What forces cause difficulties for effective problem solving in groups? Describe a group to which you belong (e.g., student work group, employee group, bible study group). What roles are present in the group? What are the group norms? What are interaction patterns in this group (i.e., patterned, repeated methods of communicating)?
9: SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
Most people have been a part of many small groups throughout various points in their lives. Perhaps,
they have been a part of a group without even realizing it. For example, a family is a small group, yet
most people do not necessarily consider the communication and interaction among their family
members as small group communication, or communication among and between a small number of
people who share a common purpose or goal, who feel connected to each other, and coordinate their
behavior (Arrow, McGrath, & Berdahl, 2000, p. 34).
As people mature, they develop friendships, join
organizations such as the Boy or Girl Scouts, or participate in
sporting activities, school clubs, and church groups where
small group communication takes place. As they progress in
their education, they may be a part of small groups that are
tasked with completing a particular assignment for a course.
As they enter the workplace, they may Knd themselves
placed into small groups to accomplish certain
U.S. House of Representatives’ Small
organizational objectives. Many organizations structure their
Business Committee
employees to work in small teams or groups. In some cases,
these groups are temporary, such as a collaborative learning
community group formed to complete a class assignment. In other cases, the groups are of a more
permanent duration, such as a formal work team in an organization. Given the prevalence with which
people work in small groups, it is important to understand the ways in which communication
inMuences small groups, along with the roles that group members play and how group norms and
group rules are formulated. Additionally, it also is beneKcial to know how leadership and followership
affect group dynamics.
This chapter covers each of these topics and examines how they inMuence small group
communication. As students read through the chapter, they are encouraged to think about the ways
that communication has inMuenced small groups in which they have participated. For most people,
group involvement will be something they are associated with for most of their lives; therefore,
developing a better understanding of communication processes in groups can help individuals
become both better communicators in group activities and stronger team members overall.
THE NATURE OF GROUPS AND TEAMS
Groups come in a variety of shapes and sizes and are of
varying duration. The groups that people belong to can be
considered as either primary groups or secondary groups.
Primary groups are those that provide members with a
sense of meaning, purpose, and belonging (Alberts,
Nakayama, & Martin, 2007). For example, many people Knd
that belonging to their college alumni association provides a
sense of aRliation and connection that continues after they
graduate. In contrast, secondary groups are those that are
designed to solve problems (Alberts et al., 2007). Accordingly, an individual may not have a sense of
aRliation and belonging as they do with primary groups. For example, a parent might be involved in a
parent-teacher association group at his or her child’s elementary school, but does not regularly attend
meetings and views membership as a means to obtain information about events at the school.
Groups also can be formal or informal. Formal groups are those that are developed to achieve a
certain purpose. For example, an organization may be in the process of selecting a new IT vendor and
establishes a group consisting of current employees to review bids and recommend a vendor. As
another example, a parent-teacher organization of a local elementary school may create a group to
review fundraising efforts and propose suggestions for how to improve fundraising during the next
school year.
Informal groups are those that are created by individuals to meet their own goals or needs. For
instance, several college students may decide to form a club devoted to theater, or a group of church
parishioners may start a study group to help them understand a particular religious text. Groups also
may exist for short-term or long-term periods.
Short-term groups are those that are formed or created for a
Kxed length of time, usually to accomplish some immediate
task. For example, a group of students in a chemistry
laboratory class may be assigned to work together over the
course of a term or to complete a speciKc project.
Additionally, a college communication studies department
may form a search committee to assist in the hiring of a new
professor. In these cases, when the term or project is
completed or the new faculty member is hired, the group is
dissolved. Long-term groups are those that are established
U.S. House of Representatives
permanently and continue to exist even though group
members may change. For instance, a retail organization
may assign Kve employees to its customer care team. In the United States Congress, there are a
variety of committees of which various representatives and senators are members. Even though the
membership of these groups may change, the groups continue to exist.
With the proliferation of technology, it is important to mention a more recent group, the virtual group,
or groups whose members are dispersed across different geographical locations and whose
communication and interaction is facilitated by technology. The advent and proliferation of the
Internet has facilitated people working in groups and teams who are from varying geographic regions.
For instance, an organization may have a team of engineers that includes employees stationed in the
United States, Saudi Arabia, Brazil, and Australia. In another context, a group of students taking an
online course may work together as a part of a group project.
The beneKts of virtual groups include working with more
diverse people and interacting with others with whom the
person may not otherwise converse. The limits or challenges
of virtual groups include coordinating schedules across
different time zones and using more asynchronous than
synchronous communication. This communication structure
may also lead to misunderstandings due to the lack of visual
cues; however, with the ability to use video technology and
emojis, the likelihood for misinterpretation may decrease.
GROUP FORMATION
When individuals come together to join groups, there is a process that unfolds. This process involves
Kve steps (based on Tuckman, 1965):
Formation,
Development,
Establishment,
Performance, and
Dissolution.
FORMATION
The formation stage involves group members getting acclimated to one another, learning other group
members’ tendencies, and learning how to interact and work together. In this stage, individuals are
often overly polite to other group members and there is a tendency for group members to be a bit
tentative. In this stage, group members must identify and establish rules and processes to help the
group achieve its goal, as well as what roles individual members will play. Given the uncertainty and
trepidation in this process, a strong leader is generally required to help the group establish these
preliminary tasks so the formal objectives can be accomplished.
A faculty search committee will be used to illustrate how a group might move through the stages
of group formation.
Four faculty members have been selected by the department chair to serve on the faculty search
committee. During their initial meeting, the faculty members discuss the goals for the faculty
search, timelines that will need to be followed to reach the goal, and the roles each faculty
member is comfortable assuming. In this case, one faculty member who has been on previous
search committees is elected as the search committee chair.
DEVELOPMENT
In this stage, group members begin to exhibit conMict with one another and some group members
may seek more power and authority in the group. Whereas in the formation stage, group members
were more reserved, in this phase, group members are more willing to speak out, which can prompt
disagreement. ConMict can be healthy for a group, but it is important in this stage that a leader and
group members emerge who are able to identify issues and become problem solvers. If the group is
too weighed down by conMict, it prevents further progression.
As the group reviews the applications prior to setting up initial interviews, several of the faculty
argue about which candidates are the “best” and most accurately match the job description. The
search committee chair hears the arguments and decides to take a majority vote to establish the
top Kve candidates who will be interviewed.
ESTABLISHMENT
In this phase, group members increase their ability to communicate and work together. Through
identifying and resolving issues, group members are able to complete tasks and resolve conMicts
more eRciently. Whereas much has been accomplished in this phase, there is still work that has to be
done. SpeciKcally, group members need to elevate their problem solving and decision making and
continue to resolve conMicts in appropriate and eRcient ways. Additionally, group members exhibit
greater accountability for their roles, and consequently, the leader becomes less involved, as team
members feel more empowered and a more collaborative leadership structure emerges.
The voting procedures have helped to reduce conMict and bring agreement on the top Kve
candidates. After these candidates are selected, one faculty member is assigned to coordinate
the initial phone interviews and keep the committee informed on the dates and times the face-toface interviews will occur.
PERFORMANCE
In this stage, groups tend to perform at their maximum level.
Group members are able to effectively identify strengths and
weaknesses, while still solving problems. Group members
become more Mexible and tend to display more energy and
enthusiasm for group goals. Group members may split into
smaller units to facilitate more eRcient decision making, yet
strive to make sure that all team members are consulted and
are in agreement with the roles of group members as they
split into subunits.
The search committee has conducted the Kve interviews, and the search committee chair has
facilitated dialogue on each member’s feedback and taken a majority vote to determine the top
two candidates who will have a campus visit. The members of the group are given different tasks
for each candidate’s visit, and the group agrees to meet after each visit to discuss the interview.
DISSOLUTION
In this stage, group members may leave the group or the group may have accomplished its objective,
and thus, disband. In this phase, group members are committed to determining what needs to be
achieved so the group can terminate, and the tasks necessary to disband are identiKed and assigned.
In this stage, group performance often begins to decrease in preparation for the overall closure of the
group.
After both candidates have visited campus, the search committee meets and discusses which
candidate they will recommend to the department chair to be hired. The search committee chair
facilitates dialogue from each group member and requests that the group come to a consensus
on a candidate. The group does so, the recommendation is made, and the committee disbands.
GROUP ROLES
Within small groups, there are a variety of roles. Groups often have established norms or expectations
for the ways that group members behave. These group roles can be inMuential in determining how
individuals behave within a group and can involve both task and relational communication or both
(Alberts et al., 2007). Task roles are those that are concerned primarily with accomplishing the tasks
and are often predicated on seeking, obtaining, and evaluating information (Alberts et al., 2007).
Table 9.1. Common Task Roles in Small Groups
Small Group Task Roles
Task Role
Description
Example
Initiator/Contributor
Suggests new ideas to group
approaches or problem
solving
“What if we considered
looking at reducing beneKts
instead of cutting salary?”
Information-Seeker
Asks for information or
clariKcation
“Could you remind me when
the last student satisfaction
survey was sent?”
Opinion-Seeker
Asks for input from others
“How do the rest of you feel
about proposing a new
course in social media?”
Information-Giver
Provides facts, evidence, and
examples
“35% of employees surveyed
indicated they would rather
have their pay cut than lose
beneKts.”
Opinion-Giver
Offers beliefs or opinions
“I don’t feel we can increase
student fees. The students
will not stand for it.”
Elaborator
Explains ideas, and offers
examples to clarify ideas
“I remember when I was a
student; I hated when I had to
pay for things I didn’t use.”
Coordinator
Shows relationships among
ideas
“Well, we could implement
the new policy and offer
incentives for employee
safety.“
Orienter
Summarizes what has been
discussed, and moves
conversation along
“It sounds like we’re in
agreement on student fees.
What’s the next item on the
agenda?”
Evaluator/Critic
Evaluates evidence and
group conclusions
“I’m not sure we’ve looked at
other options besides cutting
beneKts.”
Energizer
Motivates group members to
increase productivity
“Hey, we’re making good
progress, and only have two
items left to cover!”
Recorder
Keeps a record of group
activities and progress
Note. Adapted from “Functional Roles of Group Members,” by K. D Benne and P. Sheats, 1948, Journal of Social
Issues, 4, 41-49. Copyright 1948 by the Journal of Social Issues.
In addition to task roles, groups also have relational roles, or roles that are focused on interaction
with other group members that inMuence communication and group cohesion. These relational roles
help develop the culture or atmosphere of the group (Alberts et al., 2007).
Table 9.2. Common Relational Roles
Small Group Relational Roles
Role
Description
Example
Encourager
Offers support and
acceptance of others’ ideas
“Hey, I really like that
suggestion. Why don’t you tell
us more about it?”
Harmonizer
Mediates conMict among
group members
“I think we are seeing things
the same way, we’re just not
communicating that to one
another.”
Compromiser
Seeks to resolve conMicts by
trying to Knd an acceptable
solution
“Jan, I think you have a great
idea, but so does LaTonya.
How can we compromise?”
Gatekeeper
Encourages less talkative
members to participate
“Jose, we haven’t heard your
ideas. What can we do to
increase employee
satisfaction?”
Expediter
Tries to limit lengthy
conversation of other group
members
“Raj, you’ve given us some
great feedback, but let’s hear
from some of the other group
members.”
Standard Setter
Helps to establish standards
and goals for the group
“I think it would help if we met
45 minutes before class for
the next two weeks to discuss
our project.”
Follower
Goes along with suggestions
of group members, and
serves as audience for group
discussions
“That sounds good to me. I
think it’s a great idea.”
Group Observer
Keeps records of the group,
and uses the information that
is gathered to evaluate
procedures
“Last time, we spent 30
minutes discussing the Krst
item. We probably should
move quicker through our
agenda.”
Note. Adapted from “Functional Roles of Group Members,” by K. D Benne and P. Sheats, 1948, Journal of Social
Issues, 4, 41-49. Copyright 1948 by the Journal of Social Issues.
In addition to group roles, there are also individual behaviors and roles that can manifest in group
settings that affect communication and group processes. These individual roles are centered more
on the individual’s needs and interests than the well-being of the group (Alberts et al., 2007).
Table 9.3. Common Individual Roles in Small Groups
Small Group Individual Roles
Role
Description
Example
Aggressor
Attacks other group members,
and tries to take credit for their
ideas
“That’s the most ridiculous
thing I’ve heard. That will
never work!”
Blocker
Being stubborn and obstinate
for no apparent reason
“I don’t understand why the
professor is making us do
this. Who has time for this?”
Recognition-Seeker
Brings excessive personal
attention to his or her
accomplishments
“Well, I got 100% on the last
exam, so I think I know what
I’m talking about.”
Self-Confessor
Uses the group to report
nongroup related personal
feelings
“I’d be more motivated if my
boyfriend and I hadn’t fought
this morning.”
Joker
Lacks involvement, and uses
humor to distract group
members
“Hey everyone check out this
new meme I saw!”
Dominator
Takes control by manipulating
group members through
Mattery or other forms of
assertive behavior
“I was hired right out of my
MBA program, so I know my
plan will work!”
Help-Seeker
Tries to gain sympathy from
group members through
expressing low self-esteem
“My idea is stupid, and no
one will like it anyway.”
Special-Interest Pleader
Works to serve individual
needs rather than focusing on
group interests
“Look, I have to work until 5
every night. Can we just meet
in the evenings?”
Note. Adapted from “Functional Roles of Group Members,” by K. D Benne and P. Sheats, 1948, Journal of Social
Issues, 4, 41-49. Copyright 1948 by the Journal of Social Issues.
LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP
As groups are created and developed, leaders tend to emerge. As discussed in the section on group
formation, it is necessary for leaders to emerge in groups to help the group stay on task and to
facilitate communication and help resolve conMicts. A variety of theories discuss leadership styles,
and some of the more prominent are now reviewed.
TRAIT THEORY
Trait theory is perhaps the oldest leadership theory that exists (Stogdill, 1974). According to trait
theory, leadership is inherent in some individuals, but not others. This theory is often summarized in
the adage, “Leaders are born.”
This theory has a strong connection with societal values and
norms, as society can be a powerful force for determining
what traits and characteristics are considered representative
of “good leaders” and, consequently, what people look for
when evaluating others’ leadership capacity. While some
individuals may possess certain inherent qualities that might
predispose them to being a good leader, this theory has been
challenged in contemporary times. For instance, looking
back historically, leadership positions were often only
available to White men who had high social standing. As the
equal rights movement unfolded, more opportunities were created for culturally diverse individuals to
be given leadership opportunities and to learn and develop the skills to become good leaders.
Additionally, leadership often can occur organically, particularly in crisis situations. Thus, people who
have not previously displayed leadership potential might Knd themselves taking a leadership role in a
troubling situation. Accordingly, leadership may be a trait that has been untapped until certain
situations trigger the need for it to be displayed.
FUNCTIONAL THEORY
Unlike trait theory, functional theory posits that leadership can be learned. According to functional
theory, group needs can be met by any member who is able to contribute to the current issue.
Functional theory suggests that leadership can change from time to time, based on the needs of the
group, and leadership can rotate among group members without having the need for a Kxed or
permanent leader. For example, consider a group put together by parents of a local Little League
Baseball organization to discuss fundraising. A leader might be the parent who has the most
coaching experience and who gets the group organized and energized. Then, as suggestions are
undertaken to help raise funds, the leader might shift to another parent who has more fundraising
experience, with the initial parent leader acting as more of a facilitator to encourage conversation and
discussion. Finally, when all the recommendations are in, the initial parent leader may step forward to
help the group evaluate the proposed solutions and make the best choice for the organization.
Another context in which situational leadership occurs is in sports. In this realm, coaches change
frequently, often based on the needs of the group or the athletes on the team. Thus, it is not
uncommon to hear about a team changing coaches because the previous coach’s style did not
resonate with the players and a new approach was needed. Leadership styles can be a major
inMuence in motivating group members to act, and that is the focus of the style theory of leadership.
STYLE THEORY
Style theory suggests that the success or failure of a leader is based on his or her leadership style.
The common leadership styles include:
Authoritarian,
Democratic, and
Laissez-faire.
As the name suggests, an authoritarian leader is one who exhibits signiKcant control over decision
making and does very little delegating or consulting with others before making decisions.
Authoritarian leaders expect the chain of command to be followed exactly, and the adage, “My way or
the highway,” captures the style of authoritarian leaders. In general, authoritarian leaders have a high
degree of expertise and experience, and some contexts in which this style of leadership is commonly
seen include the military and sports. Additionally, authoritarian leaders may be necessary in crisis
situations when there is minimal time to make decisions.
In contrast, a democratic leader is one who seeks input from group members before making
decisions. Democratic leaders are very careful to make sure that all group members have a chance to
give feedback and input into decisions. Group members can be Muid in the roles they assume under a
democratic leader. Democratic leadership can be beneKcial, as it makes group members feel
empowered, and that can create the buy-in that is important in group decisions. However, democratic
leaders also must be careful not to delegate away too much decision making, as in some situations,
group members expect and/or need the leader to make a quick decision. Some democratic leaders
can get bogged down in delegation to the point that they become reticent to make decisions.
A laissez-faire leader is one who gives the group complete autonomy to make decisions, and the
leader does not intervene in these decisions. A laissez-faire leader does not try to guide or shape
outcomes, and in general, has little involvement in group decision making.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY
Finally, transformational leadership theory has its focus on
the relational aspect of leadership. Transformational leaders
seek to empower group members and uses communication
skills along with empathy to help group members advance
and maximize their potential. Transformational leaders often
are able to get group members to subvert their own interests
to the collective needs of the group. As transformational
leaders are committed to helping group members thrive and
succeed, when a transformational leader exits a group, the
group is more likely to be sustainable, as the leader has
helped group members to maximize their efforts and
promote the collective good.
SIDEBAR: STATE U: THE SEARCH FOR A NEW HEAD COACH
STATE U: THE SEARCH FOR A NEW HEAD COACH
Followers respond differently to various leadership styles, and most people will encounter
multiple leadership styles throughout their experiences in groups. Some leaders resonate or
connect more than others. What theory of leadership best explains those leaders? Consider
the following case study and how leadership styles affect the group dynamics:
State U is a Division I educational institution that participates in a variety of sports, of which
football is the most popular. The longtime head coach Edgar Rivera is retiring after a
successful 30-year career. Coach Rivera is known as a good communicator who really cares
about his players, and, as a result, his players are very loyal to him. Naji Abernathy is the
athletic director at State U and is in charge of hiring a new head coach. The search
committee has narrowed the applicant pool down to three candidates, and each of them are
coming in for an interview with Naji along with Reggie Blanchard, the current captain of the
football team. One of the key questions in the interview is for the coaching applicant to
describe his leadership style. The Krst candidate, Norman Mueller, is a long-time assistant
coach at State U and is seen by many as the leading candidate for the position. When asked
to describe his leadership style, Norman responds:
I believe that a good leader is one who listens to the people he or she supervises.
I’ve learned a lot from Coach Rivera over the years, and I think leaders have to be
focused more on listening than talking. At the same time, a leader has to be ready to
make quick decisions when the situation requires it. If I’m hired as head coach, I will
form a players’ council, who I’ll meet with regularly and run decisions by before
implementing to the team. I think that’s the best way to promote camaraderie with
the team. I also maintain an open-door policy, and I would encourage players and
school oRcials to talk to me anytime they have a question or an issue.
The second candidate, Ramses Jones, is a former football player, who has recently retired
from professional football and has been working as an assistant coach at another
university. When asked to describe his leadership style, Ramses states:
My leadership style is built on respect. The players may not like me, but they will
respect me. I have played this game for a long time at the highest level, and I know
what I’m talking about. I don’t have time for a lot of questions and mumbo-jumbo; in
this game, you have to make quick decisions and be respected, or nothing else
matters. If someone doesn’t like what I do, they can hit the road; I’ve only got time
for those who buy into my system.
The third candidate, Parker Gonzalez, has been an assistant coach for 10 years at another
institution. When asked to describe his leadership style, Parker responds:
For me, I will let the players do what they want. I’m paid to win games, and that’s my
focus. If there’s an issue, it should go to the players Krst so they can solve it among
themselves. I don’t have time for that. I am focused on preparing our team to win
and be successful. Sure, if someone needs something they can come Knd me and
I’ll listen, but people need to learn to solve their own problems more.
ReMection Questions
1. Based on the scenario above, what leadership styles does each candidate
display?
2. Given their approach to leadership, what candidate would the athletic director
most likely hire?
NORMS AND RULES
As groups emerge and develop, part of the formation process is establishing group norms and group
rules. As discussed earlier, group norms are often unspoken and develop organically, while group
rules are often formalized as part of the group process. For instance, a student group that is created
to work on a course assignment may create formal rules, such as designated meeting times and
locations, as well as a timeline to complete the required assignment. Norms may develop for group
members in terms of arriving on time to scheduled meetings, reporting an absence or tardy for a
scheduled group meeting, and allowing each group member to freely express his or her thoughts.
Whereas the rules are often explicit, norms are often implicit, which can lead to misunderstanding
when norms are violated. Consider a situation where one group member fails to complete his or her
scheduled part of the assignment by the group due date. Because coming to group meetings with
work being completed was established as a rule, group members may be justiKed in being upset with
the group member, and the group member may have little recourse to alleviate the conMict within the
group. However, if a group member arrives to a group meeting late, he or she may have more recourse
to try and alleviate the conMict with group members being upset, as being on time was not something
that was formally agreed upon. Violating norms can certainly cause conMict in groups; therefore, it is
important for groups to be aware of the norms that they have created and to discuss and evaluate
them.
Rules and norms are subject to change, and the degree to
which they change can be based on the leadership of the
group. For example, an authoritarian leader may dictate to
group members what the rules and norms are and determine
when those rules and norms have been violated. Although
this can promote eRciency within the group, it also may
prompt group members to not fully buy in to the group rules
and norms, which can be problematic. A democratic leader,
on the other hand, is more likely to seek input from group
members before creating rules and norms or modifying
them, which makes group support for the rules and norms
more likely to occur. As leaders can change, the rules and
norms can then vary based on the leadership style of the
incoming leader. This often occurs in corporate settings when a new CEO or senior executive is
brought into a company. In many instances, the new CEO and/or executive will change things, and
this is sometimes done without input from those affected by the change, which can hinder the
eRciency and success of organizational transition.
SUMMARY
In summary, small group communication will likely affect most people at some point in their lives.
With the shift toward more collaboration in both education and organizations, the likelihood of
working in a small group is signiKcant. Accordingly, it is important to understand the processes by
which small groups form and develop, so group tasks and objectives can be met and conMicts can be
addressed in a productive manner. People are unique and different from one another, and when they
come together to form groups, they bring different traits and characteristics. Some individuals may
prefer to take a more passive role in the group, while others may tend to be more assertive and
headstrong. It is important that individuals understand their own tendencies and preferences, so that
they know both what they bring to the group, and what personalities with which they might cooperate
or conMict. Understanding these nuances can help their experiences in groups to be productive and
meaningful.
Additionally, groups are subject to varying styles of leadership. There are a variety of ways that people
choose to lead, some of which can be more effective than others. Whereas some people might
inherently be seen as leaders, leaders can emerge from a variety of situations and contexts as well.
Moreover, as leaders Knd themselves in different positions, there may be times where one leadership
style is more appropriate than another, but that style can eventually change. Individuals need to be
mindful of what kind of leadership strategy they subscribe to, as well as what kind of leadership
styles they prefer to follow, as they are likely to encounter a variety of leadership styles in group
participation across their lifespan.
Leaders also play an important role in creating and developing group rules and norms. Rules and
norms help provide structure to the group experience, yet they also can be sources of conMict. Group
members need to be cognizant of the rules and norms that are created when the group is formed, as
well as the rules and norms that are present in existing groups that are joined. Such awareness and
understanding will help group members know how to structure their communication and participation
in ways that will enhance the group experience both individually and collectively.
KEY TERMS
Authoritarian Leader: A leadership style characterized by a lack of input, a rigid chain of command,
and unilateral decision making.
Democratic Leader: A leadership style characterized by participation and seeking input from group
members.
Followership: The process by which individuals take directives and instructions to conform their
behavior to requests from an individual who is seen as a leader.
Formal Groups: Groups that are created to accomplish a certain objective or purpose.
Functional Theory: A theory of leadership that suggest that leadership can be learned, arises in the
context of different group situations, and is subject to change.
Group Norms: Informal processes and rules that develop among group members organically that
dictate group behavior.
Group Roles: Shared expectations that group members have for each individual’s communication
behavior.
Group Rules: Formal processes and rules that are developed by group members to guide the behavior
of group members and keep members on task.
Individual Roles: Roles that are centered more on the needs and interests of one group member,
rather than the collective needs of the group.
Informal Groups: Groups that are created by individuals to meet their own goals and needs.
Laissez-Faire Leader: A leadership style characterized by complete freedom for group members with
the leader exerting little involvement.
Leadership: The process by which an individual enacts responsibility over a group of people and the
qualities they exhibit to guide group members’ behavior.
Long-Term Groups: Groups that are formed that have a more permanent nature, and continue to
exist, even though individual membership may change.
Primary Groups: Groups that an individual joins that provide a strong sense of belonging and
aRliation.
Relational Roles: Roles that group members play that are primarily concerned with the interpersonal
communication and interaction among group members.
Secondary Groups: Groups that are tasked primarily with solving problems and resolving issues; there
is not a strong sense of belonging for group members.
Short-Term Groups: Groups that have a temporary duration and are formed usually to accomplish an
immediate task or objective.
Small Group Communication: Communication among and between a small number of people who
share a common purpose or goal, who feel connected to each other, and coordinate their behavior.
Style Theory: A theory of leadership that suggests that the success of a leader is based on the style
he or she displays.
Task Roles: Roles that are directly tied to the achievement of group objectives and goals.
Trait Theory: A theory of leadership that suggests leaders are inherently born.
Transformational Leadership Theory: A theory of leadership that focuses on relational elements,
helping group members maximize their potential and the collective good of the group.
Virtual Groups: Groups whose members are dispersed across different geographical locations and
whose communication and interaction is facilitated by technology.
REFERENCES
Alberts, J. K., Nakayama, T. K., & Martin, J. N. (2007). Human communication in society. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Arrow, H., McGrath, J. E., & Berdahl, J. L. (2000). Small groups as complex systems. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. New York, NY: Free
Press.
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399.
You’ve Just Read: 9: Small Group Communication
Jimmy Sanderson
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10: PROBLEM SOLVING IN GROUPS AND
TEAMS
INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter examined small group communication, including how groups form, the roles
individuals play in groups, leadership and followership in groups, and the ways in which groups norms
and rules are created and maintained. This chapter looks at some of the issues that can arise in
group settings, the strategies that groups can use to solve problems, and which approaches might be
more effective than others.
As indicated in the last chapter, groups are composed of
individuals, and each person brings a unique personality and
character traits to the group. Consequently, it is not
surprising that there may be disagreements among group
members, and, indeed, this is part of the group formation
process. The key for group members is to work through
problems and con?ict in healthy ways and be aware of their
individual tendencies so the group process can be a
productive one. As students read through the chapter, they
can think about groups they have been involved with and if
any con?icts or problems existed in those groups, how these were solved, and what roles they
personally played in reaching solutions. Considering how prominent groups are in both educational
and occupational contexts, it is important to be able to recognize problems in group settings and be
conAdent in the strategies that can be invoked to help solve the problems.
Compassionate Care, Inc. (CCI) is a nonproAt organization that provides respite services to
individuals with developmental disabilities. CCI is completely reliant on government funding for
its operational budget. Recently, CCI was informed that government funding was going to be cut
by 10%. Accordingly, the company’s president has tasked Maria, the human resources director,
with chairing a committee to recommend how the cuts can be offset in the budget. The
committee includes Terrence, the chief Anancial oKcer, Mark, the human resources manager, and
Sherice, a direct-support employee.
During their initial meeting, the following dialogue takes place:
Maria: Well, as you all know, we’re here to Agure out a way to compensate for the budget cuts. It
seems to me that we have to look at cutting employee salary and beneAts.
Sherice: Well, that’s not going to go over well with the employees. Why does it always have to
start with us?
Terrence: You all don’t understand the other costs involved in running this operation. It’s going to
have to come from the employees somehow.
Mark: Well, let’s not get ahead of ourselves here. We know we need to compensate for a 10% cut,
so let’s consider all of our options.
Maria: Okay, good point, Mark. Do we all agree that 10% is the amount we need to cover?
Terrence, Sherice, and Mark: Yes.
When groups are faced with problems, there are processes
that need to be followed to work through a solution. The Arst
step is to deAne and identify the problem. In this scenario,
although it took some discussion to arrive at consensus, the
group agreed that the issue was the need to cut 10% from
the budget to account for the government funding cuts. It is
important for a group to make sure that they have a clear
understanding of the problem; otherwise, it will be diKcult
U.S. Department of Transportation
for it to be solved. The next step in problem solving involves
analyzing the problem. In this phase, group members need to
look at all possible angles to the problem and consider who is affected by the problem. While there is
a lot of brainstorming that occurs in this stage, it is important that group members not get bogged
down by too much analysis—what is known as analysis paralysis—or the group process getting
sti?ed and clogged from too much thinking.
Maria: Well, I’ve Agured that if we cut all paid holidays, that will avoid us having to cut employee
salary, and that seems like the best solution to me.
Sherice: I’m glad to not be losing pay but the paid holidays really help and will affect a lot of
employees. Are there other areas we can cut?
Terrence: Not likely, although we have dedicated some money to upgrading the computer system,
perhaps we could hold off on that.
Mark: I wonder if that will still be enough to do the job.
Maria: Okay, let’s do this: Terrence, come back to our next meeting with how much we would save
by delaying the computer purchase, and Mark and I will run the numbers to see what we would
save by eliminating paid holidays.
In this group exchange, although some group members seem predisposed to solving the problem
through cutting employee beneAts, the group did look at other angles, and was sensitive to the need
expressed by Sherice about how employees would be affected. Consequently, the group assigned
action items to gather more information.
Additionally, as the group considered other ideas, they engaged in the next step of the problemsolving process by identifying alternative solutions. Initially, most of the group seemed convinced that
cutting paid holidays was the only way to solve the problem; however, when Sherice voiced her
concerns, Terrence volunteered to analyze how delaying the computer system upgrade might offset
some of the negative effect to employees. The next phase in the problem-solving process is to
evaluate proposed solutions. Here, group members consider the suggestions that have been posed to
solve the problem and weigh the beneAts and risks of each, thinking of the practicality of each
suggestion.
Maria: Okay everyone. Mark and I have calculated what we would save by cutting paid holidays,
and by cutting the holidays, we would hit our 10% target. Terrence, did you run the numbers on
the computer system?
Terrence: I did. If we delay the purchase until the next Ascal year, we can hit the 10% target,
without affecting employees. The problem is, it may affect our eKciency, as we need the new
upgrade badly.
Sherice: I hate to see that happen, but I also hate to see the employees bear the brunt of the cuts.
Is there any way we could compromise?
Terrence: Well, I did talk to the supplier, and our representative told me that they would work with
us on a payment plan, but that won’t account for the shortfall. We’d still have to cut some other
areas.
Mark: Well, it looks like if we cut three holidays, we could do the computer software on
installment and still hit our 10% target.
Sherice: I think employees would be open to that.
Maria: Okay, everyone. It sounds like we have three options: (a) cut all employee holidays, (b)
delay the computer system upgrade a year, or (c) cut three employee holidays and do the
computer upgrade on installments. Let’s all take some time to think about that and meet in a
couple days.
Here, the group weighed the options that were available to them and talked about the beneAts and
challenges of each choice they could make. The last step in the problem-solving process is to choose
the best solution. Although this may seem to be the same thing as evaluating options, there is a
difference, as it is important that each group member buys into the solution and is in agreement on
the decision-making process.
Maria: All right, everyone. We need to come up with a
recommendation. In looking at the options, I think the best
approach is to balance the computer system with the
employees’ needs, so I suggest we go for cutting three
paid holidays and paying for the computer system on an
installment plan.
Terrence: Well, I’m still not convinced that doing the
computer system on installments is the best idea, but I do
think we need to be mindful of the employees, so I agree with you.
Sherice: Thanks for considering our point of view. I think this is something the employees can live
with. I’m in agreement.
Mark: I’m in agreement as well.
Maria: Thanks, everyone. I’ll formalize the recommendation tomorrow. In the meantime, if anyone
has anything else they want to add, let me know before the end of the day.
In this phase, the group agreed on the best solution, which balanced the needs of the employees with
the company’s need to upgrade the computer software.
Table 10.1. Group Problem-Solving Steps
Group Problem-Solving Steps
Step
Description
DeAne and Identify the Problem
Group members come to consensus on the
nature of the problem and understand it, which
ensures that it can be solved.
Analyze the Problem
Group members look at the problem from all
possible angles and consider all possible
outcomes. Group members have to be careful
in this stage to avoid analysis paralysis.
Identify Alternative Solutions
Group members consider as many solutions as
possible without critiquing them.
Evaluate Proposed Solutions
Group members judge the proposed solutions
and determine the strengths and weaknesses
of each.
Choose the Best Solution
Group members come to consensus on the
best solution, and all group members buy into
the solution and are aware of decision-making
processes used to reach a decision.
GROUP DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES
The information above presented the problem-solving steps that groups undergo when making
decisions, and, within this overall action, there are a series of processes that groups generally move
through as they make decisions. Fisher (1980) identiAed four phases of the decision-making process
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Orientation and primary tension,
Con?ict and secondary tension,
Emergence, and
Reinforcement.
PHASE 1: ORIENTATION AND PRIMARY TENSION
In this stage, group members face high uncertainty, particularly if they have just formed the group and
members are unfamiliar with one another. Group members try to acquaint themselves with one
another. This uncertainty and anxiety that group members feel is referred to as primary tension.
Most students feel this tension when they are assigned to
work in a collaborative learning community group at the
beginning of a course. At this point, they are probably still
getting to know each other, and the uncertainty about the
skills and work ethic each person brings to the group, along
with the uncertainty about learning a course topic,
contributes to the primary tension. In this phase, group
members are concerned about how they will get along with
other group members as well as how other group members
will perceive them. In this phase, communication is generally
polite and centered on the objective the group is trying to achieve. In this stage, group rules are
developed and group norms begin to form. Additionally, it may take some time for primary tension to
fully alleviate, as group members have to continually review and renegotiate rules and norms until
they get comfortable with one another. For short-term groups, primary tension may be present
throughout the duration of the group.
PHASE 2: CONFLICT AND SECONDARY TENSION
In the second phase, con?ict arises after group rules and boundaries are developed, norms begin to
take shape, and group members begin to discuss ideas and alternatives. In this stage, con?ict tends
to be recurring, which characterizes secondary tension. Con?ict becoming more consistent is not
necessary problematic; in fact, this may signal that group members are more comfortable with one
another and feel that they can speak more freely and candidly and perhaps even interrupt one
another. Nevertheless, this stage can also be marked by group members trying to domineer other
group members and push their own agenda, rather than what is best for the collective good. At this
phase, group members may engage in side conversations with one another, and it is important for
expectations to be set. SpeciAcally, group members should discuss what the objective is for the
group and the means to accomplish that goal. For instance, during this phase in a faculty search
committee, the faculty should outline how they plan to meet the recruitment objective and the means
by which they will carry out the search. In this phase, group roles also begin to take shape, and one
faculty member may be appointed to be the search committee chair and be the primary point person
for questions from candidates, while another group member may be tasked with coordinating
application materials, and another group member tasked with checking references.
Given the chance for con?ict in this stage, it is important that group members practice effective
communication to help resolve con?ict. This can be done in several ways. Oetzel (1998, 2001, 2005)
recommended that the following practices facilitate effective group communication:
1. Equal Participation—group members should contribute equally, and there should be an
equal amount of taking turns among group members.
2. A Consensus Decision-Making Style—all group members should contribute to the
decision and be in agreement with it.
3. A Cooperative Con=ict Style—the group manages con?ict by taking a win-win approach
and attempting to balance the interests of all group members.
4. A Respectful Communication Style—group members should communicate that they value
other group members and consider their contributions to be important to the mission of
the group.
Anne Thornley-Brown (2015) outlined additional strategies that could be used to manage con?ict in
groups:
1. Pause—taking a break will help group members calm down and refocus.
2. Thinking Time—groups should take the opportunity to write down their concerns and
identify desired outcomes and solutions.
3. Agree on Norms—groups should develop norms to handle con?ict, which include avoiding
personal attacks.
4. Give Individuals an Opportunity to Share—it is important that group members be allowed
to share the ideas they have come up with during the thinking time phase.
5. Paraphrase —before moving on, it is important to make sure that the person who has
shared his or her ideas and concerns is understood by the group.
6. Open Floor for Discussion—after all ideas have been disseminated, open up the
opportunity for the group to discuss.
7. Identify Basic Facts of Agreement—determine the common ground, and use that as a
foundation.
8. Identify Proposed Solutions That Are Agreeable—build on the common ground to And
solutions with which everyone can agree.
9. For Areas of Disagreement, Form Subgroups—if consensus can still not be obtained,
divide group members up to assess the areas of disagreement and come back with
solutions.
Another model that is helpful in explaining how groups can manage con?ict is the AEIOU model
(Huffer, 2011).
Assume the other person means well—thinking that other groups members are
intentionally trying to quarrel reduces the chances of solving the con?ict, whereas starting
with a positive attitude with other group members increases the likelihood of successfully
managing the con?ict.
Express feelings—once positive intentions have been assigned to other group members,
one should convey his or her position and express concerns.
Identify goals—in this step, in a positive and nonthreatening manner, one should
communicate what he or she would like to see take place. While it is important to be Arm,
it also is important that language (e.g., “I want”) does not convey the wrong impression to
other group members.
Outcome expected—discuss the positive and negative outcomes of choices and solutions
that have been discussed, but try to focus on mutually beneAcial positive outcomes.
Understanding on a mutual basis—the goal here is to persuade others to accept one’s
point of view, but it is important to remember that others may be attempting the same
goal, so be ready to compromise and consider alternative options.
Again, a certain amount of con?ict is healthy and can even indicate a certain comfort level within
groups, but it is important to keep con?ict within boundaries, and not let it derail the group from its
purpose.
PHASE 3: EMERGENCE
In the emergence phase, the group has largely overcome the tension and is engaging in cooperative
dialogue and behavior. Group members tend to be less stringent about their own positions and start
to work toward the collective good. In this stage, group members are willing to compromise and
consider alternatives as the group moves toward making a decision. Although there is more
cooperation in this phase, primary and secondary tension can still manifest. Thus, it is important that
group members rely on relational roles, such as some group members trying to manage con?ict and
conveying a positive attitude. Group members also may focus more on the value of the group and the
group identity to help members overcome reoccurring tension.
PHASE 4: REINFORCEMENT
In the Anal phase, reinforcement, the group reaches consensus and feels comfortable with the
decision the group has reached. Some group members may seek to reinforce other group members
who seem unsure of the group’s decision. Although reaching consensus is important, too much
emphasis on reaching consensus can lead to a very problematic aspect in group behavior—
groupthink. This threat and other dangers to group decision making are now discussed.
GROUP COMMUNICATION DANGERS
There are several threats that group members must be aware of that can negatively affect and hinder
group communication. Chief among these is groupthink. Groupthink occurs when there is too much
consensus among group members, which leads to few questions and challenges to what the group
has decided. On the surface, it may appear that groupthink is anything but a threat because the group
is supposed to arrive at a consensus to reach its objective.
While it is certainly the case that consensus is an important outcome for a group, it is problematic
when group members go along with ideas without thinking through the potential problems. Indeed,
some group members may simply go along with what has been proposed to minimize the time spent
in the group activity or simply go along because they do not have an interest or a stake in what the
group is trying to achieve. The issue with groupthink arises as alternatives are not considered and
other options are not comprehensively evaluated. This can lead the group to instituting a poor
decision or not considering the full effect of a potential decision. Groupthink also may occur because
some individuals have poor communication habits, or are fearful of con?ict and go along with the
group simply to avoid any disagreement.
Alberts, Nakayama, and Martin (2007) outlined possible reasons why groupthink occurs:
Lack of leadership, as the group has no direction;
Strong leadership (think authoritarian leadership) that precludes group members from
providing input and feeling comfortable sharing their feelings;
A perceived external threat, where group members feel that they have minimal time to
reach a decision and rush to judgment to mitigate a potential negative outcome;
Failure to develop rules and norms for decision making, or not following an agenda to
solve problems; and,
Group members being too much like one another, making it unlikely for alternative
viewpoints and positions to be considered.
It is important for groups to be mindful of groupthink, and there are several strategies that can be
taken to prevent it. Petty (2010) outlined six steps to assist in avoiding groupthink:
1. Anticipate Groupthink—groups should be aware of the dangers of groupthink and account
for it in their discussions of rules and norms.
2. Size Counts—groups should be kept small, ideally under 10, to make sure that inclusion is
realistic and feasible.
3. Invite External Perspectives—at various stages of the group’s duration, outside individuals
should be invited to help the group assess if they are missing something or not thinking
through the full set of alternatives.
4. Lengthen the Discussion—groups should not rush to judgment but should look for ways to
invite dialogue and encourage as much discussion as possible.
5. Develop a Second Solution—groups should assume that their Arst solution will be rejected
and/or inappropriate for the problem and, consequently, should have a back-up plan in
place.
6. Invite a Devil’s Advocate—a devil’s advocate can be helpful in vetting group decisions and
can help the group see counterpoints and problems with the solutions that they are
considering.
In addition to groupthink, another threat to successful group communication is grouphate (Sorenson,
1981). Grouphate is the natural aversion and dislike for group work that many individuals possess,
and it may accurately characterize the way they feel toward groups.
Grouphate may arise because of a person’s previous experiences in groups. Most people have
probably had an experience in which a group member did not pull his or her weight, which leads
individuals to feel that they can work more effectively alone than with others. Some people also like
the feeling of control that working alone provides, whereas working with others, particularly those
they do not know, can invite uncertainty. Grouphate can be problematic, as it can bias group members
to the objective and task at hand before the group has commenced its plan to meet the objectives
and goals for the group. Additionally, think back to the different roles discussed in Chapter 9. What
kinds of roles might an individual take who possesses grouphate?
Managing grouphate may be a diKcult task, as some people have very rigid attitudes toward group
work. Nevertheless, one way that grouphate can be managed is by setting clear expectations and
rules when the group forms. Ensuring that group members know what to expect from others, and
what is expected of them can help reduce uncertainty. Another strategy for managing grouphate is to
emphasize the relational roles discussed in Chapter 9. Group members who have had negative
experiences with group work can be encouraged to share their experiences and talk freely about what
went wrong. Thus, the group can be aware of the issues the person encountered and work hard to
avoid repeating them. This strategy also enables the group member’s feelings to be valued, and that
empowerment may help reduce some of the negative feelings a group member holds. Additionally,
these group members can be reinforced and praised for their efforts and be made to feel included in
group decision-making processes. This again leads to empowerment and inclusion, which can be
successful in mitigating negative attitudes about group work. Finally, although not a strategy per se, it
is important to remember that group work is becoming standard in most educational and
occupational settings, and there is a high likelihood that throughout their lives, people will participate
in multiple groups. Thus, learning how to work with others to accomplish a goal and, more
importantly, how to overcome obstacles in achieving those goals can be very valuable skills to learn.
Finally, when working in groups to solve problems and reach decisions, it is important to remember a
person’s faith and worldview may come into play. For example, if a group is considering an unethical
course of action that violates some of a member’s beliefs, that person should feel conAdent
expressing concern. If the group ignores these concerns and continues on with a problematic course
of action, it may be best for this person to leave the group. On the other hand, a person’s faith and
worldview might help him or her see group members with more compassion and help the person play
an integral role in solving con?ict among group members.
CONCLUSION
Working with other people in groups, whether formally or informally, whether short-term or long-term,
is bound to be a regular occurance for many people. Given the uniqueness that individuals bring to
groups, it is important to understand the threats to group communication that can arise and to ensure
that group decision making is a thorough, rather than a speedy process. As groups seek to solve
problems and enact decisions, understanding the ways that groups make decisions, as well as the
processes that accompany those decisions can help group members become stronger overall
contributors to the group or team. Additionally, con?ict is likely to emerge in groups, and this can be a
healthy process. Nevertheless, there are productive and destructive ways of handling con?ict and
tension, and individuals who are well-versed in con?ict management and, more importantly, in
inclusion and seeking input from others, can help groups manage con?ict in effective ways.
Finally, whereas consensus is an important objective for group members to achieve, reaching
consensus too quickly, without considering a full range of alternatives, can result in consequences for
groups. In the digital era, when every organizational decision can be scrutinized by a vast audience on
social media, it is crucial that groups think through all potential alternatives and challenge what might
seem to be the easy solution. Groups also must be mindful of the past group experiences of its
members and work to rectify negative encounters with group work that people have had in the past.
Being cognizant of these threats can help the group process to be both satisfactory and pleasing as
well as help group members strengthen their communication and interaction with others.
KEY TERMS
Analysis Paralysis: Occurs when group members spend so much time analyzing problems that group
processes are sti?ed, making it diKcult to And a solution.
Decision-Making Process: The four-stage process used by groups to evaluate information and arrive
at a decision or solution.
Emergence Phase: The third phase of the decision-making process in which group members have
worked through initial tension and are highly cooperative.
Grouphate: A negative feeling that some people possess toward working in groups because of their
past group experiences.
Groupthink: A threat to successful group communication in which group members quickly reach
consensus without considering alternative solutions or consequences.
Primary Tension: The uncertainty that takes place among group members early in the decisionmaking process.
Reinforcement Phase: The last phase of the group decision-making process in which group members
reach a decision and assure other group members who may still have reservations.
Secondary Tension: Con?ict or tension that arises in the second phase of the decision-making
process.
REFERENCES
Alberts, J. K., Nakayama, T. K., & Martin, J. N. (2007). Human communication in society. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Fisher, B. A. (1980). Small group decision making: Communication and the group process (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Huffer, A. (2011). Providing feedback is as easy as AEIOU! Retrieved from
http://www.andrewhuffer.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Providing_feedback.pdf
Oetzel, J. G. (1998). Explaining individual communication processes in homogenous and
heterogeneous groups through individual-collectivism and self-construal. Communication
Research, 25, 202-224.
Oetzel, J. G. (2001). Self-construals, communication processes, and group outcomes in
homogeneous and heterogeneous groups. Small Group Research, 32, 19-54.
Oetzel, J. G. (2005). Effective intercultural workgroup communication theory. In W. B. Gudyknust (Ed.),
Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 351-371). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Petty, A. (2010, July 8). 6 steps to avoiding groupthink on your team. Retrieved from
Sorenson, S. (1981, May). Grouphate. Paper presented at the International Communication
Association, Minneapolis, MN.
Thornley-Brown, A. (2015, March 16). 9 steps for managing con?ict. Retrieved from
http://blog.cvent.com/blog/executiveoasis/managing-con?ict-during-meetings
You’ve Just Read: 10: Problem Solving in Groups and Teams
Jimmy Sanderson
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Author