discussion question 5

Instructions for assignement:

1- Read attched article 

2- after reading create 2 questions that you might still have regarding the reading. something you dont understand about the article. they must be 2 questions. also answer them. 200-300 words

Please use the vocabulary and terms in the article to ask the questions and that the questions are related the articles

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT OF EXERCISE:
CONTRACTING FOR AEROBIC POINTS

TIM WYSOCKI, GENAE HALL, BRIAN IWATA,1
AND MARY RIORDAN

WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY, THE JOHN F. KENNEDY INSTITUTE,
AND THE JOHNS HOPKINS SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

Behavioral contracting was used to encourage physical exercise among college students
in a multiple-baseline design. Subjects deposited items of personal value with the experi-
menters, which they could earn back on fulfillment of two types of contract contingencies.
Subjects selected weekly aerobic point criteria, which they could fulfill by exercising

in

the presence of other subjects. In addition, subjects contracted to observe and record the
exercise of other subjects and to perform an independent reliability observation once
each week, with both of these activities monitored by the experimenters. Results indicated
that the contract contingencies produced increases in the number of aerobic points earned
per week for seven of eight subjects, that the aerobic point system possesses several ad-
vantages as a dependent variable for behavioral research on exercise, and that inexperi-
enced observers could be quickly trained to observe exercise behavior and to translate
those observations into their aerobic point equivalents. Finally, in a followup question-
naire completed 12 months after the end of the study, seven of the eight subjects reported
that they were earning more aerobic points per week than had been the case during the
baseline condition of this experiment.
DESCRIPTORS: aerobic points, behavioral medicine, contracting, exercise, adults

A prevalent behavioral characteristic of our
population is a general lack of regular physica

l

exercise. In an extensive review of data com-
paring the fitness levels of American versus
Western European children, Cureton (1964)
concluded that American children are inferior
along several basic dimensions of physical fit-
ness. A continued lack of exercise into adult-
hood has been suggested as a precipitating fac-
tor in the etiology of a wide variety of diseases
(Krauss and Rabb, 1961; Fox, 1973). Further,
researchers have demonstrated that many clinical
conditions improve substantially in response to
exercise as a treatment component (Frick, Katila,
and Sjorgen, 1971; Morehouse and Miller,
1976). Finally, several large-scale longitudinal
studies have associated physically active life-
styles with both less frequent and less severe
episodes of cardiovascular pathology (Morris,

‘Reprints may be obtained from Brian A. Iwata,
Division of Behavioral Psychology, The John F. Ken-
nedy Institute, 707 North Broadway, Baltimore, Mary-
land 21205.

Chave, Adam, Sirey, Epstein, and Sheehan, 1973;
Paffenbarger and Hale, 1975).

Lack of exercise was viewed as a problem
of sufficient magnitude to induce the federal
government to devote substantial expenditures
to investigate potential solutions (President’s
Council on Youth Fitness, 1961; President’s
Council on Physical Fitness, 19

62

, 1965). Rec-
ommendations of these commissions took two
general forms: the dissemination of more in-
formation to the public concerning the value
of exercise, and the provision of more exercise
opportunities (e.g., organized recreation pro-
grams). These approaches can be viewed as
attempts to encourage exercise through the
manipulation of antecedent or setting events,
the assumption being that deferred conse-
quences such as weight loss or improved health
would be sufficient to maintain changes in exer-
cise behavior. However, exercise, like many
behaviors, is probably associated with reinforc-
ing consequences on a long-term basis, but
punishing consequences on an immediate basis.

55

1979, 12, 55-64 NUMBER I (SPRING 1979)

TIM WYSOCKI et al.

Moreover, traditional programs aimed at en-
couraging exercise have not paid serious atten-
tion to the fact that behavior is often more
strongly controlled by immediate rather than
delayed consequences. Thus, one possible so-
lution to the problem of lack of exercise would
be to arrange contingencies such that reinforcers
are delivered more closely in time following
the exercise behavior than is usually the case.

Several recent studies suggest that such an
approach would be successful. Libb and Clem-
ents (1969) used a token reinforcement proce-
dure to increase the rate of exercise on a sta-
tionary bicycle by geriatric patients. Other
studies have demonstrated that contingency
management approaches can be effective in
modifying aspects of various athletic perform-
ances: swimming (McKenzie, Note 1; McKen-
zie and Rushall, 1974; Rushall and Pettinger,
1969), basketball (Jones, Note 2), football
(Komaki and Barnett, 1977), and baseball
(Heward, 1978). However, although results
from these studies are highly promising for the
development of procedures for modifying exer-
cise behavior in specific settings, each of the
studies possesses limitations that may render
their techniques somewhat unattractive as meth-
ods for encouraging exercise in the natural en-
vironment. First, each study involved direct
observation of exercise by the experimenter.
Implementation of this procedure on a large
scale may be extremely costly and would place
excessive demands on the trainer’s time and
resources. Second, all of these studies required
the subjects to engage in a single form of physi-
cal activity. However, changes in exercise be-
havior may be more likely to persist in the
natural environment if subjects could engage in
those activities possessing highest reinforcement
value to a given individual.

The purpose of the present study was to
provide a preliminary evaluation of a procedure
that might prove effective in encouraging exer-
cise in the natural environment. Three specific
problems were addressed in an attempt to ac-
complish this goal: (1) the derivation of opera-

tional definitions of exercise behavior, (2) the
development of an observation system that
provides maximal assurance that exercise has
occurred, yet places minimal demands on the
experimenter, and (3) the selection of a con-
tingency likely to produce changes in exercise
behavior.

Cooper (1970) described a category of ac-
tivities called aerobic exercises, consisting of
moderate, sustained activity that produced ele-
vated levels of oxygen consumption over ex-
tended periods of time. He studied the re-
sponses of some 15,000 Air Force cadets to
programs of aerobic conditioning. In that re-
search, he measured the amount of oxygen
consumed by the body during various combi-
nations of intensity and duration for each of
the aerobic exercises (running, walking, swim-
ming, handball, cycling, stationary running,
rope skipping, basketball, racquetball, squash,
golf, badminton, fencing, football, hockey,
soccer, skating, skiing, tennis, volleyball, and
wrestling) and reduced the oxygen consumption
data to a single quantitative dimension, which
he termed the aerobic point. Each aerobic point
is equal to oxygen consumption at the rate of
7.0 ml/kg/min. Thus, in its simplest terms,
the aerobic point is a measure of how much
oxygen the body consumes during a specific
activity. Table 1 presents the aerobic point
values for a number of common exercises at
various combinations of intensity and duration.
Note, for example, that running one mile in
13 min is worth two aerobic points, while
covering the same distance in 9 min is worth
four points.

In addition to Cooper’s research, others have
provided evidence suggesting a functional re-
lationship between the amount of oxygen con-
sumed during exercise and the cardiovascular
benefit of that exercise (Daniels and Oldridge,
1977; Pollock, Cureton, and Greninger, 1969).
Several exercise physiologists (Morehouse and
Miller, 1976; Sharkey, 1975) have further con-
cluded that aerobic capacity is the best single
measure of physical fitness currently available.

56

CONTRACTING AND EXERCISE

In view of its demonstrated validity and ability
to reduce a wide variety of exercises into a
common dimension, the aerobic point was se-
lected as the dependent variable in the present
research.

Several strategies are available in developing
an observation system that ensures that exercise
has occurred. Although personal observation
of all exercise by the experimenter is likely
to yield reliable data, it limits the subject’s
choices as to how and when to exercise. An al-
ternative procedure might be to recruit media-
tors in the subject’s natural environment to
assist in performing observations (Tharp and
Wetzel, 1969), and a likely pool of such media-
tors would be other subjects. This approach
would allow the experimenter to distribute
resources across a larger number of subjects and
might also be expected to enhance maintenance
of behavior change. Thus, subjects in the pres-
ent study were required to observe and record
the exercise behavior of other subjects and to
perform occasional checks, with both activities
being monitored by the experimenters.
With respect to contingencies, behavioral

contracting appeared attractive for the purposes
of the present research (Tighe and Elliot, 1968).
The procedure involves negotiation of a con-
tract between a client and therapeutic agent.
The client deposits various items of worth
(e.g., money, goods) with the agent; the agent
returns the items contingent on contract ful-
fillment (behavior change) on the part of the
client. Behavior contracting has been effective
in controlling numerous behaviors in the natu-
ral environment: body weight (Mann, 1972),
smoking (Tighe and Elliot, 1968), studying
(Homme, 1969), alcoholic drinking (Miller,
1972), and delinquency (Stuart, 1971). Several
recent studies have evaluated the use of be-
havioral contracting in encouraging physical
exercise (Turner, Pooly, and Sherman, 1976;
Vance, 1976). However, in both of these studies
no attempt was made to monitor directly the
frequency or intensity of the subjects’ exercise
behavior. Instead, the experimenters relied on

the subjects’ verbal reports of their own exer-
cise habits and on pre/post tests of physical
fitness as the dependent measures of the effec-
tiveness of behavioral contracting. While both
of these studies suggested that behavioral con-
tracting might be a desirable approach, a gen-
eral lack of methodological rigor renders these
findings somewhat inconclusive with respect to
the functional relationship that may exist be-
tween contract contingencies and exercise be-
havior.

The purposes of this study, then, were to
provide preliminary information on the utility
of the aerobic point as a behavioral measure
of exercise, the ability of subjects to observe
and record each other’s exercise and to translate
those observations into aerobic point equiva-
lents, and the effectiveness of behavioral con-
tracting in encouraging exercise.

METHOD

Subjects and Setting
Twelve undergraduate and graduate univer-

sity students (seven male, five female), ranging
in age from 20 to 33 yr, participated. Subjects
responded to an advertisement announcing the
formation of an exercise group based on mod-
ern psychological techniques. All subjects re-
ported recurring failures to engage in regular
exercise.

Weekly meetings between subjects and ex-
perimenters were held in a large university
classroom. Exercise behavior was performed in
a wide variety of settings, the most frequently
used being an outdoor 440-yard track, an indoor
220-yard track, an indoor 25-yard swimming
pool, indoor racquetball courts, indoor and out-
door tennis courts, and subjects’ homes.

Observation
Subjects could engage in any activities for

which aerobic point values had been established
(Cooper, 1970), and all exercise behaviors were
defined by their aerobic point equivalents. The
exact measurement procedure used depended

TIM WYSOCKI et al.

Table 1
Aerobic Point Values for Some Selected Exercisesa

Activity Duration Aerobic
Distance (min:sec) Points

Running/Walking
1.0 mi 12:00-14:29 2.

0

1.0 mi 8:00- 9:

59

4.0
1.5 mi 15:00-17:59 4.5
3.0 mi 24:00-29:59 14.0

Cycling
2.0 mi 8:00-11:59 1.0
3.0 mi 12:00-17:59 1.5
5.0 mi 20:00-29:59 2.5

Swimming
200yd 3:20- 4:59 1.5
300 yd 5:00- 7:29 2.5
400yd 6:40- 9:59 3.5
1000 yd 25:00-33:19 8.

25

Tennis
40min 3.0
60 min 4.5

Handball
45 min 6.75
60 min 9.0

aCondensed from Cooper (1970).

on the particular activity. For example, an ob-
server measured running/walking by counting
laps around a track, timing the behavior with
a stopwatch, and recording both the distance
and duration. The subjects then converted these
raw data into aerobic points by consulting
charts provided in Cooper (1970).

Reliability
Assessment of interobserver agreement was

performed by having two persons indepen-
dently observe and record the exercise behavior
of a third individual. Checks were made on
26% of all possible observations evenly distrib-
uted across the study. On 70% of these occa-
sions, the two observers consisted of two sub-
jects (recording the behavior of a third subject);
on 30% of the occasions, the observers were
a subject and an experimenter. Interobserver
agreement was calculated by dividing the
smaller number of aerobic points recorded by
the larger for each individual observation, and
multiplying by 100. Agreements averaged

99.2% across all observations, with a range
of 83.3% to 100%. Experimenter-performed
checks yielded agreements of 100%. A com-
parison of baseline and contracting reliabilities
showed 100% agreement for each of 11 checks
during baseline and 98.8% agreement across
55 checks during contracting.

Procedure
Weekly meetings. Throughout the study,

subjects met weekly with the experimenters.
During the initial meeting, the experimenters
described the program and the subjects elected
to participate on the basis of that information.
The general principles of contracting were de-
scribed and the differences between aerobic
exercises and other types of activities were ex-
plained. Subjects inspected the aerobic point
charts, data sheets, and the contract that would
be in effect during the program. All received
warnings as to potential risks and were in-
formed under what conditions they would not
want to participate in the study. Subsequent
meetings were devoted to the following activi-
ties: assisting subjects in determining mutually
agreeable sites and times for exercise, collect-
ing and distributing data sheets, signing and re-
negotiating contracts, returning earned items
previously deposited, and collecting new de-
posits.

Baseline. Subjects were told that for an un-
specified period of time they would be able
to explore different aerobic activities before
signing contracts in order to determine realistic
aerobic point criteria for themselves. They were
also instructed that they might be asked to
sign contracts at any subsequent meeting. Sub-
jects arranged exercise schedules on a weekly
basis and met in groups of two or more so that
observation could be conducted. The experi-
menters were present at sessions where fewer
than three subjects were scheduled at a time,
to ensure that an observer would be available.
No subjects ever reported appearing for exer-
cise when no observer was available. All aerobic
points earned in the presence of another sub-

58

CONTRACTING AND EXERCISE

ject or an experimenter were counted as base-
line data.

Contracts for exercise. Subjects elected to
earn a specific number of aerobic points each
week and signed contracts outlining the condi-
tions under which deposits would be refunded.
Each subject deposited six items of personal
value (e.g., jewelry, clothing, books, and other
personal items; checks made out to charitable
organizations) with the experimenters, two of
which could be earned back each week. Re-
funds were made at weekly meetings according
to the following schedule. One item per week
was returned for attaining the aerobic point
criterion in effect and for bringing a completed
form indicating the number of aerobic points
earned that week. A second item was returned
for recording primary observational data on
another subject each time exercise was per-
formed and reliability data at least once during
that week. Before either item would be re-
turned, subjects deposited two additional items.
This requirement ensured a constant source
of reinforcement for remaining in the program,
because withdrawal from the group resulted in
forfeiture of all items on deposit.

Illnesses that precluded exercise required
verification. Acceptable forms were a doctor’s
note or a week-long absence from work or
classes. Contracts were renegotiated every two
weeks for the same number of aerobic points
or higher. Forfeited deposits went to a non-
profit organization.

One-year foilowup. One year after comple-
tion of the study, all subjects received a main-
tenance questionnaire asking them to estimate
the average number of aerobic points they had
earned per week for the previous two weeks.

Experimental Design
A multiple-baseline design (Baer, Wolf, and

Risley, 1968) across groups of subjects was used
to assess the effects of behavioral contracting
on the attainment of self-selected aerobic point
criteria. During baseline, subjects agreed to be
randomly assigned to one of two equal-sized

groups (n – 6). Length of baseline condition
for Groups I and II was one and three weeks,
respectively. During Week 8 only, subjects
were released from the aerobic point stipula-
tion contained in the contracts. The university’s
physical education facilities were closed during
the last four days of that week due to a holi-
day; thus, there were fewer opportunities for
subjects to engage in many activities for which
they had been earning points. During this week,
subjects earned back two items for attending
the weekly group meeting. Although this
change in procedures cannot be considered a
true return to baseline contingencies, subjects
were still able to exercise in the regular facili-
ties during the first three day of the week;
they could also engage in activities not requir-
ing those facilities throughout the week.

RESULTS

Four potential subjects (three male, one fe-
male) withdrew from Group II during the
baseline condition. Three stated that time limi-
tations would prevent them from actively
participating in the study, while the fourth in-
dicated a preference for activities other than
aerobic exercises. None of these subjects earned
any aerobic points during baseline.

The mean number of aerobic points earned
per week by Groups I and II appears in Figure
1. For all subjects, a mean of 5.0 points was
earned during baseline, 16.6 during Contract 1,
zero points during Break, and 14.8 during
Contract 2.

Table 2 provides an analysis of individual data
throughout the experiment. The weekly num-
ber of aerobic points earned by each subject
indicates that control over exercise behavior
was demonstrated in seven of the eight sub-
jects. Only Subject 6 failed to show increases
in aerobic points earned after contract was in-
troduced. She withdrew from the experiment
during the fifth week, forfeiting her deposits.
Similarly, Subject 4 during the fourth week
and Subject 5 during the eighth, ninth, and

59

TIM WYSOCKI et al.

GROUP

I

BASE-

I.. III

20-

Is.

in

z

0U

ao
66
0
w

z
z
49
U’I

10.

30

25
20-

10

0

L I HIE

I
I
I
I

I
I
I
I

0 1

CONTRACT 1

‘- –;GROUP z

l
l
l
l

I
l
I

2- 3i fi 0f
WI EKS

Fig. 1. Mean number of aerobic p(
group during each week of the expert

tenth weeks received releases al
verification of medical problems.

Maintenance data 1 yr after ti
terminated show that seven su
more aerobic points at that time
baseline; three of these subjects
more points than at the end of t
condition.

Also shown in Table 2 are
point criteria used throughout th(
tions are apparent between the
respect to their self-selected cr
(1970) suggested that persons ir
condition should earn about 10
per week during the initial pha
ditioning program. Six of the
set their initial criterion at or ab
Subjects 3 and 6 selected initi
seven and two points, respective

BREAK C>. 2
I I
I I
I I
I I

I I
I
I

I

*0

While all subjects had the option of increas-
ing their point criteria at two-week intervals,
not all did so. Although Subjects 1 and 2 kept
their criteria constant throughout the study,
both consistently exceeded the initial criterion
that they had selected. Subjects 3, 4, 5, 7, and
8 each increased their point criteria at least
once during the experiment. None of them
reported that these increases exceeded their
physical capabilities, nor did any of these sub-
jects ever fail either to meet or to exceed the
increased criteria.

DISCUSSION

– I Results of the present study support the use
of behavioral contracting as an effective tech-
nique in the modification of exercise behavior.
For seven of the eight subjects, aerobic point
earnings increased after the contract contingen-
cies were implemented. In only one instance

.A.L4J…….. did a subject fail to meet the terms of the
7 ‘ ‘ 10 contract. Additional evidence in support of the

procedure was the fact that no exercise occurred
iment. during the Break condition, despite the oppor-

tunity to engage in exercise on three of the
fter providing seven days. It should be noted, however, that

although present procedures were related to
he experiment increases in exercise, any of several facets of
ibjects earned the program could have contributed to the
e than during effects observed here. Among these were the
were earning contract contingency itself, individual goal-
he contracting setting by subjects, and subtle increases in social

reinforcement for exercise. Only a careful com-
the individual ponent analysis of the relative impact of each
e study. Varia- variable could identify the specific factors re-
subjects with sponsible for the present results. In addition,

iteria. Cooper the extent to which these results would easily
i fair physical generalize to populations other than college
aerobic points students is not clear. However, many of the
ses of a con- problems likely to be encountered in the natu-
eight subjects ral environment were successfully addressed in
ove this level. this study.
ial criteria of The aerobic point appears to possess sev-
ly. eral advantages as a measure of exercise behav-

%F m m
v

0s –

I
I

60

S3

I
I
I
I

i I
I
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I o”‘.
I
I

CONTRACTING AND EXERCISE

Table 2
Number of aerobic points earned by each subject and the criterion (in parentheses) for
each week.

Weeks
1 -yr

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Followup
Base-

Group I line Contract 1 Break Contract 2
Si 6 13 17 15 27.5 11 12 0 10 15.5 10

(-) (10) (10) (10) (10) (10) (10) H(-) (10) (10)
S2 0 23 35 34 41 13 42 1 0 1 35 25.5 40

(-) (12) (12) (12) (12) (12) (12) (12) (12)I
S3 3 9 7 11 11 11 1 1 0 2 1 1 6

(-H (7) (7) (9) (9) (11) (11) H(I)(1) (11)|
S4 4 11 10 0 12 14.5 12 i 0 17 16 50

()|(10) (10) () (12) (12) (12) i() |(16) (16)a
S5 4 17 17 26 16 20 23 * * * 30

(-) 1t(10) (10) (15) (15) (20) (20)
S6 0 1 3 2 0 0 * * * * * 0

(-) (2) (2) (-) (2)
Group II -18 22.5 26l

S7 11 11 5 18 20 22.5 26 0 26 25 10
(- (- (-H (18) (18) (21) (21) -) (21) (21)|

S8 0 6 10 119 28 26 25 1 0 1 26 25, 24
(-) (-) (-) (15) (15) (25) (25) (-) (25) (26)

*Subjects were released from the study.

ior. First, as shown in this study, high levels
of interobserver agreement resulted despite
minimal observer training. Second, the aerobic
point reduced a wide variety of exercises to
a common quantitative measure, eliminating
the need for complex operational definitions
for each form of exercise. Third, by imposing
contingencies on the number of aerobic points
earned, rather than on specific types of activi-
ties, subjects could meet exercise criteria
through those activities they found most rein-
forcing. Finally, the aerobic point system is
based on extensive physiological data indicat-
ing that aerobic capacity is a valid measure of
overall physical fitness.

The observation system used in the present
experiment also merits discussion. Although
interobserver agreement was high regardless
of whether an experimenter or a subject per-
formed reliability checks, the possibility re-
mained that some subjects submitted falsified
data. To assess the extent of this problem,
subjects were sent an anonymous questionnaire

four months after the study ended, asking if
they had ever submitted inaccurate data or if
they had observed another subject doing so.
All subjects completed and returned the ques-
tionnaire, indcating no instances of any data
inaccuracies. In addition to this finding, sev-
eral factors in the present study made it un-
likely that erroneous data would be reported.
Because subjects usually exercised in groups
of three to five, instances of collaboration be-
tween two subjects to report inaccurate data
would have been easily detected, and the social
consequences for such behavior would dis-
courage subjects from attempting it. In addition,
subjects were informed that forfeiture of a
deposited item would result if, after discarding
any detected data inaccuracies, a subject failed
to meet the aerobic point criterion. No such
forfeitures were made during the study.

Thus, the use of subjects observing other
subjects under the supervision and monitoring
of experimenters appears to be both an accu-
rate and efficient procedure for data collection.

TIM WYSOCKI et al.

Although a relatively small number of subjects
participated in the present study, the group
could have accommodated additional members.
Also, because the experimenters were able to
manage the exercise of more subjects than
would have been possible using experimenter
observations only, the program was probably
more flexible for subjects, both in terms of the
variety of exercises available and the ease with
which those activities could be assimilated into
the subjects’ daily routines. An unexpected
benefit of the observation procedure was the
fact that it forced subjects to exercise in groups,
thereby occasioning the delivery of immediate
social reinforcement. Many instances of cheers,
backslapping, and other positive social inter-
actions were observed following improved per-
formance by subjects.
The results of the maintenance questionnaire

completed 12 months after the end of the
study showed that seven of the eight subjects
were at that time engaging in more exercise
than they had been before exposure to the con-
tract contingencies. Several subjects commented
that the contract had enabled them to endure
the more aversive early periods of the exercise
program, allowing the natural reinforcing con-
sequences of long-term exercise to take control
of their exercise behavior.
A paradoxical aspect of the maintenance data

is that no subject exercised during the Break
condition, while seven of the eight subjects
reported continuation of exercise 1 yr later.
Apparently, the subjects responded differentially
when the termination of contract contingencies
was temporary as opposed to permanent. One
possible explanation for these contradictory re-
sults is that subjects continued to exercise dur-
ing the Break; however, they did so at home.
Another is that subjects may have realized the
benefits of aerobic exercise conditioning some-
time after the program terminated, at which
time they developed their own programs. Fur-
ther research will be necessary to examine
maintenance effects and to identify the con-
trolling variables.

Another interesting aspect of these mainte-
nance data is that the number of aerobic points
reported on the followup questionnaire ap-
peared to be directly related to the number of
aerobic points earned during the experiment.
That is, subjects who earned a substantial num-
ber of aerobic points during the experiment
reported more exercise behavior on the fol-
lowup questionnaire than did the subjects who
earned relatively few aerobic points during the
experiment. Further research will be necessary
to determine if there is a functional relation-
ship between these variables.

Future research on the behavioral manage-
ment of exercise should extend the present
findings to populations for whom exercise
would not only be of long-term benefit, but
also whose clinical conditions may indicate
exercise as of immediate therapeutic value
(e.g., obese persons and those having various
cardiovascular disorders). Furthermore, future
investigations should address several problems
apparent, but not solved, in the present study.

The first problem concerns dropout rate.
Although only one subject withdrew from the
experiment after exercise contracts were im-
plemented, four potential subjects withdrew
during baseline. As no contingencies were in
effect during that condition, one possible solu-
tion may be to implement attendance contracts
during baseline. Following a full description
of the program, initial contracts could be writ-
ten such that subjects earn back deposits for
maintaining meeting attendance throughout
the study. The aerobic point criteria could be
introduced at a later time.
A second problem is that, because the aerobic

point criteria were self-selected, there was no
guarantee that subjects would not choose ex-
ceedingly low values (e.g., Subject 6). A pro-
cedure that was considered in the initial plan-
ning of this study involved requiring subjects
to set initial criteria at or above baseline per-
formance. However, the procedure was rejected
in that it might artificially depress baseline
levels of responding and still allow subjects to

62

CONTRACTING AND EXERCISE 63

set initial low criteria. A more attractive al-
ternative would be for the experimenter to
set initial criteria on the basis of laboratory
tests of physical fitness. In addition, it would
be desirable to have subjects increase their
weekly point earnings up to some level over
time. Although subjects in the present study
were never allowed to reduce their weekly cri-
teria to a previous lower level, no systematic
procedures (other than social praise) were em-
ployed to encourage subjects to increase their
criteria. Such a provision could be written into
the exercise contract, or other reinforcement
procedures (e.g., release from data collection re-
sponsibilities for a week) could be utilized.
A third potential problem was that 84%

of the total aerobic points were earned via run-
ning. The rest were about equally distributed
among swimming, raquetball, and tennis, with
single instances of stationary running, rope
skipping, and stair climbing. Two possible ex-
planations account for this finding. Running
is the most efficient method for accumulating
aerobic points, since it produces more oxygen
consumption per unit time than any other ac-
tivi>r. Also, it may be that individuals with
poor exercise histories do not have sufficient
skills to engage in more complicated forms of
exercise. Since exposure to a variety of exer-
cise forms might increase the probability that
a subject would make contact with the natural
reinforcer associated with a given activity, it
would be advantageous in terms of behavior
maintenance to have subjects sample more than
one activity. Two procedures to achieve such
a goal would be a requirement of point earnings
in several exercise categories or the offering
of “bonus” points for changing activities from
time to time.

Finally, although much data support aerobic
capacity as a measure of physical fitness, the
physiological effects of exercise were not as-
sessed in this study. Such measures may not
be important for persons who are merely “out-
of-shape” and in need of a more consistent
exercise program. However, independent mea-

sures of physiological benefit should be used to
document the usefulness of exercises as a treat-
ment for specific physical disorders.

REFERENCE NOTES

1. McKenzie, T. L. Behavior analysis in the swim
training program. Paper presented at the meeting
of the Midwestern Association for Behavior Anal-
ysis, Chicago, May 1977.

2. Jones, R. Generalization of practice skills to
open competition: A modified game. Paper pre-
sented at the meeting of the Midwestern Associa-
tion for Behavior Analysis, Chicago, May 1977.

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Received 12 May 1978.
(Final Acceptance 25 October 1978.)