scientific findings. Responsible technical communicators understand that scientific research involves a
level of uncertainty which must be made clear to readers” (721).

Cooking data is the practice of falsifying data. It can also be the practice of deleting data that does not
prove a hypothesis in order to present a stronger argument that proves the hypothesis. For example,
what if you were ordering pizza for an event, and you really wanted every pizza to have bacon on it. You
LOVE bacon. If you surveyed 100 people about whether or not they liked bacon, and 50 people said yes,
and 50 people said no, but 25 of the “no’s” were vegetarians, then you could report the data truthfully,
that half of the people surveyed like bacon. Perhaps half of the pizzas should have bacon on them. Or,
you could “cook” the data by excluding the vegetarians from the survey because, as you reason, it’s not
that they don’t like bacon but that they don’t EAT bacon, which is completely different from liking it. You
could then say that 2/3 of the people surveyed like bacon, or 67%, and therefore you have a rationale to
order bacon on all the pizzas.

Trimming data is a method used to lessen the effect of statistical outliers on the results of a study. If you
trim data, then you must tell your reader that you trimmed the data, and to what percent you trimmed
it. For example, if you were ordering pizza for an event, and you really wanted every pizza to have bacon
on it, then you could survey 100 people about whether or not they liked bacon. Your survey also
includes a question about what planet people are from (this is a ridiculous example, but I just wanted it
to be simple). When you look at the results, you see that 55 people really like bacon. You notice that 45
people say they don’t like bacon, but that there are irregularities in that data. For example, 10 of those

Ethical Analysis of Data
As you analyze data, avoid cooking, trimming, and cherry picking data.

[. . . Part of chapter purposefully removed . . . ]

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respondents say that they are from the planet Mercury, so they can’t eat any human food at all. So, you
will trim the data to omit these irregularities. That means 55 people really like bacon and 35 don’t. And
you would tell your readers that 10% of the responses were culled for irregularities. You can also state
what the irregularities were. It’s fine to trim data that is outside the realm of possibility–as long as you
tell your readers. It is not okay to trim data simply because it makes it easier for you or supports your
argument better.

Cherry picking data is the practice of only using data that supports your hypothesis. A good example,
with graphs and humor, of cherry picking is here.

We see these methods used so often in the presentation of data in the media, that we might come to
believe it’s okay to cook, trim, and cherry pick data for analysis. It is not.

Works Cited

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics Book 2. Translated by W.D. Ross. 350 B.C. E.
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.2.ii.html

Avise, J.C. 2001. Evolving genomic metaphors: A new look at the language of DNA. Science 294: 86-87.

Carolan MS. 2006. The values and vulnerabilities of metaphors within the environmental sciences.
Society and Natural Resources 19: 921-930.

Herbers, JM. 2007. Watch your language! Racially loaded metaphors in scientific research. BioScience
57: 104-105.

Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by Jonathan Bennett. 1785.
http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/kant1785

Keuffer, Christoph and Brendon M. H. Larson. “Responsible Use of Language in Scientific Writing and
Science Communication.” BioScience. 64.8 (2014): 719-724.

Velasquez, Manuel G. Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases. 6th Edition. Pearson/Prentice Hall: Upper
Saddle River, NJ, 2006.

Zuidema, Leah A. and Jonathan Bush. “Professional Writing in the English Classroom.” English Journal.
100.6 (2011): 95-98.

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http://www.bing.com/images

https://www.teachingcopyright.org/handout/fair-use-faq

Memo
Formatting,
Structure, &

Style

Table of Contents

About the Memo

“Memos are extinct! Emails are how professionals
communicate today.”

Many people think that, but they’re wrong.

Memos are alive and well. I guarantee that you will
encounter and/or write memos nearly from the beginning of
your time in the workforce. Why?

Memos are the PRIMARY form of communication INSIDE a
company or organization AND can vary in length.

Most people think a 1-2 page memo as the “standard”, but
not always. Longer memos (4+ pages – often called “short
reports”) occur as well.

Document. Document. Document.

Memos are used for:
• Company-wide announcements
• Meeting minutes
• New policies
• Or if it’s information readers will likely consult more than once and/or print

• Detailed proposals
• Significant reports
• Serious recommendations

That’s a lot of examples, but one of the biggest reasons
companies write memos…to CYA (Cover Your *Ahem*
“Actions”). Creating paper trails and documentation.

We live in a litigious society, so documentation and note
taking has become very important to limit liabilities for
companies & institutions.

When to Use Memos?
• Communicating with people INSIDE your organization.

• When formatting matters. If your document contains bullet points, bold headings, columns,
tables/charts, etc., a memo helps to retain that formatting. To guarantee the formatting, save it as
a PDF. If your audience reads emails on their phones (a growing trend), an attachment may be the
only way to preserve the formatting.

• If it will be printed. Message going to be posted on a bulletin board in an employee break room?
Will your ideas will be discussed at a meeting? Write a memo to make printing it out easier.

• To communicate formally. Memos allow you to insert a company logo and the professional titles
of senders and receivers. This makes messages appear more formal, professional, and important.

• When your email message is too long. Writing a long email? You’re probably trying to incorporate
important, lasting information in it. Remember, memos work best when people will return to
your message for information (i.e. information of four-stage construction project, pros and cons
of a major purchasing decision, etc.).

Attach your memo to an email giving the reader(s) a brief summary of the memo contents in the
email. For some readers, that email summary is enough. Those who need the PDF info will read
and save the memo.

Memos Aren’t Dinosaurs

I recently watched the original Jurassic Park movie again (seriously, Spielberg is a
genius with what he can do with a cup of water on a car’s dashboard. Genius!).
SPOILER ALERT: It’s about dinosaurs thriving during a time when the creatures
don’t belong.

You may think of memos as dinosaurs also, but think again.

Rhetoric of Formatting
How something looks conveys a lot about you as a writer.

• Do you pay attention to details?
• Are you someone the reader can trust because you know and understand how to properly

format and present something?
• Or, are you too lazy to learn how to format something, so you’ll probably be lazy working on a

project, for a company, or to complete a job correctly?

That is the rhetoric of formatting.

(Im)proper formatting tells a reader if
you are a professional and if what
you are communicating can be
trusted…before a single word is read.

Standards of Memo Formatting

The following slides/pages list the standard components and characteristics of professional
memos.

Links to online resources to teach you how to make the appropriate changes within
Microsoft Word on a PC are provided as needed.
NOTE: If you are using Google Docs or using an Apple computer, the links may not provide
accurate instructions, so you will need to Google online instructions on how to apply the
formatting standards to your situation.

These are GENERAL STANDARDS. There is no way to plan for every formatting for every
field/profession at every company or institution. This means a company you work for (or
have worked for in the past) may do some things differently, but for this course, you are
required to learn and use the formatting and structure standards that follow.

Word Default Settings

Since you will be writing a lot of memos in this
course, and in the future, it is recommended you
use Word’s convenient Set as Default feature. Doing
this will save all required and standard formatting
changes to future new Word documents so you
don’t have to go through and fix everything over
and over again.

To learn how to set defaults, here is a link that will
take you through the process:
https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word-tips/changing-
your-default-settings-in-word/1/

https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word-tips/changing-your-default-settings-in-word/1/

Parts of a Memo

First Page

Second/Additional Page(s)

MAIN
MEMO
HEADER

INTRO PARAGRAPH

SUBHEADER

PAGE HEADER
(ENTIRE ROW)

CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH

Double-Alignment in Main Header

Make sure the main memo header (Memo, To, From, Date, Subject Line) on the first page
has TWO (2) points of alignment. Double-alignment makes it easier for a reader to quickly
locate and read the information.

NOTE: Hitting the Tab key twice, after the line label (To, From, etc.), is the BEST way to create
double-alignment. DO NOT use the space bar and try to “eyeball” the alignment…it may look
aligned on your screen, but wavy/sloppy to your reader. Just use the Tab key.

Alignment #1 Alignment #2

Left-Align EVERYTHING!

Technical & Professional (T&P) writers like things to look “clean”. So, everything in
professional writing is left aligned. This includes headers.

Visually, left-alignment is “cleaner” looking and lines everything up along the left margin.

DO NOT fully justify text…it creates weird spaces in a line. Leave that for newspapers.

LEFT ALIGNMENT

NEVER Indent Paragraphs

Going along with “left-align everything” and
professional streamlined formatting, is remembering
to never indent paragraphs.

Never, ever, under any circumstances ever, indent
any paragraphs in any document (email, memo,
business, letter, report, instructions, proposal, etc.).
EVER.

Indented paragraphs = academic writing (a different genre of writing) for college, not the
workplace. Indented paragraphs are NEVER used in Technical and Professional (T&P) Writing.

If you want a brief history lesson about where the indented 1st line of a paragraph came from (a
holdover from fancy Medieval writing and flourishes– i.e. fluff), check out this TikTok!

https://www.tiktok.com/@abrahampiper/video/70416942578197660

?is_copy_url=1&is_from_webapp=v1&q=abrahampiper&t=1639886474504

1” (One Inch) Margins

Again, T&P writers like things to look “clean”.
So ALWAYS respect the 1” margin (top, sides,
and bottom).

You never know when someone is going to
print off a document and bind it, so make sure
all text and images (charts, pictures, etc.) don’t
fall into the 1” margin. ONLY the Page Header,
on any pages after the 1st page (see “Parts of a
Memo” slide), is allowed in the top margin.

1”
SIDE

MARGIN

1”
SIDE
MARGIN

1” TOP & BOTTOM MARGINS

NOTE: Microsoft Word has a different default/standard margin, so you MUST go in and
change this in your document.

Single-Spaced

ALWAYS single-space your ENTIRE
document (this includes main memo
headers, Table of Contents,
Bibliographies, etc.).

NOT double-space, not 1.08 spacing
(Word’s weird default…so go and fix
it!). SINGLE-SPACE…like every slide in
this presentation is single-spaced.
Keep things visibly concise!

Here’s a link to instructions on how to fix
line spacing:
https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word2016/li
ne-and-paragraph-spacing/1/

Single-Spaced Double-SpacedWord Default:
1.08 line

https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word2016/line-and-paragraph-spacing/1/

0pt. Default Spacing & 1 Blank Line Separator

Again, you MUST remove the Word default here. You
need to go into the “Paragraph” settings in Word and
make the line spacing before and after “0 pt” – Word’s
default is 8pt after.

Between paragraphs AND between each line in the main
memo header (because each line is a “paragraph” of
different information), a single blank line is the
professional standard.

Here’s a link that walks you through how to remove the
default line spacing: https://support.microsoft.com/en-
us/office/change-the-default-line-spacing-in-word-
411437a0-0646-490d-b426-a9249a78b315

https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/change-the-default-line-spacing-in-word-411437a0-0646-490d-b426-a9249a78b315

Subheaders

If your document is longer than FIVE (5) paragraphs and/or 1 page, use
subheaders! This makes it easier for your reader to locate information quickly.

Subheaders are formatted different from the body text. They are NO MORE than
2pt larger font size than the body font (11/12pt.) and can be:

• Bolded
• Italicized
• Underlined

DON’T choose more than two of these formatting choices. Just one
is usually enough to help the header stand out from the body text.

ALSO, there is NO blank line between the subheader and
corresponding paragraph.

• ALL CAPS
• An obviously different font

Pro Tip:

You MUST have at
least 2 paragraphs
under a header to
justify its use. Just
1 paragraph isn’t
enough.

SUBHEADER

Page Numbering/Headers

Every page, after the first page, MUST have a page number and header.

What the header looks like varies, but for this course, you can choose either of these
two styles:

NOTE: 2+ page header information does NOT appear on the first page of your document.
To learn how to keep the 2+ page header from appearing on the first page, see this link:
https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/start-page-numbering-later-in-your-
document-

“Date” from main
memo header

“Page” word
optional

“To” name from
main memo header

Pro Tip:

Page Header text is
same font size and
style as your body
font.

https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/start-page-numbering-later-in-your-document-c73e3d55-d722-4bd0-886e-0b0bd0eb3f02#:~:text=double%2Dsided%20printing.-,Remove%20the%20page%20number%20from%20the%20first%20page,then%20select%20Remove%20Page%20Numbers.

Strong Subject Lines

Strong subject lines start with a VERB.

The subject line is found in the main memo header and acts like a subject line in an email.
To get your reader to “open” an email or read a memo, they need to have a brief recap and
understanding about what the purpose of the memo is (VERB) and what it’s about (4-7
word summary).

A basic formula for a strong subject line is
[VERB] + 3-7 word document summary.

EXAMPLE: “Assessment of New Protocols,”
“Question about Upcoming Staff Meeting,”
“Examination of Structural Recommendations,” etc.

First Page
MAIN
MEMO
HEADER

No “Signature” or Name at End

Memos DO NOT include a signature or your name typed at the end of the
document or closers like “Sincerely” or “Best Wishes” – those are reserved for
letters ONLY.

Just end your memo with the concluding paragraph…your name is already in
the main memo header and would be redundant at the end!

Pro Tip:

Don’t make
yourself look like a
newbie by starting
your document
looking like a
memo, but ending
it like a letter.

Example Memo

Memo Structure & Style

The following slides/pages cover memo structure and style.

Just like with formatting, these are GENERAL STANDARDS and may vary by profession,
company, or institution. But they are basic expectations, especially for this course.

You may work for a company that does things differently, in that scenario, do what they’d
like. However, in this course, you are being graded on your ability to apply and meet the
following structure and style expectations.

Direct Business Writing (DBW) Format

Ninety-five percent, 95%!, of all professional writing follows the Direct Business Writing
Format (DBW). The other 5% (problem writing) uses a format called indirect business writing
for things like firing someone, a letter of reprimand, etc.

DBW is the standard for organizing information and content in an email, memo, letter,
report, newsletter, etc. This format/structure is what co-workers, your boss and supervisor,
etc. expect you to follow, so let’s learn it!

There are three parts to DBW, they are:
1. Intro Paragraph: Reason for Document (RFD) & Forecasting Statement (2 sentences)
2. Body Paragraphs: Justification/Support/Reasons (this is where subheaders are used)
3.

Concluding Paragraph:

Thanks, Reader Directive Statement, and Author Contact

Information (2 sentences)

Reason for Document (RFD)

In the FIRST LINE of any document (first line of the first paragraph), you tell the
reader why they are getting the document.

If your document is a reply/response to someone, the Reason for Document (RFD),
could read: “As requested, . . .” or “Per your request, . . . “

This tells/reminds your reader why they are getting the document (they requested it).

If the reader did not ask for this information (i.e. it’s unsolicited), the RFD would still
clearly tell the reader why they are receiving the document. Such a RFD might look like
this: “To keep waste and cost to a minimum, . . .” or “We are writing to inform you of a
retirement party for James Risch from the Marketing Department.”

Please note that an RFD can be either a short phrase followed by a comma (and the
forecasting statement) OR a complete sentence. It will depend on what is being
communicated.

Introductory Paragraph:

Pro Tip:

NEVER label your
introductory
paragraph. All
readers know the
1st paragraphs is
the intro. Don’t
treat readers like
they’re dumb.

Forecasting Statement

The Forecasting Statement is similar to a thesis statement that tells the reader what you
will be trying to argue/convince the reader of and how the document does this. For
example:

“This document looks at current practices, changes in the field, and proposes ways
to improve and increase revenue.”

Sometimes the Statement of Purpose and Forecasting Statement are found in the SAME
sentence. Look at this example:

“To keep waste and costs to a minimum, this memo lists ways to streamline
procedures within our factories.”

The sentence clearly states why the reader is getting the document (to explain how to
keep waste and costs down) AND forecasts what the memo is going to be about (listing
ways to streamline procedures).

In total, the Introductory Paragraph is 1-2 short sentences long. No more.

Introductory Paragraph:

Justification/Support/Reasons

This section is all of the document’s body paragraphs. It consists of multiple,
short and focused paragraphs providing details and justification for your
message/argument.

A single idea is presented in a single paragraph. Don’t let paragraphs get bulky!
Too often, paragraphs get too long (longer than six, 12-13 word sentences) because
the writer is trying to do too much in a paragraph. Keep it short, sweet, and to the point.

Single sentence paragraphs are often found in T&P writing.

To keep things visibly and literally short, consider a bulleted
or numbered list! Busy readers like lists because they’re short,
concise, and information dense with very little lard and fluff.

Body Paragraphs:
Pro Tip:

Use subheaders!
Subheaders replace
transitional
sentences or
phrases because
when a reader sees
a subheader, they
know a new topic is
coming.

Thanks/Reader Directive Statement/Contact

The last paragraph of your document (typically just 2 sentences long), be it a
letter, email, memo, etc. should always:

• Thank the reader for taking the time to read the document
• Give a directive statement telling the reader what action to take next
• Provide author contact information about how to contact you

Remember, the reader didn’t have to read your document, so show good manners.

A Directive Statement can simply be: “If you have any questions, please let me know.”

Providing author contact information is always helpful to a reader…even if you provided it
earlier. Give the reader the best way to contact you in the conclusion, be it phone
number or email address.

A standard concluding paragraph, with everything provided in just two short sentences:
“Thank you for taking the time to read this memo. If you have any questions, don’t hesitate
to contact me via email at a.employe@prestigeww.com.”

Pro Tip:

NEVER label your
concluding
paragraph or say
“In conclusion…”
All readers know
the last paragraphs
is always the
conclusion. Again,
don’t treat them
like they’re dumb.

Concluding Paragraph:

Sentence Length
Technical and Professional (T&P) writing is NOT essay writing. You are not
writing essays for college or school. T&P writing is a completely different
style or “genre” of writing. You need to learn to write differently. The
B.S./fluff/lard/etc. found in academic writing doesn’t work in the workplace.
No one has time for that!

Pro Tip:

PROFESSIONALS
and/or people who
have been writing
for a long time
typically write 8-10
word sentences. As
a student, shoot
for 12-13 word
sentences.

Long-time T&P writers consistently write clear,
concise, and precise 8-10 word sentences.

Since you are just being introduced to this genre of writing,
shoot for a more reasonable 12-13 word sentence average.
Keep in mind, an occasional longer sentence is okay, and
sometimes sentences are just one word. Great! (See what I
did there?)

A Note About Paragraphs
You’ve probably heard the saying that “a
paragraph should be as long or as short as it
needs to be to express the main idea of that
paragraph.” This is true, but remember your
reader is busy…so work on keeping it short.

Shoot for most paragraphs to be 3-6 sentences
(12-13 words) long and focused on ONE topic. If
your paragraph starts going long, see where you
can cut some lard and/or split up the paragraph.

Don’t forget, one sentence paragraphs aren’t
uncommon in professional writing.

Vary Sentence & Paragraph Starts

A saying in Advertising goes: “Same, same, same is boring, boring, boring.”

How does that relate to T&P writing? Simple, your reader doesn’t want to
read what you’ve written (because they’re busy), so your job is to keep
from boring them with your document.

What’s a quick way to bore a reader? Start multiple paragraphs and/or
sentences the same way. This can be either with words: “The”, “I”, “We”,
etc. Or even repetitive phrases: “The first principle is X”, “The second
principle is Y”, etc.

That doesn’t mean get wordy and throw in a bunch of descriptive
adjectives, it just means starting paragraphs and sentences the same way
over and over again is interpreted as you repeating yourself = a waste of
you and your reader’s time.

Grammar – The Silent Credibility Killer

How to kill your credibility with 1 word.

If you can’t use the correct: there/their/they’re; or its/it’s;
or where/were/we’re; or too/to/two; etc…your reader is
seriously going to question your intelligence.

If you have random capitalized words in the middle of the sentence, that aren’t proper
nouns…your reader is seriously going to question your intelligence.

If you don’t understand the difference between using an apostrophe for a possessive,

plural, or contraction…your reader is seriously going to question your intelligence.

Why? Because those are all things elementary school students learn. You’re supposed to
be highly educated college graduates. If you can’t figure out simple grammar rules, how
can they trust you with more complex, important, and expensive things?

Before you submit any memos, check yourself
against this grading rubric:

• Double-alignment in main memo header using TAB, not
space key

• Everything left aligned, including any subheaders

• NONE of the paragraphs are indented

• All margins are 1” (you changed Word settings)

• ENTIRE document is single-spaced, including main memo
header (you changed Word settings)

• Default spacing is 0pt before and after (you changed Word
Settings)

• Single blank line between EACH line of the main memo
header AND between paragraphs

• Body font 11/12 point font

• Subheaders 2pt larger font than body AND formatted
differently (see options)

• NO extra blank line between subheader and following
paragraph

• At least TWO (2) paragraphs under a subheader

• Strong Subject Line in main memo header – follows formula

• No “signature” at end of memo

• Introductory paragraph follows DBW formatting and
ONLY includes 2 required components in 2 sentences

• Introductory paragraph NOT labeled – your reader
knows the first paragraph is the introduction, so don’t
talk down to them.

• Concluding paragraph follows DBW and includes ONLY
the 3 required components in 2 sentences

• Conclusion NOT labeled or paragraph started with “In
conclusion,” – your reader knows the last paragraph is
the conclusion, so don’t talk down to them.

• Average sentence length is 12-13 words

• Paragraphs generally no more than 6 sentences

• Sentences and paragraph beginnings varied in word
and/or phrase

• No misspelled words and all words used correctly
(remember, spell check won’t catch everything, so
make sure you use the correct word – nothing will kill
your credibility faster than misspelled or misused
words).

Inthis short assignment you will connect TWO (2) of the four Moral Standards (
utility, rights, justice, caring
) found in the Ethic document to a Code of Ethics or Code of Standards for your field of study/future career (HINT: search “code of ethics for (insert field/career)” online and pick the one that applies best.)

NOTE: The Code of Ethics/Code of Standards must be an actual, agreed-upon set of standards, not an article by someone talking about what ethics in that field/career should look like or focus on. Good example: National Association of Social Workers (NASW) code of ethics.

Assignment Goals

After completing this assignment, you will have gained the following skills:

· Design usable and rhetorically effective documents (i.e. write a memo)

· Plan and carry out primary and secondary research

· Writing for non-specialist audience in specific professional situations

· Manage writing processes and projects.

· Design usable and rhetorically

· Respond ethically to specific writing tasks

· Critical and creative thinking

· Communication

· Information literacy

Content/Topic

Analyze your selected code of ethics (COE) against TWO (2) of the four basic rights of moral standards: utility, rights, justice, and caring.

Following Memo and Direct Business Writing requirements (as outlined in the “Memo Formatting, Style, and Structure” file found in the Document Formatting Instructions link in the Modules tab), please address the following:

· Clearly state
how the COE addresses that moral standard. Don’t just cut and paste a line/paragraph,
explain how/why it does(n’t).

· Explain how whether or not the moral standard is addressed impacts the credibility of your field/career.

· Explain how whether or not the moral standard is addressed impacts customers/clients and/or citizens at large (positive and/or negative impacts).

· Explain how you think the COE could be improved to better address that moral standard? What changes or updates are needed? Everything can always be made better, so how would you improve it (consider consequences, concrete changes, etc.)?

Audience

Your audience for this memo is your non-specialist instructor — educated, but not as knowledgeable about your career/field of study as you, the specialist. So keep your audience in mind. What do you think they know or may already understand about this topic? What do they need to know or have explained?

Assignment Format

Your document should be about 500 words in length and pay attention to the following:

· Follow Memo Formatting Standards with reader’s name spelled correctly and a strong subject line

· Introductory paragraph that follows Direct Business Writing standards

· COE being discussed is introduced to the audience in the memo (what entity/group created it and what field/career it applies to)

· Be at least 4 short & focused paragraphs in length.
Remember, focused paragraphs means you are unlikely to cover ALL of the content/topic bullet points above in a single paragraph…there are different things to discuss, so multiple paragraphs for each moral standard is likely.

· Each moral standard should have at least one paragraph just about it.

· Concluding paragraph that follows Direct Business Writing standards

· 2-3 blank spaces after the conclusion, provide a URL link to the actual COE being discussed

Ethics & Moral Standards Memo

Criteria Ratings Pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeMemo & Direct Business Writing Formatting

Follows and adheres to provided Memo Formatting and Direct Business Writing (intro & concluding paragraphs) standards.

1 pts

Exceeds Expectations

0.7 pts

Meets Expectations

0 pts

Does Not Meet Expectations

1 pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeAudience

Understands audience needs (i.e. audience name spelled correctly, strong subject line, Code of Ethics introduced to audience, URL link provided after concluding paragraph, language clear and content easy to understand and follow, etc.)

1 pts
Exceeds Expectations
0.7 pts
Meets Expectations
0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
1 pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome2 Basic Moral Standards

Clearly and concisely examines and discusses selected code of ethics against 2 basic moral standards. Paragraphs focused and clear.

1 pts
Exceeds Expectations
0.7 pts
Meets Expectations
0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
1 pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomePeer Review

You actively participated in the in-class peer review process and provided helpful comments.

2 pts

Exceeds Expectations

1.5 pts

Meets Expectations
0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
2 pts

Total Points: 5

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