Discussions

Reading:

• Creativity: Spivey, Nigel “The Birth of the Imagination’ Chapter excerpt from How Art Made the World (PDF)
• Creativity: Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. “Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention”. New York: Harper Collins, 1996, pages 343-372 (PDF),or you may access the article by visiting Brooks Psychology WordPress. (Links to an external site.)

VIDEO: Ken Robinson : do schools kill creativity?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQzC7ubJriE

Dr Nigel Spivey cave art 1

 – How Art Made The World 2 of 5 – The Day Pictures Were Born

Spivey Nivel 

1. Why does Ken Robinson believe Art is less valued in our education system than subjects like Math and Science.  Do you agree?
2. From dance to walking, running,  Ken Robinson and Csiksentmihalyi talk about (in different ways) the role of the body and movement in facilitating creativity.  Does bodily movement affect creativity in your experience?  How so?
3. Csikszentmihalyi describes some forms of entertainment as keeping us from creativity (bottom of p 348). What is his argument? Do you agree? Can forms of entertainment also encourage creativity?
4. Based on the reading from Spivey, how are imagination, art and creativity related?
5. What role does a person’s environment have on creativity?  Give examples.
6. Csikszentmihalyi describes a relationship between creativity and the struggle against problems and obstacles. Do you agree? Why/Why not?

Question is covered in depth without being redundant, and writer supports idea(s) with examples when required. Question is well organized, and it demonstrates logical sequencing and structure. no grammar error , spelling, or punctuation error. Author makes meaningful connections between content and personal reflection. Writing is crisp, clear, academic, and succinct. 

V

T H E
B I R T H
O F T H E

I M A G I N A T I O N

a

O n e d a y i n t h e a u t u m n o f 1879 a S p an ish n o b le m an an d his d au g h te r set o u t on a

little ad v en tu re. T h e y w ere g o in g to ex p lo re a cave n o t far fro m the fam ily estate at

P u en te S an M iguel, in th e C a n ta b ria reg io n o f n o rth e rn Spain. T h e n o b le m a n ’s nam e

was M arcelin o Sanz de S au tu o la, an d his d au g h te r – n o t yet in h er teen s – was called

M a ria . T o g eth er they m ad e fo r the hillside o f A ltam ira, w hich h ad lately b een re p o rte d

as a site o f p reh isto ric o ccu p atio n . T o u se th e language o f th e tim e, A ltam ira was th e so rt

o f place w here troglodytes o r ‘p eo p le b efo re A d a m ’ w ere th o u g h t to have sheltered.

As a keen a m ate u r archaeologist, de S au tu o la h a d high h o p es o f w h at h e m ig h t find

at A ltam ira. T h e b o n es o f stran g e anim als m ig h t be scattered aro u n d ; p e rh a p s traces o f

fires kindled lo n g ago. W ith an y luck, an d close investigation o f th e cave floor, som e

ru d im e n ta ry tools o r im p lem e n ts m ig h t also b e retrieved.

D e S au tu o la was n o t m erely h u n tin g fo r curiosities. W h e n it cam e to p u b lish in g

his discoveries a t A ltam ira, h e gravely n o te d th a t his u ltim ate m otive fo r m aking the

ex p ed itio n w ith M a ria was to ‘te a r away th e th ick veil th a t separates us fro m th e origins

an d cu sto m s o f th e an cien t in h a b ita n ts o f th ese m o u n ta in s’. O n ce h e an d M a ria were

inside the cave, he c ro u c h ed d o w n an d b eg an to exam ine th e g ro u n d by la n tern light.

It w as cool a n d d am p in th e cave, b u t spacious too. W hile h er fath e r w as poking an d

6 A detail o f th e cave paintings at Altamira, Spain, c. 11,000 BC. which Maria and Marcelino d e Sautuola
discovered by chance.

TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

s c ra p in g a t th e floor, M a ria w a n d e re d o f f to d o so m e ex p lo rin g o f h e r ow n. It w as n o t

lo n g b e fo re th e d ark n e ss o f A lta m ira e c h o e d w ith a c h ild ’s w o n d ro u s cry.

‘L o o k , P a p a – p a in tin g s o f o x en !’

So a y o u n g girl w as th e firs t m o d e rn h u m a n to set eyes u p o n th e ‘g allery ’ o f

p re h is to ric p a in tin g s fo r w h ic h A lta m ira w o u ld b e c o m e re n o w n e d (Fig. 6).

B ein g sm all, M a ria h a d a b e tte r view o f th e cav e’s low ceiling th a n h e r father.

H o w ev er, h e r re c o g n itio n o f th e an im als w h o se im ag es w ere ra n g e d o v er A lta m ira ’s

n a tu ra l v au lt was n o t q u ite a c c u ra te . T h e s e w ere a u ro c h s – a ty p e o f b is o n th a t h a d b e e n

e x tin c t fo r th o u sa n d s o f years. H e rd s o f th e m w ere d e p ic te d – sta n d in g , g razin g , ru n n in g ,

sleeping. A n d a ro u n d th e se a u ro c h s th e re w ere o th e r fo u r-le g g e d b ea sts: h o rs e s , ibexes,

b o a r. G a z in g u p a t w h a t his d a u g h te r h a d fo u n d , d e S a u tu o la w as a lm o s t sp eech less

w ith e x c ite m e n t. H e k n ew in stin ctiv ely th a t th is a r t w as v e ry old in d e e d ; b u t it w as m o re

th a n in s tin c t th a t to ld h im so. T h e cave w as litte re d w ith d e b ris b e lo n g in g to w h a t w o u ld

b e c o m e k n o w n as th e S to n e A g e – o r, in a rc h aeo lo g ica l p a rla n c e , th e U p p e r P alaeo lith ic

p e r io d ( 3 5 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 years ago). M o reo v e r, d e S au tu o la co u ld see sim ilarities b etw een

th e b iso n d ep icted h e re a t A lta m ira a n d so m e b o n e c a rv in g s o f a n im als lately d isc o v ered

in caves in F ra n ce .

T h e g e n tle m a n -s c h o la r lo st n o tim e in c o m m u n ic a tin g th e new s. I t c re a te d a

se n satio n , u n d e r s ta n d a b le even to th is day, a lth o u g h , fo r rea so n s o f p re s e rv a tio n , visitors

a re n o w a d m itte d o n ly to a re p lica o f th e cave. G a z in g o v er A lta m ira ’s ro ck y su rfaces,

th e v iew er so o n a p p re c ia te s th a t th e w o rd ‘p a in tin g ’ is in a d e q u a te h ere . T h e u n e v e n

c o n to u rs o f th e ro ck h av e b e e n in g e n io u sly in c o rp o r a te d to give th e a n im als a bulky,

a lm o s t th re e -d im e n sio n a l p re se n c e . B ig b o v in e sh o u ld e rs lo o m u p in th e h alf-lig h t: a n d ,

w hile th e e x a c t species o f b is o n d e p ic te d is n o lo n g e r to b e seen, w e c a n n o t fail to be

s tru c k b y th e q u ality o f close o b s e rv a tio n o n display. H o w th e an im als s to o d w hile at

p a s tu re , h o w th e y co llap sed w h e n r e c u m b e n t o r w o u n d e d – th e A lta m ira d e p ic tio n s are,

as w e s h o u ld say, co n v in cin g . T h e co lo u rs, to o , are m e m o rab le : p re d o m in a n tly re d a n d

b lack, b u t w ith sh ad in g s o f fo rm also p ic k e d o u t in b ro w n , p u r p le , yellow, p in k a n d w hite.

T h e s e s tro n g o rg an ic p ig m e n ts , d e riv e d fro m v ario u s o x id es a n d c a rb o n s , p la y th e ir

p a r t in g iv in g th e w o rk a p o w erfu lly e a rth y d e p th a n d su b sta n c e . All in all, it m ig h t b e

c o n c lu d e d th a t th e p a in tin g s h e re are to o g o o d to b e tru e .

S ad ly fo r de S a u tu o la , m a n y o f his c o n te m p o ra rie s th o u g h t ju s t th a t. A fte r an

initial a c co lad e fro m th e p re ss, ro y al visits to th e cave a n d so o n , d o u b ts r e g a rd in g th e

T H E BIRTH O F THE IM A G IN A T IO N

a u th en ticity o f th e a r t a t A ltam ira b eg a n to b e voiced. N o th in g c o m p a ra b le to th e ir scale

an d p icto rial delicacy h a d b e e n fo u n d a t p reh isto ric sites th e n k n o w n to archaeological

co n n o isseu rs. O n e p re m a tu re e x p lan a tio n o f A ltam ira su g g ested th a t th e p ain tin g s

h ad b ee n d o n e d u rin g th e R o m a n o c c u p a tio n o f th e Ib erian p en in su la. W ith in a y ear o f

d e S a u tu o la ’s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e fin d , how ever, m o re p o iso n o u s ru m o u rs w ere

circulating. A n a rtis t w as seen g o in g in to th e cave (de S au tu o la h ad co m m issio n ed him

to m ake copies o f th e ceiling): w o rd w e n t r o u n d th a t h e was th e o n e w h o h ad p ain ted

it in th e first place. A t h o m e an d a b ro a d , d e S au tu o la fo u n d h im self m o c k ed as a d u p e ,

o r s u sp e c te d o f p e rp e tra tin g a hoax. H e died in 1888, a d eeply d isa p p o in te d a n d widely

disbelieved m an . H is frien d s said h e w as b ro k e n h e a rte d by th e w hole affair.

Y oung M a ria w ould live to see h e r f a th e r’s h o n o u r th o ro u g h ly red eem ed . B u t b efo re

we la m e n t th e scepticism th a t b ro u g h t m isery to a p io n e er ex p lo re r o f p reh isto ric art,

let us a d m it o u r ow n p rim a ry reactio n to w h at we see a t A ltam ira, a n d a t o th e r g rea t

u n d e r g ro u n d sites su b se q u en tly revealed in S p ain an d so u th e rn F ra n c e – m o st notably

th e caves o f L a sc a u x an d C h au v et. ‘A m az in g ’; ‘in c re d ib le’; ‘asto n ish in g ’: we rea ch for

th e clichéd lan g u ag e o f ad m iratio n , a n d fo r o nce it d en o tes a g en u in e m ystery. N o

sam p le o f early h u m a n h an d iw o rk is m o re p e rp le x in g th a n th e large-scale cave p ain tin g s

o f Palaeolithic E u ro p e . W h a t follows h e re is a n a tte m p t to m ake sense o f w h at th e im ages

m ig h t m e an , a n d w hy th ey w ere p a in te d on su b te rra n e a n walls. A p a rtic u la r th e o ry is

p u rs u e d , an d o th e r th e o ries rejected – b u t th ey are th eo ries all th e sam e. In the en d ,

am a z e m e n t m ay rem a in the p r o p e r resp o n se. W h a t we can establish fo r ce rtain , how ever,

is th a t th ese p a in tin g s are n o t localized m iracles. A ltam ira b elongs to a w id er p ro cess o f

h u m a n d ev e lo p m e n t, an d it is all th e m o re exciting fo r that.

T H E CREATIVE E X P LO S IO N

R a d io c arb o n d atin g o f th e p ig m e n ts u s e d in the A ltam ira p ain tin g s has established th a t

th e cave in v estig ated b y M a ria a n d M a rc e lin o d e S au tu o la w as d ec o rate d betw een

13,300 an d 14,900 years a g o .T h is m o re o r less co n firm s th e n o tio n al an tiq u ity assigned

to the im ages by d e S au tu o la b ac k in 1879. B u t b e y o n d th e elem en t o f forgivable

s u rp rise , w hy were th e le arn ed c o n te m p o ra rie s o f de S au tu o la so re lu c ta n t to believe him ?

T h e an sw er is th a t A ltam ira sim p ly d id n o t fit w ith p revailing scientific a n d p o p u la r

views a b o u t the o rig in an d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e h u m a n species. C h arles D arw in m ay have

TH E BIRTH OF THE IM A G IN A T IO N

cau sed theological co n tro v ersy in V icto rian B ritain w ith his th e o ry o f evolution by

n atu ra l selection – a p ro cess o ften s u m m arize d as ‘th e survival o f th e fittest’, th o u g h

D arw in h im self d id n o t coin th a t p h ra se – b u t so far as it co n firm ed stereotypical

W estern attitu d e s to th e p reh isto ric p ast, D a rw in ’s m o d e l w as w idely accep ted . If

evolution fav o u red th e survival o f th e fittest, a n d h u m a n k in d w as set o n a n u p w a rd

cu rv e o f p ro g re ss in ad a p tin g to u n d e rs ta n d a n d co n tro l th e w orld, th e n th o se h u m a n s

left b eh in d – especially th o se left b e h in d m a n y th o u sa n d s o f years ago – m u s t be

co ngenitally b ack w ard , ig n o ra n t a n d clumsy.

A lready in 1651, th e E nglish p h ilo s o p h e r T h o m a s H o b b es h a d fastidiously

d es crib ed th e ‘ill c o n d itio n ’ o f h u m a n s living in a pre-civilized ‘state o f n a tu re ’. I t was

a situ atio n , h e d eclared , o f ‘co n tin u al fear, a n d d an g e r o f violent d eath ; an d th e life o f

m a n solitary, p o o r, nasty, b ru tish a n d s h o r t’. A t th e tim e w h en th e p ain tin g s at A ltam ira

w ere fo u n d , m o s t p eo p le w ould have im ag in ed th e ty p ical ‘cav em an ’ as so m e shaggy,

low -brow ed creatu re, his g ro u n d -s c ra p in g knuckles clam p e d to a k n o tty club. T h is savage

m ig h t have ch a se d b iso n to fill his belly, b u t to re p re se n t th e anim al in delicate profile,

w ith careful, sensitive h u es – su c h fine aesth etic cap acity w as surely b ey o n d belief?

S o w en t th e logic o f o rth o d o x o p in io n . H ow ever, even th e m o s t ten acio u s

u p h o ld e rs o f this view w ere fo rc ed to rec o n sid er as fu rth e r p ain te d caves cam e to light,

especially in F ra n ce . In 1901, fo r ex am p le, tw o m a jo r sites n e a r L es Eyzies in th e

P érig o rd reg io n – L es C o m b arelles a n d F o n t-d e -G a u m e – w ere c o n firm e d as b o n a fide.

T h e follow ing year, a m ajo r sh ift in attitu d es w as signalled w h en E m ile C a rtailh ac , one

o f th e F re n c h e x p e rts w ho h ad dism issed A ltam ira as a p ran k , p u b lish ed a p en iten tial

essay, a c ce p tin g th a t his d o u b ts h a d b ee n in erro r: th e p ain tin g s at A ltam ira, a n d oth ers

like th e m , really d id b elo n g to ‘th e d aw n o f tim e ’. In th e su m m e r o f 1902, C a rtailh ac

jo in ed o th e r delegates fro m a scientific co n fe re n ce a t M o n ta u b a n in m ak in g a to u r to

in sp e ct th e several p a in te d caves in th e area. A co n sen su s w as declared: a r t in d eed

existed in p reh isto ry , a n d th e science o f u n d e rs ta n d in g it h a d only ju st beg u n .

D iscoveries o f f u rth e r caves p ro liferate d th ro u g h o u t th e tw en tieth century. F ra n ce

yielded n o t only exam ples o f p ain te d surfaces, b u t also relief figures, s u c h as th e ‘frieze’

o f anim als b ro u g h t to light in 1909 a t C a p B lanc, again n e a r L es E yzies, a n d th e tw o

b iso n m o u ld e d in clay a t th e en d o f th e d ee p cave a tT u c d ’A u d o u b e rt in th e Pyrenees.

M o s t stories o f m o d e rn discovery c o n ta in a ratio n o f d ram a. A p p ro p riately ,

p e rh a p s , it w as w hile search in g fo r a lo st d o g th a t several schoolboys cam e across th e

THE BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

sp le n d id m e n a g e rie p a in te d w ith in th e cave a t L a sc a u x , n e a r M o n tig n a c , in 1940 (Fig. 7).

A n d w hile th e fin d in g (in 1994) o f ev e n m o re rem a rk a b le an im al scen es in F ra n c e ’s

A rd é c h e G o rg e c a m e a b o u t fro m d e lib e ra te u n d e r g r o u n d e x p lo ra tio n , th e s u b se q u e n t

d isp u te over o w n ersh ip o f this site – n a m e d C h a u v e t C ave a fte r th e p o th o lin g e n th u sia st

w h o first flash ed a to rc h b e a m o ver it – is s o m e th in g o f a legal so a p o p era.

A p a ir o f rh in o c e ro s e s lo ck h o rn s fo r a fight; a n a tu ra l ev e n t re c o rd e d w ith swift,

c o n fid e n t b ru sh stro k e s. A set o f feline p ro files o v erlap, as if casually an tic ip a tin g the

d ra u g h ts m a n ’s ru les o f d e p th a n d p e rs p e c tiv e by m a n y m illen n ia (Fig. 8). A sto n ish in g ?

In d ee d . B u t n o t ab so lu te ly in c re d ib le – b ec au s e th e p ain tin g s o f C h a u v e t C av e, firm ly

d a te d to o v er 3 0 ,0 0 0 years ago, p ro v id e m erely th e m o s t sp e c ta c u la r in d ic a to rs to d ate

o f w h a t so m e arc h aeo lo g ists re fe r to as a g en e ral ‘C rea tiv e E x p lo sio n ’ o c c u rrin g in th e

U p p e r P alaeo lith ic p e rio d (c. 4 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 y ears a g o ) .T h e p h e n o m e n o n is n o t

co n fin e d e ith e r to F ra n c e o r to c o n tin e n ta l E u ro p e . E ssentially, it m ark s th e a sc e n d a n c y

o f a p a rtic u la r biological sp ecies, H om o sapiens, th e ‘k n o w in g h u m a n ’ ty p e th a t has co m e

to d o m in a te th e E a r th ’s surface.

A s u m m a ry o f th e b a c k g ro u n d to this arriv al o f an a to m ica lly m o d e rn h u m a n s m ay

be fo u n d in a se p arate sectio n o f this b o o k (see p ag e 14). H ere, it is e n o u g h to o b serv e

th a t p ain tin g s o n cave walls b elo n g to a catalo g u e o f telltale relics left by the in g en io u s an d

creative H om o sapiens c. 4 0 ,0 0 0 -3 0 ,0 0 0 years ago. A m o n g th e se relics are th e following:

1 F lin t to o ls, p r o d u c e d in su c h a w ay as to b e ex q u isitely sy m m etric al. S u ch

s y m m e try m a y h ave assisted th e ir fu n c tio n (if, fo r ex a m p le , axes w ere th ro w n

as m issiles); o th e rw ise it exists to in v e st a fu n ctio n al o b je ct w ith a e sth e tic value.

2 P e rfo ra te d te e th a n d shells, co llec te d fo r th e sake o f b o d ily o rn a m e n t. Item s o f

jewellery, s u c h as th e n eck lace o f shells f o u n d at M a n d u M a n d u in W estern

A u stralia, a re su re signs o f p e rso n a l e m b ellish m e n t; p o ssib ly also in d ic a to rs o f

social status.

3 D e p o s itio n s o f fo o d a n d gifts alo n g w ith b u ria l o f th e d ea d . E x cav ated b u rials

at th e C ro – M a g n o n sh e lte r n e a r L es E yzies a n d a t th e site o f D o ln i-V esto n ice in

th e C z ec h R e p u b lic m ay n o t q u alify s tru c tu ra lly as to m b s , b u t th e p re se n c e o f

grave g o o d s is suggestive o f ritu a l, a n d so m e c o n c e p t o f a n afterlife.

4 S c ra tc h in g s o n b o n e a n d a n tle r th a t seem in te n tio n a l a n d o rd e re d . Several

ex a m p le s o f su c h m a rk in g s fro m th e site o f Z h o u k o u d ia n , n e a r B eijing in C h in a ,

7 (to p ) Detail o f th e ‘Salon o f t h e Bulls’ a t Lascaux, n e a r Montignac, France, c. 18,000 bc.

8 (above) T h e m asterfully d e p ic te d feline faces in t h e l i o n Panel’ o f C h a u v e t C ave, France, c. 3 2 -3 0 ,0 0 0 bc.

THE BIRTH O F THE IM A G IN A T IO N

rem a in o p e n to in te rp re ta tio n , w hile an in g en io u s case has b e e n m a d e fo r read in g

n o tc h es on th e h an d le o f a tool fo u n d a t Ish an g o , in ce n tral eq u a to rial A frica, as a

n o ta tio n a l sy stem o f tallies th a t m ark e d tim e acco rd in g to p h ases o f th e m oon.

C e rta in aspects o f this cultural ‘tak e-o ff’, such as vocal co m m u n icatio n (singing in cluded),

d an ce, a n d p a in tin g d o n e d irectly o n to b o d ie s, can n ev er be know n. M u c h sm all-scale

o r p o rta b le a r t m a y have v anished. A n d in m an y p a rts o f th e w orld th e re are m arkings

o n rocks th a t sim p ly c a n n o t b e secu rely d ated by archaeologists. T h e s e a re reaso n s why,

in any investigation o f th e origins o f a rt, atte n tio n focuses u p o n the cav e-p ain tin g s o f

P alaeo lith ic E u ro p e . A cc ep tin g th a t th e y are th e b e s t-p re serv ed an d m o st visible signs

o f th e global creative explosion, h o w d o we sta rt to explain th e ir ap p e aran c e?

A R T FO R ART’S SAKE?

P ablo P icasso, arg u ab ly the m o st illustrious a rtist o f th e tw en tieth ce n tu ry , seem s to have

p a id a visit to th e new ly discovered L a sc a u x cave in 1941. ‘We have le a rn t n o th in g !’ is

re p o rte d as his aw ed, alm o st in d ig n a n t c o m m e n t, im p ly in g th a t th e an o n y m o u s S to n e

Age d ra u g h tsm e n o f L a sc a u x h ad m iracu lo u sly an ticip ate d th e rep rese n tatio n al aims

an d ach iev em en ts o f a r t w ith in m o d e rn , ‘civilized’ society. U n ca n n ily (as it m u s t have

seem ed to h im ), th e p ro m in e n t anim als at L a sc a u x w ere bulls – fav o u red subjects o f

Picasso, a n d in d e ed , fea tu rin g in o n e o f his earliest p ain tin g s as a boy. Also, som e o f the

anim als d ep icte d at L a sc a u x have th e ir f o rm em p h asized in thick black outline. T h is is

also u n c a n n ily sim ilar to a p icto rial device fav o u red at o ne tim e by P icasso an d his p o st-

im p re ssio n ist c o n te m p o ra rie s, so m e o f w h o m w ould b e n ic k n am e d in 1905 as les fauves

(th e w ild o n es). It m u s t have u n n e rv e d th e S p an ish p ain ter, to see a stylistic invention

p re -e m p te d by m a n y th o u sa n d s o f years: ‘th e shock o f th e o ld ’, we m ig h t say. L a te r, at

a P arisian ex h ib itio n in 1953, P icasso re -crea ted fo r his ow n w ork th e flickering, to rch lit

ex p erien ce o f view ing a p reh isto ric cave – su c h w as his e m p a th y fo r an cestral com rades.

P icasso ’s rea ctio n is one th a t m an y o f us w o u ld share. Id en tify in g th e p recise species

o f b iso n , ibex o r m a m m o th m ig h t b e b e y o n d us. B u t, like y o u n g M a ria a t A ltam ira, we

have little essential difficulty in seeing w h a t th ese an c ie n t artists w ere try in g to rep resen t.

Instinctively, th e n , we m ay w an t to ‘u p d a te ’ th e earliest h u m a n a rtists by assu m in g

th a t th ey p a in te d fo r th e sheer joy o f p ain tin g .

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

T h e p h ilo s o p h e rs o f C lassical G re e c e re c o g n iz e d it as a d e fin in g tr a it o f h u m a n s

to ‘d elig h t in w orks o f im ita tio n ’ – to en jo y th e v e ry a c t a n d tr iu m p h o f r e p re s e n ta tio n .

I f w e w ere close to a real lio n o r sn a k e, w e s h o u ld feel frig h te n e d . B u t a w ell-e x ec u ted

picture o f a lio n o r sn a k e will give u s p le a s u re . W h y s u p p o s e th a t o u r P alaeo lith ic

a n c e s to rs w ere an y d iffe ren t?

T h is sim p le a c c e p ta n c e o f c a v e -p a in tin g s as a r t fo r a r t ’s sake h a s a c e r ta in ap p e al.

T o th in k o f L a s c a u x as a g allery o r salon allow s it to b e a s o r t o f sp e cia l v ie w in g p la ce

w h e re th e h a n d iw o rk o f a c c o m p lish e d artistes m ig h t b e d isplayed. A n d a t L a s c a u x , th e

e v id e n t ca re w ith w h ic h in d iv id u a l an im als h av e b e e n a b s tra c te d fro m an y n a tu ra l

b a c k g ro u n d o r la n d s c a p e m a k es it te m p tin g to s u p p o s e th a t th e p a in te r s s o u g h t to cre ate ,

as it w ere, ‘life s tu d ie s ’ o f th e ir su b jects. P lau sib ly , daily ex iste n ce in p a r ts o f P alaeo lith ic

E u r o p e m a y n o t h av e b e e n so h a r d , w ith a n a b u n d a n c e o f rea d y fo o d , a n d th e re fo re th e

le isu re tim e fo r art.

T h e p ro b le m s w ith th is e x p la n a tio n , h o w ev e r, a re vario u s. In th e firs t p la c e , th e

p ro life ra tio n o f arc h a e o lo g ic a l d isc o v erie s – a n d th is in c lu d e s s o m e o f th e w o rld ’s

in n u m e ra b le ro c k a r t sites th a t c a n n o t b e d a te d – h a s se rv e d to e m p h a s iz e a re m a rk a b ly

lim ite d r e p e rto ire o f su b jects. T h e im a g es th a t r e c u r a re th o s e o f a n im als; a n d ,

c o m m o n ly , sim ilar ty p e s o f an im al. H u m a n fig u re s a re u n u s u a l; a n d w h e n th e y d o m a k e

a n a p p e a r a n c e , th e y a re ra re ly d o n e w ith th e sa m e a tte n tio n to fo rm a c c o r d e d to th e

an im als. I f P ala eo lith ic a rtis ts w ere sim p ly seek in g to re p r e s e n t th e b e a u ty o f th e w o rld

a r o u n d th e m , w o u ld th e y n o t h av e le ft a fa r g r e a te r ra n g e o f p ic tu re s – o f tree s a n d

flo w ers, o f th e s u n a n d th e sta rs?

A f u r th e r q u e s tio n to th e th e o ry o f a r t f o r a r t ’s sake is p o s e d b y th e h ig h in c id e n c e

o f P ala eo lith ic im ag es th a t a p p e a r n o t b e im itativ e o f an y reality w h atso ev e r. T h e s e are

g e o m e tric a l s h a p e s o r p a tte r n s c o n s is tin g o f d o ts o r lines. S u c h m a rk s m a y b e f o u n d

iso late d o r re p e a te d o ver a p a r tic u la r su rfa ce , b u t also sc a tte re d ac ro ss m o r e re c o g n iz a b le

fo rm s . A g o o d e x a m p le o f th is m a y b e se e n in th e geo lo g ically s p e c ta c u la r g ro tto o f P ech

M e rle , in th e L o t re g io n o f F ra n c e (Fig. 9). H e re w e e n c o u n te r s o m e fa v o u rite an im als

fro m th e P alaeo lith ic re p e rto ire – a p a ir o f s to u t-b e llie d h o rses. B u t o v er a n d a r o u n d th e

h o r s e s ’ o u tlin e s a re m u ltip le d a r k s p o ts , d a u b e d in d isre g a rd fo r th e o th e rw ise n a tu ra listic

re p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e an im als. W h a t d o es s u c h p a tte r n in g im itate?

T h e r e is also th e f a c to r o f lo c atio n . T h e ca v ern s o f A lta m ira a n d L a s c a u x m ig h t

co n c eiv ab ly q u alify as u n d e r g r o u n d g alleries, b u t m a n y o th e r p a in tin g s h av e b e e n f o u n d

¿3SSKgm

9 T h e ‘S p o tte d H o rse s’ in t h e caves o f Pech M erle, France, c. 20.000 BC, with th e intriguing p a tte rn s o f d a rk spots
aro u n d t h e h o rses’ outlines.T he hand stencils may b e la te r to u ch es.

T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

in recesses to tally u n su ita b le fo r any k in d o f view ing – tig h t n o o k s a n d cra n n ies th a t m u s t

have b e e n aw kw ard even fo r th e artists to p e n e tra te , le t alone fo r an y o n e else w an tin g

to see th e a rt. F o r ex am p le, a p a in te d cave ad jo in in g P ech M e rle , called L e C o m b e l, can

o n ly b e re a c h e d by sq u eezin g th ro u g h a n a rro w cleft in th e ro ck a n d craw ling alo n g o n

o n e ’s sto m ac h ; th e re was n ev e r an y ro o m to a d m ire th e h an d iw o rk in co m fo rt.

Finally, we m ay d o u b t th e n o tio n th a t th e U p p e r P alaeolithic w as a G a r d e n o f E d e n

in w h ich fo o d cam e readily, leaving h u m a n s am p le tim e to a m u se th em selv es w ith art.

F o r E u ro p e it w as still th e Ice A ge. A n estim ate o f th e basic level o f su sten an c e th e n

n e c e s sa ry fo r in d iv id u al h u m a n survival h as b e e n ju d g e d a t 2 2 0 0 calories p e r da}’. T h is

c o n s id eratio n , c o m b in e d w ith th e stark ic o n o g ra p h ic em p h asis u p o n an im als in th e cave

a rt, has p e rs u a d e d so m e arch aeo lo g ists th a t th e p rim a ry m o tiv e b e h in d P alaeolithic

im ag es m u s t lie w ith th e p rim a ry activity o f P alaeolithic p eo p le – h u n tin g .

A R T A N D H U N T IN G

H u n tin g is a skill. T ra c k in g , stalking, ch asin g a n d killing th e p rey are difficult, so m etim es

d a n g e ro u s activities. W h a t if th e p ro ce ss c o u ld b e m a d e easier – by art?

In th e early d ec ad e s o f th e tw en tieth c e n tu ry , an in flu en tial F re n c h arch aeo lo g ist,

A b b é H e n ri Breuil (1 8 7 7 -1 9 6 1 ), m a d e this su g g estio n th e basis fo r his th e o ry th a t

th e cav e-p ain tin g s w ere all a b o u t ‘sy m p a th e tic m a g ic ’. T h e re a so n w hy P alaeolithic artists

so o ften d e p ic te d an im als w as th a t th e b u sin e ss o f h u n tin g an im als p re o c c u p ie d th e m

a n d th e ir c o n tem p o rarie s. A n d th e a rtists striv ed diligently to m ake th e ir an im al im ages

evocative a n d realistic b ec au s e th e y w ere a tte m p tin g to ‘c a p tu re th e s p irit’ o f th e ir prey.

As B reuil stressed , th ese d e b u ta n t h u m a n a rtists clearly d id n o t d raw like children.

W h a t co u ld have p r o m p te d th e ir stu d io u s atte n tio n to m a k in g su c h n atu ralistic,

reco g n izab le im ages? F o r B reuil, it h a d to c o m e fro m so m e e x tra o rd in a ry b elief a b o u t

th e p o w er o f im ages. I f a h u n te r w ere able to m ake a tru e likeness o f so m e an im al, th e n

th a t an im al w as v irtu ally tra p p e d . Im ag es, th e re fo re, h a d th e m agical cap acity to c o n fe r

su ccess o r lu c k in th e h u n t.

As w ith th e in te rp re ta tio n o f cav e-p ain tin g s as a r t fo r a r t’s sake, th e re is a general

elem e n t to th e th e o ry o f h u n tin g m ag ic th a t is im m ed iately attractive. A fter all, anyone

w h o h as ever kissed a p h o to g r a p h know s th a t im ages c a n serve th e p u rp o s e o f w ishful

th in k in g . M a n y in stan ces are k n o w n o f societies in w h ich im ages are h o n o u re d as

27

T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

p o te n tia l s u r ro g a te s o f reality. V o o d o o -ty p e s u p e rs titio n s , fo r in sta n c e , rely o n th e b elief

th a t stick in g p in s in a w ax effigy o f s o m e o n e will m a k e th a t p e r s o n feel p a in . A r t th e re b y

b e c o m e s a m e d iu m fo r m ag ic. A n d w h ile w e m ig h t a c c e p t th a t th e im ag e o f a lio n o r

a sn a k e d o e s n o t te rrify u s like th e real tilin g , it is also well d o c u m e n te d th a t w e a re q u ite

c a p a b le o f re s p o n d in g to a n im a g e as if it were real. B e in g a C a th o lic p rie s t, B reu il k n ew

well e n o u g h th a t m a n y p e o p le o f his tim e c o u ld s ta n d b e fo re a p ic tu r e o r s ta tu e o f th e

V irg in M a r y w ith all d ie re s p e c t d u e to a n a n im a te p re se n c e .

B reu il co u ld p o in t to f u r th e r sp e cific fe a tu re s o f th e c a v e -p a in tin g s th a t fa v o u re d

h is a p p r o a c h . In n u m e ro u s im a g es, a n a n im a l w as sh o w n a p p a r e n tly s tr u c k b y arro w s

o r s p e a rs , o r else m a rk e d as if w o u n d e d o r s n a re d {Fig. 10). A s fo r th e m a n y an im a ls n o t

sh o w n as d ir e c t v ic tim s o f th e h u n t, th e y c o u ld b e lo n g to a r t ’s m a g ica l p u r p o s e

n o n eth ele ss. L a rg e h e rd s , w ith w ell-fed o r p r e g n a n t b e a sts sig n ified y e t m o re w ishful

th in k in g o n th e p a r t o f h u n te rs h o p in g f o r th e b o u n tif u l in c re a s e o f th e ir p rey . A n d , o f

c o u rs e , it w as th e m y ste rio u s o r o c c u lt fu n c tio n o f th e p a in tin g s th a t, f o r B reuil,

e x p la in e d w h y th e y w ere lo c a te d d e e p u n d e r g r o u n d . M a g ic h a d to b e p e r f o rm e d in

d a rk p la c e s, o u t o f sig h t; it w as a s e c re t o p e ra tio n .

B re u il’s th e o ry a p p e a le d to th o s e w h o en v isag e d th e Ic e A ge in E u ro p e as a p e rio d

o f h a r d su rv iv al, w h e n m a m m o th s r o a m e d th e la n d , a n d fierce b e a rs c o m p e te d w ith

h u m a n s f o r ro ck y sh e lte rs. A n d th e e le m e n t o f s u p e rs titio u s o r irra tio n a l b e lie f su ited

a n y o n e w h o se view o f th e p a s t w as s h a p e d b y th e s o r t o f d e s k -b o u n d a n th ro p o lo g y so

e lo q u e n tly p r e s e n te d b y J.G . F ra z e r in h is m u lti-v o lu m e c o m p e n d iu m , The Golden B ough

( 1 9 0 7 -1 5 ). S u b title d ‘A S tu d y in M a g ic a n d R e lig io n ’, F r a z e r ’s w o rk s e e m e d , fro m

th e p o e tT .S . E lio t’s a d m irin g p o in t o f view , to c re a te ‘an a b y s m o f tim e ’. Yet th e F ra z e ria n

p u r s u it o f d a ta f ro m ‘p rim itiv e ’ so c ie tie s relied u p o n a n ideal o f p ro g re s s c h a ra c te ris tic

o fV ic to r ia n B rita in . F r a z e r h im s e lf sty le d it as ‘th e lo n g m a r c h , th e slow a n d to ilso m e

a s c e n t, o f h u m a n ity fro m sa v a g e ry to civ ilisa tio n ’. T r u s t in m a g ic ia n s w as, fo r F ra z e r,

a key d e fin in g f e a tu re o f ‘sa v ag e’ societies.

A n th ro p o lo g y h a s m o v e d o n f r o m s u c h c o m p lac en c y . B u t th e m a in o b je c tio n to

B re u il’s th e o ry arise s n o t fro m id e o lo g ic al d isd a in ; r a th e r f ro m m o re atten tiv e

arc h a e o lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e a n c ie n t d e b ris w ith in th e caves – in p a r tic u la r, analysis

10 (p rev io u s p ag e) W o u n d e d bison fro m N iau x caves, n e a r A riég e, France, c. 14,000 BC.

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

o f f o o d re m a in s le ft a r o u n d h e a r th s o r in m id d e n s ( ru b b is h d u m p s ) . I f th e p a in tin g s

w e re c r e a te d f o r th e p u r p o s e o f su c c e ss fu l h u n tin g , it w o u ld b e lo g ic al to e x p e c t th a t th e

a n im a ls d e p ic te d o n th e ca v e w alls w e re th o s e f e a tu rin g in th e d aily d ie t o f th e c a v e ’s

in h a b ita n ts . B u t th is c o rre la tio n d o e s n o t h o ld . A t L a s c a u x , th e an im a ls p a in te d w ere b u lls,

h o r s e s a n d r e d d ee r. M o s t o f th e b o n e s d is c a r d e d in th e cav e, h o w e v e r, w e re o f re in d e e r.

A t A lta m ira th e y d re w b is o n , b u t th e a s s o c ia te d b o n e s w ere th o s e o f d e e r, g o a t a n d w ild

b o a r , w ith sh ellfish a d d in g a little variety. M a m m o th s a p p e a r w ith so m e f r e q u e n c y in th e

caves o f th e A rd é c h e a n d P é r ig o rd re g io n s , b u t n o t in th e r e c o r d o f h u m a n s u b s is te n c e

a t th a t tim e. A s o n e a r c h a e o lo g is t p u ts it, ‘th e U p p e r P a la e o lith ic p a in te r s h a d h o r s e s a n d

b is o n o n th e ir m in d , w h e re a s th e y h a d r e in d e e r a n d p ta r m ig a n in th e ir s to m a c h s ’.

I f n o t p ro p e lle d b y h u n g e r , w h y d id th e y p a in t? A lth o u g h th e s c ie n c e o f

n e u ro p h y s io lo g y w as in its in fa n c y , B re u il a n d h is c o n te m p o r a r ie s s e n s e d th a t i t w as

f u n d a m e n ta lly u n n a tu r a l f o r th e h u m a n m in d to p r o d u c e a n d u s e re p r e s e n ta tio n a l

im a g e s in th e firs t p la c e , c itin g th e r e p o r te d ca se o f a T u rk is h M u s lim w h o , h a v in g h a d n o

e x p e rie n c e o f p ic tu r e s o r d ra w in g s , fa ile d to id e n tify a tw o -d im e n s io n a l im a g e o f a h o rs e

b e c a u s e h e c o u ld n o t w a lk a r o u n d it. T h e c a p a c ity f o r im a g e s , th o u g h q u ic k ly a c q u ir e d ,

d id n o t s e e m to b e in n a te . I f w e n e e d to h av e s o m e m e n ta l e x p e rie n c e o r tr a in in g in o rd e r

to recognize s y m b o ls , h o w d id w e e v e r a c q u ire th e ab ility to create th e m in th e f irs t place?

S o th e q u e s t c o n tin u e d – th e q u e s t to e x p la in h o w th is p e c u lia r h u m a n h a b it o f

re p r e s e n ta tio n b e g a n .

A R T A S A S Y M B O L IC SYSTEM

A n y o n e w h o c o n s id e r s th e p ra c tic a litie s o f in te r io r d e c o r a tio n a t A lta m ira a n d L a s c a u x

will s u p p o s e th a t s o m e s y ste m o f sc a ffo ld in g m u s t h av e b e e n e r e c te d f o r th e p a in te rs .

E x p e r ts c o n f ir m th e s u p p o s itio n . Im a g e s w ere n o t ca su a lly s c ra w le d o n th e w alls, b u t laid

o u t as p a r t o f a c o n s id e r e d p r o g r a m m e o r s c h e m e o f d e c o ra tio n .

I t is to th e c r e d it o f a n o th e r F r e n c h sc h o la r, A n d ré L e r o i- G o u r h a n ( 1 9 1 1 – 8 6 ) ,

th a t th e th e o r y h e o f fe re d as a n a lte rn a tiv e to a r t- f o r – h u n tin g w as b a s e d o n a n a c c e p ta n c e

o f P a la e o lith ic im a g e ry as a g r a n d p r o je c t – a n y th in g b u t r a n d o m sk e tch e s. S tro n g ly

in flu e n c e d b y th e S tr u c tu r a lis t sc h o o l o f a n th ro p o lo g y (see p a g e 8 9 ) , L e r o i- G o u r h a n

p r o p o s e d c o n s id e r in g th e c a v e -p a in tin g s as a sy m b o lic sy s te m b a s e d o n b in a ry

o p p o s itio n s o r p a irin g s , w ith th e e s sen tial d iv is io n b e in g th a t b e tw e e n m a n a n d w o m a n .

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

N o to rio u s ly , th e re a re v e ry few im a g e s o f h u m a n s in th e caves. B u t w h a t if c e rta in

an im als w ere to b e as so c ia te d w ith m a les , a n d o th e rs w ith fem ales? W ith re a s o n s ra n g in g

fro m th e e le m e n ta ry to th e so p h is tic a te d , L e r o i- G o u r h a n a rg u e d th a t h o rs e s , ibexes a n d

d e e r w ere sy m b o lically m a s c u lin e , w h ile a u ro c h s a n d b is o n w ere fe m in in e . H is analysis

defies s u m m a ry : b u t u ltim a te ly – as m ig h t b e g u essed – it le ad s to th e s u p p o s itio n o f

so m e k in d o f fertility rite sta g e d in th e caves, fo r w h ich th e im a g es m u s t s e rv e as liturgy.

S o m e w o u ld say th a t L e r o i- G o u r h a n ’s a p p r o a c h w as m u s ic to th e e a rs o f an y o n e

raise d o n th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l d o c trin e s o f S ig m u n d F re u d . C e rta in ly th e re w ere F re u d ia n

o v e rto n e s to th e w ay in w h ic h L e r o i- G o u r h a n e x p la in e d th e g e o m e tric m o tifs th a t

r e c u rr e d in th e caves. A g ain h e id e n tifie d a m a le -fe m a le g e n d e r d iv id e. S tra ig h t lines

a n d d o ts sig n ified m a le, w h ile c irc u la r o r e n c lo s in g fo rm s w ere e m b le m a tic o f fem ale

fo rm . O th e r arc h a e o lo g ists h a d a lre a d y n o te d c e rta in p a in te d sh a p e s o r g raffiti suggestive

o f o n e p a r tic u la r p a r t o f fem a le a n a to m y – th e v ulva – w h ich fa v o u re d th is sexually

sy m b o lic rea d in g . L e r o i- G o u r h a n h im s e lf, h o w ev e r, re m a in e d r e lu c ta n t to sp ecify th e

im p lied fertility rite.

T o d a y it m a y b e h a r d to re s is t b e in g a m u s e d by th e s o r t o f in te rp re ta tio n th a t sees

ev ery s tra ig h t lin e o r s p e a r as p h allic , ev e ry circle as a w o m b . Yet, as e v e n his c ritic s ag re e,

L e r o i- G o u r h a n w as su re ly r ig h t to p e rs e v e re in his a s s u m p tio n th a t th e P alaeo lith ic

artis ts w o rk e d intentionally, th a t th e re w as a m e th o d a n d a m e a n in g to th e ir w o rk as a

w h o le. B u t if o n e p r o b le m w ith h is th e o ry is th a t it d e p e n d s u p o n a m o d e rn o b se ssio n

w ith sex u ality , th e n th e g en e ral q u e s tio n a rise s o f h o w w e s h o u ld p ro c e e d . W e still n e e d

so m e e x p la n a tio n o f h o w th e k n a c k o r c a p a c ity fo r r e p re s e n ta tio n firs t click ed in to p lace.

C a n an y analysis b rid g e th e d ista n c e b e tw e e n m o d e rn view ers a n d a n c ie n t artists?

O U T O F A F R IC A

In tire age o f o u r g r e a t-g r a n d p a re n ts – th e g e n e ra tio n fo r w h o m th e w o rk o f J.G . F ra z e r

w as e n lig h te n in g – th e re w as little o b je c tio n to m a k in g c o m p a ris o n s b e tw e e n th e

p r e h is to ric p a s t a n d c o m m u n itie s o f so -c a lle d ‘p rim itiv e p e o p le s ’ th a t h a d su rv iv ed

(by iso latio n ) in to th e in d u stria liz e d w o rld . T o d a y , it w o u ld b e th o u g h t o ffen siv e a n d

m is lea d in g to d e s c rib e , fo r e x a m p le , th e e x is te n c e o f A u stra lia n A b o rig in e s a ro u n d

1 800 a d as e q u iv a le n t to th e S to n e A g e. A n d y e t th e im p u lse to d ra w so m e an alo g ies

b e tw e e n a s u rv iv in g o r d o c u m e n te d society7 o f h u n te r- g a th e r e r s a n d th e h u n te r- g a th e r in g

T H E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

e x iste n ce o f p eo p le in th e P ala eo lith ic p a s t is d ifficu lt to resist, even i f th e d ista n c e is

m e a s u r e d n o t only ac ro ss tim e, b u t also a c ro ss c o n tin e n ts. J u s t su c h a n o n -ju d g e m e n ta l

e x p la n a tio n b y an alo g y h a s lately e m e rg e d , in je ctin g fre s h en erg y in to th e d e b a te a b o u t

th e b e g in n in g s o f h u m a n ity ’s g ift fo r re p re s e n ta tio n . T h e th e o ry co m es fro m A frica,

a n d h o w it evolved is w o rth tra c in g in so m e detail.

T h e D ra k e n s b e rg m o u n ta in s a re th e m a in c o n to u rs o f s o u th e rn A frica. T o th e east,

b e y o n d a co a sta l p la in , lies D u r b a n ; d u e n o r th is J o h a n n e s b u rg a n d th e in te rio r p la te a u

o r veldt; w ith in th e ra n g e , geologically, is th e sm all, s n o w -to p p e d k in g d o m o f L eso th o .

M o s t o f th e D ra k e n s b e rg p ea k s n o w b e lo n g to th e p ro v in c e o f K w a Z u lu -N a ta l. In a n d

a r o u n d th is are a are m a n y p la c e -n a m e s th a t re so n a te in S o u th A fric a ’s m o d e rn h isto ry ,

sites o f co n flict b e tw e e n B o e r se ttle rs, B ritish co lo n ists a n d Z u lu trib e sm e n : S p io n K o p ,

L a d y s m ith , R o rk e ’s D r i f t a n d m o re . B u t b e fo re th e B ritish , th e B oers o r th e Z u lu s

im p a c te d o n th is la n d s c a p e , it h a d b e e n lo n g o c c u p ie d b y a p e o p le w h o se official p lace

in h is to ry is so u n c e r ta in th a t n o o n e is q u ite s u re w h a t to call th e m . T h e y u s e d to b e

re f e r re d to collectively as ‘B u s h m e n ’; lately ‘th e S a n ’ h as b e e n p re fe rre d . In fac t, b o th

n a m e s h av e p ejo rativ e c o n n o ta tio n s , b u t sin ce th e re is n o re a d y altern ativ e, w e shall u se

th e te r m ‘B u s h m e n ’ h e re , fo r th e sake o f c o n v e n ie n ce a n d w ith o u t d isresp ec t.

T h e B u s h m e n ’s m o d e s o f h a b ita tio n a n d su b siste n c e in th e D ra k e n s b e rg c h a n g e d

v e ry little o v er th o u s a n d s o f years. T h e m e n h u n te d an im als, u sin g sp e a rs a n d arro w s

tip p e d w ith p o iso n ; th e w o m e n g a th e re d p la n ts, g rasse s a n d ro o ts, w ith n o o th e r tool

th a n a w e ig h ted d ig g in g -stick . S m all c o m m u n itie s m o v e d fro m u p la n d to lo w lan d areas

as se aso n s c h a n g e d , m a k in g u s e o f n a tu ra l sh e lte rs w h e re available. L ik e o th e r n o m a d ic

p e o p le s, th e D ra k e n s b e rg B u s h m e n n e e d e d v ery few p o sse ssio n s, so o n e m ig h t h ave

g u e s se d th a t th e y left few tra c e s o f th e ir p re s e n c e in th is te rrito ry . T h is is, in d e e d , th e

case – e x c e p t in th e crag s a n d crevices o f th e sa n d s to n e e s c a rp m e n t th e re a re th o u s a n d s

o f p a in te d im ages.

C o m p a ra b le in q u a n tity to th e ro c k a r t sites o f th e K a k a d u are a in n o r th e r n

A u stralia, th e B u s h m e n p a in tin g s o f th e D ra k e n s b e r g a re n o t ca ta lo g u ed ; u n lik e th e

K a k a d u im a g es, th e y are e n tirely a n o n y m o u s a n d im p o ssib le to d ate. P a in tin g s d o n e only

2 0 0 y ea rs ago m a y lo o k b r ig h te r th a n w o rk d o n e 2 0 ,0 0 0 y ears earlier, a n d c e r ta in scen es

(s u c h as m e n sh o w n c a rry in g g u n s ) a p p e a r to b e re fe re n c e s to th e co lo n ial in tru d e rs .

E ssentially, h o w ev er, th e n u m e ro u s im ag es se em v ery sim ilar an d c o h e re n t w ith in th e

re g io n , a n d sim ilar to p a in tin g s left in so m e o th e r p la c e s o c c u p ie d b y th e B u s h m e n .

TH E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

T h e s e w ere n o t always re c o g n iz e d fo r w h a t th e y w ere. In 1918 clim b e rs e x p lo rin g

th e B ra n d b e rg M a s s if (o f m o d e rn N a m ib ia ) c a m e ac ro ss ro ck p a in tin g s in a ce rta in

ravine. C o lo u re d co p ies w ere d u ly m a d e a n d sh o w n so m e y ears la ter to H e n r i B reuil,

th e n a tte n d in g a c o n fe re n c e in J o h a n n e s b u rg . T h e A b b é p ro n o u n c e d th a t n o in d ig e n o u s

p e o p le h a d m a d e th e se im ag es, b u t fo re ig n e rs o f ‘N ilo tic -M e d ite rra n e a n o rig in ’ –

p e rh a p s ém ig rés f ro m B ro n ze A ge C re te , w h o se style se em e d a p p a r e n t in a p a rtic u la r

fig u re d u b b e d by B reu il as th e ‘W h ite L a d y ’. I t h as sin ce tra n s p ire d th a t this fig u re is

m ale, a n d ty p ic a l B u s h m a n w ork; b u t to u p h o ld e rs o f th e a p a r th e id sy stem – w h ereb y

w h ite a n d b lack p e o p le in S o u th A frica w ere k e p t a p a r t – B reu il’s v e rd ic t w as w elcom e

p r o o f th a t th e earliest in h a b ita n ts o f th is la n d h a d b e e n E u ro p e a n s . T h e n o tio n w as

so p le asin g to th e c o u n try ’s colonial a d m in is tra to rs th a t, d u rin g th e S e c o n d W orld W ar,

th e y gave a c ad e m ic refu g e to B reu il in Jo h a n n e s b u rg – s p o n s o re d by n o n e o th e r th a n

th e c o u n tr y ’s p re m ie r, J.C . S m u ts.

B reu il’s p re p o s te ro u s gloss o f th e ‘W h ite L a d y ’ is p e rh a p s su fficie n t in d ic a tio n o f

h o w little specialist atte n tio n w as d ev o ted to th e im ages left by th e B u s h m e n – im ag es th a t

w ere, o f c o u rs e , g rad u a lly fad in g fro m m o d e rn view. T h e n eg lec t m o re o r less p e rsis te d

u n til th e early 19 60s, w h en a y o u n g local sc h o o lm a ster s ta rte d to ex p lo re th e D ra k e n sb e rg

p ain tin g s m o re studiously. H is n a m e w as D a v id L ew is-W illiam s, a n d w h a t b e g a n as

a te a c h e r’s p a s tim e led firs t to a d o c to ra te , t h e n a p ro fe sso rial ch a ir, a n d u ltim ately a

d ed ic a te d R o ck A rt In stitu te (a t th e U n iv e rsity o fW itw a te rs ra n d in Jo h a n n e s b u rg ).

T h e c o n s p ic u o u s su b jects o f B u s h m e n p a in tin g s th r o u g h o u t th e D ra k e n sb e rg

are a n im als (Fig. 11). O fte n e n o u g h it seem s th e re is a scen e in w h ic h so m e fo u r-leg g ed

prey , su c h as an an te lo p e , is s u r ro u n d e d by figures a rm e d w ith b ow s o r sp ears. C asu al

view ers m ig h t read ily su p p o s e th a t th e s e w ere ch a ra c te ristic reflectio n s o f daily life

am o n g th e B u s h m e n , to w h o m h u n tin g w as s u p re m e ly im p o r ta n t (th e ir d is p u te s w ith

th e se ttle rs aro se m o stly fro m access to g am e o r cattle raid in g ). B u t, as L ew is-W illiam s

sh o w ed , o n e d o es n o t h av e to look v e ry h a rd a t th e D ra k e n s b e rg p a in tin g s b efo re

realizin g th a t th e se d ep ic tio n s o f h u n tin g are n o t so stra ig h tfo rw a rd as th a t. S o m e o f the

h u m a n fig u res, on clo ser e x a m in a tio n , a p p e a r to h ave h o o fs fo r feet, a n d an im al h ead s.

O th e r fig u res, seem in g ly realistic a t firs t g la n ce , have th e ir necks r e p re s e n te d in lines

o f m a n y w h ite stipples. A c e rta in la rg e s o rt o f a n te lo p e , th e elan d , d id in d e e d a p p e a r

o fte n a n d p ro m in e n tly in th e p ain tin g s. B u t th e B u s h m e n h a d m a n y o th e r so u rce s o f

fo o d , fo u r-le g g e d o r n o t. W h y so m u c h em p h a sis u p o n th e elan d ? As fo r th e se h y b rid

11 (above) A scene from th e
main frieze o f th e G am e Pass
Shelter, Kamberg, South Africa.
D ate uncertain.

12 (right) A drawing o f a detail
from th e main frieze o f th e
G am e Pass Shelter; showing a
dying eland and a figure with
hooves and an animal head.

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

h u m a n -a n im a l fig u re s – th e ria n th r o p ic is th e official d e s c rip tiv e te rm fo r th e m – w hy

w ere so m e o f th e m a p p e a r in g to s n a tc h a t a n e la n d ’s tail?

L ew is-W illia m s a ire d all th e s e q u e rie s , w h ic h aro se f ro m in te r p re tin g th e

D ra k e n s b e r g im a g e s as sc e n e s o f e v e ry d a y life a m o n g th e B u s h m e n . H e w as also aw are

th a t w h ile h u n te r- g a th e r in g p e o p le s m a y se e m , in W e s te rn eyes, to b e le a d in g re m a rk a b ly

sim p le lives, a t o n e w ith n a tu re , a n th ro p o lo g ic a l re s e a rc h in v a riab ly d e m o n s tr a te d

o th e rw ise . H u n te r – g a th e re rs a r o u n d th e w o rld te n d e d to o rg a n iz e th e ir lives a ro u n d

v e ry p re c ise a n d p re s c rip tiv e sy ste m s o f r itu a l a n d s u p e r n a tu r a l belief. W h y p re s u m e

a n y less o f th e B u s h m e n ?

A n sw ers to q u es tio n s a b o u t tire m e a n in g o f th e D ra k e n sb e rg im ag es w o u ld , n aturally,

lie w ith th e B u s h m e n w h o p a in te d th e m . D e s p ite n e a r-g e n o c id e in th e p a s t, a n d th e m o re

r e c e n t im p o s itio n o f b o r d e r s a n d p a s s p o r ts , B u s h m e n h av e su rv iv e d in th e K a la h a ri

D e s e rt, e sp ecially in p a r ts o f B o tsw a n a a n d n o r th w e s t N a m ib ia . B u t th e p ro b le m fo r th o se

try in g to tra c k d o w n th e m e a n in g o f B u s h m a n a r t is th a t sin ce th e ir d isp la c e m e n t f ro m th e

D ra k e n s b e rg to th e K a la h a ri over a c e n tu r y ag o , th e B u s h m e n h ave n o t b e e n able to su stain

th e a rtis tic tra d itio n . T h e K a la h a ri is a v e ry d iffe re n t te rr a in fro m th e D ra k e n s b e rg : it

o ffers few r o c k s u rfa c e s o r sh e lte rs s u ita b le fo r p a in tin g . W h a t d id p e rs is t a m o n g th e

K a la h a ri B u s h m e n , h o w e v e r, w as a p o w e rfu l s tr a n d o f relig io u s p r a c tic e a n d b e lie f th a t

co u ld b e c o n n e c te d to p re v io u s im a g e s ; also, th e ra re te s tim o n y o f B u s h m e n voices

re c o rd e d d u r in g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y a n d k e p t in a n a rc h iv e a t C a p e T o w n . C o m b in in g

th e s e tw o so u rc e s , L ew is-W illia m s w as ab le to m a k e a c o n v in c in g case th a t th e th o u s a n d s

o f B u s h m e n im a g e s in th e D ra k e n s b e r g w ere fa r fro m b e in g sc e n e s o f d aily life; r a th e r,

th e y b e lo n g e d to th e s u rre a l e x p e rie n c e o f m in d s a n d b o d ie s in a s ta te o f ecstasy.

A n e la n d is in th e th ro e s o f d e a th (Fig. 12): its h e a d h a n g s h eav y ; its d ew la p – th e

th ic k fo ld o f sk in b elo w th e n e c k – is sa g g in g ; a n d its h in d legs a re c ro ss e d . T h e B u s h m e n

say th a t th e c ro sse d h in d legs o f tire e la n d a re a c lea r sig n o f p o is o n e d d a r ts ta k in g effect.

H e re , h o w ev e r, w e n o tic e s o m e th in g else. T h e th e ria n th r o p ic fig u re h o ld in g th e e la n d ’s

tail in o n e h a n d , a n d a s p e a r in tire o th e r, a p p e a r s to h ave his legs c ro s se d too. H e h a s an

a n im a l’s h e a d a n d ho o fs. C a n it b e , th e n , th a t h e is also d y in g ? I f so, is h e a fig u re w h o

n o t o n ly c o n n e c ts b e tw e e n th e re a lm s o f h u m a n a n d a n im a l, b u t w h o also in te ra c ts

b e tw e e n th e living a n d th e d e a d ?

T r a n s c r ip ts o f B u s h m a n b eliefs a n d p r a c tic e s p o in t to th e reality o f ju s t s u c h a

fig u re in th e p e r s o n o f a sh a m a n : a s e n io r in d iv id u a l e s te e m e d as a h e a le r, a ra in -m a k e r,

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

a n in s p ira tio n f o r th e h u n t, a n d s o m e o n e w ith a c ce ss to th e s p ir it w o rld . T h is is n o t only

th e s tu f f o f arc h iv es: to th is d ay, s h a m a n s ex ist a m o n g th e K a la h a ri B u s h m e n . B e in g

g o o d – n a tu r e d a b o u t visits f r o m in q u is itiv e r e s e a r c h e rs , to u r is ts a n d film c re w s alike, th e

B u s h m e n h a v e r e p e a te d ly c o n f ir m e d th e c e n tra l s ig n ific an c e o f s h a m a n ic ritu a ls to th e ir

society. B u s h m a n s h a m a n s h av e th e ir o w n m e ta p h o r ic w ay s o f r e c o u n tin g h o w th e y

e x p e r ie n c e th e ir c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s u p e rn a tu r a l; th e y s p e a k in te rm s o f b e in g s tre tc h e d

o n r o p e s , lin e s o r th r e a d s to a n alm ig h ty c r e a to r o r so m e n e th e rw o rld o f a n c e s to rs . B u t

(a g a in th a n k s to a n o p e n d isp o s itio n o n th e p a r t o f th o s e c o n c e r n e d ) it is also p o ssib le

to w itn e ss a ‘tr a n c e d a n c e ’, in w h ic h a B u s h m a n s h a m a n p e rfo rm s .

T h is w as h o w it h a p p e n e d in a sm a ll k raa l o r village n o t fa r f r o m T s u m k w e in

n o r th w e s t N a m ib ia . A t d u s k a fire w as lit, a r o u n d w h ic h th e w o m e n o f th e village, w ith

th e ir in fa n ts , s a t in a circle. T h e y b e g a n to se t u p a rh y th m o f c h a n tin g a n d c lap p in g .

V ario u s o f th e ir m e n fo lk w e re a r o u n d , in c lu d in g th e a g e d h e a d m a n o f th e village; so m e

b e g a n to tr e a d a r o u n d th e circle, h u m m in g a lo n g w ith th e so n g s. T h e s ta r o f th e sh o w

T H E BLEEK A N D

EFINED BY o n e a n th ro p o lo g is t a s ‘th e

h arm less p e o p le ‘, t h e B ushm en co m m u n itie s

o f s o u th e rn A frica w e r e p e r s e c u te d t h r o u g h o u t

t h e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y by w h ite s e ttle r s a n d Bantu

p a sto ra lists alike. M any w e r e e x te rm in a te d : s o m e

w e r e k e p t as co n v icts in C a p e Town. It w a s a m o n g

t h e s e p ris o n e rs t h a t W ilh e lm Bleek (1 8 2 7 -7 5 )

did his rese a rc h . Bleek w a s a philologist, w ith a

p rim a ry in te r e s t in t h e clicking language o f t h e

B ushm en. A id e d by his sister-in-law Lucy Lloyd, h e

filled n u m e ro u s n o te b o o k s w ith tra n sc rip tio n s o f

in te rv ie w s co v erin g all a s p e c ts o f B ushm an life and

folklore. Alas, t w o n o te b o o k s c arry in g in fo rm atio n

a b o u t B ushm an painting a re listed as missing fro m

L L O Y D A R C H IV E

t h e arch iv e k e p t a t t h e U niversity o f C a p e Town.

O th e r s , h o w e v e r p ro v id e a rich v erb atim a c c o u n t

o f hun tin g te c h n iq u e s, stargazing, m ed icin e a n d so

on. It is fro m this r e c o r d t h a t w e c o m p r e h e n d th e

cen trality o f ritual in t h e lives o f t h e Bushm en.

C hristian m issio n aries th o u g h t th e m irreligious.

O n t h e c o n tra ry : t h e m o s t p ow erful figures in any

B ushm an clan w e r e its spiritual lead ers, its ritual

specialists.T hey have t h e ir o w n local titles: t o te r m

th e m ‘sh a m an s’ is, f o r t h e sake o f co n v e n ie n c e , a t

least p re fe ra b le t o ‘w itch d o c to rs ‘. W h a te v e r w e call

th e s e e ld e rs, t h e Bleek a n d Lloyd p a p e r s suggest

th a t th e y w e r e v e ry likely t o have b e e n t h e a rtis ts o f

t h e D ra k e n sb e rg a n d o t h e r B ush m an -p ain te d sites.

13 A B ushm an d a n c e a t a village n e a r T s u m k w e . n o r t h w e s t N am ibia, in t h e s u m m e r o f 2004,

If
l!

THE BIRTH OF T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

th e n arrived: a d im in u tiv e, sinew y old m a n , w earing only a loin clo th a n d a se t o f rattles

a b o u t his ankles. H e n o w led th e sta m p in g a ro u n d th e circle; a n d fo r th e n e x t tw o h o u rs

o r so h e h ard ly p a u s e d as lo rd o f th e dance. S o m etim es h e rea ch ed fo r th e h ead s o f those

sittin g d o w n , as if to tra n s m it so m e o f his en ergy to th em . O ccasionally, he staggered

away in to th e sh ad o w s, d o u b le d u p an d g asp in g fo r b rea th ; at o ne p o in t, w hile w eaving

across th e circle, h e fell in to th e fire a n d h a d to b e p u lle d out: sa n d w as h ea p ed over him

to cool h im dow n. S o m e o f th e w o m en ro se u p a n d follow ed him . T h e r e was no

w eariness fro m th e m in clap p in g a n d singing. I t seem ed th e ce rem o n y c o u ld go o n as

lo n g as th e fire glow ed u n d e r th e stars (Fig. 13).

It is in su c h situ atio n s th a t a sh a m an ca n go in to a n ‘altered state o f co n scio u sn e ss’.

Physically, this m an ifests itself in vario u s ways: loss o f b alan ce, sto m ac h cram p s,

h y p erv e n tila tio n a n d nosebleeds. M entally, it ca n lead to h allu cin atio n s, th e in ten se

v isio n ary ex p e rien c e o f travelling o u t o f b o d y in to stran g e y et co n v in cin g places. N o one

c o u ld draw o r p a in t w hile in th e m id s t o f th is so rt o f em o tio n al seizure. B u t revealing

o r recalling w h at h a d co m e in to vision d u rin g a n altered state o f co n scio u sn ess … th a t

w o u ld b e tru ly m arv ello u s, a n d p ro o f, as it w ere, o f th e sh a m a n ’s special status.

F o r several decad es now, D av id L ew is-W illiam s h as arg u e d th e case th a t the

th o u sa n d s o f B u s h m a n im ages left in th e D ra k e n sb e rg are b es t ex p lain ed as ‘sh a m a n ic ’:

directly deriv ed fro m th e h allu cin ato ry ex p erien ces o f sh a m an s w hile in a n altered state

o f conscio u sn ess. T h e r e are, to b eg in w ith, clear signs th a t physiological effects o f th e

tra n c e d an c e are d ep icted : figures d o u b le d u p w ith ab d o m in al spasm s; figures w ith red

lines (blood) strea m in g fro m th e ir noses. T h e m a rk e d elo n g atio n o f m a n y figures m ay

reflect th e r e p o rte d sen satio n o f b ein g stretch ed .

R o ck su rfaces, su c h as th e G a m e P ass S helter, b ec am e in terfaces b etw een reality

an d th e sp irit w o rld , o n w h ich th e im ag ery o f th e tra n c e w as re c o rd e d a n d displayed.

T o call these in terfaces ‘m e m b ra n e s ’ is n o t in a p p ro p ria te . F ig u res o f anim als m ig h t

em erg e fro m cracks in th e sto n e (as th ey d o ), a n d p lacin g a h a n d u p o n th e sto n e, too,

m ig h t give so m e sense o f its p o te n t access to th e d o m a in o f sp irits a n d an cesto rs.

N o s u m m a ry m atch es th e elo q u en ce w ith w h ich L ew is-W illiam s h as p u rsu e d

an d p u b lish ed this th e o ry : w e m ay sim ply state h ere th a t m an y e x p e rts w orldw ide ac ce p t

it. A nthropologically, it is n o t an isolated o r ec ce n tric p h e n o m e n o n . Parallels ca n be

d raw n , for in stan c e, b etw een th e B u sh m a n sh am an s a n d th o se am o n g vario u s in d ig en o u s

trib es o f N o rth A m erica, su c h as theY okuts a n d N u m ic o f C alifo rn ia, w h o se use

T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

o f hallucinogenic su b sta n ces can be traced in p e tro g ly p h s (rock m a rkin g s) le ft in sites

o f s a c re d sig n ific an c e. E v id e n c e also s u g g e s ts th a t s h a m a n s o r ‘clev er m e n ’ a m o n g

th e A b o rig in a l c o m m u n itie s o f n o r t h e r n A u stra lia p la y e d a p a r tic u la r ro le in c re a tin g

th e m ille n n ia -o ld im a g e ry o f th a t re g io n . E u r o p e a n c o lo n is ts m a y h av e d ism is se d it

all as so m u c h m u m b o – ju m b o , a lth o u g h th e y w ere h a p p y to a c c e p t s to rie s ( a n d im ag es)

o f a m a n w h o c o u ld c u r e le p e rs w ith h is to u c h a n d u n d e r g o a n a g o n iz in g d e a th

w ith o u t d y in g .

W h a t, h o w ev e r, h a s th is to d o w ith th e c a v e -p a in tin g s o f E u r o p e in th e U p p e r

P ala e o lith ic p e rio d ?

T H E N E U R O P S Y C H O L O G IC A L M O D E L

R e a d e rs m a y a lre a d y h av e g u e s se d th e n e x t m o v e in th e L e w is-W illia m s a r g u m e n t. I t is

n o t to s u g g e st th a t B u s h m e n , N a tiv e A m e r ic a n s a n d A u s tra lia n A b o rig in e s a re culturally

c o m p a r a b le to p e o p le o f th e S to n e A g e , b u t to p o in t o u t th a t all a n a to m ic a lly m o d e r n

h u m a n s – in c lu d in g th o s e o f th e P a la e o lith ic – sh a re a b ra in th a t is h a r d – w ire d ( p r e ­

p r o g r a m m e d ) in a c e r ta in way. W h a t o c c u r s w ith in th is b r a in w h e n w e e n te r a n a lte re d

sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s is th e re fo re p r e d ic ta b le – a c o m m o n h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e , as likely

to h av e th e sa m e v isu a l a n d visible e ffe c ts to d a y as it w o u ld h av e d o n e 3 5 ,0 0 0 y e a rs ago.

T h e r e a re m a n y w ay s o f in d u c in g th e a lte re d sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s : d ru g s ,

d a n c in g , d a r k n e s s , e x h a u s tio n , h u n g e r , m e d ita tio n , m ig ra in e a n d s c h iz o p h r e n ia a re

a m o n g th e m . In th e W e s te rn tra d itio n i t is by n o m e a n s c o n fin e d to h ip p ie s a n d a fa s h io n

f o r th e m in d – e x p a n d in g s u b s ta n c e k n o w n as L S D . O p iu m ta k e rs o f th e R o m a n tic

p e r io d , n o ta b ly th e E n g lish w rite rs T h o m a s D e Q u in c e v a n d S a m u e l T a y lo r C o le rid g e ,

w ere g e n e r o u s in p ro v id in g v e rb a l d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e ir v isio n s. A n d in o u r o w n tim es

s c ie n tists h av e d isc o v e re d sim p le p r o c e d u r e s o f s e n s o ry d e p riv a tio n th a t e n a b le re s e a rc h

in to th e b r a in ’s fu n c tio n w h e n it c o m e s to ‘se ein g th in g s ’. T h e re s e a rc h g o e s o n , b u t

a lre a d y it is c le a r th a t th e h u m a n n e r v o u s s y s te m e x h ib its c e r ta in fe a tu re s o f re s p o n s e

th a t c a n b e g e n e ra liz e d – p r o v id in g , f o r a rc h a e o lo g is ts , a so -c a lle d n e u ro p s y c h o lo g ic a l

m o d e l f o r e x p la in in g th e v e ry b e g in n in g s o f sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n ta tio n .

M ig r a in e s u ffe re rs d o n o t n e e d to b e r e m in d e d o f th e f a c t th a t, e v e n in a c o m p le te ly

d a r k e n e d ro o m , a n d w ith th e ir eyes firm ly s h u t, th e y a re p e r s e c u te d b y fla sh in g lights.

I t is a c o m m o n s y m p to m o f a n a lte re d sta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s : th e s e n s a tio n o f b r ig h tn e s s ,

TH E BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

o ften fra m e d in k aleid o sco p ic p a tte rn s – d o ts, lozenges, blocks, a p p e a rin g in m ultiple

u n its as n etw o rk s, tessellations a n d suchlike. T h e s e p a tte rn s m ay b e c o n s tru e d as ce rtain

ob jects in th e w o rld – a sp id e r’s w eb, o r a h o n ey co m b . In a d d itio n , th e su b je ct o f an

altered state o f co n scio u sn ess m ay feel th a t h e o r sh e is a irb o rn e , o r in w ater, o r p lu n g in g

th ro u g h so m e v o rtex o r tu n n e l. P a tte rn s slide o n e in to an o th e r, a n d sh ap es are fluently

tra n sfo rm e d ; in so m e h y p n ag o g ic (half-asleep) o r d rea m in g m o o d s w e m ay see anim als

a p p e ar: to follow S h ak es p ea re’s p h ra sin g , we will th in k a clo u d to b e v ery like a w hale,

o r m istak e a b u sh fo r a bear.

W h a t ch a racterize s all th e se sen satio n s is h o w vivid they are. T h e n ig h tm a re v ictim

wakes w ith a scream ; th e L S D ad d ic t m a im s h im s elf terrib ly , co n v in ce d th a t his fingers

are e x te n d in g over th e w indow sill a n d o n to th e ro a d o utside. N o ex tern al reality is there.

O u r rea c tio n is entirely to w h a t we see w ith o u t an y d ire c t p e rc e p tio n o f th e w o rld a ro u n d

us. S u c h im ages have b ee n te rm e d as e n to p tic , ‘w ith in th e eye’.

T h e L ew is-W illiam s h y p o th esis, th e n , is n o t ju s t th a t P alaeolithic cav e-p ain tin g

w as sh a m an ic o r sh am an istic in origin. I t is even m o re m o m e n to u s; su g g estin g th a t th e

h u m a n k n ack o f re p rese n tatio n al im ag ery w as itself initially trig g e re d b y this

n eu ro p sy c h o lo g ic al p ro cess. I n o th e r w o rd s, th e P alaeolithic p a in te rs w ere n o t m aking

o b se rv a tio n s o f th e w o rld a ro u n d th em ; th e y w ere tra n s fe rrin g o n to cave walls th e

im ages th e y alread y h a d b e h in d th e ir eyes. T h e y w ere displaying w h a t h a d co m e to th e m

in an altered state o f co n scio u sn ess; reco llectin g p o w erfu l visions; try in g to re c a p tu re

w h a t th e y h a d seen in th e ir h allu cin atio n s – even w h e n th ese h ad flash ed by as a series

o f a b s tra c t p a tte rn s {Fig. 14).

T h e ac c e p ta n c e o f this m o d e l d o es n o t re d u c e all o th e r ca v e-p ain tin g th eo ries to

n o n sen se. I n societies w h ere sh a m an s are o r w ere e s tee m ed as au th o rities – in c lu d in g n o t

only th e B u s h m en a n d o th e r g ro u p s alread y m e n tio n e d , b u t also th e In u it o r ‘E sk im o s’

o f C a n a d a , trib es o f A m az o n ia n S o u th A m eric a, a n d n o m a d ic societies o f S ib eria, w here

th e te rm ‘s h a m a n ’ o rig in ates – sh a m an s claim p o w er fro m an d over anim als. T h e tran c e

d a n c e o f th e B u s h m en m a y celeb rate a successful h u n t, o r serve to b rin g g o o d fo rtu n e

to an im m in e n t ex p ed itio n ; eith er way, th e n , a m e a su re o f ‘h u n tin g m a g ic ’ is im p lied by

th e s h a m a n ’s ce n tral role. F ro m sh a m an ic lore, to o , it is ev id en t th a t ce rta in anim als

ca n b e in v ested w ith e x tra o rd in a ry p o w er a n d significance. (F o r th e B u sh m e n , th e eland

h as su c h special status.) S ib erian sh a m an s w o u ld say th a t th e ir souls w ere e n tru s te d

to an im al g u a rd ia n s, o r claim som e p e rso n a l fam iliar o r d a e m o n in fo u r-le g g ed form .

14 A b s tra c t cave m arkings in t h e C u e v a d e la Pileta, Andalucia, Spain, c ,2 5 ,0 0 0 b c. Such m arkings a re typical o f e n to p tic
p a tte rn s g e n e r a te d w ithin t h e m ind during an a lte re d s ta te o f co nsciousness.

T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

So it m a y b e r ig h t to s u p p o s e t h a t c e r ta in a n im a ls p o s s e s s sy m b o lic v a lu e , fu ll o f lu c k a n d

fertility , re g a rd le s s o f w h e th e r th e y fe a tu re as re g u la r prey . B u t c a n w e c la im th a t

s h a m a n s e x is te d in p re h is to ry ?

‘L e t m e te ll y o u h o w I b e c a m e a lio n . I t w as a g o o d d a n c e se v e ra l y e a rs a g o …

I fe lt t h e p u ll o f th e fire … a n d d a n c e d w h ile s ta r in g a t i t … I saw th e fire b e c o m e

v e ry la rg e … I saw a lio n in it. I tr e m b le d w h e n I lo o k e d a t it. T h e n t h e lio n

o p e n e d its m o u th a n d sw allo w ed m e . T h e n e x t th in g I r e m e m b e r s e e in g w as th e

lio n s p ittin g o u t a n o t h e r lio n . T h a t o th e r lio n w as m e . I fe lt th e e n e rg y o f th e lio n

a n d r o a r e d w ith g r e a t a u th o rity . T h e p o w e r s c a r e d th e p e o p le .’

T h e r e c o r d e d e x p e r ie n c e o f a m o d e r n B u s h m a n s h a m a n w h ile in a n a lte re d s ta te

o f c o n s c io u s n e s s m a y d ire c tly illu m in a te , b y an a lo g y , se v eral th r e e – d im e n s io n a l im a g e s

d is c o v e re d in th e J u r a r e g io n , t h e m o u n ta in o u s b o r d e r la n d b e tw e e n S w itz e rla n d

a n d F ra n c e . T h e y e v id e n tly s e rv e d as p e n d a n ts o r a m u le ts , a n d th e ir f o r m is

t h e r ia n th r o p ic – w ith th e b o d ie s o f h u m a n s a n d th e h e a d s o f lio n s {Fig. 1 5 ). T h e

m a te r ia l f r o m w h ic h th e y w e re m a d e is o f a n a n im a l s o u r c e – th e tu s k o f a m a m m o th .

A t th e risk o f b e in g o v e r -fa n c ifu l, w e m ig h t say th a t th e im a g e s w e re ‘s p a t o u t’ fro m

th e m a m m o th .

A n u m b e r o f cav es c o n ta in p a in tin g s o r e n g ra v in g s th a t s e e m to s h o w h y b r id s

o f h u m a n s a n d a n im a ls, o r h u m a n fig u re s w ith a n im a l m a s k s a n d a ttr ib u te s . A t C h a u v e t,

f o r e x a m p le , t h e r e is d e p ic te d a c o m p o s ite c r e a tu r e m a d e u p o f a b is o n ’s h e a d a n d

b o d y , a n d a p a ir o f h u m a n legs. I s th is s o m e k in d o f m in o t a u r o r, as th e d is c o v e re rs o f th e

c a v e p r e f e r r e d to call it, a s o r c e re r? A b b é B re u il h a d u s e d th e s a m e te r m f o r a n a n tle r e d ,

f u r r y fig u re w ith h u m a n leg s a n d fe e t a m o n g th e im a g e s in a r e c e s s o f th e cav e c o m p le x

k n o w n as L e s T r o is F r é r e s , in th e F r e n c h P y re n e e s . S in c e it is w ell d o c u m e n te d th a t

m u c h s h a m a n ic p r a c tic e w o rld w id e e x p re s s e s its e lf in ju s t s u c h a n im a l g u is e , th e

t e m p ta tio n to s u p p o s e th a t s h a m a n s o p e r a te d in P a la e o lith ic E u r o p e is h a r d to resis t.

H a r d to re s is t, a n d h a r d to p ro v e . C o n c e p tu a lly , h o w e v e r, s h a m a n is m o ffe rs a

p e r s u a s iv e r o u te to w a r d s th e n e u r o p s y c h o lo g ic a l m o d e l. T h e im a g e o f a lio n – m a n w as

f a s h io n e d b e c a u s e it h a d b e e n v iv id ly im a g in e d d u r in g a n a lte r e d s ta te o f c o n s c io u s n e s s .

T h e o n u s is u p o n sc e p tic s to p r o d u c e a m o r e p la u s ib le a lte rn a tiv e e x p la n a tio n . S o far,

n o n e h a s b e e n fo rth c o m in g .

THE BIRTH O F TH E IM A G IN A T IO N

FROM A R T T O AG R IC U LTU R E

T h e c a v e-p ain tin g s a t A lta m ira w ere o n c e disbelieved b ec au s e th ey se em e d to o ‘ea rly ’.

In tu r n , arch aeo lo g ists w h o a c c e p te d th e earlin ess o f su c h c a v e-p ain tin g s w ere faced w ith

a p ro b le m o f su ccessio n . In E u ro p e , a t least, th e p ra c tic e o f p a in tin g in caves a p p a re n tly

ca m e to an en d a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 years ago. We know th a t th e em e rg e n c e , several th o u s a n d

y ears la ter, o f th e g re a t civilizations in E g y p t, M e s o p o ta m ia a n d th e In d u s Valley, w as

ac co m p an ie d by an increasing use of, even reliance u p o n , th e sym bolic reso u rce o f images:

th is b o o k m akes f u rth e r refe re n c e to th a t p ro c e ss in d u e co u rse (see, fo r ex am p le,

p a g e 6 1 ). B u t in th e m e a n tim e , w h at h a p p e n e d to th e h u m a n ability to create im ages?

U n til recen tly , th e re w as n o sa tisfac to ry an sw er to th a t q u es tio n . I t w as possible,

a d m itte d ly , to claim th a t in so m e p a r ts o f th e w o rld – n o ta b ly A u stralia – the h ab its

o f r e p re s e n ta tio n th a t c o m m e n c e d a b o u t 4 0 ,0 0 0 years ago n ev er lapsed. B u t this w as

im p o ssib le to prove. In te rm s o f arch aeo lo g ically stratified ev id en c e, a d efin ite gap

ex iste d , b e tw e e n th e e n d o f th e O ld S to n e A ge (th e P alaeolithic) a n d th e early p h as es

o f th e N e w S to n e A ge (th e N e o lith ic ). T h e n a ce rta in h illto p in s o u th e rn T u rk e y

d isclo sed its secret.

T h e T u r k is h – K u rd is h to w n o f U rfa (o r S an liu rfa ), n e a r th e S y ria n b o rd e r, is

to u ristically b illed as ‘h isto ric ’. H e re A b ra h a m , th e p a tria rc h o f th e se co n d m illen n iu m BC,

v e n e rate d by Jew s, C h ristia n s a n d M u slim s alike, is s u p p o s e d to have s o jo u rn e d o n his

w ay fro m th e city o f U r to th e la n d o f C a n a a n . B u t it n o w tra n sp ire s th a t religious

activity a ro u n d U rfa p re -d a te s A b ra h a m by th o u s a n d s o f years.

A n arch aeo lo g ical s u rv e y in th e 19 6 0 s o b se rv e d in th e hills a ro u n d U rfa a p a rtic u la r

site w h e re several knolls o f re d d is h e a rth aro se fro m a lim esto n e p lateau . T h e s e knolls,

a n d th e rocky are a nearb y , w ere co v ered in th e d eb ris o f flin t-k n a p p in g – th e flakes

a n d ch ip s o f flint left by th e p re h is to ric m a n u fa c tu re o f to o ls an d w eap o n s. S o m e large

m a n -m a d e slabs o f sto n e w ere also n o tic e d , b u t a s s u m e d to be o f m u c h la ter d ate th a n

th e N eo lith ic d eb ris. N o f u r th e r in v estig atio n w as c a rrie d o u t u n til 1 9 94, w h e n K lau s

S c h m id t o f th e G e r m a n A rc h ae o lo g ic al In stitu te visited th e site a n d estab lish ed th a t th e

knolls w ere n o t n a tu ra l, b u t p a r t o f an artificial hill, h e a p e d as a p r o m in e n t m a rk in the

local lan d scap e. W ith ex p e rien c e o f o th e r sites in this a n c ie n t area o f U p p e r M e so p o tam ia,

S c h m id t w as im m ed iately able to classify th e site as a tepe o r m o u n d , d atab le to th e early

N eo lith ic p h a s e b efo re the u se o f ce ram ic s (so m etim e s re fe rre d to as th e P re -P o tte ry

15 A lion-m an s ta tu e tte fro m H o h lestein -S tad el, s o u th w e s t G erm any,
c . 3 2 – 3 0 ,0 0 0 b c, possibly u se d as a p e n d a n t o r a n am ulet.

16 (to p ) A erial view o f a s to n e circle a t G ó b ek liT ep e, Turkey, c .9 0 0 0 bc.

17 (ab o v e) Animal detail – p ro b ab ly a fox – from G óbekli T epe.

TH E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

N eo lith ic ). H e also s u sp e c te d th a t th e lim e sto n e slabs o n this hill – h e n c e fo rth k n o w n

as G o b e k liT e p e – b elo n g ed to so m e larg e p re h is to ric s tru c tu re .

D ig g in g in to th e m o u n d n o t o n ly c o n firm e d S c h m id t’s in tu itio n s, b u t revealed

a d im e n sio n o f P re -P o tte ry N e o lith ic th a t n o o n e e x p e cted .

T h e ex cav atio n s a t G o b e k liT e p e are o n g o in g , w ith sc o p e fo r m o re su rp rises.

W h a t h as c o m e to lig h t so fa r is a series o f w alled e n c lo su res , o f w h ich a b o u t 20 are

b u ilt a r o u n d m assive s to n e p illars se t in a circle (Fig. 16). T w o se p a ra te p illars o c c u p y th e

ce n tre s o f th e se circles. E a c h o f th e p illars is fa sh io n e d o u t o f solid ro ck in to a T -s h ap e

a b o u t 7 m e tre s (2 3 feet) tall. R e c ta n g u la r c a rv e d d o o rw ay s o n c e p ro v id e d m a rk e d

o r tu n n e lle d access to th e e n c lo su res, a n d in th e flo o r o f o n e circle a sm all in se t b asin

h as b e e n fo u n d , w ith a n a tta c h e d c h a n n e l – possibly, as th e ex c av a to r su g g ests, fo r th e

co llec tio n o f b lo o d . F o o d w as c o n s u m e d h e re , as in d ic a te d b y m a n y a n im al b o n es,

b u t n o w h e re o n th e hillsid e a re th e re sig n s o f d o m e stic h ab ita tio n . S o this w as n o t, it

seem s, a p la ce w h ere p e o p le lived, b u t r a th e r a sp ecial assem b ly p o in t – so m e k in d

o f s a n c tu a ry in th e m o u n ta in s th a t a ttr a c te d p e o p le fro m a ra d iu s o f se ttle m en ts som e

80 k ilo m etres (5 0 m iles) o r f u rth e r afield.

L ik e o th e r p re h is to ric m o n u m e n ts , su c h as S to n e h e n g e in B rita in a n d th e m e n h irs

o f F ra n c e , G ó b ek li T ep e re ta in s a n e n ig m atic sen se o f u n f a th o m e d ritu a l significance.

B u t n o t o n ly is it m u c h ea rlier th a n S to n e h e n g e – b y 7 0 0 0 y ears – it is also m u c h

d iffe re n t in o n e key r e s p e c t.T h e w e ll-trim m e d p illars o f G o b e k liT e p e are n o t ju st

m eg alith s (b ig s to n e s ). T h e y a re decorated – em b ellish ed w ith im ag es eith e r en g ra v ed on

to th e su rfa c e o r else p ic k e d o u t in shallow relief (Fig. 17).

I t m a y c o m e as n o s u rp ris e th a t th e p rin c ip a l su b je cts o f th is d e c o ra tio n are , o n ce

ag ain , an im als. F oxes a n d snakes d o m in a te th e r e p e rto ire , b u t gazelle, a u ro c h s, w ild

b o a r, w ild ass, cra n es a n d a lio n also fea tu re . S p id e rs , to o , a re sh o w n . In a d d itio n o ne

b lo c k ca rrie s th e im age o f a w o m a n s q u a ttin g in a sex u al p o s tu re , th o u g h this m ay be

o f la ter date.

T h e p illars th em selv es a p p e a r sch em atically a n th ro p o m o rp h ic o r h u m a n -s h a p e d ,

th e sh a ft sta n d in g f o r legs a n d to rso , th e T -b a r e q u a tin g to sh o u ld e rs a n d h ea d . C a rv e d

a rm s a re a d d e d to o ne o f th e m , as if to c o n firm th e in te n tio n . T h is in tu r n en c o u rag es th e

p r e s u m p tio n th a t th e im ag es serv e to h a rn e ss fo rm s o f w ildlife w h o se p o w e r b elo n g s to

th e se p illar-fig u res, o r p e rh a p s p ro te c ts th e m . T h e foxes b a re th e ir te e th , th e tu sk s o f th e

b o a r are p ro n o u n c e d , a n d th e snakes h av e b e e n id e n tified as v e n o m -lo a d e d vipers.

T H E BIR TH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

T h e p o ssib ility th a t th e d e c o r a tio n o f th e p illars a t G o b e k liT e p e is s h a m a n ic has

b e e n se rio u s ly c o n s id e r e d b y th e e x c a v a to rs. B u t, as th e y p o in t o u t, th e scale o f

s tr u c tu r a l e n te r p ris e a t th is site p o in ts to a so c ie ty in w h ic h ritu a l w as m e d ia te d n o t so

m u c h by s h a m a n s as b y ‘tr u e p r ie s ts ’. T h e im a g es, a f te r all, w ere th e u ltim a te p h a s e ,

o r fin is h in g to u c h e s a t le ast, to w h a t h a d b e e n a m a ssiv e co llec tiv e e ffo rt. A t a sm all

d is ta n c e aw ay f r o m th e m a in ‘te m p le ’ a re a is th e n a tu ra l lim e s to n e a m p h ith e a tr e fro m

w h ic h d ie p illa rs w ere q u a r r ie d . In th e u p p e r r e a c h e s o f th is q u a r r y th e re is a m a rk e d

c a v ity le ft by th e re m o v a l o f o n e T -s h a p e d p illa r m u c h la rg e r th a n a n y so fa r b r o u g h t

to lig h t a t th e site; a n d r ig h t n e x t to th is s p a c e is a s to n e o f sim ila r size a b a n d o n e d

in a c ra c k e d a n d th e re fo r e u n f in is h e d sta te . H a d it b e e n s u c c e ssfu lly re m o v e d f ro m th e

b e d ro c k , it w o u ld h av e m e a s u r e d s o m e 6 m e tre s (2 0 f e e t), a n d w e ig h e d a b o u t 5 0 to n n e s.

T o s h ift it a c ro ss to d ie m o u n d w o u ld h av e r e q u ir e d th e c o m b in e d tr a c tio n p o w e r o f

a b o u t 5 0 0 p e o p le .

G iv e n th a t th e m o u n d its e lf is m a n – m a d e , b u ilt f ro m th o u s a n d s o f to n n e s o f e a r th

a n d r o c k b r o u g h t u p f ro m th e p la in b elo w , w e a re b o u n d to s p e c u la te th a t th e m e a s u r e o f

h u m a n o rg a n iz a tio n r e q u ir e d to b u ild G ó b e k li T e p e w as so m e w ay to w a rd s th a t re q u ir e d

to b u ild th e E g y p tia n p y ra m id s . G ó b e k li T e p e , in th e w o rd s o f its e x c a v a to rs , th e re fo re

s ta n d s a t ‘d ie d a w n o f a n e w w o rld , a w o rld w ith p o w e rfu l r u le r s a n d a c o m p le x , stratified ,

h ie ra rc h ic a l so c ie ty ’.

S o tiiis is a m a jo r rev e la tio n f r o m c u r r e n t a rc h a e o lo g y ; a n d u n lik e d ie firs t ‘re v e a l’

o f A lta m ira , it c a u s e s tr u e w o n d e r , n o t d isb e lie f. A n d f o r th o s e w h o like to r e g a rd a r t

a s a n o p tio n a l lu x u r y in life, a p a s tim e to b e in d u lg e d o n ly w h e n th e n e c e s s a r y b u sin e ss

o f su rv iv a l a n d s u b s is te n c e h a s b e e n c o m p le te d , G ó b e k li T e p e o ffe rs a p a r tic u la r

ch a lle n g e – w ith w h ic h w e sh a ll c o n c lu d e .

F o r m o r e th a n h a lf a c e n tu r y , a r c h a e o lo g is ts h av e a g r e e d th a t f a rm in g – th e k e e p in g

o f d o m e s tic a te d a n im a ls a n d th e c u ltiv a tio n o f c r o p s – b e g a n in th e N e a r E a s t d u r in g th e

ea rly N e o lith ic p e r io d , c. 9 0 0 0 b c . S h e e p a n d g o a ts w ere th e p r in c ip a l a n im a ls fe a tu rin g

in th is a g ric u ltu r a l r e v o lu tio n , w h ile w h e a t a n d b a rle y w ere th e p r in c ip a l c ro p s . K e y sites

p ro v id in g e v id e n c e fo r a n im a l e n c lo s u re s a n d d o m e s tic a te d g ra in s in c lu d e J a rm o , in

n o r th e r n Ira q ; Q a ta lh o y ü k , in w e s te r n T u rk e y ; a n d J e ric h o , in P a le stin e . T h e J o r d a n valley

a n d th e r e a c h e s o f U p p e r M e s o p o ta m ia h a v e also y ie ld e d sp e cific clu es r e g a rd in g th e

tr a n s itio n f ro m n o m a d ic h u n tin g a n d g a th e r in g to se ttle d fa rm in g . T h e d e b a te th e n a rise s

a b o u t w h ic h c a m e first: a d e m o g r a p h ic s h ift to s e ttle d c o m m u n itie s , le a d in g to a re lia n c e

T H E BIRTH O F T H E IM A G IN A T IO N

u p o n f a r m in g f o r f o o d , o r th e in te n s iv e e x p lo ita tio n o f c e r ta in liv e sto c k a n d ce reals,

le a d in g to s e ttle d c o m m u n itie s ?

I n th e b o o k o f G e n e s is , th e c h a n g e o c c u r s as a d ir e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e e x p u ls io n

o f A d a m a n d E v e f r o m th e G a r d e n o f E d e n . T h e s o n s o f A d a m a n d E v e, C a in a n d A b e l,

a re sp e c ifie d as a tiller o f th e soil a n d a s h e p h e r d resp e c tiv e ly , fu lfillin g G o d ’s e d ic t th a t

m o r ta ls s h o u ld h e n c e f o r th s u rv iv e ‘b y th e sw ea t o f th e ir b r o w ’. G o b e k liT e p e raise s a n

a lte rn a tiv e p o s s ib ility – th a t w h a t in s tig a te d th e firs t p r o d u c ti o n o f fo o d w a s a rt.

A b o u t 3 0 k ilo m e tre s (2 0 m ile s) s o u th f r o m G ó b e k li T e p e lies th e K a r a c a d a g ra n g e .

R e s e a rc h a m o n g th e s e hills h a s s h o w n th a t th e y a re h o m e to th e c lo s e s t w ild re la tiv e o f a n

ea rly sp e c ie s o f d o m e s tic a te d g r a in , e in k o rn w h e a t. T h e s u g g e s tio n is t h a t w ild g r a in w as

b r o u g h t f ro m th e K a r a c a d a g , a n d c u ltiv a te d a r o u n d G ó b e k li T e p e in o r d e r to f e e d all th e

h u n d r e d s o f p e o p le b u ild in g o r sim p ly f r e q u e n tin g th e site.

S o th e re is th e m o m e n to u s c o n c lu s io n : th a t s o m e 1 1 ,0 0 0 y e a rs a g o im a g e r y h a d

b e c o m e so p o w e rfu l in th e m in d s o f h u m a n b e in g s th a t it h e lp e d to b r in g a b o u t th e

g r e a te s t tr a n s f o r m a tio n in h u m a n h isto ry .