BUS 680 Week 2 Assignment

PLEASE DO NOT SUBMIT A BID FOR THIS ASSIGNMENT IF YOU DO NOT HAVE EXPERIENCE WITH GRADUATE LEVEL WRITING TERMS AND CONCEPTS. ALL DIRECTIONS MUST BE FOLLOWED AND NO PLAGIARISM. MY SCHOOL USES SOFTWARE TO DETECT COPIED MATERIAL. AND REFERENCE THE BOOK AND USE SCHORLARY SOURCES.

Required Resources

Text

Blanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. W. (2013).

Effective training: Systems, strategies, and practices

(5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

· Chapter 4: Needs Analysis

· Chapter 4: Appendix 4-1

Articles

Binder, C. (2009).

What’s so new about The Six Boxes model? (Links to an external site.)

[PDF file]. SixBoxes. Retrieved from http://www.sixboxes.com/_customelements/uploadedResources/160039_SixBoxesWhatsSoNew

Binder, C. (2011).

Implementation planning and change management with The Six Boxes approach (Links to an external site.)

[PDF file]. SixBoxes. Retrieved from http://www.sixboxes.com/_customelements/uploadedResources/160457_SixBoxesImpPlanWhitePaper

Binder, C. (2012).

Get out of the training box! (Links to an external site.)

[PDF file]. SixBoxes. Retrieved from http://www.sixboxes.com/_customelements/uploadedResources/145954_OutoftheTrainingBox

Wilmoth, F.S., Prigmore, C., & Bray, M. (2002, September).

HPT models: An overview of the major models in the field (Links to an external site.)

[PDF file]. Performance Improvement, 41(8). Retrieved from http://www.sixboxes.com/_customelements/uploadedResources/HPTModels

Multimedia

Wallace, G. (2012, May 9).

Carl Binder – HPT legacy 2010 (Links to an external site.)

[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMx9r9XZMeU

Week 2 – Assignment

Mark as done

Training Needs Analysis (TNA)

Presented at the end of Chapters 4, 5, 8 and 9 of the Blanchard and Thacker (2013) text, are examples of what would be done in a real situation regarding a small business that requested training. Review the Fabrics Inc. example at the end of Chapter 4. In the Fabrics Inc. example, Blanchard and Thacker (2013) have demonstrated, needs analysis, the first phase in the Training Process Model.

In an 800 to 1,000 word paper (excluding the title and reference pages), discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the approach and what might be done differently using the Fabrics Inc. example. Identify the sources of data used in the analysis. Discuss how closely the approach correspond to the ideal model presented in the Blanchard and Thacker (2013) text. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of the assessment methods used. Then, describe at least two additional methods that could have been used, providing rationale as to why these methods could be used.

Your paper should include an introduction (a thesis statement and a preview of your paper), APA formatted headings to organize and identify each section of your paper, and a conclusion paragraph including restatement of the thesis. An Abstract is not required. Your paper must be formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. Your paper must also include citations and references for the Blanchard and Thacker (2013) text and at least three scholarly sources from the Ashford University Library.

The paper

· Must be 800 to 1,000 words, double-spaced in length (excluding the title and reference pages) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the

Ashford Writing Center. (Links to an external site.)

· Must include a separate title page with the following:

· Title of paper

· Student’s name

· Course name and number

· Instructor’s name

· Date submitted

· Must use at least three scholarly sources in addition to the course text from the Ashford University Library.

· Must document all sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

· Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

Carefully review the

Grading Rubric (Links to an external site.)

for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.

Nine Evaluation of Training

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS6

6.1/sections/i1

#ch0

un�ig01)

Describe the pros and cons of evaluation and indicate which way to go on the issue.

Explain what process evaluation is, and why it is important.

Describe the interrelationships among the various levels of outcome evaluation.

Describe the costs and bene�its of evaluating training.

Differentiate between the two types of cost-effectiveness evaluation (cost savings and utility analysis).

Describe the various designs that are possible for evaluation and their advantages and disadvantages.

De�ine and explain the importance of internal and external validity (Appendix 9-1).

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5#ch09unfig0

9.1 Case: Training Designed to Change Behavior and
Attitudes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i1

6#ch09biblio_01)
The city of Palm Desert, California, decided to provide training to improve employees’ attitudes toward their work
and to provide them with the skills to be more effective on the job. The two-day seminar involved a number of
teaching methods, including a lecture, �ilms, role-plays, and group interaction. Among the topics covered were
con�lict control, listening, communicating, telephone etiquette, body language, delegation, and taking orders.
Throughout the two days, the value of teamwork, creativity, and rational decision making was stressed and
integrated into the training.

Before the training was instituted, all 55 nonmanagement employees completed a paper-and-pencil
questionnaire to measure both their attitudes toward the job and their perception of their job behaviors.
Supervisors also completed a questionnaire assessing each of their employees. All 55 employees were told that they
would be receiving the same two-day seminar. The �irst set of 34 employees was chosen at random.

The

employees who did not take the training immediately became a comparison group for evaluating the
training. While the �irst group of employees was sent to the training, the others were pulled off the job, ostensibly to
receive training, but they simply took part in exercises not related to any training. Thus, both groups were treated
similarly in every way except for the training. Both groups completed attitude surveys immediately after the trained
group �inished training. Six months later, both groups completed self-report surveys to measure changes in their
job behavior. Their supervisors also were asked to complete a similar behavior measure at the six-month mark.

The data provided some revealing information. For the trained group, no changes in attitude or behavior were
indicated, either by the self-report or by supervisor-reported surveys. This result was also true (but expected) for
the group not trained.

Was training a failure in the Palm Desert case? Would the training manager be pleased with these results? Was
the evaluation process �lawed? These types of issues will be addressed in this chapter. We will refer back to the case
from time to time to answer these and other questions.

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9.2 Rationale for Evaluation
Imagine a business that decided it would not look at its pro�itability, return on investment (ROI), or productivity.

ou
are a supervisor with this company, but you never look at how well or poorly your subordinates are performing
their jobs. This is what training is like when no evaluation is conducted. Good management practice dictates that
organizational activities are routinely examined to ensure that they are occurring as planned and are producing the
anticipated results. Otherwise, no corrective action can be taken to address people, processes, and products or
services that stray “off track.”

Nonetheless, many rationalizations for not evaluating training continue to exist, and evaluation of training is
often not done. A 1988 survey of 45 Fortune

0 companies indicated that all of them asked trainees how much
they liked training, but only 30 percent assessed how much was learned, and just

percent examined behavioral
change. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_02) Other
evidence from that time suggested that only 1 company in

0 used an effective system for measuring the
organizational effects and value of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_03) But this is changing.
In a 1996 study, 70 percent assessed learning, 63 percent assessed behavior, and 25 percent assessed
organizational results.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_04) Evaluation of
training at all levels is becoming more common. Nevertheless, the evaluation of training is still not where it needs to
be. A 2006 study of

0 businesses of all sizes and types shows that the things organizations view as the most
important outcomes of training are still not being measured very often.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_05)

But, as noted, over the course of time, more organizations are evaluating training. The main reason for this is an
increase in accountability. Top management is demanding evidence that training departments are contributing
positively to the bottom line.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_06) Dave Palm, training
director of LensCrafters, knows �irsthand about this trend. A frantic regional manager called Dave and told him that
executives were looking to improve the bottom line and could not �ind enough evidence that training programs
were providing a quanti�iable return on the company’s investment. Yes, they knew that trainees were satis�ied with
training, but was the company getting the bang for their buck? The conversation ended with the regional manager
saying, “So, Dave, what are you going to do about it?” Dave got his wake-up call.
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9.3 Resistance to Training Evaluation
Training managers can come up with a surprising number of reasons for not evaluating training, including the
following:

There is nothing to evaluate.

No one really cares about it.

Evaluation is a threat to my job.

There Is Nothing to Evaluate
For some companies, training is simply a reward for good performance, or something that is mandated so everyone
has to attend. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_08) The
argument here is that training is not expected to accomplish anything, so there is nothing to evaluate.

The Counterargument
The �irst thing we would question here is why the company is spending money on something that has no value. We
would argue that even in cases where training is a reward, it is designed with some goals or objectives in mind.
Some type of knowledge, skills, or attitude (KSA) change is expected from the participants even if they just feel more
positive about their job or the company. Once this goal or objective is identi�ied, it can be measured. Evaluation is
simply measuring the degree to which objectives are achieved. Even when training is mandated, such as safety
training, there are still objectives to be achieved in terms of learning, job behavior, and the organization.

No One Really Cares About Evaluating Training
The most common rationale for not conducting training evaluations is that “formal evaluation procedures are too
expensive and time-consuming, and no one really cares anyway.” This explanation usually means that no one
speci�ically asked for, demanded, or otherwise indicated a need for assessment of training outcomes.

The Counterargument
If an evaluation is not speci�ically required, this does not mean that training is not evaluated. Important
organizational decisions (e.g., budget, staf�ing, and performance evaluations) are made with data when data exist,
but will also be made if the data do not exist. If no formal evaluations of training have taken place, the decision
makers will decide on the basis of informal impressions of training’s effectiveness. Even in good economic times, the
competition for organizational budget allocations is strong. Departments that can document their contributions to
the organization and the return on budget investment are more likely to be granted their budget requests. The
question, then, is not whether training should be evaluated, but rather who will do it (training professionals or
budget professionals), how it will be done (systematic and formally or informal impressions), and what data will be
used (empirical studies of results or hearsay and personal impressions).

Evaluation Is a Threat to My Job
Think about it. According to the 20

State of the Industry Report conducted by the American Society for Training &
Development, training budgets in the United States totaled over $171.5 billion.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_09) Why wouldn’t
human resource development (HRD) departments be evaluating their results? Fear of the result is one reason.
Football coach Woody Hayes, back in the 1950s, once said that he never liked to throw the forward pass because
three things could happen and two of them were bad. The same could be said for evaluation. If time and money are

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spent on training, and an evaluation determines that no learning occurred, or worse, job performance declined, this
doesn’t re�lect well on the training provided. Although most managers are not likely to admit this concern publicly, it
can be a real problem. When we use the term evaluation, we too often think of a single �inal outcome at a particular
point that represents success or failure—like a report card. This type of evaluation is called an outcome evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_001) . When the focus is
on this type of evaluation, managers naturally can be concerned about how documenting the failure of their
programs will affect their careers. Consider Training in Action 9-1. It provides an example of an evaluation designed
to provide feedback so that improvement (through training and practice) can take place. But when the focus shifted
from “helping improve” (process evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_002) ) to a
“measurement of success or failure” (outcome evaluation), the desire to participate in the process disappeared, and
the airline threatened to discontinue it.

9-1 Training in Action Evaluation: What It Is Used for Matters
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_11)

For 30 years, British Airways maintained a system in all its aircraft that monitors everything done by the
aircraft and its pilots. This information is examined continuously to determine any faulty aircraft mechanisms
and to constantly assess the skill level of the pilots. When a pilot is �lagged as having done “steep climbs” or
“hard” or “fast landings,” for example, the pilot is targeted for training to alleviate the skill de�iciency. The
training is used, therefore, as a developmental tool to continuously improve the performance of pilots. The
evaluation is not used as a summative measure of performance upon which disciplinary measures might be
taken. The result for British Airways, one of the largest airlines in the world, is one of the best safety records
in the world.

In the past, one of the major ways of determining problems in the airline industry in North America was
to wait until an accident occurred and then examine the black box to �ind the causes. The �indings might
indicate pilot error or some problem with the aircraft. This information was then sent to all the major
airlines for their information. This form of summative evaluation met with disastrous results. Recently, six
major American airlines began a program similar to the one at British Airways. After all, it makes sense to
track incidents and make changes (in aircraft design or pilot skill level) as soon as a problem is noticed. In
this way, major incidents are more likely to be avoided. In fact, airlines are using the evaluation information
gathered as a feedback mechanism to ensure the continuous improvement of performance and not as a
summative evaluation of “failure.”

This seemingly effective way of ensuring high performance threatened to come to an end in the United
States. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) wanted to access this information for possible use as a
way to evaluate pilots. The airlines feared that the information given to the FAA could be used to punish both
pilots and the airlines. Fortunately, these regulations were never put into place and both the airlines and the
FAA continue to use this cockpit information as a means of continuously improving safety and pilot
performance by improving the training of pilots.

The Counterargument
Can the airline in Training in Action 9-1 be blamed for wanting to opt out of the program? It is easy to understand
why someone would not want to participate in a program where the information could be used against them. While
outcome results are important in making business decisions, the day-to-day purpose of evaluation should be used

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as a feedback mechanism to guide efforts toward success.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_10) While trying to
convince a client that the company’s training should be evaluated, one trainer decided not to use the term
evaluation. Instead, he chose the term data tracking. He emphasized tracking attitudes and behaviors over time and
supplying feedback based on the �indings to the training designers and presenters. This feedback could then be
used to modify training and organizational systems and processes to facilitate the training’s success. The term data
tracking did not have the same connotation of �inality as evaluation. Hence, managers saw it as a tool for improving
the likelihood of a successful intervention rather than as a pass/fail grade.

Was the evaluation in the Palm Desert case outcome or process focused? It is dif�icult to say without actually
talking to those involved. If it was used for continuous improvement, assessment of the training process, as well as
how much the participants learned, it could be helpful in determining the reason that transfer did not take place. On
the basis of this information, the city could design additional interventions to achieve desired outcomes.

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9.4 So We Must Evaluate
On the surface, the arguments for ignoring evaluation of training make some sense, but they are easily countered
when more carefully analyzed. However, perhaps the biggest reason for abandoning the resistance to evaluation is
its bene�it, especially today, when more and more organizations are demanding accountability at all levels. Managers
increasingly are demanding from HRD what they demand from other departments: Provide evidence of the value of
your activities to the organization.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_12) Other factors that
in�luence the need to evaluate training are competitive pressures on organizations requiring a higher focus on
quality, continuous improvement, and organizational cost cutting.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_13)

Sometimes, the image of the training function, especially among line managers, is less than desirable because
they see this as a “soft” area, not subject to the same requirements for accountability as their areas. By using the
same accountability standards, it is possible to improve the image of training. Furthermore, the technology for
evaluating and placing dollar amounts on the value of training has improved in the last several years. However, let
us be clear. We do not advocate a comprehensive evaluation of every training program. The value of the information
gained must be worth the cost. Sometimes, the cost of different components of an evaluation is simply too high
relative to the information gained.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_14)

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9.5 Types of Evaluation Data Collected
Let’s go back to the evaluation phase �igure at the beginning of the chapter. Recall from Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) that one of the outputs from
the design phase is evaluation considerations. These considerations, or more speci�ically, what is determined
important to evaluate, are inputs to the evaluation phase. Organizational constraints and design issues are also
inputs to evaluation. Remember that evaluation processes and outcome measures should be developed soon after
the design phase output is obtained. The two types of outputs from the evaluation phase are process and outcome
evaluation. Process evaluation compares the developed training to what actually takes place in the training program.
Outcome evaluation determines how well training has accomplished its objectives.

Process Data
One of the authors has a cottage near a lake, and he often sees people trying unsuccessfully to start their outboard
motors. In going to their assistance, he never starts by suggesting that they pull the plugs to check for ignition or
disconnect the �loat to see whether gas is reaching the carburetor. Instead, he asks if the gas line is connected �irmly,
if the ball is pumped up, if the gear shift is in neutral (many will not start in gear), and if the throttle is at the correct
position, all of which are process issues. He evaluates the “process” of starting the engine to see whether it was
followed correctly. If he assumed that it was followed and tried to diagnose the “problem with the engine,” he might
never �ind it.

It is the same with training. If learning objectives were not achieved, it is pointless to tear the training design
apart in trying to �ix it. It might simply be a process issue—the training was not set up or presented the way it was
intended. By examining the entire training process, it is possible to see all the places where the training might have
gone wrong. In the examination of the process, we suggest segmenting the process into two areas: process before
training and process during training.

Process: Before Training
Several steps are required in analyzing the processes used to develop training. Table 9-1 identi�ies questions to ask
during the analysis of the training process. First, you can assess the effectiveness of the needs analysis from the
documentation or report that was prepared. This report should indicate the various sources from which the data
were gathered and the KSA de�iciencies.

Table 9-1 Potential Questions for Analysis of Processes Prior to Delivery
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Were needs diagnosed correctly?

What data sources were used?

Was a knowledge/skill de�iciency identi�ied?

Were trainees assessed to determine their prerequisite KSAs?

Were needs correctly translated into training objectives?

Were all objectives identi�ied?

Were the objectives written in a clear, appropriate manner?

Was an evaluation system designed to measure accomplishment of objectives?

Was the training program designed to meet all the training objectives?

Was previous learning that might either support or inhibit learning in training identi�ied?

Were individual differences assessed and taken into consideration in training design?

Was trainee motivation to learn assessed?

What steps were taken to address trainee motivation to learn?

Were processes built into the training to facilitate recall and transfer?

What steps are included in the training to call attention to key learning events?

What steps are included in the training to aid trainees in symbolic coding and cognitive organization?

What opportunities are included in the training to provide symbolic and behavioral practice?

What actions are included in the training to ensure transfer of learning to the job?

Are the training techniques to be used appropriate for each of the learning objectives?

Next, you can assess the training objectives. Are they in line with the training needs? Were objectives developed
at all levels: organizational, transfer, learning, and reaction? Are they written clearly and effectively to convey what
must be done to demonstrate achievement of the objectives? It is important that you examine the proposed
evaluation tools to be sure that they are relevant. On the basis of the needs assessment and resulting objectives, you
can identify several tools for assessing the various levels of effectiveness. We discuss the development of these tools
later in this chapter. Then evaluate the design of the training. For example, if trainees’ motivation to attend and learn
is low, what procedures are included in the design to deal with this issue?

Would a process evaluation prove useful in the Palm Desert case? Yes. In that situation, as it stands, we recognize
that training was not successful, but we do not know why. The process that leads to the design of training might
provide the answer. Another place we might �ind the answer is in the training implementation.

Process: During Training
If your outcome data show that you didn’t get the results you expected, then training implementation might be the
reason. Was the training presented as it was designed to be? If the answer is yes, then the design must be changed.
But, it is possible that the trainer or others in the organization made some ad hoc modi�ications. Such an analysis
might prove useful in the Palm Desert case.

Imagine, for example, that the Palm Desert training had required the use of behavior modeling to provide
practice in the skills that were taught. The evaluation of outcomes shows that learning of the new behaviors did not
occur. If no process data were gathered, the conclusion could be that the behavior modeling approach was not
effective. However, what if examination of the process revealed that trainees were threatened by the behavior
modeling technique, and the trainer allowed them to spend time discussing behavior modeling, which left less time
for doing the modeling? As a result, it is quite plausible that there are problems with both the design and the
implementation of the training. Without the process evaluation, this information would remain unknown, and the
inference might be that behavior modeling was not effective.

Examples of implementation issues to examine are depicted in Table 9-2. Here, it is up to the evaluator to
determine whether all the techniques that were designed into the program were actually implemented. It is not
good enough simply to determine that the amount of time allotted was spent on the topic or skill development. It
must also be determined whether trainees actually were involved in the learning activities as prescribed by the
design. As in the previous behavior modeling example, the time allotted might be used for something other than
behavior modeling.

Table 9-2 Potential Questions for a Process Analysis of Training Delivery

Were the trainer, training techniques, and learning objectives well matched?

Were lecture portions of the training effective?

Was involvement encouraged or solicited?

Were questions used effectively?

Did the trainer conduct the various training methodologies (case, role-play, etc.) appropriately?

Were they explained well?

Did the trainer use the allotted time for activities?

Was enough time allotted?

Did trainees follow instructions?

Was there effective debrie�ing following the exercises?

Did the trainer follow the training design and lesson plans?

Was enough time given for each of the requirements?

Was time allowed for questions?

Putting It All Together
Actual training is compared with the expected (as designed) training to provide an assessment of the effectiveness
of the training implementation. Much of the necessary information for the expected training can be obtained from
records and reports developed in the process of setting up the training program. A trainer’s manual would provide
an excellent source of information about what should be covered in the training. Someone could monitor the
training to determine what actually was covered. Another method is to ask trainees to complete evaluations of
process issues for each module. Videotape, instructors’ notes, and surveys or interviews with trainees can also be
used. Keep in mind that when you are gathering any data, the more methods you use to gather information, the
better the evaluation will be.

When to Use It
Table 9-3 depicts those interested in process data. Clearly, the training department is primarily concerned with this
information to assess how they are doing. The customers of training (de�ined as anyone with a vested interest in the
training department’s work) usually are more interested in outcome data than in process data.

Table 9-3 Who Is Interested in the Process Data
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Training Department

Trainer Yes, it helps determine what works well and what does not.

Other trainers Yes, to the extent the process is generalizable.

Training manager Only if training is not successful or if a problem is present with a
particular trainer.

Customers of the Training
Department

Trainees No

Trainees’ supervisor No

Upper management No

Providing some process data is important, even if it is only the trainer’s documentation and the trainees’
reactions. The trainer can use this information to assess what seems to work and what does not. Sometimes, more
detailed process data will be required, such as when training will be used many times, or when the training
outcomes have a signi�icant effect on the bottom line. If, however, it is only a half-day seminar on the new computer
software, collecting process information might not be worth the cost.

Once training and trainers are evaluated several times, the value of additional process evaluations decreases. If
you are conducting training that has been done numerous times before, such as training new hires to work on a
piece of equipment, and the trainer is one of your most experienced, then process analysis is probably not
necessary. If the trainer was fairly new or had not previously conducted this particular session, it might be
bene�icial to gather process data through a senior trainer’s direct observation.

To be most effective, we believe that evaluations should be process oriented and focused on providing
information to improve training, not just designed to determine whether training is successful. Some disagree with
this approach and suggest that process evaluation ends when the training program is launched.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_17) We suggest,
however, that the evaluation should always include process evaluation for the following reasons:

It removes the connotation of pass/fail, making evaluation more likely.

It puts the focus on improvement, a desirable goal even when training is deemed successful.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_

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Outcome Data

To determine how well the training met or is meeting its goals, it is necessary to examine various outcome
measures. The four outcome measures that are probably the best known are reaction, learning, behavior, and
organizational results.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_19) These outcomes are
ordered as follows:

Reaction outcomes come �irst and will in�luence how much can be learned.

Learning outcomes in�luence how much behavior can change back on the job.

Behavior outcomes are the changes of behavior on the job that will in�luence organizational results.

Organizational results are the changes in organizational outcomes related to the reason for training in the
�irst place, such as high grievance rate, low productivity, and so forth.

This description is a simpli�ied version of what actually happens, and critics argue that little empirical evidence
indicates that the relationships between these outcomes exist.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_20) We will discuss this
in more detail later.

Reaction outcomes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_003) are measures of
the trainee’s perceptions, emotions, and subjective evaluations of the training experience. They represent the �irst
level of evaluation and are important because favorable reactions create motivation to learn. Learning may also
occur even if the training is boring or alternatively, it may not occur even if it is interesting.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_21) However, if training
is boring, it will be dif�icult to attend to what is being taught. As a result, the trainees might not learn as much as
they would if they found the training interesting and exciting. High reaction scores from trainees, therefore, indicate
that attention was most likely obtained and maintained, which, as you recall from social learning theory, is the �irst
part of learning—getting their attention.

Learning outcomes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_004) are measured by
how well the learning objectives and purpose were achieved. The learning objectives for the training that were
developed in the design phase specify the types of outcomes that will signify that training has been successful. Note
the critical relationship between the needs analysis and evaluation. If the training process progressed according to
the model presented in this book , the way to measure learning was determined during the training needs analysis
(TNA). At that time, the employee’s KSAs were measured to determine whether they were adequate for job
performance. The evaluation of learning should measure the same things in the same way as in the TNA. Thus, the
needs analysis is actually the “pretest.” A similar measure at the end of training will show the “gain” in learning.

Job behavior outcomes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_005) are measures of
the degree to which the learned behavior has transferred to the job. During the TNA, performance gaps were
identi�ied and traced to areas in which employees were behaving in a manner that was creating the gap. The
methods used for measuring job behavior in the TNA should be used in measuring job behavior after the
completion of training. Once again, the link between needs analysis and evaluation is evident. The degree to which
job behavior improves places a cap on how much the training will improve organizational results.

Organizational results
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_006) occupy the highest
level in the hierarchy. They re�lect the organizational performance gap identi�ied in the TNA. This OPG is often what
triggers reactive (as opposed to proactive) training. Here are some examples:

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High levels of scrap are being produced.

Employees are quitting in record numbers.

Sales �igures dropped over the last two quarters.

Grievances are on the increase.

The number of rejects from quality control is rising.

Once again, if one of these OPGs triggered the training, it can be used as the baseline for assessing improvement
after training. This process of integrating the TNA and evaluation streamlines both processes, thereby making the
integration more cost-effective.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_22)

Putting it All Together
If each level of the outcome hierarchy is evaluated, it is possible to have a better understanding of the full effects of
training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_23) Let’s
examine one of the items in the preceding list—a high grievance rate—as it relates to the training process and the
four levels of evaluation.

The needs analysis determines that the high grievance rate is a function of supervisors not managing con�lict
well. Their knowledge is adequate, but their skills are de�icient. From the needs analysis, data are obtained from a
behavioral test that measures con�lict management skills for comparison with skill levels after training has been
completed. Training is provided, and then participants �ill out a reaction questionnaire. This tool measures the
degree to which trainees feel positive about the time and effort that they have invested in the program and each of
its components. Assume that the responses are favorable. Even though the trainees feel good about the training and
believe that they learned valuable things, the trainer recognizes that the intended learning might not have occurred.
The same behavioral test of con�lict management skills is administered, and the results are compared with
pretraining data. The results show that the trainees acquired the con�lict management skills and can use them
appropriately, so the learning objectives were achieved. Now the concern is if these skills transferred to the job. We
compare the behavior of the supervisors before training and after training regarding use of con�lict management
skills and discover they are using the skills so transfer to the job was successful. The next step is to examine the
grievance rate. If it has declined, it is possible, with some level of con�idence, to suggest that training is the cause of
the decline. If it is determined that learning did not take place after training, it would not make sense to examine
behavior or results, because learning is a prerequisite.

Let’s examine each of these four levels of evaluation more closely.

Reaction Questionnaire
The data collected at this level are used to determine what the trainees thought about the training. Reaction
questionnaires are often criticized, not because of their lack of value, but because they are often the only type of
evaluation undertaken.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_24)

Affective and utility are two types of reaction questionnaire.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_25) An affective
questionnaire (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_007)
measures general feeling about training (“I found this training enjoyable”), whereas the utility questionnaire
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_008) re�lects beliefs
about the value of training (“This training was of practical value”). While both type are useful, we believe that
speci�ic utility statements on reaction questionnaires are more valuable for making changes.

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Training reaction questionnaires do not assess learning but rather the trainees’ attitudes about and perceptions
of the training. Categories to consider when developing a reaction questionnaire should include training relevance,
training content, materials, exercises, trainer(s) behavior, and facilities.

Training Relevance
Asking trainees about the relevance (utility) of the training they experienced provides the organization with a
measure of the perceived value of the training. If most participants do not see any value in it, they will experience
dif�iculty remaining interested (much less consider applying it back on the job). Furthermore, this perceived lack of
value can contaminate the program’s image. Those who do not see its value will talk to others who have not yet
attended training and will perhaps suggest that it is a waste of time. The self-ful�illing prophecy proposes that if you
come to training believing that it will be a waste of time, it will be. Even if the training is of great importance to the
organization, participants who do not believe that it is important are not likely to work to achieve its objectives.

Once trainees’ attitudes are known, you can take steps to change the beliefs, either through a socialization
process or through a change in the training itself. Think about the Palm Desert case. What do you think the trainees’
reactions to the training were? Might this source of information help explain why no change in behavior occurred?

Training Materials and Exercises
Any written materials, videos, exercises, and other instructional tools should be assessed along with an overall
evaluation of the training experience. On the basis of responses from participants, you can change these to make
them more relevant to participants. Making suggested modi�ications follows the organizational development
principle of involving trainees in the process.

Reactions to the Trainer
Reaction questionnaires also help determine how the trainees evaluated the trainer’s actions. Be sure to develop
statements that speci�ically address what the trainer did. General statements tend to re�lect trainees’ feelings about
how friendly or entertaining the trainer was (halo error) rather than how well the training was carried out. Simply
presenting an affective statement such as “The trainer was entertaining” would likely elicit a halo response. For this
reason, it is useful to identify speci�ic aspects of trainer behavior that need to be rated. If more than one trainer is
involved, then trainee reactions need to be gathered for each trainer. Asking trainees to rate the trainers as a group
will mask differences among trainers in terms of their effectiveness.

Asking about a number of factors important to effective instruction causes the trainees to consider how effective
the instructor was in these areas. When the �inal question, “Overall, how effective was the instructor?” is asked, the
trainees can draw upon their responses to a number of factors related to effective instruction. This consideration
will result in a more accurate response as to the overall effectiveness of the instructor. There will be less halo error.
Note that the questionnaire in Table 9-4 asks the trainee to consider several aspects of the trainer’s teaching
behavior before asking a more general question regarding effectiveness.

Table 9-4 Reaction Questions About the Trainer

Please circle the number to the right of the following statements that re�lects your
degree of agreement or disagreement.

1 = Strongly disagree

2 = Disagree

3 = Neither agree nor disagree

4 = Agree

5 = Strongly agree

1. The trainer did a good job of stating the objectives at the beginning of training.

1 2
3 4 5

2. The trainer made good use of visual aids (easel, white board) when making the presentations. 1 2
3 4 5

3. The trainer was good at keeping everyone interested in the topics. 1 2
3 4 5

4. The trainer encouraged questions and participation from trainees. 1 2
3 4 5

5. The trainer made sure that everyone understood the concepts before moving on to the next
topic.

1 2
3 4 5

6. The trainer summarized important concepts before moving to the next module. 1 2
3 4 5

7. Overall, how would you rate this trainer? (Check one)

_____ 1. Poor—I would not recommend this trainer to others.

_____ 2. Adequate—I would recommend this trainer only if no others were available.

_____ 3. Average

_____ 4. Good—I would recommend this trainer above most others.

_____ 5. Excellent—This trainer is among the best I’ve ever worked with.

Facilities and Procedures
The reaction questionnaire can also contain items related to the facilities and procedures to determine whether any
element impeded the training process. Noise, temperature, seating arrangements, and even the freshness of the
doughnuts are potential areas that can cause discontent. One way to approach these issues is to use open-ended
questions, such as the following:

Please describe any aspects of the facility that enhanced the training or created problems for you during
training (identify the problem and the aspect of the facility).

Please indicate how you felt about the following:

Refreshments provided

Ability to hear the trainer and other trainees clearly

Number and length of breaks

Facility questions are most appropriate if the results can be used to con�igure training facilities in the future. The
more things are working in the trainer’s favor, the more effective training is likely to be.

The data from a reaction questionnaire provide important information that can be used to make the training
more relevant, the trainers more sensitive to their strengths and shortcomings, and the facilities more conducive to
a positive training atmosphere. The feedback the questionnaire provides is more immediate than with the other
levels of evaluation; therefore, modi�ications to training can be made much sooner.

Timing of Reaction Assessment
The timing and type of questions asked on a reaction questionnaire should be based on the information needed for
evaluating and improving the training, the trainer(s), the processes, or the facility. Most reaction questionnaires are
given to participants at the conclusion of training, while the training is still fresh and the audience is captive.
However, a problem with giving them at this time is that the participant might be anxious to leave and might give
incomplete or less-than-valid data. Also, trainees might not know whether the training is useful on the job until they
go back to the job and try it.

An alternative is to send out a reaction questionnaire at some point after training. This delay gives the trainee
time to see how training works in the actual job setting. However, the trainee might forget the speci�ics of the
training. Also, there is no longer a captive audience, so response rate may be poor.

Another approach is to provide reaction questionnaires after segments of a training program or after each day
in a multiday training session. In such situations, it might be possible to modify training that is in progress on the
basis of trainees’ responses. Of course, this system is more costly and requires a quicker turnaround time for
analysis and feedback of the data.

Regardless of how often reaction evaluation takes place, the trainer should specify at the beginning that trainees
will be asked to evaluate the training and state when this evaluation will occur. It not only helps clarify trainee
expectations about what will happen during training but also acknowledges the organization’s concern for how the
trainees feel about the training. It is also important that the data gathered be used. Trainees and employees in the
rest of the organization will quickly �ind out if the trainer is simply gathering data only to give the impression of
concern about their reactions. Table 9-5 provides a list of steps to consider when developing a reaction
questionnaire.

Table 9-5 Steps to Consider in Developing a Reaction Questionnaire

1. Determine what needs to be measured.

2. Develop a written set of questions to obtain the information.

3. Develop a scale to quantify respondents’ data.

4. Make forms anonymous so that participants feel free to respond honestly.

5. Ask for information that might be useful in determining differences in reactions by subgroups taking the
training (e.g., young vs. old; minority vs. nonminority). This could be valuable in determining
effectiveness of training by different cultures, for example, which might be lost in an overall assessment.
Note: Care must be taken when asking for this information. If you ask too many questions about race,
gender, age, tenure, and so on, participants will begin to feel that they can be identi�ied without their
name on the questionnaire.

6. Allow space for additional comments to allow participants the opportunity to mention things you did
not consider.

7. Decide the best time to give the questionnaire to get the information you want.

A. If right after training, ask someone other than the instructor to administer and pick up the
information.

B. If some time later, develop a mechanism for obtaining a high response rate (e.g., encourage the
supervisor to allow trainees to complete the questionnaire on company time).

Caution in Using Reaction Measures
A caution is in order regarding reaction questionnaires sent out to trainees sometime after training asking them
about the amount of transfer of training that has occurred on the job. Trainees tend to indicate that transfer has
occurred when other measures suggest it did not.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_

) Therefore, reaction
measures should not be the only evaluation method used to determine transfer of training.

Reaction questionnaires are not meant to measure learning or transfer to the job. They do, however, provide the
trainees with the opportunity to indicate how they felt about the learning. How interesting and relevant the training
is found to be will affect their level of attention and motivation. What the trainees perceive the trainer to be doing
well and not so well is also useful feedback for the trainer. The reaction information can be used to make informed
decisions about modi�ications to the training program.

Learning
Learning objectives are developed from the TNA. As we noted, training can focus on three types of learning
outcomes: knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs). The difference between the individual’s KSAs and the KSAs
required for acceptable job performance de�ines the learning that must occur. The person analysis serves as the
pretraining measure of the person’s KSAs. These results can be compared with a posttraining measure to determine
whether learning has occurred and whether those changes can be attributed to training. The various ways of
making such attributions will be discussed later in the chapter. Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) discussed the various ways in
which KSAs can be measured. The work done in the Needs Analysis phase to identify what should be measured and
how it will be measured determines what measures you will use in your evaluation. This just makes sense because
your learning objectives should be based on the training needs you identi�ied in the Needs Analysis phase. Unless
you were extremely insightful or lucky, you probably measured a number of things that didn’t end up being training
needs as well as things that did. It is only the KSAs that ended up being training needs that get evaluated at the end

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of training. For example, let’s say your needs analysis used a knowledge test that assessed the employees’ problem-
solving knowledge. Your test had 50 items measuring various aspects of problem solving. The person analysis
showed that 30 of these items were training needs. In the Design phase these 30 items would be the focus of the
learning objectives you developed. A training program would then be created to address the learning objectives and
de facto those 30 items. Your evaluation instrument should then assess if knowledge of those 30 items has been
learned by the trainees.

Timing of Assessment of Learning
Depending on the duration of training, it might be desirable to assess learning periodically to determine how
trainees are progressing. Periodic assessment would allow training to be modi�ied if learning is not progressing as
expected.

Assessment should also take place at the conclusion of training. If learning is not evaluated until sometime later, it
is impossible to know how much was learned and then forgotten.

In the Palm Desert case, the measures that they took six months after training created a dilemma. Was the
behavior ever learned, learned but forgotten, or learned but not transferred to the job?

Transfer to the Job (Job Behavior)
Once it is determined that learning took place, the next step is to determine whether the training transferred to the
job. Assessment at this step is certainly more complex and is often ignored because of the dif�iculties of
measurement. However, if you did your needs analysis correctly, you have already determined what behavior to
measure and how to measure it.

Several methods may have been used to assess job behavior prior to training. These methods were covered in
depth in the discussion of TNA in Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . So, the method used when
conducting the needs assessment should be used to evaluate whether or not the learned behavior transferred to
the job.

Scripted Situations
Some recent research indicates that scripted situations might provide a better format for evaluating transfer of
training than the more traditional behavioral questionnaires.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_27) Scripted situations
help the rater recall actual situations and the behaviors related to them rather than attempting to recall speci�ic
behaviors without the context provided. The rater is provided with several responses that might be elicited from the
script and is asked to choose the one that describes the ratee’s behavior. Research suggests that this method is
useful in decreasing rating errors and improving validity.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_

) An example of this
method is depicted in Table 9-6.

Table 9-6 Scripted Situation Item for Evaluation of a School Superintendent

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After receiving training and being back on the job for four months a school superintendent is being
rated by members of the staff. The following is an example of one of the scripted scenarios used for
rating. The following is a scenario regarding a school superintendent. To rate your superintendent,
read the scenario and place an X next to the behavior you believe your superintendent would follow.

The administrator receives a letter from a parent objecting to the content of the science section on
reproduction. The parent strongly objects to his daughter being exposed to such materials and
demands that something be done. The administrator would be most likely to: (check one)

____ Ask the teacher to provide handouts, materials, and curriculum content for review.

____ Check the science curriculum for the board-approved approach to reproduction, and compare
school board guidelines with course content.

____ Ask the head of the science department for an opinion about the teacher’s lesson plan.

____ Check to see whether the parent has made similar complaints in the past.

Finally, the trainer who includes sit-ins as a later part of training can observe on-the-job performance of the
trainee. As was discussed in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) , these sit-ins facilitate
transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_29) and also
help the trainer determine the effectiveness of the training in facilitating the transfer of training to the job.

Transfer of Attitudes
If attitudinal change is a goal of training, then it becomes necessary to assess the success of transfer and duration of
the attitudinal change once the trainee is back on the job. Whatever method was used to determine the need for a
change in attitude should be used to measure how much they have changed. As discussed in the needs analysis
chapter, one way to assess changes in attitudes is by observing changes in behaviors. Attitudinal change can also be
assessed through attitude surveys. Remember if respondents’ anonymity is ensured in such surveys, responses are
more likely to re�lect true attitudes.

A study of steward training provides an example of the assessment of an attitude back on the job.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_30) Training was
designed to make union stewards more accessible to the rank and �ile by teaching them listening skills and how to
interact more with the rank and �ile. Results indicated that when factors such as tenure as a union of�icial and age
were controlled, stewards who received the training behaved in a more participative manner (changed behavior)
and were more loyal to the union (attitude survey). For the union, loyalty is important because it translates into
important behaviors that might not be measured directly, such as supporting the union’s political candidates and
attending union functions.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_

)

Timing of Job Behavior Assessment
The wait time for assessing transfer of training depends on the training objectives. If the objective is to learn how to
complete certain forms, simply auditing the work on the job before and after training would determine whether
transfer took place. This could be done soon after training was complete. When learning objectives are more
complex, such as learning how to solve problems or resolve con�lict, wait time before assessment should be longer.

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The trainee will �irst need to become comfortable enough with the new behavior to exhibit it on a regular basis;
then it will take more time for others to notice that the behavior has changed.

To understand this point, consider a more concrete change. Jack loses 10 pounds. First, the weight loss is gradual
and often goes unnoticed. Even after Jack lost the weight, for some time people will say, “Gee, haven’t you lost
weight?” or “What is it that’s different about you?” If this uncertainty about speci�ic changes happens with a
concrete visual stimulus, imagine what happens when the stimuli are less concrete and not consistent. Some types
of behavioral change might take a long time to be noticed.

To help get employees to notice the change in behavior, you can ask them to assess whether certain behaviors
have changed. In our example, if asked, “Did Jack lose weight?” and he had lost 10 pounds, you would more than
likely notice it then, even if you did not notice it before.

Organizational Results
Training objectives, whether proactive or reactive, are developed to solve an organizational problem—perhaps an
expected increase in demand for new customer services in the proactive case, or too many grievances in the
reactive case. The fact that a problem was identi�ied (too many grievances) indicates a measurement of the
“organizational result.” This measurement would be used to determine any change after the training was completed.
If it was initially determined that too many defective parts were being produced, the measurement of the “number
of defective parts per 100 produced” would be used again after training to assess whether training was successful.
This assessment is your organizational result.

It is important to assess this �inal level, because it is the reason for doing the training in the �irst place. In one
sense, it is easier to measure than is job behavior. Did the grievances decrease? Did quality improve? Did customer
satisfaction increase? Did attitudes in the annual survey get more positive? Did subordinates’ satisfaction with
supervision improve? Such questions are relatively easily answered. The dif�icult question is, “Are the changes a
result of training?” Perhaps the grievance rate dropped because of recent successful negotiations and the signing of
a contract the union liked. Or if attitudes toward supervision improved but everyone recently received a large
bonus, the improvement might be a spill-off from the bonus and not the training. These examples explain why it is
so important to gather information on all levels of the evaluation.

The links among organizational results, job behavior, and trainee KSAs should be clearly articulated in the TNA.
This creates a model that speci�ies that if certain KSAs are developed and the employees use them on the job, then
certain organizational results will occur. The occurrence of these things validates the model and provides some
con�idence that training caused these results. Thus, the dif�icult task of specifying how training should affect the
results of the organization is already delineated before evaluation begins. TNAs are not always as thorough as they
should be; therefore, it often falls to the evaluator to clarify the relationship among training, learning, job behavior,
and organizational outcomes. For this reason, it is probably best to focus on organizational results as close to the
trainee’s work unit as possible. Results such as increased work unit productivity, quality, and decreased costs are
more appropriate than increased organizational pro�itability, market share, and the like. Quantifying organizational
results is not as onerous as it might seem at �irst glance.

Timing of Assessment of Organizational Results
Consistent tracking of the organizational performance gaps such as high scrap, number of grievances, or poor
quality should take place at intervals throughout the training and beyond. At some point after the behavior is
transferred to the job, it is reasonable to expect improvement. Tracking performance indices over time allows you
to assess whether the training resulted in the desired changes to organizational results. You will need to also track
any other organizational changes that might be affecting those results. For example, a downturn in the economy
might result in the necessity for temporary layoffs. This could trigger an increase in grievances, even though the
grievance training for supervisors was very effective. This is one of the dif�iculties of linking training to
organizational results. There are a multitude of factors, other than employees’ KSAs, that determine those results.

Relationship Among Levels of Outcomes
As suggested earlier, researchers have disagreed about the relationship among these four levels of evaluation. For
example, some studies show reaction and learning outcomes to be strongly related to each other.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_32) Others indicate little
correlation between results of reaction questionnaires and measures of learning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_33) As noted earlier, a
good response to the reaction questionnaire might mean only that the trainer had obtained the trainees’ attention.
This factor is only one of many in the learning process. The �indings also indicate that the more distant the outcome
is from the actual training, the smaller the relationship is between higher- and lower-level outcomes. Figure 9-1
illustrates the hierarchical nature of the outcomes and the factors that can in�luence these outcomes.

Figure 9-1 Training Outcomes and Factors In�luencing
Them

The research showing no relationship between the levels makes sense if we remember that organizational
outcomes generally are the result of multiple causes.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_34) For example,
productivity is affected not only by the employees’ KSAs but also by the technology they work with, supplier
reliability, interdependencies among work groups, and many other factors. Although improvements can occur in
one area, declines can occur in another. When learning takes place but does not transfer to the job, the issues to be
concerned with do not involve learning, but they do involve transfer. What structural constraints are being placed
on trainees, so they do not behave properly? Beverly Geber, special projects editor for Training magazine, describes
a situation in which training in communication skills at Hutchinson Technologies, a computer component
manufacturer, was not transferring to the job for some of the employees.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_35) An examination of
the issue (through worker focus groups) disclosed that some employees were required to work in cramped space
with poor lighting. These conditions made them irritable and unhappy. Did this situation affect their ability to
communicate with their customers in a pleasant and upbeat manner? “You bet,” said their human resource (HR)
representative.

Despite all the reasons that a researcher might not �ind a relationship among the four levels of evaluation,
research has begun to show the existence of these linkages.
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) More research
needs to be done, but there is evidence to show that reactions affect learning outcomes, and learning outcomes

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affect transfer to the job. Few studies have attempted to link transfer outcomes to organizational outcomes due to
the signi�icant problems of factoring out other variables related to those outcomes.

Evaluating the Costs and Bene�its of Training
Let’s say you are able to show that your training caused a decrease in the number of grievances. You have data to
show that participants are engaging in the new behaviors, and they have the desired knowledge and skills. Your
examination of all four levels of evaluation provides evidence of cause and effect, and your use of appropriate
designs (see

Appendix 9-1

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09div23) ) enhances the level of
con�idence in all of these outcomes. You might think that your job was done, but many executives still might ask, “So
what?” Looking at the outcomes of training is only half the battle in evaluating its effectiveness. The other half is
determining whether the results were worth the cost.

Cost/Bene�it and Cost-Effectiveness Evaluations
Was the training cost worth the results? This question can be answered in either of the following two ways:
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)

Cost/bene�it evaluation

Cost-effectiveness evaluation

Cost/Bene�it Evaluation
A cost/bene�it evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_009) of training
compares the monetary cost of training with the nonmonetary bene�its. It is dif�icult to place a value on these
bene�its, which include attitudes and working relationships. The labor peace brought about by the reduction in
grievances is dif�icult to assess, but it rates high in value compared with the cost of training. The con�lict resolution
skills learned by supervisors provide the nonmonetary bene�it of better relationships between supervisors and
union of�icials, and this is important. However, it is also possible to assess the reduction in grievances (for example)
in a way that directly answers the cost-effectiveness question.

Cost-Effectiveness Evaluation
A cost-effectiveness evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_010) compares the
monetary costs of training with the �inancial bene�its accrued from training. There are two approaches for
assessing cost-effectiveness:

1. Cost savings, a calculation of the actual cost savings, based on the change in “results”

2. Utility analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_011) , an
examination of value of overall improvement in the performance of the trained employees. This method is
complex and seldom used, and therefore is presented in Appendix 9-2
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09app02) for those
interested.

Cost Savings Analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_012) (Results Focus)

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The common types of costs associated with training programs were presented in Chapter 5, Table 5-4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05table04) . These costs are
compared with the savings that can be attributed to training. Let’s look again at Table 5-4 on page 151.

Recall that the cost of training was $32,

0. Now, determine how much is saved when training is completed. To
perform this cost savings analysis, we must �irst determine the cost of the current situation (see Table 9-7). The
company averaged 90 grievances per year. Seventy percent (63) of these go to the third step before settlement. The
average time required by management (including HR managers, operational supervisors, etc.) to deal with a
grievance that goes to the third step is 10 hours. The management wages ($50 per hour on average) add $500 to
the cost of each grievance ($50 3 10). In addition, union representatives spend an average of 7.5 hours at $25 per
hour, for a cost of $187.50 per grievance. The reason for this is that the union representative wages are considered
paid time, as stipulated in the collective bargaining agreement. The total cost of wages to the company per grievance
is $687.50. The total cost for those 63 grievances that go to the third step is $43,312.50. The cost of training is
$32,430.00.

Table 9-7 Cost Savings for Grievance Reduction Training

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Costs of Grievances Pretraining Posttraining

Management Time (for those going to
third step) 10 h per grievance

10 h × 63 grievances = 630 h 10 h × 8 grievances = 80 h

Union Rep’s Time (paid by management) 7.5
h per grievance

7.65 h × 63 grievances = 472 h 7.65 h × 8 grievances = 60 h

Total Cost

Management Time 630 h × $50 per h = $31,500 80 h × $50 per h = $4,500

Union Rep’s Time

Total

Cost Savings

Reduction in cost of grievances going to the
third step

$43,312.50 – $5,500.00 = $37
812.50

Cost of training

Cost saving for the 1st year

Return on Investment

Calculating the ratio $5,382.50/$32,430 = 0.166

Percent ROI 0.166 × 100 = 16.6%

The Return on Investment (ROI) is the investment minus the cost.

For this example, then, the data show a $37,812.50 return on a $32,430 investment; ROI is therefore a $5,382.50
savings in the �irst year.

Many organizations are interested in the ratio of the return to the investment. For example investors in the stock
market might set a 10 percent ROI as a goal. That would mean that the investment returned the principle plus 10
percent. The ROI ratio is calculated by dividing the “return” by the “investment.” For training this would translate to
dividing the cost savings (return) by the training cost (investment).

To translate that ratio to a percentage you would multiply the ratio by 100.

In the grievances case, dividing the cost saving (total savings of 37,812.50 2 cost of training which was 32.430.00
5 cost savings of 5,382.50) by the investment (cost of training which was 32,430.00) produces an ROI ratio of
0.166. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_38) If the ratio
were 0, the training would break even. If the ratio were a negative number, the costs would be more than the
returns to the company.

Multiplying the ratio by 100 provides the percent ROI. In this case, there is a 16.6 percent ROI for the �irst year.
Most companies would be delighted if all their investments achieved this level of return. In addition, the
nonmonetary bene�its described earlier are also realized. Presenting this type of data to the corporate decision
makers at budget preparation time is certainly more compelling than stating, “Thirty supervisors were given a �ive-
day grievance reduction workshop.”

Many training departments are beginning to see the importance of placing a monetary value on their training for
several reasons: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_39)

HRD budgets are more easily justi�ied and even expanded when HR can demonstrate that it is contributing
to the pro�it.

HRD specialists are more successful in containing costs.

The image of the training department is improved by showing dollar value for training.

Recall Dave Palm from LensCrafters. Top management told him to demonstrate what they were getting in the way
of “bang for the buck.” Well, he did, and the result was that his training budget was doubled.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_40) Training in Action
9-2 is a similar example. Here, Alberta Bell demonstrated the value of the training that prompted management not
only to restore funding for the original training, but also to consider increasing it.

9-2 Training in Action Reduction in Training Time: The Value of
Demonstrating Value
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)

This case occurred some time ago, but still has a valuable lesson. Alberta Bell of Edmonton, Alberta,
was looking for ways to reduce the cost of its operations. Downsizing and cost cutting were
necessary to meet the competition. One cost cutting decision was to reduce the entry-level training
program for its customer service representatives from two weeks to one week. This would save
money by reducing the cost of training and getting service representatives out “earning their keep”
sooner.

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The manager of training decided to assess the value of this decision. Using data already available,
he determined that the average time necessary to complete a service call for those who attended
the two-week program was 11.4 minutes. Those in the one-week program took 14.5 minutes. This
difference alone represented $50,000 in lost productivity for the �irst six weeks of work. He further
analyzed the differences in increased errors, increased collectables, and service order errors. This
difference was calculated at more than $50,000. The total loss exceeded $100,000.

Obviously, when he presented this information to upper management, the two-week training
program was quickly put back in place.

Because of the time and effort required to calculate the value of training, many small business managers simply
do not do it. However, assessing the value of training is not an exact science, and it can be done more easily by
means of estimates. Table 9-8 provides a simpli�ied approach for small business.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_

) As can be seen in
the table cost-savings translates to revenue for the company. When estimates are necessary in completing this form,
it is useful to obtain them from those who will receive the report (usually top management). If you use their
estimates, it is more likely that your �inal report will be credible. Of course, larger organizations can also use this
method.

Table 9-8 Training Investment Analysis Work Sheet

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Objective: ________________________

Audience: ________________________

Returns measured over: ________________ One year _______________

Other: ________________________

Part 1: Calculating the

Revenue Produced by Training

Option A—Itemized Analysis

Increased sales: _____ Additional sales per employee

× _____ Revenues (or margin) per sale

× _____ Number of employees

= _____ Revenue Produced by Training

Higher productivity: _____ Percent increase in productivity

× _____ Cost per employee (salary plus bene�its plus
overhead)

× _____ Number of employees
= _____ Revenue Produced by Training

Reduced errors: _____ Average cost per error

× _____ Number of errors avoided per employee

× _____ Number of employees
= _____ Revenue Produced by Training

Include as many areas of �inancial gain as you are able to determine (for example, employee retention,
reduction in grievances, and so on.

Total Revenue Produced by Training (add all “Revenue Produced by Training” cells):

$ _______

Option B—Summary
Analysis

____________ – ____________ = ____________

Revenue After Training Revenue Without
Training

Revenue Produced by Training

Part 2: Calculating the Return

____________ × ____________ = ____________

Revenue Produced by
Training

Cost of Training Total Return on Training Investment

When and What Type of Evaluation to Use
So, do we compute a comprehensive evaluation at all four levels in addition to a cost/bene�it analysis for all training
programs? No. To determine what evaluation should take place, ask the question, “Who is interested in these data?”
The different levels of outcome evaluation are designed for different constituencies or customers. Note that in Table
9-9 the trainer is interested in the �irst three levels, because they re�lect most directly on the training. Other trainers
might also be interested in these data if the results show some relation to their training programs. Training
managers are interested in all the information. Both reaction and learning data, when positive, can be used to
evaluate the trainer and also promote the program to others. When the data are not positive, the training manager
should be aware of this fact because it gives the trainer information to use to intervene and turn the program
around. The training manager’s interest in the transfer of training is to evaluate the trainer’s ability to promote the
transfer. Care must be taken in using this information because many other factors may be present and operating to
prevent transfer. Also, if transfer is favorable, the information is valuable in promoting the training program. These
generalizations are also true for the organizational results. If the training manager is able to demonstrate positive
results affecting the �inancial health of the company, the training department will be seen as a worthy part of the
organization.

Table 9-9 Who Is Interested in the Outcome Data
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Outcome Data

Reaction Learning Behavior Results

Training Department

Trainer Yes Yes Y N

Other trainers Perhaps Perhaps Perhaps N

Training manager Yes Yes Y

Customers

Trainees Yes Yes Y Perhaps

Trainees’ supervisor Not really Only if no transfer Y Y

Upper management No No Perhaps Y

Trainees are interested in knowing whether others felt the same as they did during training. They are also
interested in feedback on what they accomplished (learning) and may be interested in how useful it is to all trainees
back on the job (behavior). A trainee’s supervisor is interested in behavior and results. These are the supervisor’s
main reasons for sending subordinates to training in the �irst place. Upper management is interested in
organizational results, although in cases where the results may not be measurable, behavior may be the focus.

Does the interest in different levels of evaluation among different customers mean that you need to gather
information at all levels every time? Not at all. First, a considerable amount of work is required to evaluate every
program offered. As with process data, it makes sense to gather the outcome data in some situations and not in
others.

Again, the obvious question to ask in this regard is “What customer (if any) is interested in the information?”
Although one of the major arguments for gathering the outcome data is to demonstrate the worth of the training
department, some organizations go beyond that idea. In an examination of “companies with the best training
evaluation practices,” it was noted that none of them were evaluating training primarily to justify it or maintain a
training budget. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_44)
They evaluated (particularly at the behavior and results levels) when requested to do so by the customer (top
management or the particular department). Jack Phillips, founder of ROI Institute, a consulting �irm that specializes
in evaluation, suggests that organizations only evaluate 5 to 10 percent of their training at the ROI level.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_45) Which ones? The
ones that are high pro�ile and/or are speci�ically requested by upper management. This selectivity is a function of
the cost in developing such evaluations, because these type of evaluations
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)

need to be customized for each situation,

are costly and time consuming, and

require cooperation from the customer.

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Motorola, for example, evaluates only at the behavioral level and not at the results level. Executives at Motorola
are willing to assume that if the employee is exhibiting the appropriate behavior, the effect on the bottom line will
be positive. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_47)
Training in Action 9-3 shows how various companies are dealing with evaluation, particularly behavior and results.

9-3 Training in Action What Companies Are Doing for Evaluation
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After years of not evaluating their training, the U.S. Coast Guard decided to evaluate at the behavioral level,
asking trainees and their supervisors three things: How well the trainees were able to perform the desired
behaviors, how often they did those behaviors, and how important those behaviors were to being an
effective employee. With the information provided in the evaluations, trainers were able to remove outdated
training objectives and add job aids for some less frequent behaviors. Furthermore, the remaining training
was re�ined, became more relevant, and provided more ef�iciency. This translated into a $3 million a year
savings for the training department of the Coast Guard.

Texas Instruments noted that once trainees left training, it was dif�icult to obtain transfer of training
information from them. It was generally ignored because of the time and expense of gathering this
information. Then, an automated e-mail system was developed through which trainees, after being back on
the job for 90 days, were contacted and asked to complete a survey related to transfer. This system increased
the use of evaluations, reduced the time necessary to gather information, and provided a standardized
process. Texas Instruments noted an improvement in the quantity and quality of participant feedback. It
would seem easy enough to include an e-mail to the trainees’ supervisors for the same purpose.

Century 21 decided to evaluate their sales training at the results level. After training, trainees were tracked
through a sales performance system that identi�ied the number of sales, listings, and commissions for each
graduate. This was cross-referenced to the place they worked and their instructor. Findings were surprising.
Trainees from certain of�ices outperformed trainees from other of�ices even though they had the same
instructor. Examination of these results showed that the high-performing of�ices provided help when needed,
had access to ongoing training, and had better support. To respond to this, Century 21 had its trainers still
deliver the training but, in addition, was responsible for monitoring the environment in of�ices

where

trainees were sent. This monitoring was to see that every trainee was in an environment similar to that of the
“high-performing trainees” identi�ied earlier.

Booz Allen Hamilton, a consulting �irm, recently decided to assess the ROI of its executive coaching
program, which had been up and running for three years. The result? It was determined that the program’s
ROI was about $3 million per year.

Certainly, all levels of data gathering are important at different times, and the training professional must be able
to conduct an evaluation at every level. So, what and when should the trainer evaluate? The answer is that it
depends on the organization and the attitudes and beliefs of upper management. If they perceive the training
department as an effective tool of the organization and require only behavior-level evaluation, that is the evaluation
to do.

However, this level still might require vigilance at the learning and reaction levels to ensure positive results.
Darryl Jinkerson, director of evaluation services at Arthur Andersen, looks at the size and impact of the training
before deciding how to evaluate it. Only those that are high pro�ile, or for which the customer requests it, will be
evaluated at the results level.

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_49) What if training is a
one-time event and no desire is indicated to assess individual competence (e.g., a workshop on managing your
career)? Such a situation provides simply no reason to evaluate.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_50)

Can You Show That Training Is the Reason Change Has Occurred?
We have discussed in detail the types of measures you can use to help determine if training has been effective.
However, it is not as simple as that, because change might have occurred for reasons not related to the training. This
is where designing an appropriate evaluation becomes so important. Appendix 9-1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09div23) provides an
examination of the various concerns in evaluation, such as those related to the validity (both internal and external)
of the �indings. It also provides several designs that can be useful to help assure you that your results are in fact
valid.

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9.6 Focus on Small Business
For the small business owner, sending employees to training that is not effective could signi�icantly affect the
company’s �inancial health. Consider the owner who is constantly terminating employees because they are unable
(or unwilling) to do the job properly. They all receive training, and most, but not all, turn out to be ineffective. Why?
If training is not evaluated, it is not possible to know whether employees are lost because the training is not
effective or because some other factor is blocking effective performance.

The small-business owner might think it is not necessary to evaluate training, because whether or not it was
effective will be obvious by changes observed on the job after training. Actually, this assessment is probably true; in
a small business, it would soon be evident if recently trained employees were performing at the expected level.
However, if training is a signi�icant cost to the owner, evaluating learning before and after training can still be of
value. After all, the trainees might be learning on the job and the training may not be adding anything to their KSAs.

Much of the training in a small business is done on the job. In such cases, evaluation is often simply an
assessment of the trainee’s ability to learn. Examining the training process is not considered. As we discussed in
Chapter 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) , on-the-job training
requires trainer skills just like any other training. Simply placing a new employee with an experienced employee and
expecting the experienced one to train is not wise. It can be worthwhile to evaluate the process of training that goes
on, in addition to evaluating the outcomes, especially if the position is at a lower level where, because of turnover or
promotion, a rather high number of employees receives training.

Beyond the reasons for evaluation of training mentioned previously, there are external pressures as well. The
movement to quality standards, such as ISO creates a need for certi�ication in several areas. As mentioned
previously, one of the requirements is that the organization must maintain training records and periodically
evaluate training. Training records can take the form of diplomas, certi�icates, licenses, experience records, resumes
and so on. There is no speci�ic method for evaluating training effectiveness. A popular method is an annual review
of training’s outcomes. Results of the review are recorded and are used as feedback for revising and updating the
training program. Another method is a periodic assessment of individual employees.

David Alcock of Canadian Plastics Training Centre, in the Toronto area, says that even though few of the center’s
clients request an evaluation of training, such requests are on the increase. Most of the center’s clients are small
injection molding businesses. The need for certi�ication seems to be the driving force behind the necessity to
evaluate. Canadian Plastics Training conducts standardized injection molding training on its own site and provides a
skill-based evaluation. A trainee who passes the skill-based test becomes certi�ied as an injection molder. Generally,
the company sends its employees for this training; however, some employees pay their own way to improve
themselves.

One reason that these small companies do not evaluate is the cost. For in-house training done by Canadian
Plastics Training, a late-1997 cost of evaluation for 20 employees to be trained to a higher-level classi�ication was
$25,000. This is similar to costs in the United States. The Center for Industrial Research and Service at Iowa State
University suggests the cost to be $1,000 to $1,500 per employee.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_

) Many small
companies simply do not have those resources. Another issue noted by Alcock involves what the evaluation would
be used for. For example, suppose a unionized shop wants to upgrade the skills of the workforce. Sending them to
training would carry with it the union’s blessing. Evaluating the learning, however, might be met with a great deal of
resistance. The union leadership and rank and �ile might be concerned about the company knowing how well the
employees did on a test. They might believe that the company’s goal is to get rid of some employees based on test
results. Otherwise, why evaluate? Convincing the union that evaluation is a way of assessing the effectiveness of
training might be dif�icult to do, depending on the relationship between union and management. Training in Action
9-4 shows what one small company is doing.

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9-4 Training in Action Training and Evaluation at Scepter
Manufacturing
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“ISO makes training mandatory,” says Don Villers, plant manager of the 160-employee Scepter Manufacturing
plant in Scarborough, Ontario. “We train everyone from the shop �loor to the front of�ice.” The plant has been
ISO certi�ied for over a decade and since then has moved well beyond the ISO training requirements.

In the company’s rating system, supervisors are required to rate each of their employees on a scale from
1 to 10. An employee must reach 10 to be certi�ied at that level and to be eligible for promotion. The rating
system is not seen as punitive, but developmental. It is used as a needs analysis to identify skill de�iciencies,
then as a learning measure, and �inally as a transfer of training measure.

What about results? According to Villers, “Defective parts dropped from 5 percent to 0.1 percent. Scrap
also dropped 50 percent.” He attributes this success primarily to training. As a result of the success, the
training budget is 10 times the $6,000 per year that the company spent three years ago.

Evaluation Beyond Learning
The previous discussion focused primarily on learning. What about transfer of behavior and organizational results?
In many ways, evaluation of transfer and organizational results is easier in a small company. After publishing the
article on Scepter Manufacturing (see Training in Action 9-4),
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) Don Villers was
asked how he knew that the drop in scrap and defective parts (results) was a function of training. His reply: “We are
a small company, and it is the only thing that we changed.” He makes an important point related to the examination
of results in small businesses. When a small business does training, evidence of the impact can be much clearer and
faster. Also, it should be easier to rule out alternative explanations for the change, without the need for the more
complex designs discussed in Appendix 9-1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09div23) .

Case: Palm Desert (Conclusion)
The Palm Desert case at the beginning of the chapter provides an example of an effort to evaluate using a control
group and pre-/postdesign. Even here, however, problems arose in the way the evaluation was managed. One issue
is that learning was not assessed. Only behavioral change was assessed six months after training. We know that the
training did not transfer, but we do not know why. If it did not transfer because it was never learned in the �irst
place, what was the reason? Perhaps, there was just too much material to learn in a one-day seminar? Examining
the process of developing the training might reveal this problem, and the training could be revised before being
implemented. For a small organization, the training was obviously a major undertaking, and a more comprehensive
training evaluation might be more advisable.

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Summary
We began this chapter by discussing the importance of a comprehensive evaluation. We end it by suggesting that a
comprehensive evaluation is not always necessary. Understanding what to consider before evaluating makes such
decisions more logical and useful.

Evaluation can be complex and, in many cases, costly. For this reason, we suggested throughout this chapter that
evaluation is useful and important, but not necessary at all levels all the time. Furthermore, good detective work
can, in some cases, replace complex designs in assessing the validity of evaluation.

Deciding what training should be evaluated, and at what levels, will be easier if the organization is proactive. By
examining the strategic plan, it is possible to identify those areas of training that require evaluation and the extent
to which evaluating is necessary. Without such direction, the training department will need to identify its mission
and goals as best it can and work from there to determine the training that needs to be evaluated. Even for a large
organization, it is simply not practical to evaluate everything. All organizations need to determine what training they
want to evaluate and how they will do so.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i133#ch09sidebar05)

The Training Program (Fabrics, Inc.)
We are now ready to examine the evaluation phase of the Fabrics, Inc., training. We presented the training,
and it is time to do the evaluation. In the design phase of the training process, one of the outcomes was
development of evaluation objectives. Although we developed and implemented the training, it is critical to
remember that developing the tools for evaluation needs to be done concurrently with developing the
training, not after it.

Examination of the output of the evaluation phase of training indicated two types of evaluation: process
and outcome. The process evaluation will consist of the trainer, during training, documenting what she
covered in each module and the time spent on it. These results will then be compared with what was
expected to be covered in each module and the time spent.

For the outcome evaluation, four types are identi�ied. The reaction questionnaire for trainers will model
the one that was presented in Table 9-4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09table04) of the text. For
the training itself, the reaction questionnaire is shown next in “Fabrics Reaction 1”.

For learning, we need to revisit the learning objectives to determine what is required. We need a paper-
and-pencil test for measuring knowledge (objectives 1 and 2) and two behavioral tests to measure active
listening and con�lict resolution skills (objectives 3 and 4). More speci�ically, the �irst two learning objectives
(and the others related to the training but not developed here) are accommodated using the paper-and-
pencil test. The content of this test is partially represented in “Fabrics Paper-and-Pencil Test” on the next
page. But �irst let’s look at the knowledge objectives.

Fabrics Reaction 1
Using the scale that follows, evaluate the training by circling the appropriate number to the right of
the item.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i133#ch09sidebar05

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09table04

1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree

Active Listening Skills

The training met the stated objectives.

The information provided was enough for me to
understand the concepts being taught.

1

2

3

4

5

The practice sessions provided were suf�icient to give
me an idea of how to perform the skill.

1

2

3

4

5

The feedback provided was useful in helping me
understand how to improve.

1

2

3

4

5

The knowledge and skills in this session were of value
for my job.

1

2

3

4

5

Circle the response that re�lects your feelings about the pace of the session just completed.

1. Way too fast

2. A bit fast

3. Just right

4. A bit slow

5. Way too slow

What did you like best about this part of the training?

What would you change?

Comments:

Note: A similar scale would be used for each of the other components of training that were taught.

The trainee will, with no errors, present in writing the four types of active listening, along with examples
of each of the types, without using reference materials.

The trainee will, with 100 percent accuracy, provide in writing each step of the con�lict resolution model,
along with a relevant example, without help from any reference material.

After watching a role-play of an angry person and an employee using the con�lict resolution model, the
trainee will, without using reference materials, immediately provide feedback as to the effectiveness of the
person using the con�lict resolution model. The trainee must identify four of the six errors.

Fabrics Paper-and-Pencil Test

Evaluation of Learning
No speci�ic time limit is set for this test, but you should be able to �inish in about one hour.

Answers to the questions should be written in the booklet provided.

Please read each question carefully. Some of the questions contain more than one part.

1. List four types of active listening, and provide an example for each.

2. List the steps in the con�lict resolution model. After each step, provide a relevant example of a
phrase that could be used to represent that step.

And so forth for as many questions as needed.

The next objective is partly related to skill development. Following are a number of standardized
scenarios and guidelines to evaluate them. “Fabrics Scenario: Active Listening” is an example. But �irst, here
is the objective.

When, in a role-play, the trainee is presented with an angry comment, the trainee will respond
immediately using one of the appropriate active listening types. The trainee will then explain orally the
technique used and why, with no help from reference material. The trainee will be presented with �ive of
these situations and be expected to correctly respond and explain a minimum of four techniques.

Fabrics Scenario: Active Listening
This is read to the trainee: The following set of scenarios is designed to determine how well you, the
trainee, have learned the active listening skills. There are three roles here: initiator, active listener
(you, the trainee), and evaluator. The initiator is a nontrainee who speaks a con�lict-provoking
statement to you (the active listener). You, the trainee, listen to the statement, and then respond using
active listening skills. The evaluator, who is trained in evaluating active listening, listens to your
response and evaluates it based on the use of effective active listening skills.

Note: The following forms (initiator’s role, active listener’s role, evaluator’s role) are given to the
respective people, with the active listener’s role being given to you, the trainee.

The next sheet is for the person playing the initiator.

Initiator’s Role
(The initiator is to be played by the same actor for all trainees.)

Instructions for the Initiator Beginning with scenario 1, read the sentence describing the
scenario carefully; wait until the trainee is ready, and then read the comment in bold next to the
Scenario in an angry manner.

Wait until you are told by the evaluator to move to the next scenario and follow the instructions
above.

Test Scenario 1

You were just asked by your supervisor (the
trainee) to serve on the same committee
again. You are angry that they always ask
you.

You start. Say angrily: “OH, NO YOU DON’T. I’VE BEEN ON THA

COMMITTEE THREE YEARS IN A ROW AND IT
TAKES UP TOO MUCH TIME!”

Test Scenario 2

Your supervisor just talked to you about
following procedures. You think, Why me?
After all, no one follows procedures.

You start. Say angrily: “WHY ARE YOU PICKING ON ME ALL THE
TIME? I’M NOT THE ONLY ONE WHO DOESN’T
FOLLOW THESE STUPID PROCEDURES!”

Test Scenario 3

You were just asked by your supervisor for
a second time today whether you will be
attending the weekly meeting.

You say angrily: “I ALREADY TOLD YOU, I CAN’T ATTEND THE
WEEKLY MEETING BECAUSE I HAVE TO
COMPLETE THE STAFF REPORTS FOR
TOMORROW!”

And so forth (for a total of 5).

The next sheet is for the trainee.

Trainee’s (Active Listener) Role
Instructions for the trainee: This test will require you to respond to �ive different short scenarios in
which you are a supervisor and you say something to a subordinate that elicits an angry response.
You will be expected to respond using the skills of active listening. The description of each of the
scenarios provides what you initially said to the subordinate. When you are ready for each of the
scenarios to begin, nod your head to the initiator. At that time, the initiator will say something. You
need to respond to the comment, and when complete, explain to the evaluator the rationale for your
response.

Scenario 1
You asked a subordinate to continue working on a particular committee for another year. Listen; then
respond using active listening. Nod your head when ready. . . .

Scenario 2
You just talked to a subordinate regarding the importance of following procedures. Listen; then
respond using active listening. Nod your head when ready. . . .

Scenario 3
Today is the day of your weekly meeting. You asked if your subordinate would be attending the
meeting; the answer was no. It is now time for the meeting and you call once more to check to see
whether the subordinate can make the meeting. Listen; then respond using active listening. Nod your
head when ready. . . .

And so forth (for a total of 5).

The next sheet is for the evaluator.

Evaluator’s Role

Instructions to evaluator for scoring trainee responses: Trainee fails the scenario if the response is
focused on the issue instead of re�lecting what the initiator says. For example, a poor (fail) response
to the �irst scenario would be something where the trainee responds to the concern by dealing with
the issue “But you are my best person for the job” or “You have to do it; I have no one else” or
“Look, I am asking you as a favor to me.”

Appropriate responses re�lect what the person is saying, as in the �irst scenario: “So, you’re saying
that being on the committee interferes with your doing your job” or “You feel you have done
your share regarding work committee.”

It is also important that the response does not sound like a mimic of what the person said.
Although at this time we do not expect perfection regarding responses, the responses must, at a
minimum, sound sincere. Refer to the tape recordings provided to understand the difference between
what we consider mimicking and acceptable.

For each of the �ive scenarios, there is an example of a poor (fail) response and an acceptable
response. When the trainee explains his or her response, we expect the trainee to be able to identify
the type of active listening response used (paraphrasing, decode and feedback, summarizing) and why
it was chosen. Answers to why it was chosen are intended to show that they understand the different
methods, and thus any answer that does this is acceptable.

Scenario 1
The supervisor (trainee being tested) asked the subordinate to continue working on a particular
committee for another year, and the subordinate responds. Listen to the supervisor’s response and
grade according to guidelines.

Unacceptable
response:

“I am willing to talk about reducing the work you have to do if you will be
on it.”

Acceptable
response:

“You don’t want to be on that committee again because it interferes with
your work and you feel you have done your share.”

Scenario 2
The supervisor (trainee being tested) just talked to a subordinate regarding the importance of
following procedures, and the subordinate responds. Listen to the supervisor’s response and grade
according to guidelines.

Unacceptable
response:

“You are not the only one I have talked to about this.”

Acceptable
response:

“You believe that you’re the only one that i am singling out for not
following procedures.”

Scenario 3
The supervisor (trainee being tested) called �irst thing in the morning and asked the subordinate if
she would be attending the weekly meeting; the subordinate said, “No, I’m busy.” The supervisor just
called again at meeting time to check to see whether the subordinate could make the meeting, and the
subordinate responds. Listen to the supervisor’s response and grade.

Unacceptable
response:

“The meeting will only be an hour.”

Acceptable
response:

“You’re not able to attend the meeting because you are completing staff
reports that are due tomorrow.”

And so forth (for a total of 5).

Note that we do not provide the test for determining the knowledge part of this objective, where the trainee
is asked to explain his or her response orally.

The next objective is skill related and has to do with con�lict resolution. See “Fabrics Role-Play Con�lict
Resolution” for an example of this. The objective is:

“In a role-play of an angry employee, the trainee will calm the person using the steps in the con�lict
resolution model, with help from a poster that lists the steps.”

Fabrics Role-Play Con�lict Resolution
Read the following to the trainee: The following role-play is designed to determine how well you, the
trainee, have learned the con�lict resolution skills. There are three roles here: initiator, active listener
(you, the trainee), and evaluator. The initiator is a nontrainee who starts off very angry at something
you did. You listen to what is said and respond using the con�lict resolution model. The evaluator, who
is trained in evaluating effective con�lict resolution, listens to your response and evaluates it based on
your effectiveness. The following forms (initiator’s role, active listener’s role, evaluator’s role) are
given to the respective people, with the active listener’s role being given to you, the trainee.

The next sheet is for the person playing the initiator.

Initiator’s Role
(The initiator is to be played by the same actor for all trainees.)

Instructions for the Initiator
Read the role a couple of times and get in the mood suggested.

Be sure you understand the issues, so you can present them without referring to the role.

Once into the role, allow your own feelings to take over; if what the supervisor is saying
makes you less angry, then act that way, and vice versa.

Do not refer back to the role after the role-play begins; simply act the way you normally
would do in such circumstances.

Begin the role-play by presenting the points at the end of the role-play with anger.

To elicit an assertive response, interrupt the trainee at least once after the trainee begins to
present his or her point of view. If the trainee allows the interruption, interrupt again until the
trainee becomes assertive and asks you not to interrupt (maximum of four interruptions).

The Role of the Initiator
Your name is Pat. You are the longest working machinist in the plant, with 25 years’ service.
You taught many of those who are presently there, including most of those who were made
supervisor recently. The company has been busy for the last number of years, and you have
been called upon many times to provide the extra boost to get some projects out. You
worked hard all your life and are starting to feel it in your bones. The work is getting harder
and harder to complete, especially with the older lathes. With only three years to retirement,
you are wishing you could afford to retire now. You are really worn out, that is, until you
hear the news that the company just purchased one of those new computer-operated lathes.
You feel con�ident that once you get to use the new machine you will be rejuvenated. In fact,
the thought of getting to work on one of these new machines gives you goose bumps. You
have not felt this excited in years. Actually, the thought of going back to school to learn about
it is the most exciting thing, as it is making you feel young again. You are sorry that you
missed today’s meeting at which they were going to talk about the new equipment, but your
car would not start.

“Hey, did you hear the news?” your friend Bill called out.

“I don’t think so, what is it?” you replied.

“They just announced that Fred is going for training on the new computer-operated lathe. I
guess he will be the one operating it.”

“Are you sure?” you ask.

“Yep, it was announced at the circle meeting this morning. He was selected to operate it and
will be going for a two-week training course next week.”

You are furious. Fred was only just hired and is just a kid. You deserve �irst crack at the new
machine, given your loyal service. Well, that is it. Your supervisor (the young guy you taught
how to run a lathe before he got promoted) never did get along with you, and now this. Well,
you are not going to take it. You walk into the supervisor’s of�ice and in a loud voice start off
by saying:

“What do you think you are doing? How can you give the new lathe to Fred, after all the
years I have been here? This is not fair and I am not going to sit still for it.”

Be sure to continue the anger and bring up all the points mentioned in the role-play. Go over
them again and again until the trainee calms you down.

The next sheet is for the trainee.

Trainee’s Role

Instructions for the Trainee
Read your role a few times and be sure you understand the issues, so you can present them
without referring to the role.

Do not refer back to the role after the role-play begins, but you can jot down a few points for
reference.

Use the con�lict resolution model to deal with the issue.

Nod at the initiator when you wish to begin.

The Role for the Trainee
You are the supervisor of a manufacturing �irm and have about 10 subordinates. They are all
lathe operators, and you were also one until you recently got promoted. Your subordinates
are all good people, and with the exception of Pat, who has been here for 25 years and is a
few years away from retirement, all are fairly young and have at most 10 years’ service. Pat
is a great machinist and knows more than everyone put together. He taught you the job
when you had just started and, although you never really hit it off with him, you do respect
his ability.

You are pretty excited these last few days, because the company just purchased a new
computer-operated lathe. It is your understanding that you will be getting a new lathe each
year until all are replaced. You are moving into the new age. Choosing only one of your
machinists to go to training and be the �irst one on the new machine was a dif�icult decision.
All were likely candidates, with the exception of Pat, who was too old to learn the new
machine—computer stuff and all. Furthermore, why train Pat on a new machine when he
will only be here a short time? It makes more sense to train those who will be able to use the
new skills for the longest time. Anyway, Pat really knows how to operate the older machine
better than anyone, so why move him? Finally, you came up with the perfect solution. The
new guy, Fred, has not been trained on any machine yet, so training him on the new lathe
would mean that no one else needed training for the time being. Putting anyone else on the
new machine would mean training Fred on the old machine, then when they are phased out,
retraining him on the computer-operated lathe. So you announced it today at your circle
meeting. Everyone was pretty quiet, but they will get over it. Too bad Pat wasn’t there.
Wonder if he is sick?

The next sheet is for the evaluator.
Evaluator’s Role

Instructions for the Evaluator
The trainee fails the scenario if the initial response is focused on the issue instead of
re�lecting what the initiator says. For example, a poor (fail) response would be if the �irst
comment to Pat was “I did not think you wanted it” or “It is probably too complicated

for you” or “We value your contribution” or “You’re the best we’ve got on the old
machine, and we need you there.”

Keys to successfully passing this exercise are to

actively listen to Pat (using the active listening skills) and

question to obtain as much information as possible before dealing with the issue.

To be successful, it is expected that the trainee will use active listening and questions at least
four to six times (preferably more) before moving to the trainee’s point of view. The key is to
note how much the initiator has calmed down.

Be sure the trainee indicates respect (must have at least one phrase such as “I can
appreciate why you feel you should have the opportunity to receive the training. It
makes sense that you believe after such long and loyal service you should receive some
reward”).

Be assertive, not aggressive, if necessary to present points.

When interrupted, the trainee must use the proper assertive response to inhibit
interruptions. The trainee is given four opportunities to be assertive, since the role requires
interruptions until an assertive response is given (up to four). Note how that interruption is
handled; the trainee needs to be assertive (for example, “I have carefully listened to
everything you have had to say; I think it only fair that now you give me a chance to
respond, okay?”).

Provide the supervisor’s points as “point of view,” not correct point of view.

The role-play will begin with the initiator being angry. Response can be a summary of these
points, paraphrase of one of them, or decode and feedback regarding emotion expressed,
but not anything dealing with the speci�ic issue. Use the following form to assist in the
evaluation of the trainee.

Evaluator Report Form
Put a mark next to each of the responses in terms of their type. Try to jot down the words
used in some of the cases to enable you to provide speci�ic feedback.

Active Listening
Nonverbal behavior

Say more responses

Paraphrase

Decode and feedback

Summarize

Indicate Respect

Use of active listening

Questioning

Show acceptance of other’s point of view

Be Assertive
Needs to be phrased in terms of YOUR POINT OF VIEW

My perception is . . .

It seems to me that . . .

It is my belief that . . . and so forth.

Provide Information
Use collaboration (problem solving) or compromise (negotiate). Note: Although this response is a
part of the con�lict resolution model, it is not part of the learning objectives for this training;
therefore, it is not evaluated in this training program.

You will note that a standardized scoring key, examples of acceptable and unacceptable behavior of
the trainee, and a checklist for different responses are provided for the evaluator.

The aforementioned are evaluations related to learning, but we still need to consider behavior
(transfer of training) and organizational results. The owner in the Fabrics, Inc., case is not interested
in doing any of this type of evaluation. Recall that we indicated that an evaluation using elaborate
designs is nice but seldom happens in reality.

The owner in the Fabrics, Inc., case does not want us to assess any transfer of behaviors to the job.
His argument is that his primary interest is in getting fewer complaints from employees and
customers. He notes that in a small organization such as his, these changes (lowering of complaints)
are proof enough that training was successful. We agree, so the evaluation will consist of gathering
weekly archival information on complaints from customers and subordinates as a baseline (gathering
it for two months prior to the training) and tracking it for six months after training is complete.

Key Terms
Affective questionnaire
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term01)

Control group
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term02)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Cost/bene�it evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term03)

Cost-effectiveness evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term04)

Cost savings analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term05)

External validity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term06)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

History (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term07)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Initial group differences (�ilech09.xhtml#ch09term08) (�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Instrumentation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term09)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Internal referencing strategy (IRS)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term10)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Internal validity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term11)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Job behavior outcomes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term12)

Learning outcomes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term13)

Maturation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term14)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Organizational results
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term15)

Outcome evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i129#ch09term16)

Process evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i129#ch09term17)

Random assignment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term18)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term02

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term03

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term04

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term05

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term06

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term07

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09term08

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term09

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term10

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term11

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term12

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term13

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term14

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term15

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i129#ch09term16

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i129#ch09term17

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term18

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

Reaction outcomes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term19)

Representative sampling
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term20)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Single-case design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term21)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Statistical regression
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term22)
(�ilech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01) *

Utility analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term23)

Utility questionnaire
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term24)

* These key terms appear only in appendices 9-1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09div23) and 9-2
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09app02) .

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term19

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term20

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term21

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09term22

https://content.ashford.edu/print/filech09.xhtml#ch09fnt01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term23

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09term24

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09div23

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09app02

Questions for Review
1. What is the relationship among the four levels of evaluation? Would you argue for examining all four levels

if your boss suggested that you should look only at the last one (results) and that if it improved, you would
know that training had some effect?

2. What is the difference between cost/bene�it evaluation and cost-effectiveness evaluation? When would you
use each, and why?

3. What is the difference between cost-effectiveness evaluation and utility analysis? When, if ever, would you
use utility rather than cost-effectiveness? Why?

4. Assume that you were the training manager in the Westcan case (in Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) ). How would you
suggest evaluating the training, assuming they were about to conduct it as suggested in the case? Be as
speci�ic as you can.

5. Of all the designs presented in Appendix 9-1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i140#ch09div23) , which one
would you consider to be most effective while also being practical enough to convince an organization to
adopt it? If your design involved representative sampling, how would you accomplish it?

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04

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Exercises
1. Examine the reaction questionnaire that your school uses. Is it designed to rate the course content or the

instructors? Does it meet the requirements of a sound reaction questionnaire? Why or why not? Explain
how you would improve it (if possible).

2. Break into small groups, with each group containing at least one member who previously received some
type of training in an organization. Interview that person on what the training was designed to teach and
how it was evaluated. Did the evaluation cover all the levels of outcomes? How did the trainee feel about the
evaluation? Devise your own methods for evaluating each of the levels based on the person’s description of
the training.

3. Go to the role-play for active listening in the Fabrics, Inc., example. In groups of �ive or six, choose someone
to be the initiator and someone to be the trainee. Have them go through the role-play while the rest
evaluate the trainee’s response on a scale of 1 to 7 (1 being poor and 7 being excellent). Now share your
scores. Were they all exactly the same? If not, how could you make the instrument more reliable? If they
were all the same, why was that? Is there anything you would suggest to make the evaluation process
easier?

Case Analysis
You run Tricky Nicky’s Carpet Cleaning Co., which cleans carpets for businesses. On average, one carpet cleaner can
clean six of�ices per eight-hour shift. Currently, 100 cleaners work for you, and they work 250 days per year.
Supervisors inspect carpets when cleaners notify them that the carpet is done. Because of Nicky’s “Satisfaction
Guarantee,” when a carpet does not meet the standard, it is redone immediately at no extra cost to the client. A
recent analysis of the rework required found that, on average, one in every six carpets cleaned does not meet
Nicky’s standards.

The pro�it averages $20 a cleaning. You pay your cleaners $15 per hour. When you re-clean a carpet, it is done
on overtime and you lose, on average, $20 in labor costs. On average, your pro�it is gone. In addition, there is an
average cost of materials and equipment of $2.00 per of�ice.

Your training manager conducted a needs assessment regarding this issue at your request. He reported that half
the employees are not reaching the standard one in nine times, and the other half are not meeting the standard two
in nine times, for an overall average of one in six [(1/9 1 2/9)/2 = 1/6]. The needs assessment also indicated that
the cause was a lack of KSAs in both cases.

The training manager proposes a training program that he estimates will reduce everyone’s errors to 1 carpet in
12 (half the current level). The training would take four hours and could handle 20 employees per session.

The following costs re�lect delivery of �ive training sessions of 20 employees each and assume 250 working
days in a year.

Developmental Costs

20 days of training manager’s time for design and development at $40,000 per year $3,200

Miscellaneous $800

Direct Costs

4 hours per session at $40,000 per year (trainer) $400

Training facility and equipment $500

Materials $2,000

Refreshments $600

Employee salaries at $20 per hour per employee (Nicky decides to do training on a Saturday and
pay employees an extra $5 per hour as overtime)

$8,000

Lost pro�it (none because training is done on overtime) 0

Indirect Costs

Evaluation of training; 10 days of training manager’s time at $40,000 per year $1,600

Material and equipment $600

Clerical support—20 hours at $10 per hour $200

Case Questions
1. How much does the re-cleaning cost Nicky per year? Show all mathematical calculations.

2. If everyone is trained, how much will the training cost? How much will training cost if only the group with
the most errors is trained? Show costs in a spreadsheet and all mathematical calculations.

3. If everyone is trained, what is the cost savings for the �irst year? If only the group with the highest re-
cleaning requirements is trained, what is the cost savings for the �irst year? Show all mathematical
calculations.

4. What is your recommendation for this training based on the expected return on investment? Should just
the group with the most re-cleanings be trained or should both groups be trained? Provide a rationale for
your recommendation that includes both the �inancial as well as other factors that may be important in
making this decision. Show any mathematical calculations used.

5. Let’s back up and assume that employees had the KSAs needed to clean the of�ices effectively. What other
factors might you look at as potential causes of the re-cleaning problem?

Web Research
Conduct a search of the Internet to identify eight distinct reasons for conducting an evaluation of training.
Document the source of these reasons, and compare the list with reasons cited in the chapter.

Web Sites of Interest
Research Methods on the WWW—Questionnaires

http://www.slais.ubc.ca/resources/research_methods/questions.htm

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php
(http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php)

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.php

Appendix 9-1

Evaluation: The Validity Issues
Once it is decided to evaluate training, it is important to be reasonably sure that the �indings on the effectiveness of
training will be valid. After all, evaluation is both time-consuming and costly.

Let’s say that Sue is sent to a one-week training seminar on the operation of Windows. According to the needs
analysis, she clearly did not know much about how to operate a computer in a Windows environment. After
training, she is tested, and it is determined that she has learned a great deal. Training was effective. Perhaps—but
several other factors could also result in her learning how to operate in a Windows environment. Her own interest
in Windows might lead her to learn it on her own. The question is: “How certain is it that the improvement was a
function of the training that you provided?” In other words, does the evaluation exhibit internal validity? Once
internal validity is ensured, the next question is “Will the training be effective for other groups who go through the
same training?” That is, does training show external validity? We will deal with internal and external validity
separately. These “threats” are not speci�ic to training evaluation but relate to evaluation in general. When we
discuss each of the threats, we will indicate when it is not a serious threat in the training context.

Internal Validity
Internal validity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_013) is
the con�idence that the results of the evaluation are in fact correct. Even when an improvement is demonstrated
after training, the concern is that perhaps the change occurred for reasons other than training. To address this
problem, it is necessary to examine factors that might compromise the �indings; these are called threats to internal
validity.

History
History (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_014) refers to
events other than training that take place concurrently with the training program. The argument is that those other
events caused learning to occur. Consider the example of Sue’s computer training. Sue is eager to learn about
computers, so she buys some books and works extra hard at home, and attends the training. At the end of training,
she demonstrates that she has learned a great deal, but is this learning a function of training? It might just as well be
that all her hard work at home caused her to learn so much.

In a half-day training seminar, is history likely to be a concern? Not really. What about a one-day seminar or a
one-week seminar? The more that training is spread across time, the more likely history could be a factor in the
learning that takes place.

Maturation
Maturation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_015) refers
to changes that occur because of the passage of time (e.g., growing older, hungrier, fatigued, bored). If Sue’s one-
week training program was so intense that she became tired, when it came time to take the posttraining test, her
performance would not re�lect how much she had learned. Making sure that the testing is done when trainees are
fresh reduces this threat. Other maturation threats can usually be handled in a similar manner by being sure that
training and testing are not so intense as to create physical or mental fatigue.

Testing
Testing also has an in�luence on learning. Suppose the pretest and posttest of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSAs) are the same test. The questions on the pretest could sensitize trainees to pay particular attention to certain
issues. Furthermore, the questions might generate interest, and the trainees might later discuss many of them and

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work out the answers before or during training. Thus, learning demonstrated in the posttest may be a function not
of the training, but of the pretest. In Sue’s case, the needs analysis that served as the pretest for evaluation got her
thinking about all the material contained in the test. Then, she focused on these issues in training. This situation
presents less of a validity problem if pretests are given in every case and if they are comprehensive enough to cover
all of the material taught. Comprehensive testing will also make it dif�icult for trainees to recall speci�ic questions.

Instrumentation
Instrumentation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_016)
is also a concern. The problem arises if the same test is used in the pretest and posttest, as was already noted. If a
different but equivalent test is used, however, the question becomes “Is it really equivalent?” Differences in
instrumentation used could cause differences in the two scores. Also, if the rating requires judgments, the
differences between pre- and posttest scores could be a function of different people doing the rating.

For Sue, the posttest was more dif�icult than the pretest, and even though she learned a great deal in the
computer training, her posttest score was actually lower than the pretest, suggesting that she did not learn anything.
If the test items for both tests were chosen randomly from a large population of items, it would not be much of a
concern. For behavioral tests where raters make subjective decisions, this discrepancy may be more of a concern,
but careful criteria development can help to deal with it.

Statistical Regression
Statistical regression
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_017) is the tendency for
those who score either very high or very low on a test to “regress to the middle” when taking the test again. This
phenomenon, known as regression to the mean, occurs because no test is perfect and differences result as a
function of measurement error. Those who are going to training will, by de�inition, score low for the KSAs to be
covered in training and so will score low on their pretest. The tendency, therefore, will be for them to regress to the
mean and improve their scores, irrespective of training. In the earlier example, Sue did not know much about
computers. Imagine that she got all the questions on the pretest wrong. The likelihood of that happening twice is
very low, so on another test she is bound to do better.

This threat to internal validity can be controlled through various evaluation designs that we will discuss later. In
addition, the use of control groups and random assignment (when possible) goes a long way toward resolving
statistical regression.

Initial Group Differences (Selection)
Initial group differences can also be a concern. For example, in some cases, to provide an effective evaluation, a
comparison is made between the trainees and a similar group of employees who were not trained—known as the
control group (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_019) . It
is important that the control group be similar in every way to the training group. Otherwise, the inherent
differences between the groups might be the cause of differences after the training. Suppose that those selected for
training are the up-and-coming stars of the department. After training, they may in fact perform much better than
those not considered up and coming, but the problem is that they were better from the start and more motivated to
improve. Therefore, if Sue is one of the highly motivated trainees, as are all her cohorts in training, they would
potentially perform better even without training.

This problem does not arise if everyone is to be trained. The solution is simply to mix the two types, so both the
group to be trained and the control group contain both types.

Loss of Group Members (Mortality)
In this situation, those who did poorly on the pretest are demoralized because of their low score and soon drop out
of training. The control group remains intact. As a result, the trained group does better in the posttest than the

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control group, because the poorer-scoring members left the trained group, arti�icially raising the average score. The
opposite could occur if, for some reason, members of the control group dropped out.

This situation becomes more of a problem when the groups are made up of volunteers. In an organizational
setting, those who go to training are unlikely to drop out. Also, all department members who agree to be in the
control group are a captive audience and are unlikely to refuse to take the posttest. Although some transfers and
terminations do occur to affect the numbers of participants, they are usually not signi�icant.

Diffusion of Training
When trainees interact with the control group in the workplace, they may share the knowledge or skill they are
learning. For example, when Sue is back in the of�ice, she shows a few of the other administrative assistants what
she has learned. They are in the control group. When the posttest is given, they do as well as the trained group,
because they were exposed to much of what went on in training. In this case, training would be seen as ineffective,
when in fact it was effective. This would be especially true if certain quotas of trainees were selected from each
department. When such sharing of information reduces differences between the groups in this way, determining the
effectiveness of the training could be dif�icult.

Compensating Treatments
When the control group and training group come from different departments, administrators might be concerned
that the control group is at an unfair disadvantage. Comments such as “Why do they receive the new training?” or
“We are all expected to perform the same, but they get the help” would suggest that the control group feels slighted.
To compensate for this inequity, the managers of the control group’s department might offer special assistance or
make special arrangements to help their group. For example, let’s look at trainees who are learning how to install
telephones more ef�iciently. Their productivity begins to rise, but because the supervisors of the control group feel
sorry for the control group, they help the trainees to get the work done, thereby increasing the trainees’
productivity. The evaluation would show no difference in productivity between the two groups after training is
complete.

Compensatory Rivalry
If the training is being given to one particular intact work group, the other intact work group might see this situation
as a challenge and compete for higher productivity. Although the trained group is working smarter and improving
its productivity, the control group works harder still and perhaps equals the productivity of the trainees. The result
is that, although the training is effective, it will not show up in the evaluation.

Demoralized Control Group
The control group could believe that it was made the control group because it was not as good as the training
group. Rather than rivalry, the response could be to give up and actually reduce productivity. As a result, a
difference between the two groups would be identi�ied, but it would be a function of the drop in productivity and
not the training. Even if training were effective, the test results would be exaggerated.

These threats to validity indicate the importance of tracking the process in the evaluation. Just as data are
gathered about what is occurring in the training, it is also useful to gather data about what is going on with the
control group.

External Validity
The evaluation must be internally valid before it can be externally valid. If evaluation indicated that training was
successful and threats to internal validity were minimal, you would believe that the training was successful for that
particular group. The next question is, “Will the training be effective for the rest of the employees slated to attend
training?” External validity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_020) is the con�idence

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_020

that these �indings will generalize to others who undergo the training. A number of factors threaten external
validity.

Testing
If the training is evaluated initially by means of pre- and posttests, and if future training does not use the pretest, it
can be dif�icult to conclude that future training would be as effective. Perhaps those in the initial training focused on
particular material, because it was highlighted in the pretest. If the pretest is then not used, other trainees will not
have the same cues. The solution is simple: Pretest everyone taking the training. Remember that pretest data can be
gathered during the needs analysis.

Selection
Suppose that a particular program designed to teach communication skills is highly effective with middle-level
managers, but when a program with the same design is given to shop-�loor workers, it does not work. Why? It might
be differences in motivation or in entering KSAs, but remember that you cannot be sure that a training program that
was successful with one group of trainees will be successful with all groups. Once it is successful with middle
managers, it can be assumed that it will be successful with other, similar middle managers. However, if it is to be
used to train entry-level accountants, you could not say with con�idence that it would be successful (that it had
external validity) until it was evaluated.

One of the authors was hired to assist in providing team skills to a large number of employees in a large
manufacturing plant. The �irst few sessions with managers went reasonably well; the managers seemed to be
involved and learned a great deal. After about a month, training began for the blue-collar workers, using the
identical processes, which included a fair amount of theory. It soon became evident that trainees were bored,
confused, and uninterested. In a discussion about the problem, the project leader commented, “I’m not surprised—
this program was designed for executives.” In retrospect, it is surprising that lower-level managers received the
training so well, given that it was designed for executives.

Reaction to Evaluation
In many situations, once the training is determined to be effective, the need for further evaluation is deemed
unnecessary. Thus, some of the trainees who went through the program were evaluated and some were not. The
very nature of evaluation causes more attention to be given to those who are evaluated. Recall the Hawthorne
Studies that indicated the power of evaluation in an intervention. The Hawthorne Effect is explained by the
following:

The trainees perceived the training as a novelty;

The trainees felt themselves to be special because of being singled out for training;

The trainees received speci�ic feedback on how they were doing;

The trainees knew they were being observed, so they wanted to perform to the best of their ability; and

The enthusiasm of the instructor inspired the trainees to perform at a high level.

Whatever the mechanism, those who receive more attention might respond better as a function of that attention.
As with the other threats to external validity, when the way groups are treated is changed, the training’s external
validity is jeopardized.

Multiple Techniques
In clinical studies, a patient receives Dose A. It does not have an effect, so a month later she receives Dose B, which
does not have an effect, so she receives Dose C and is cured. Did Dose C cure her? Perhaps, but it could also be that
it was the combination of A, B, and C that resulted in the required effect. The use of multiple techniques could
in�luence training when some component of the training is changed from one group to the next. For example, a

group received one-on-one coaching and then video instruction. The members did poorly after receiving the
coaching but excelled after receiving the video instruction, so video instruction became the method used to train
future employees. It was not successful, however, because it was the combination of coaching and video instruction
that resulted in the initial success.

What Does It All Mean?
It is useful to understand the preceding issues to recognize why it is dif�icult to suggest with certainty that training
or any other intervention is the cause of any improvement. We cannot be absolutely certain about the internal or
external validity when measuring things such as learning, behavior, and organizational results. Careful
consideration of these issues, however, and the use of well-thought-out designs for the evaluation can improve the
likelihood that training, when shown to be effective, is in fact effective (internal validity) and will be effective in the
future (external validity). This information is useful for assessing training and, equally important, for assessing
evaluations done by outside vendors.

Evaluation Design Issues
A number of texts provide excellent information on appropriate designs for conducting evaluations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_55) Unfortunately, many
of their recommended designs are impractical in most organizational settings. Finding the time or resources to
create a control group is dif�icult at best. Getting approval to do pretests on control groups takes away from
productive time and is dif�icult to justify.

Scienti�ically valid research designs are dif�icult to implement, so organizations often use evaluation designs that
are generally not acceptable to the scienti�ic community.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_56) However, it is still
possible to have some con�idence in the results with less rigorous designs. Some research designs are less than
perfect, but it is possible to �ind ways of improving them. The two designs most often used, and most criticized by
scientists, are the posttest-only and the pretest/posttest methods.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_57)

Basic Designs

Posttest Only
The posttest-only method occurs when training is followed by a test of the KSAs. The posttest-only design
is not appropriate in some instances. At other times, however, the method is completely acceptable.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_58) The two
possible goals of evaluation are to determine

1. whether change took place and

2. whether a level of competence was reached.

If the goal of the training is the latter, a posttest-only design should suf�ice. If, for example, legal requirements state
that everyone in the company who handles hazardous waste be trained to understand what to do in an emergency,
then presumably this training needs only to provide a test at the end to con�irm that all trainees reached the
required level of knowledge. As more companies are required to be ISO 9000 (or equivalent) certi�ied, it will be
increasingly important to prove that employees possess the required skills. As a result, certi�ication will become the
goal of employee training, and in that case the posttest-only will suf�ice.

We frequently mention the value in doing a needs analysis. Conducting a needs analysis provides pretest
data, making the posttest-only design moot. Giving the posttest automatically applies a pretest/posttest
design. Furthermore, in the absence of a TNA, archival data may serve as the pretest. Performance

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appraisals, measures of quality, and the like might allow for some pre/post comparison. Although such
historical data may not be ideal, it could provide some information as to the effectiveness of training.
Alternatively, it is possible to identify an equivalent group and provide its members with the same posttest,
thereby turning the design into a posttest only with control group. Suddenly, a much more meaningful
design is created.

The posttest-only design as it stands is problematic for assessing change. A number of other competing
causes could be responsible for the change such as history, maturation, instrumentation, selection and
mortality. Nevertheless, we would agree with other professionals that any evaluation is better than none.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_59) Gathering
any pretraining information that might suggest that the level of KSAs before training was lower than in the
posttest would help to bolster the conclusion that training was effective.

Pretest/Posttest
The pretest/posttest design is the other method organizations frequently use. Here, a pretest is given (T ),
training is provided (3), and then a posttest is given (T ). This design is expressed as T × T .

This design can demonstrate that change has occurred. But even though it can be demonstrated that KSAs
have changed, it is not possible to say that training is responsible for those changes. There are several
threats to internal validity (history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, and possibly regression). For
example, you might have been training a group of machine operators to operate new drill-press machines.
Pretesting the trainees revealed that none knew how to operate the machine. After a three-day training
session, a posttest showed that, on average, the trainees could operate the machine correctly 85 percent of
the time. A big success? Not if the supervisor of the work group says that the ones without training can
operate the machines correctly 95 percent of the time by just reading the manuals and practicing on their
own. Several different reasons might explain why those who did not go to training are performing better
on the job. Perhaps they already knew how to operate the machine. Perhaps a manufacturer’s
representative came and provided on-the-�loor training to them. Or, it could be that your training
somehow slowed down the learning process. And there is still the issue of external validity where testing
selection and possibly reaction to evaluation are cause for concern. Therefore, it would be useful to have a
control group.

In many instances, using a control group is simply not an option. Does that mean that the trainer should
not bother to do anything? Absolutely not! In fact, it is better to do something than nothing. We tend to
focus on the negative aspects of the preexperimental designs rather than to examine ways of using them
most effectively when other options do not exist.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_60) The pre-
post-no-control-group at least establishes that changes did take place. History can be examined through
some detective work. Recall that Sue had learned a great deal about operating in a Windows environment
according to the pretest/posttest. Did she do extra reading at home? Did she practice on her own
irrespective of training expectations? Did she get some help from someone at the of�ice or elsewhere?
Simply asking her might indicate that none of those factors occurred, suggesting that it was in fact the
training. This process may be particularly relevant for the small business, where size makes it easier to
identify potential threats.

Internal Referencing Strategy
Another way of dealing with the lack of a control group is to use the internal referencing strategy (IRS)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_021) .
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_61) With this
method, include both relevant and nonrelevant test questions in the pre- and posttest. Here’s how it
works.

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Both pretests and posttests contain questions that deal with the training content and questions that deal
with related content not in the training. In the pretest, trainees will do poorly on both sets of questions. In
the posttest, if training is effective, improvement should only be shown for the trained items. The
nonrelevant items serve as a control. In their research on the IRS, Haccoun and Hamtiaux noted that the
results obtained from the IRS design were identical to those obtained when a control group was used.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_62) This
method deals with many of the concerns that arise when a control group is used, and with several other
concerns. Many of the threats to internal validity do not exist with the IRS because, with no control group
to react in an inappropriate manner, issues such as diffusion of training, compensatory treatment, and
compensatory rivalry are not a concern. The only threats are history, maturation, testing, statistical
regression, and instrumentation.

As previously noted, history can be investigated through examination of the time frame in which training
has occurred. Any events that potentially affected the trainees could be assessed as to their effect. Also,
given that the relevant and nonrelevant items are similar in nature in the IRS, any historical event should
affect both types of items in a similar manner. Maturation issues can be dealt with by ensuring that the
training is designed to keep trainees interested and motivated, and to prevent them from becoming tired
or fatigued. The reactive effect of testing can be dealt with if parallel tests are used. Parallel tests cover the
same content but do not use identical questions. This technique does lead to another potential problem
(instrumentation) that can be addressed. If all trainees receive a comprehensive pretest, then
instrumentation is not an issue.

Instrumentation is a concern if two different tests are used. If a large pool of items is developed from
which test items can be chosen at random, the result should be equivalent tests. Once again, it is important
to note that in any evaluation, we can never be 100 percent sure that training has caused the
improvement. We are not suggesting that this design take the place of more stringent designs when they
are practical. It is appropriate, however, when the alternative is posttest-only or nothing. Again, some
control is better than none at all.

One �inal note: The IRS design can be used to determine improvement in KSAs, but research indicates that
it tends to show that training is not effective when, in fact, it is.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_63) In other
words, the training must provide a substantial improvement from pretest to posttest for it to be detected
by this design.

More Complex Designs
Two factors need to be considered when developing a sound evaluation design:

1. Control groups

2. Random assignment

The control group is a group of similar employees who do not receive the training. The control group is used to
determine whether changes that take place in trainees also take place for those who do not receive training. If
change occurs only in the trainees, it is probably a result of training. If it occurs in both trained and untrained
groups, it is probably a result of some other factor.

Random assignment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_022) is the placement of
employees in either the control group or the training group by chance, to ensure that the groups are equivalent.
Random assignment is more applicable to experimental laboratories than to applied settings (such as in training)
for two reasons. First, given the small number of employees placed in one group or the other, the theory of

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randomness is not likely to hold true. When we split a group of 60 employees into two groups of 30, it is quite likely
that real differences will be present within the two groups. Random assignment works well when multiple groups of
30 are used, or when the total number of subjects is quite large (e.g., 500).

Second, it is unlikely that the organization can afford the luxury of randomly assigning employees to each group.
The work still needs to be done, and managers would want some control over who will be in training at a speci�ic
time. For this reason, �inding the best match of employees is important so that the control group contains a sample
representative of employees who are in the training group. Representative sampling
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_023) is matching
employees in the control group and training group on factors such as age, tenure, and education to make the
groups as equivalent as possible. The following discussion covers several designs that use control groups. We
believe that assigning trainees through representative sampling is a more effective way of obtaining equivalent
groups.

Posttest Only with Control Group
The following represents posttesting only with a control group:

This design and the following one are equivalent in that they deal effectively with all internal validity
issues.

If for some reason a pretest was not conducted or if the trainer did not provide a pretest to a control
group at the beginning of training, the trainees can be compared with a control group using a posttest-
only design. Differences in test scores noted between the groups, if trainees do better, provide evidence of
the success of the training. The tendency is to downplay the effectiveness of this design, because no pretest
assessed the equivalence of the groups before training. But if representative sampling has resulted in the
groups being equivalent, there is no need to have a pretest. Of course, there is greater con�idence
regarding the equivalence of the groups if there was a pretest.

Pretest/Posttest Only with Control Group
The expression for pretest/posttest with a control group is as follows:

This design is one of the more favorable for eliminating threats to internal validity. Recall that we do not
use random assignment in dividing the groups. So, how equivalent are they? A pretest can determine their
level of equivalence. Equivalent pretests in both groups provide you with one more piece of evidence that
the groups are equal, and posttest differences (if the trained group obtains higher scores) will suggest that
training was successful.

Time Series Design
The time series design is represented by:

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_023

This design uses a series of measurements before and after training. In this way, the likelihood of internal
validity threats such as testing or regression to the mean is minimized. Also, when everyone attends
training at the same time (a one-shot training program), this design can be used whether the number is
large or small. In such a case it could still be argued that with no control group, there are alternative
reasons for any change. But in an applied setting, the goal is to be as sure as possible about the results,
given organizational constraints. If enough measures are taken pre- and posttraining to deal with
�luctuations in performance, changes after training are certainly suggestive of learning. Remember that in
an applied setting, there will never be absolute certainty regarding the impact of training, but taking care
to use the best possible design (considering constraints) is still better than doing nothing at all.

To make this design more powerful, consider adding a control group, expressed by:

Multiple Baseline Design
Multiple baseline design is represented by:

Trainee Group A T T T × T T T T T T T

Trainee Group B T T T T T × T T T T T

Trainee Group C T T T T T T T × T T T

Trainee Group D T T T T T T T T T × T

In this design, multiple measures are taken much as in time series, but each group receives the training at a
different time. Each untrained group serves as a control for the trained groups. This approach deals with
many of the concerns when no control group is used. Here the ability to say that changes measured by the
test are a result of the training is strong. If each group improves after training, it is dif�icult to argue that
something else caused the change.

Choosing the Design to Use
Determining the true effect of training requires an investigation into the validity of evaluation results. Several
methods are available, and the more complex the design, the more valid the results. There are other considerations
when you are deciding on an evaluation design. Innovation can provide good substitutes when the best is not
possible. Consider the multiple baseline design. It is a powerful design and certainly is a possibility if several
employees need to receive the training over time.

However, what if multiple measures are not possible? The following design would address many of the same
concerns, and although it is not as elaborate, it certainly deals with many of the concerns regarding outside
in�luences causing the change. If pretest scores are all comparable and posttest scores indicate an improvement,
these results are a strong argument for showing that training was responsible.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Trainee Group A T × T

Trainee Group B T × T

Trainee Group C T × T

Trainee Group D T × T

We have already mentioned that most organizations do not evaluate all training at all levels. Furthermore, even
when evaluating training, many organizations do not use pretest/posttest or control groups in a manner that would
eliminate concerns about the validity of the results.

Dr. Dixon of George Washington University indicated that, of the companies she investigated in her article “New
Routes to Evaluation,” only one used designs that would deal with many of the validity issues. Other companies,
including IBM and Johnson Controls, follow such procedures only when asked by particular departments or higher-
level management, or when they can defray some of the high cost of developing reliable and valid tests by
marketing the �inal product to other organizations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_64) The demand for
certi�ication in some skills (primarily because of ISO and others’ requirements) created a need for these types of
tests.

When you are evaluating training, if using control groups or pretesting is not possible, remember that other
investigative methods can be used for assessing the likelihood that factors other than training account for any
change in KSAs.

What About Small Business?

Single Case Designs
We noted in Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) that,
for a small business, it is sometimes easier to infer cause and effect between training and outcomes. We also noted,
however, that it is also useful at times to consider evaluation to ensure that training is having its effect on employee
behavior. But traditional evaluation designs are very dif�icult to apply to a small business. So, is there an alternative?
Consider the single-case design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_024) . It is often used to
evaluate the training provided to professional counselors. But managers can also use this method when the number
of employees is small.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_65)

The single-case design uses data from one individual and makes inferences based on that information. To
increase con�idence in the results, use the multiple baseline approach. Suppose that two supervisors need to be
trained in active listening skills. Because the business is small, both cannot attend training at the same time. Using a
predetermined checklist developed for evaluating the training, count the number of active listening phrases that
each of them uses while talking to you. Take several measures over three or four weeks, then send one supervisor
to training. Continue monitoring the active listening after the person returns. Did the number of active listening
phrases increase for the trained supervisor and not the other supervisor? Now give the second supervisor training,
and afterward, continue monitoring the conversations. If both employees improved after training, it can be inferred
that the training was effective. Although this approach is suggested for the small business, it is also useful in any
organization when only a few employees need to be trained.

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Appendix 9-2 Utility Analysis
In the example in Table 9-7
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i131#ch09table07) using the cost-saving
method of evaluation, training supervisors in grievance handling reduced the total number of grievances by 50
percent and the number going to the third step from 63 to 8. In this example, we calculated only the cost savings
related to the change in third-step grievances. Utility analysis, however, permits us to estimate the overall value to
the organization of the supervisors’ changes in behavior. In other words, if those trained are better performers, on
average, and better performers are worth more in dollar terms, utility analysis allows us to estimate that increased
worth. A general approach to utility is as follows:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_66)

where

ΔU = dollar value of improved performance

N = number of trainees

T = time the bene�its will last

D = difference in performance between trained and untrained groups (in standard deviation units)

SD = dollar value of untrained group’s performance (in standard deviation units)

C = total cost of training the trained group

Some of the variables in the equation can be measured directly, whereas others must be estimated. For example,
N, C, and D can be determined objectively. However, determining how long the bene�its will last is really an
estimate that will be more or less accurate, depending on the estimator’s experience with training and the types of
employees involved. Calculating the dollar value of the untrained group’s performance falls somewhere in between.
It is relatively easy to determine the compensation costs. However, it is often more dif�icult to translate their actual
performance into dollar amounts. Recall our third-step grievance example. Even though we know what a third-step
grievance costs in management labor compensation, we do not know the impact of those third-step grievances on
the productivity of the work unit or the quality of the product/service. What to include in determining the dollar
value of performance becomes a subjective decision. The �inal result will be an estimate of the value of the
increased performance in dollars. Using the same example, an analysis of the possible utility is presented in Table 9-
10.

Utility analysis is complex and beyond the scope of this text; what has been presented here is just a taste of that
complexity. More complex models account for even more factors that might affect the true �inancial value of training
outcomes. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_67) The
purpose here is to demonstrate the dif�iculties of getting a true picture of the total �inancial bene�its associated with
training outcomes. However, these complexities exist for any area of the business when you try to determine the
effects of change. By becoming more quantitative in the assessment and description of training outcomes, training
managers can put themselves on an equal footing with other managers in the organization.

Although utility analysis has been around for quite some time it does not seem to have caught on in industry. Lori
Fair�ield, Editor of Training magazine, notes that in their survey “Industry Reports,” she has yet to see utility analysis
as a write in where the survey asks for any method used for evaluation that was not an option in the survey.
Furthermore, Jack Phillips, of the ROI Institute indicated that the only time he has found this method to be used in
an organization is when a PhD student is using it for a dissertation. Dr. Phillips also noted that when he talks to
executives about evaluation and mentions utility analysis as one option, they often suggest that it looks like “funny
money.” This latter comment may explain why some research has concluded that using utility analysis to bolster the

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claim as to the value of a project actually decreased managerial support for the project.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_69) Until it is clear why
this tendency is the case, it might not be wise to use this particular type of analysis to sell a project.

Table 9-10 Calculation of the Utility of the Grievance Training
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch09biblio_68)

Formula:

N = 30

T = 1 year (an overly conservative estimate)

SD = standard deviation of job performance for the untrained supervisors

ryy = reliability of job performance measure

D is a measure of the improvement (in standard deviation units) in performance that trained supervisors will
exhibit. Although obtaining the data is time-consuming (collecting the performance appraisal data for
supervisors, trained and untrained), the calculations can be done easily on using a computer.

The equation assumes average salary of $35,000. The 0.40 comes from the 40 percent rule, which is a
calculation based on 40 percent of the average salary of trainees. This rule comes from the Schmidt and Hunter
research. This and other methods to calculate SD can be found in Cascio (1991). According to the preceding
information, the utility of the training based on this formula is

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Eight Development and Implementation of Training

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS

80.

6.1/sections/i11

#ch08un�ig01)

Identify the elements in an instructional strategy.

Identify the factors to consider in choosing a trainer.

Choose the most effective seating arrangement on the basis of the nature of the training.

Examine a room, and determine whether it meets training requirements.

Describe the alternatives to developing training “in-house.”

Describe the mechanisms that should be put in place to assist in the transfer of training.

Explain how you would deal with each of the four types of dif�icult trainee.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.

.1/sections/i113#ch08unfig01

8.1 Case: Jack Goes to Training
Jack, a

3-year-old machinist, had worked for Scanton Industries for

years. It seemed that the need to learn something new was constant, and Jack was getting nervous
about his job. The nervousness grew last week when he saw a new batch of equipment arrive. It looked something like the machinery he uses now, but it was hooked up to
computers. Bill, his foreman, said, “It looks like you’ll be going back to school for a couple of days, Jack. You’re going to have to learn how to program your work into the
computer.” Jack smiled but felt sick to his stomach. He always had been good with his hands, but he had never done well in school.

All Jack thought about that weekend was the training he would be going to. He fell asleep Sunday night thinking about it. The phone awakened him at 7:00 the next morning.
It was Bill telling him that training had been switched from the local training center downtown to the local school because of a sudden strike at the training center. The school
was the only place available on short notice.

As Jack walked up the steps of the school, he felt sick to his stomach again. He entered the hall and then the classroom. Everything was similar to what he remembered about
school, except that now there was a computer on each desk. Even the smell was the same, and it brought back memories. Some were good (the guys getting together between
classes), but most were bad (being yelled at, taking tests, and doing poorly). As he sat in the wooden chair in the back where he used to sit, he looked out of the window and
began to daydream, just as he had done in high school.

The other 20 trainees were sitting quietly at their desks. All of them seemed as nervous as Jack. Suddenly someone burst through the door. “Hi, my name is Jason Reston. I’m
your instructor for this course. You’re here to learn some basic computer skills and how to program the machines that you will be using at work. I realize that you come from
different companies and will operate different machines, but the process for all of them is similar. First, I am going to show you how to get signed on and into the program you
will be running. . . .” Jack was back from his daydream. Well, here we go, he thought.

At lunch, Jack and his classmate Murray went to a local deli. “Are you keeping up?” Jack asked.

“Are you kidding? Are we going to be tested on this stuff?” asked Murray.

“I have no idea. If we are, I’m dead,” said Jack.

The afternoon went slowly. The trainer simply gave an instruction, and the trainees entered the information into the computer. Then he gave another and they entered that
as well. “How are we supposed to remember all this?” Murray whispered. The second day was worse. On a few occasions, Jack was jolted out of his daydream while staring out
of the window. “Jack,” yelled Jason, “are you with us?” At 3:00 p.m. on the second afternoon, Jason announced that they would be tested to see what they had learned. Jack
looked at the test questions. Was he that stupid? He did not even understand many of the questions. Would he lose his job if he failed this test? He could almost hear his boss
yelling at him, “You are �ired! Get out, get out!”

This case is an example of how not to conduct training. The training room and the training itself exacerbated the anxiety that Jack felt about going to training. As we go
through the chapter, think about what you would do to make the training more conducive to adult learning.

8.2 Development of Training
The �irst step in the development phase of training consists of formulating an instructional strategy. The focus of the instructional strategy is on achieving the training
objectives that were created in the design phase. The chosen alternative instructional methods and the factors related to learning facilitation and transfer (inputs from the
design phase) are used to shape the strategy so that it will achieve the objectives. The instructional strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i

7#glossch08_001) is a listing of all the elements of the training program, including the individual
modules, their organization, timing, methods, and materials to be used. The outputs of the development phase are all of the things needed to deliver the training program to
the participants.

These include the speci�ic content of the training, materials to be used, any slides, videos and such that are needed, presentation equipment, manuals, and so forth. All these
outputs will serve as inputs to the implementation phase. The relationships of these inputs, processes, and outputs are shown in the model of the development phase at the
beginning of the chapter.

Choosing Instructional Methods
In Chapters 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) and

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) , we discussed a variety of training methods. Our discussion included the strengths and
weaknesses of each method. Many of them, such as role-play, behavior modeling, and case study, are not meant to be stand-alone methods, but rather, they facilitate learning
by providing alternative mechanisms for providing practice. A summary of these methods and their effectiveness in developing knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) is
presented in Table 8-1.

Table 8-1 Training Method Effectiveness at Meeting KSA Objectives
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Objectives of Training

Knowledge

Skills

Training Methods Declarative Procedural Strategic Technical Inter-
personal

Lecture

Straighta
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08fnt01)

3 2 1 1 1

Discussion 4 3 2 1 1

Demonstration Computer-Based 1 4 2 4 4

Programmed Instruction 5 3 3 4 1

Intelligent Tutoring 5 4 4 5

Interactive Multimedia 5 4 4 5 4

Virtual Reality 3 5 3 4 4

Simulations/
Games

Equipment 1 3 2 5 1

Case Studies 2 2 4 2 2

Business Games 2 3 5 2 2b
(http://content.thuzelearn

In-Basket 1 3 4 1 2c
(http://content.thuzelearn

Role-Play 1 2 2 2 4

Behavior Modeling 1 3 3 4

OJT

JIT 3 5 4 4 2

Apprentice 5 5 4 5 2

Coaching 3 5 4 4 4

Scale: 1 5 not effective, 2 5 mildly effective, 3 5 moderately effective, 4 5 effective, 5 5 very effective.

a (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#r__ch08fnt01) This rating is for lectures delivered orally; printed lectures would be one point
higher in each knowledge category.

b (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#r__ch08fnt02) If the business game is designed for interpersonal skills, this rating would be a 4.

c (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#r__ch08fnt03) If multiple in-baskets were used, this rating would be 3.

d (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#r__ch08fnt04) This rating applies speci�ically to role reversal.

Although the method’s effectiveness in meeting the learning objective should be the major criterion for selection, other considerations are costs, time needed to develop the
material, and time allotted for the training session. For example, if cost prevents you from using the best method, then choose a different method that meets the budget but still
provides the necessary KSAs. The workforce’s literacy is another issue to consider. Methods such as programmed instruction and computer-based instruction rely on trainees’
ability to read and understand. If they are not skilled in these areas, alternative approaches are necessary, particularly if reading is not an important skill for the job.

What about those individual differences identi�ied in Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) ? How can we possibly
design training to meet the needs of different learning styles? As it turns out, if we pay close attention to the design of our training, using multiple methods and multiple AV
equipment, the training will meet the needs of many of the different learning styles. By using multiple visual aids (diagrams, �low charts, videos), as well as small group
discussions (having trainees explain to each other the material learned and how it �its in the workplace) the training will address Visual and Verbal learning styles respectively.
As well, use of small group discussions (for verbal) and having the groups map out their conclusions (visual) will tap into each of these learning styles.

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https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05

Role-plays of real workplace examples, or cases based on actual work examples will provide Sensors with the right type of presentation. The use of theory to tie the training
concepts together will meet the needs of Intuitives. Good design also provides rewards for involvement in the training process, and creating competition between groups can
also increase motivation levels, especially in Intuitives who might be getting a bit bored.

Using small groups in training also supports different learning styles. For example, after a lecturette, trainees are put in small groups and told to �irst think about the issue
just discussed and how the trainee might use the information in the workplace (symbolic rehearsal). Then to meet in the small groups and share their thoughts on how to use
the information and come to a consensus of how useful the information would be in the workplace. Note how the former (symbolic coding) �its with the Re�lective learning
style, and the latter, the Active learning style.

We tend to present training material in a linear method. A leads to B that leads to C. This �its well into the Sequential learning style. To accommodate the Global style we need
to begin this sequential training with an overview of how this particular set of sequences (A leading to B that leads to C) �its into the overall training. Also get trainees to
consider how this training �its with what they already know.

By considering all these factors, you will likely meet, for the most part, the learning style of all trainees. Not only that, but by mixing up the methods and visual aids, you
make the training less monotonous and therefore, more interesting.

The knowledge gained from Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) provides an awareness of the factors that
facilitate learning and transfer of KSAs back to the job so that you can meet your training objectives. Of course, you will also need to operate within the organizational
constraints that you have identi�ied. Keeping all of this in mind, we now turn to the instructional strategy.

Instructional Strategy
The instructional strategy is a written document, often called a training plan (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_002) .
We will use these terms interchangeably. This plan details all aspects of the training, including the methods, materials, equipment, facilities, and trainers. The following sections
indicate what should be included in the documentation, rather than the form that it should take. An instructional strategy should �irst identify the target population, the overall
training objective (purpose), the location of the training, and the initial con�iguration of the training space. It should then provide a listing of the learning objectives for the
training. These objectives should be organized into modules that encompass related topics. For each learning objective, a list of key learning points should be developed. The
training methods to be used to achieve these objectives, the materials and equipment needed, and the trainer who will deliver this module should also be identi�ied. Sometimes
the con�iguration of the training space needs to be changed to accommodate a different training method. For example, with a large number of trainees, the appropriate
con�iguration for a lecture will be different from that for a small-group exercise. Your plan should identify any points in the training where the seating con�iguration needs to
change. After all the components of the training are identi�ied, a brief statement as to what actions will be taken to assist transfer of training to the job should be listed.
Mechanisms used to assist transfer must be documented so it is clear what will occur once training is completed. It is generally expected that transfer of training will occur, but
often little is done to ensure that it does. When no one person is responsible, the feeling of responsibility is diffused, and transfer is soon forgotten.

Finally, a short description of how the training will be evaluated should be included. It is important to include the evaluation process and time frames as these items need to
be included in the time allocation for training if evaluation occurs at the end of training. This also helps ensure that each component of the training is focused on achieving the
desired outcomes.

Table 8-2 can serve as a guide for developing your instructional strategy. To get a better feel for the pipe�itting job you may want to review Table 6-

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i91#ch06table08) which shows the job breakdown sheet. The instructional strategy will help you
systematically examine what is required and what ordering of the material makes the most sense. Each component of the instructional strategy is discussed in more detail in
the following sections.

Objectives and Learning Points
As stated, the instructional strategy should contain all of the learning objectives, organized into the modules in which these objectives will be addressed. Each learning objective
should have the list of key learning points required to achieve the objective. A learning point
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_003) is an important piece of information that a trainee must acquire to accomplish
a learning objective. Each learning objective provides speci�ic information as to what needs to be learned, and that helps identify the key learning points. Consider this learning
objective: “Solder twenty feet of half-inch copper pipe, using elbows and unions, in 20 minutes or less with no leaks.” To ensure that there are no leaks, the trainee must pay
speci�ic attention to the cleaning of the copper pipe, the proper heating of the pipe, and the correct application of the solder. These factors would be key learning points, which
the trainer would need to be sure that the trainee had mastered in order to achieve the objective.

Other Content
As each learning objective is considered (along with its learning points), the most effective con�iguration of methods, material and equipment, facilities, and trainers is
determined. In Table 8-2, the lecture method provides the cognitive information, and the simulation provides the actual practice. If the training is to teach supervisors how to
deal effectively with con�lict, the methodology might be lecture and discussion to provide information, and role-play or behavior modeling to provide practice. Once the
methods to be used and the sequencing of the training are established, it is necessary to determine time frames for each of these activities. In most cases time is limited, and
the inexperienced training developer tends to overload the material to be covered. Always allow for a reasonable amount of time for discussion and interaction, which is where
much of the learning occurs.

Table 8-2 Components of Instructional Strategy

Instructional Strategy/Training Plan

Name of Program: Pipe Fitting I Classroom con�iguration: 15 seats in “U” shape with open end facing projection screen.

Location: Classroom 101 next to Field
simulation site no. 2

Evaluation: conducted at the end of training (Correct connection of furnace to a gas meter, in a simulation, with no
assistance from readings or instructor.)

Target Population: Apprentices who successfully passed the gas �itters exam

Overall Training Objective: Trainees will be able to examine a work project and with appropriate tools measure, cut, thread, and install the piping according to standards
outlined in the gas code.

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Time Topic Learning Objective Learning Points Method Material and
Audiovisuals

12:05–
12:

(

min)

Trainer:
Mr. XX

Introduction;
Welcome ground
rules, agenda,
etc.

Get individuals in newly
formed groups used to each
other

Create a warm environment
conducive to learning

Icebreaker
activity

Small-
group
discussion

Training manual

Projector

12:25–
1:00 (35
min)

Trainer:
Mr. XX

Determining
number and
length of pipes
needed

1. Using a tape measure, determine the length and number
of pipes necessary to connect the furnace to the gas meter
in a manner that meets the gas code

1. The extra length necessary
because of the threading

2. That length is reduced by
different �ittings, e.g., street
elbow, union elbow, etc.

3. Method for constructing
appropriate drop for furnace

Lecture
and
simulation

Training manual
Projector

Assortment of 1-inch
and 3/4-inch �ittings,
elbows, street elbows,
and unions

Mock meter and furnace
setup

Tape measure, note
pads

1:00–1:45
(45 min)

Trainer:
Ms. YY

Cutting and
threading pipe

2. Using a threading machine, cut and thread length of pipe
required

1. Length of thread required

2. Importance of cutting and
reaming, measuring, and use
of threading machine oil

Lecture
and
simulation

Trainee manual

Videocassette recorder
and television

Threading tape

Threading machine

Steel pipe

Oil

Tape measure

Measures
to assist
transfer:

Coach assigned
on work crew.

On the basis of the type of training, the next step is to decide on the con�iguration of the room. Clearly, documenting this information reduces the likelihood of mistakes. For
example, a problem might develop if the training requires a great deal of face-to-face interaction among the trainees, but the training facilities are too small to accommodate
those interactions. This is discussed in more depth later, under the heading “Furniture Setup.”

After agreement is reached on a carefully constructed instructional strategy, the next step is to obtain or develop the instructional material, instructional media and
equipment, and so on, that you have identi�ied as needed. This is your program development plan
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_004) and consists of the checklist (derived from your instructional strategy) of all
the components of the training that need to be developed or acquired. The output from the development phase (as shown in the development phase of our training model at
the start of the chapter) is development or acquisition of all the items on your program development plan. Methodically completing the program development plan should
make it possible to identify and develop everything required for training. The discussion that follows will cover each of the development plan components in more detail.

Materials and Equipment
Once your training plan is completed, document all the necessary material you will need such as printed material, slides, and the like, and the time frames for their completion.
Allow suf�icient time to prepare materials properly. Order equipment and anything else provided by others at off-site locations well in advance. Important charts, posters, and
easel sheets can be professionally printed depending on cost and time constraints.

Trainee’s Manual
The trainee’s manual is an important learning tool for training. The instructional strategy provides you with an outline of what needs to be included in the manual. To keep the
trainees’ interest and their complete involvement in discussions, provide notes on all the key information that will be presented. The trainees will then be able to pay more
attention to what is being said and done, rather than being concerned about taking notes. The manual often includes all lecture materials, learning points, and supplemental
readings. It may also include exercises and some blank sheets for jotting down notes and lists in small-group meetings.

A good choice for holding the manual’s material is a three-ring binder, because the trainee can add information as the training continues. If you will be using handouts, have
them printed on paper with the holes already punched so they can easily be inserted into the manual. It is sometimes better to hold back certain information—for example,
exercises—from the trainees until it is time to use it. Trainees should not be distracted from the current topic by trying to �igure out various problems ahead of time.

Trainer’s Manual
The trainer’s manual provides all the information in the trainee’s manual and information on what the trainer needs to do and how. It is a visual aid for the trainer. One format
is to have the lecture notes on the right-hand side of the page and the instructions for the trainer on the left-hand side. These instructions range from indicating when to
generate lists on newsprint to what some of the expected information on the list might be and how the trainer might want to respond. A well-prepared trainer’s manual will
provide everything a trainer needs to know to conduct the training.

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Facilities
If training is taking place in the company’s facility, be sure that the room is available by reserving it. If training will be off-site, be selective as to the design of the room. Be sure
that the site can accommodate breakout rooms if they are needed and that the seating can be appropriately con�igured. If movable dividers separate the room from others,
inquire about the events scheduled next door. Attending a training session when a motivational speaker or sales rally is next door can be distracting. If nothing is scheduled,
get assurance that the booking of�ice will be sensitive to your concerns if they book the rooms next door. Check the soundproo�ing of the panels that separate the rooms. Avoid
booking rooms that lead directly to the kitchen unless it is certain that the walls are soundproofed.

Some Advantages to Off-Site Training Facilities
Although a certain pride can come from having your own training facilities, they can be expensive. Off-site training offers several advantages.

First, being off-site provides more assurance that trainees will not be interrupted. It is simply too easy to contact the trainee if he is on the same �loor or even in the next
building.

Another advantage is the change of pace off-site training offers. Going to a hotel or conference center is not the same as going to work. Many trainees will associate staying
in a hotel with a vacation (unless they are traveling salespersons). This change of pace is even more important if a great deal of stress is associated with the job. Recall the
discussion of classical conditioning. Regular pairing of work with stress will result in a feeling of stress upon arrival at the workplace. Off-site training in this situation might be
more suited to the learning process. However, choose the off-site facility with care. Remember Jack and his training at the old school?

Going off-site also allows the trainer to choose a facility compatible with the needs of the particular training event. If breakout rooms, a classroom, U-shaped setup, or all
three are required, you can choose the location that best �its the requirements.

The Training Room
Whether you are designing a training facility or going off-site to train, many factors contribute to making the training room a learner-friendly environment. The following
describes the type of training room that is ideal for most types of training.

A windowless room is best. Windows can distract the trainees, as was evident in the case at the start of the chapter. Jack was easily distracted from the training for many
reasons, but the window gave him a way to avoid the training. If the room does contain windows, be sure that they are �itted with shades or curtains that you can close.
Unblocked windows, even on upper �loors of a building, can be distracting when the weather turns bad. Also, light coming through the windows can create glare. The walls
should be blank—neither decorated with pictures nor brightly painted—and a neutral color, such as beige. The point of this is to eliminate things that will distract trainees
from the training. Material that is related to the training can and should be posted on walls and easels. Lighting should be adjustable so it can be dimmed for slide shows or
video presentations and can be made brighter for the lecture, discussions, and exercises. Ideally, the room should be close to square in shape. Rectangular rooms limit the type
of seating arrangements possible. A rule of thumb is to avoid a training room whose length exceeds its width by more than 50 percent.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_002) The room should be carpeted and should have a sound-absorbing ceiling. As
noted earlier, a soundproof facility, whether on premises or off-site, is very important.

The room should be equipped with its own temperature control and quiet heating/cooling fans. This point might sound trivial—after all, who would build a training room
with noisy fans? The problem is that contractors are good at constructing buildings but do not specialize in any particular type. When the University of Windsor Business
School was being built, a team of faculty members provided input into the design of the classrooms. This input helped tremendously in the development of user-friendly
classrooms, but the team did not think about fan noise. The result: One of the few complaints about the building is fan noise. When the fans are on, it becomes dif�icult to hear
the questions being asked.

Under the heading “nice to have,” consider the following for a multipurpose training room:

Have tracks built onto the walls with a slot into which newsprint can be pushed, allowing for the hanging of charts and posters anywhere in the room.

Have whiteboards built into the walls at strategic locations to allow easy access to large writing surfaces.

Have built-in consoles that control lighting, audiovisuals (AVs), and computers, to provide easy access to the operation of these training aids.

Have a working remote control so trainers can operate the lights and AVs from anywhere in the room.

Have an interactive whiteboard (e.g., SMART board) for developing models or listing points generated in discussions, and be able to provide copies to trainees easily.

If AVs are built into the facility, make sure that they are situated so that all trainees can view and hear them. Also make sure that AVs are not built into places where the
equipment itself blocks sight lines.

Furniture
Use tables and chairs rather than classroom-type desk chairs. Tables should be movable so they can be set up in any con�iguration. An ideal table size is 5 feet long and

/2
feet wide, as this allows two people to sit comfortably on one side. Many con�igurations are possible by arranging the tables. Putting two of these tables together makes a 5-
foot square where eight people can hold a group discussion.

If possible, use padded swivel chairs that are cloth covered (not vinyl) and have casters and armrests. Trainees will be required to sit for extended periods of time, and
comfort is important. In addition to providing overall comfort, the swivel and casters allow for ease of movement when trainees must form small groups or turn to work with
another trainee. Being able to lean back and rest your arms creates a relaxing environment conducive to learning.

Furniture Setup
Seating arrangements depend on the type of training being conducted. The typical con�igurations are classroom, U-shape, conference, and circle. The arrangement determines
the degree of formality, focus of attention, and level of two-way communication.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_003) To appreciate this point, consider the two extremes, circle and classroom
(Figure 8-1 styles A and B). The classroom style (B) places the focus on the trainer and limits two-way communication between trainees because the trainees are all facing one
direction. If no tables are used, more trainees can be accommodated. This arrangement is called theater style. When a trainee sees such a setup, her role is clearly de�ined in
her mind: She is there to listen. In the circle setup (A), the focus is evenly distributed; no single person is being looked at. A trainee sees this style and her role is also de�ined:
She will be a part of the discussion. Furthermore, this lack of focus makes it easier for trainees to debate and discuss issues among themselves.

To provide employees with information on the company’s position regarding sexual harassment, for example, the classroom con�iguration is appropriate. Here the goal is to
provide information, and the focus should be on the trainer. Most two-way communication involves question-and-answer exchanges between the trainer and the trainee.
Suppose the goal is to train managers to deal with sexual harassment. A circle is chosen because the goal is to generate discussion about managers’ experiences and ways of
handling them. In the circle, trainees face one another and the trainer is just one of the members of the circle; the focus on all members of the group is equal. Another obvious
difference between these two con�igurations is that a larger number of trainees can be accommodated in the classroom setup.

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Various modi�ications of these two extremes can also be used. The semicircle (Figure 8-1C) encourages trainee discussion and allows trainees to be face-to-face when the
trainer is not talking. In this situation, the trainer stands when presenting information and sits with the trainees when encouraging discussion.

Perhaps the con�iguration used most often is the U-shape (Figure 8-1D). It is similar to the semicircle but allows for a larger group of trainees. The U-shape places the main
focus on the trainer, allows a fair amount of face-to-face discussion among the group members, and accommodates a reasonably large group (

to 35 trainees). However, the
U itself can become too large. The trainer must be careful not to move too deeply into the U and cut off those at the end. Also, if �lip charts are used, two sets may be needed to
make reading them easy for all participants, particularly if the number exceeds 30. Placing the charts slightly inside the open end of the U (see Figure 8-1D) ensures that they
are not blocked and all participants can see the material easily.

Another alternative is to have trainees sit at round tables in a semicircle (Figure 8-1E). This arrangement facilitates easy switching from lecturette to small-group exercises
or discussions. Figure 8-1F is similar but with rectangular tables. The other advantage of these con�igurations is that they set up small groups where members can interact,
making the training less threatening at the beginning.

Figure 8-1 Different Seating Arrangements for Training

Refreshments
Although this may seem logical and not worth mentioning, various refreshments are necessary during a training session. Failure to plan for this will undoubtedly lead to unrest
and irritation among trainees. Plan to have fresh coffee, juices and some type of food (muf�ins, donuts) available prior to the start of training as well as though out the morning
training sessions. In the afternoon you should also have coffee, pop, and a snack of some type. In the workplace workers have coffee breaks and opportunities to have a snack
so by providing these amenities you are ful�illing the refreshment needs of the trainees. In ERG terminology, you are meeting the existence needs by providing sustenance.
Failure to do so will have attention focused on why there are no refreshments as the participants are used to having, instead of focusing on training.

The Trainer
How is the trainer chosen? One of the reasons most commonly cited for ineffective training is its lack of relevance to the trainee’s situation. Comments such as “The training is
great but it will not work in our plant,” “You do not understand the problems we have,” and “My boss is the one who should be here, because the boss makes the decisions”
indicate the concern trainees perceive as to the transferability of the training to their jobs.

One way to ensure the relevance of the training is to use managers as trainers.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_004) Their involvement alleviates most of the preceding concerns, but some other
problems may arise. If the manager also supervises some of the trainees, his presence could dampen the trainees’ enthusiasm for training. Additionally, the manager may not
have the skills needed to be an effective trainer.

Larger organizations can overcome the supervision issue by not having managers train their immediate subordinates. Smaller organizations would need to assure such
trainees that they will be treated the same as others (although this assurance doesn’t always work). As long as trainees do not perceive any different treatment, the word
would get out that this system was okay. Another concern is the potential that the middle manager may spend too much time dealing with organizational issues rather than the
training topics. Solid training objectives would help prevent this con�lict.

Another way to develop a successful training program is to use a seasoned trainer (e.g., outside or internal consultant) and a manager to team-teach the training program.
The two could work from each other’s strengths. An advantage of this approach is that the manager receives good on-the-job training on how to be an effective trainer. The
disadvantage is cost, and for this reason it is not often chosen. The larger issue of the trainer’s competence is addressed later.

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Trainer KSAs
The KSAs of an effective trainer are presented in Table 8-3. Note that many of the requirements are similar to those suggested for an effective lecturer. This is important
because almost all training includes a lecture component.

Table 8-3 Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes Required of an Effective Trainer

Knowledge

Subject matter

Organization

Adult learning process

Instructional methods

Skills

Interpersonal communication skills

Verbal skills (ability to explain clearly)

Active listening

Questioning

Providing feedback

Platform skills (ability to speak with in�lection, gesture appropriately, and maintain eye contact)

Organization skills (ability to present information in logical order and stay on point)

Attitudes

Commitment to the organization

Commitment to helping others

High level of self-ef�icacy

Just how much knowledge of the subject matter does the trainer need? The level of knowledge required depends on the complexity of the subject matter. Highly technical
subject matter requires a high level of such knowledge. Is the high level of knowledge more important than being a skilled trainer? Perhaps that question is not the correct
focus, because both subject-matter knowledge and trainer skills are important. We know that trainer skills are critical to trainee learning, so the better question is, “Which is
more advisable, to train the trainer in the technical skills or to train the expert in training skills?” The answer, especially if the subject matter is highly technical or complex, is
the latter. In the short term, it may be necessary to pair a technical expert with a training specialist until the technical expert acquires suf�icient training skill.

The trainer should possess a reasonable knowledge of the organization and trainees. Such knowledge increases the credibility of the trainer and helps her answer
questions that come up regarding integrating the training back into the workplace.

Although most of the knowledge and many of the skills required of a trainer are trainable, it would be best to be able to begin with individuals who already possess the
attitudes identi�ied in Table 8-3, because attitudes are more dif�icult to change.

Experience and Credibility
How important is it to have experience related to the training topic? The more experience a trainer has in the topic area, the more credibility for the trainer. Consider, for
example, one successful trainer’s early run-in with trainees because of a perceived lack of experience. The trainer was part of a corporate training staff. The course he was
asked to teach was called “Nonmonetary Motivation Techniques.” The trainees were �irst-line supervisors with an average of six years’ experience in their positions and more
than 10 years with the company. Ten minutes into the �irst training component (the lecture), one of the older trainees raised his hand and said, “Sonny, have you ever
supervised a group of unskilled laborers?” The answer, of course, was “no,” but he quali�ied it with the fact that he had supervised white-collar employees. Several knowing
smirks around the room made it clear that the trainer’s credibility had been destroyed. Throughout the rest of the program, trainees were inattentive, lethargic, and
occasionally rude. This trainer learned early on that trainer credibility is a key factor in the effectiveness of classroom training.

How could the trainer handle such a situation more effectively? One approach would be to set the context of the training at the beginning. He might say something like the
following: I will be presenting a number of nonmonetary techniques that you might be able to use to motivate your employees. These techniques worked for other supervisors
in a variety of situations. First, I will explain the technique, and then we will discuss how it might work for you or how it might be adapted to work for you. You know your
work units better than anyone else, so I’m counting on everyone to help identify ways that these techniques can be applied.

A trainer does not need to have the same work experience as the trainees to be credible. However, a trainer needs to be seen as having something worthwhile to offer. Here
the trainer is offering some new ideas and expertise in facilitating the discussion of these ideas, but—and this point is important—the trainer does not dismiss or diminish the
expertise of the audience. In effect, the trainer says, “Let’s merge our separate areas of expertise to arrive at something we both want—more motivated employees.”

Acknowledging the differences in experience at the beginning of training is also important. It allows the trainees to see that the trainer is aware of the differences and is
taking them into account. For example, in the previous situation the trainer might say, “My experience has been supervising white-collar employees. How do you think the
motivations of these employees differ from those you supervise?” After some differences are noted, the trainer might then ask, “At one time, most of you were unskilled
workers. What were the things that motivated you when you were an unskilled worker?” This question would allow the supervisors to see that while individuals may differ in
the things that motivate them, general categories of motivators apply for all individuals. The questioning process allows the trainees to test their assumptions and learn
through self-discovery, provided the trainer has the skill to translate the participant responses into learning opportunities. We will discuss other issues that affect trainer
credibility in the chapter section “Implementation Ideas for Trainers.”

On-the-Job Trainers

On-the-job (OJT) trainers are different from the traditional trainer. OJT trainers are usually classi�ied as jobholders or supervisors for the jobs for which they are providing
training. As a result, there are some unique issues to consider. For OJT programs to be effective, the trainers need to
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_005)

know the job to be trained,

be knowledgeable in the interpersonal skills necessary to interact effectively with those they train,

be skilled as trainers, and

be motivated to be trainers.

OJT in general uses co-workers and supervisors as trainers. None of these people started out to be a trainer, and likely none has formal training in how to be an effective
trainer. The OJT trainer does need to know the job to be trained, but the best trainer is not necessarily the person who can best do the job. The OJT trainer should have a solid
understanding of how the job is performed and an ability to interact effectively with others. But given that they did not sign on as trainers, it should not be expected that they
would understand speci�ics related to teaching others how to do the job. To be effective, therefore, such training is necessary and should include
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_006)

the company’s formal OJT process (e.g., JIT) and the policies and support provided by the organization,

interpersonal skills and feedback techniques, and

principles of adult learning.

Motivating the OJT trainer is also a key factor in making the OJT method effective. Trainers need to observe the trainee closely to ensure adequate skill development and to
prevent the trainee from causing damage to equipment and property or injury to self or others. For this to happen, OJT trainers must be rewarded for conducting the training
while doing their jobs. This can be done in many ways, but there are several things to remember. Someone who is training another employee and performing his own job
should not be expected to perform at the same level of productivity as someone who is not training others. Rewards must be provided for giving effective training. Think back
to the proper process of OJT. It requires the trainer to go through the steps of particular tasks methodically and then observe as the trainee does the same. This process
requires time, which will take away from the productivity that would be possible if the trainer were doing nothing but his own job.

One way to motivate the OJT trainer would be to institute a different (higher) classi�ication for someone who was capable of training other employees. This designation
would provide prestige (and perhaps more money) for the position. At the same time, the measure of performance for the trainer could be how well the trainee performs at
the end of the formal OJT. Here the motivation would be to turn out good trainees. If this is not done, and trainers are expected to perform their regular jobs at a similar level
as nontrainers, then the result might well be similar to what happened in the following example. A food service and vending company used experienced vending machine
service route drivers to train new route drivers. The company attributed a history of high turnover among trainee drivers to the nature of the job, the low starting wage, and
the hours required. The arrival of a new human resources manager led to a reexamination of this problem. Discussions with current trainees and trainees who had voluntarily
terminated their employment in the recent past revealed that many of the trainers would do all the easy work (restocking the machines) and make the trainees do the “dirty”
work (performing maintenance on the machines). Others would not let the trainees do any of the work because it “slowed them down.” As the drivers were paid on the basis of
the number of machines they serviced, rather than on an hourly rate, they were essentially doing the training for free.

Alternatives to Development
For several reasons, an organization may choose not to develop its own training. A small business might not have the resources; a large company might not have many
individuals to train or simply might have too many other projects in the works. In such situations, alternatives are available. The company could hire a consultant and use one
of their prepackaged programs or look to outside training seminars. The option to hire a consultant to do all the work is an expensive alternative but would result in a
program tailored to the company’s needs, much as if the organization did it all itself.

The Consultant
If the training required is not speci�ic to the organization but more generic (e.g., con�lict management, interviewing skills, or computer skills), �ind a consultant with a training
package that can be adapted to �it the company’s needs. Using the consultant’s prepackaged program without any alterations would reduce the overall cost.

The advantage of prepackaged programs is that they are ready to go. The disadvantage is that they are not speci�ic to a company. This trade-off may be more acceptable for
a session on con�lict resolution than for a session on team development. In fact, many prepackaged programs can be used to supplement a company’s own program. They can
be less costly than hiring a consultant, but some are still expensive. Some consulting �irms offer prepackaged programs and also provide training for the trainers. This option
adds to the cost, but the training is usually quite good. If a great deal of training will be taking place in the organization, this option may be worth the extra expense if it is
amortized over multiple sessions.

In deciding whether to use a consultant, consider questions such as the following:

How many employees are to be trained, and will they need constant retraining?

Can advantages be realized from involving a neutral third party (e.g., union–management cooperative ventures)?

Is there a rush to get the training done?

Is there in-house expertise?

If the decision is to use a consultant, consider the following:

Ask for references, ask who they have trained, and be sure to follow up on this information (consultants vary in their expertise).

Determine how much the consultant knows about the industry.

Review some of the training objectives in the consultant’s training packages.

Find out how the consultant evaluates success in training.

Make sure you know who will be doing the work. Often you meet the salesperson, not the trainer.

Outside Seminars
The outside seminar is training offered from time to time at local hotels, conference centers, and universities. These seminars are the least expensive and best alternative if
only a few employees need training. For a suf�icient number of attendees, these seminars may be brought to your site. On-site seminars can be tailored to the organization for
a moderate extra cost. They can also include an evaluation component.

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When choosing a seminar, consider the following questions:

What are the training objectives? Skills require practice, and seminars often are too large to include practice sessions.

Is any form of evaluation used? (Evaluation is rarely done.)

How well does the content focus on the training objectives?

Can someone be sent to preview the seminar and report back on its potential value?

If the decision is to purchase training, assess how it �its into the overall training strategy. Many companies have implemented team training in the past because it was “the
thing to do.” Spending money on team training simply because others were doing it wasted money. Training should be seen as a mechanism to support the organization’s
mission and goals. Other mechanisms must also be in place to support the training if it is to transfer effectively.

Focus on Small Business
In Britain, organizations with fewer than 100 employees reported a 25 percent increase in training with about 60 percent reporting �inancial bene�its from the training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_007) Another study in Britain noted that the payoff of more training seems to be a
higher level of innovation from employees. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_008) So formal training is a valuable
commodity for the small business. In North America, a study of small businesses (fewer than 100 employees) indicated that most (83 percent) had some form of formal
training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_009) The cost of this training is unknown, but knowing how important
costs are for the small business, it is useful to consider options that could reduce these training costs. To achieve the bene�its of formalized training, the small business might
�ind it advantageous to hire a consultant or purchase prepackaged training. If so, it is important that they follow the same suggestions mentioned previously when choosing a
consultant or packaged training.

Small businesses should also examine the feasibility of developing a consortium of small businesses that could all use the same training. LearnShare (see Training in
Action 7-6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i105#ch07sidebar06) ) discovered that 74 percent of their training is not speci�ic to a
particular organization’s process or products. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_010) The same is likely true for
small companies. Why not take advantage of this commonality and work together to identify training needs and share in the cost of developing or purchasing relevant training?
This is what LearnShare does. LearnShare developed an online training program called the Leader Survival Kit.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_011) The total cost of the program was $285,000, but sharing the cost among
companies made it only about $22,000 each. If this shared development expense can be done for e-learning, it can also be done for any type of training development; thus, it
can be affordable for smaller businesses. Also, given the increasing number of small businesses, the expense could be shared among more, making the cost of development
even less.

E-learning is now an option for the small business. Numerous businesses are providing a template for developing online learning. This way, the small business gets
affordable training that can be tailored to its needs. Several e-learning opportunities are now available. Quelsys is a company that allows trainers from other companies to use
its authoring tools to build training programs. No cost is charged until employees begin to take the course, and then the cost is on a per-employee basis.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_012) The Small Business Administration’s training network provides several
training courses via the Web for free. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_013) Some companies are even more
adventuresome and develop an online learning university (see Training in Action 8-1).

8-1 Training in Action What a Small Company Can Do
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Walker and Associates, distributes telecommunications equipment and had just under 300 employees at the time a new president came on board. The new president
was a strong believer in employee training and development. To strengthen his T&D capabilities he formed a partnership with a Web-based learning provider, to create
the Walker Institute of Training and Development, an online corporate university.

To allow employees to access the training, Walker’s president offered employees an interest-free loan to purchase a home computer. He also purchased several
laptops for employees to check out for home or travel. Of course, some employees were still a bit reluctant to use the computers and the Internet.

To help encourage employees to use the system, the president started small, with a pilot program of a few employees. This allowed him to get feedback from the
naysayers as well as those who were eager. This approach helped launch the program. Another incentive for employees was that supervisors made its use one of the
goals for employees in their performance review. New employees were introduced to the e-learning and its use in their orientation. These employees just saw it as the
way Walker developed their employees.

Note that these practices, starting with a pilot program integrating the use of the Web training into an employee’s �irst experience in the organization (orientation)
and building it into performance appraisal, are all practices for any effective training, Web-based or not.

Small businesses often belong to industry-speci�ic associations that can provide a venue for discussing this idea to determine the level of interest. The associations
themselves could develop a consortium for their constituents. If a consortium is too complex a project to consider, why not simply purchase a few prepackaged training
programs? If a small business located three other companies with similar training interests, it would save 75 percent of the cost.

Western Learning Systems of California is a variation on the consortium idea. It develops courses for larger companies but retains the copyright. It then markets these
courses to small companies at a more affordable rate. They offer a one-year membership for $5,000 that entitles a company to 75 classes at the rate of $195 per class.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_014)

Another inexpensive way to train in some areas is to require trainees to read a particular book and then participate in a discussion group on the topic. The person most
knowledgeable about the subject leads the group. A company preparing for ISO certi�ication asked a group of employees to read a book written by one of the quality gurus,
Philip Crosby. After they read each chapter, they met to discuss it. The manager prepared questions in advance to keep the discussion going.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_016) Earlier we indicated how important trainee involvement is for adult learning.
These discussion groups are the epitome of involvement. The informal training in this company became more formal after this initial orientation.

Although this method does not follow all the criteria that we suggest for an effective training program, it might more than compensate for this by motivating participants. No
single best way to train has been established, especially when the variations in cost-bene�it for different training alternatives are considered. Training in Action 8-2 provides
examples of various methods being used by small businesses.

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8-2 Training in Action Training in a Small Business: Examples of Different Approaches
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At Staffmasters, a small temporary service provider in Louisville, each of its 10 employees specialize in a particular area (e.g., safety) and attend outside seminars to
gain relevant knowledge. On return, each is responsible for teaching others about the particular issue.

At Rivait Machine Tools, Inc., a 14-person operation in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, only one basic type of work is done. So, instead of providing training in job
procedures, a “job aid” was developed consisting of a checklist of tasks to be performed. The employee goes through the list, checks off each task as completed, and
then moves to the next task. This means that training, except at the basic level, is not necessary.

You do not have to be big to win prestigious awards, but you do need training. Custom Research, Inc., is a market research company based in Minneapolis. Each of its
105 employees received a minimum of 130 hours of training in 1995. In 1996, it became the �irst professional service company and the smallest company ever to win
the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.

Steve Braccini, president of Profastener, a small business in California with about 150 employees, suggests that it is a good idea to send two employees, rather than
only one, to a speci�ic type of training. A single trainee might return with a skewed view of what took place. Sending two, who discuss the training with each other,
ensures a common understanding. Braccini believes that this system results in a better overall product. He also makes sure that these employees have “train the trainer”
skills before sending them off to the training.

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8.3 Implementation

At this point, you are ready to implement your instructional strategy. This phase of the training model is depicted above. Note that the outputs from the development phase
are brought together and become the inputs for the implementation stage. Next, the “process” phase contains two steps that are important to take before your training is ready
for general use. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_018) They are, �irst, a dry run, and then a pilot program. The
former is a “�irst test” of new material; here, the training package may not be presented in its entirety. The latter is the �irst full-blown presentation of the training using
�inished materials. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08un�ig02)

Before discussing the dry run and pilot program, let us examine some ideas for implementing training, �irst in terms of the structure of training, and then in terms of what
the trainer should do both before and during the training.

Implementation Ideas for Training Structure
There are several things you can do to ensure that trainees become, and remain, interested in training.

Icebreaker
Have an icebreaker (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_005) to start the training. An icebreaker is a game or exercise
that prompts trainees to get comfortable interacting with other trainees and the trainer. It is designed to be fun but at the same time generate energy that will transfer to the
rest of the training. Would an icebreaker have been a useful way for Jason Reston to start his training? We believe so. The major reason given for not using an icebreaker is
that it takes up too much time, but this assumption is a mistake. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_019) Without
the icebreaker, training starts off fast, but because of the lack of “getting to know others” and making discussion a legitimate part of training, it soon slows down and loses the
race. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_020) The choice of icebreaker depends on the size of the group. Suppose
the focus of training was on listening and communication skills. One approach, if the class is not too large and trainees do not know one another, is to group trainees into
triads. If possible, set up these groups ahead of time so that group members do not know each other. Each trainee interviews one member of the triad, with the third as an
observer. The questions should be simple but should help in getting to know the person. For example, ask for the following information:

The person’s name (for obvious reasons)

The organization the person is from and title (learn about the type of work he or she does)

The amount of time in the person’s present job (learn about the person’s experience)

The best aspects of the job (learn about “work person”)

What the person hopes to get out of the training

Once the interviews are complete, each trainee in turn introduces the interviewed person to the total group. This activity gets everyone talking to the entire group, provides
information on trainees, and releases a great deal of tension, while at the same time relating to the focus of the training. We often list responses from the last item on an easel
sheet and return to it at the end of training to see if we have met all the trainees’ expectations.

After all trainees have reported the information from their interview you could ask “What were some of the communication challenges you had in your interviews?” Later
on, the trainer can come back to the icebreaker for examples of issues related to effective listening and communicating.

Provide Variety
Provide variety during training to maintain interest. Recall from Chapter 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) that trainees’
attention begins to decline after 15 to 20 minutes of lecture, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_021) so be sure to
provide breaks, activities, and the like to keep trainees interested in what you are saying. Keep a watchful eye on the trainees to signal time for a break. Even a �ive-minute
stretch can help.

Exercises or Games
Exercises or games (not to be confused with business games) are also valuable for gaining and maintaining interest, assuming that the games are relevant. They are especially
useful if they provide an entrée to, or an example of, the training objective. These tools should be used with a clear and de�inite purpose. We emphasize this point because of
the experience of a colleague at a training workshop a few years ago (see Training in Action 8-3).

8-3 Training in Action Using Games in Training

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A few years ago, Helen went to Amelia Island for a seminar that was heralded as an Advanced Seminar in Process Consultation. She even called the instructor to be sure
that it would be advanced—not “an introduction to.”

At the seminar, Helen soon realized that the other 11 attendees were from prominent companies across North America and possessed a great deal of experience as
trainers. However, they were not as advanced as she was at process consultation. About halfway through the �ive-day seminar, they were put in two groups to learn
about the different ways of intervening in a team’s process. After receiving the information, the two groups were told to go off separately and develop a game for
training the other group.

Each of the participants in Helen’s group told of a game that was used in previous training and how much everyone liked it. Helen suggested developing a role-play
whereby they could demonstrate the various components of process intervention. One of the other trainees said, “No one likes role-plays.” “That’s right,” agreed
another, and the group moved on to the more enjoyable games they were discussing. When they �inally decided that they would play the spiderweb game, Helen asked
how they would tie the training into the game. Unanimously, they said that it was not necessary.

“The professor did not say we needed to do that,” was the reply. “The game is to get the group interested in training. We’ll move to the training after the game is
�inished,” was another reply. Helen insisted that they somehow tie the game to the process consultation training they had been given, and reluctantly two of the group
worked with her to accomplish this connection.

Back in the training room, the other group went �irst, getting Helen’s group to play a game. After the game was completed, the professor asked, “But how does this
activity tie into the training?” They all looked puzzled, and everyone in Helen’s group looked at her rather sheepishly. When it was their turn, Helen’s group did tie the
training to the game, but the professor commented, “It looks like you �irst decided on the game you wanted to play, and then tried to work the training around the game;
it should be the other way around. First understand what the training is trying to accomplish, and then �ind a game to meet that requirement.”

The point of this story is that exercises and games that do not tie into the training objective are a waste of valuable training time. Although games are fun, their main
value lies in their ability to reinforce the learning while providing a break in the routine.

Several models incorporate exercises into the learning process. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_022) One
such model is exhibited in Figure 8-2. This modi�ication of an earlier model from Pfeiffer and Jones
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_023) allows trainees to experience �irst-hand a process related to the current
training, then hear some information about the topic for comparison with what they did. Then they process the new information, generalize it to their situation, and attempt to
apply it in a more relevant situation. Let’s examine this process more closely.

Figure 8-2 Experiential Learning Model

Step 1: The Experience
The learning experience begins with some sort of activity that ties into the training topic. This way, all trainees begin by sharing a common experience. This �irst experience
should not be related too closely to the actual work setting.

For example, when managers are being trained to be better interviewers, one of the objectives is to teach them how to develop appropriate interview questions. The �irst
thing to realize is that most managers already believe that they are good interviewers. So how does the trainer convince them that training is necessary? To emphasize the
importance of sound question development, the exercise (experience) is for them to help a committee select the new leader of a scout troop. Trainees take 10 minutes to
develop their own interview questions. Then they meet in small groups and develop an overall list of questions and the rationale for each. This list is posted on newsprint and
discussed.

Step 2: The Lecturette
After the experience, the trainer provides information (e.g., concepts and principles) related to the topic at hand. This can be a lecture, a video, or some other form. In our
example, a lecture would describe how to develop interview questions related to job requirements. Here the trainer shows how important it is to examine the job to determine
what is needed, rather than simply making up questions that sound good.

Step 3: Processing the Information and Experience
After the experience and lecturette, trainees work in small groups to discuss their experience based on the information they just received. In our example, the trainer might ask
the groups to analyze the questions they developed and answer the question “What criteria did we use to develop these questions?” Another question might be, “How are

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these questions related to the job of scout leader?” Then each of the small groups could report to the entire group what they discovered about how they developed interview
questions.

Step 4: Generalizability
At this point, it is important for the trainees to see how the learning is relevant to situations outside the training. According to Pfeiffer and Jones, the key question here is “So
what?” (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_0

) The goal is to have trainees consider how this new information �its
with the things they do back on the job. From the analysis and learning that took place, trainees should infer that scout leader interview questions can be developed in a better
way and be able to generalize this to other similar situations. In our example, the trainees should decide that the use of job-related information for developing interview
questions is appropriate for all jobs. This point would be an opportunity to provide another lecturette on how to examine a job to determine the relevant questions to ask.

Step 5: Practice
The trainees receive another task similar in nature to the �irst so that they can practice the newly found skill. Note that in this step, the task should be more closely related to
the actual job. In our example, the trainees could be asked to develop interview questions for selecting someone for a job in the area they manage.

Table 8-4 shows how this model ties into the Gagné–Briggs nine events of instruction.

Table 8-4 Relationship between the Experiential Learning Model and Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction

Experiential Learning Model Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instructiona
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Experience: Exercise/game Attention: The exercise provides a task that gets trainees sharing their experiences a
becoming very involved in the process.

Stimulating recall of prior knowledge: Through the exercise, trainees are required
generate ideas and information that is based on prior knowledge.

Lecturette: Providing information Informing trainee of the goal or objective: Prior to providing information, it would
useful to reiterate the objective even if it had been done before the start of the trainin
session.

Presenting stimulus material: Lecture material

Processing: Analysis of experience and information Providing learning guidance: Discussions allow for the trainees to explore the prev
experience and tie it into what they have learned. Assess performance and provide
feedback.

Generalizability: Relevancy to other situations Providing learning guidance: Discuss how the learned information �its similar situat
and see where the new information �its in their schema. This discussion will clarify wh
�its into the individual trainee’s schema for ease of retrieval in different relevant situa

Practice: Try it out Eliciting Performance: Practice the new learning. Assessing Performance and Provid
feedback: Debrie�ing discussions will help trainees perform effectively by reinforcing
correct responses and assisting when incorrect.

Experienceb
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: More complex or varied example of the new learning

Enhancing retention and transfer: Practice on different situations provides increase
likelihood that the new learning will not only be retained but transfer to the job.

a As noted in the text, this exact order of the events need not always occur.

b Note that Experience both begins and completes the Gagné–Briggs nine events.

Implementation Ideas for Trainers
Trainers need to consider several issues for training to be effective. They must ensure that everything is ready on time, that they provide an initial positive impression, and that
they gain and maintain trainee interest. Following are some things to consider in that regard.

Preparation
As a trainer, you need to make sure everything is ready for training, so there will be no unexpected problems. This includes making sure the trainees have the information they
need and that you arrive at the training site early enough to make any needed adjustments if everything is not the way you need it be. Following are some key issues in this
regard:

Pretraining communication
Make sure trainees have the information they need to begin training. Well before the training day trainees should have been:

Provided with basic objectives of the training and why it is important

Provided with an agenda so they understand how the day will proceed

Informed of the appropriate attire and the availability of refreshments (and plans for lunch/dinner if appropriate)

Reminded of the training day, start time and location of the training and any materials they are expected to bring.

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By providing the participants with this information ahead of time, you help reduce their anxiety and increase their comfort levels.

Refreshments
Check that refreshments have arrived. Refreshments are important and sometimes things do not work out the way you want. A number of years ago one of the authors arrived
to discover there was fresh coffee but no food. After a number of phone calls that produced no results he ran out to a Tim Hortons to buy donuts and muf�ins.

Materials
All material is ready to be distributed (manuals, handouts, nametags, and so on). You should, if possible, have all the materials (manuals, handouts) completed well before the
training day and rather than rely on someone else bring these things to the training session bring them yourself. If the training site is quite a distance away you have several
options. You could bring them yourself, however this might be quite cumbersome depending on mode of travel, the number of trainees and the amount of material. Or, you
could send a copy of the materials to the client and have them create enough copies for the trainees. One problem with this approach is that you can’t be sure they will be
assembled as you intended. A better approach is to have the materials created and “proofed” far enough in advance that you can have them shipped to the training site far
enough in advance that you will know they have arrived before you leave.

Room setup
Make sure trainee tables/seating is set up properly as well as other aspects of the room such as tables for the trainer’s materials/equipment, and podium. You should call the
day before to remind those in charge of the training room of your room arrangement requirements. When you show up early on the training day check to be sure room has
been set up to your satisfaction. If you are using posters or other static visuals, it is probably best if you hang these yourself to get the best location for your purposes.

Equipment functionality
Is the equipment you need set up and you are familiar with how it works? Do not assume that you can turn the equipment on when you need it. Try it and �ind out. Check the
projector to see that a spare bulb is stored inside. If not, �ind a spare (if you don’t, you are tempting the fates). Make sure your slides, videos, and other electronic training
material is loaded into the computer to be used during the training. The best approach is to bring your own laptop with the material already loaded and a �lash drive with the
material backed up. This allows you to use a computer you are already familiar with and a backup if something goes wrong with your laptop. If a video will be used, try it out in
the training room environment. If it needs to be downloaded from a URL make sure it is ready to go when needed and there will be no long pauses in the training while the
trainer tries to get the video to play. Ensure that there are enough newsprint and markers available if these are being used.

As the trainer, you need to be sure that everything is ready to go before the trainees arrive; otherwise, you can lose your credibility before you get started. In addition to
preparation of the room and equipment, the trainer needs to make sure that she is prepared. This means that she has completed a dry run, is comfortable with the materials
and their use, and is at ease facilitating exercises and activities. She has rehearsed her presentation of the material to the point where she appears to be engaged in normal
conversation rather than regurgitating memorized material. If there are multiple trainers make sure the transitions from one to the next are smooth and seamless.

First Impression
Earlier we discussed the impact on trainer credibility of factors such as topic knowledge and experience as well as trainer competencies. Those effects occur after the trainer
has had an opportunity to interact with the participants for a while. Some things a trainer does can impact the participant’s perception of the trainer’s credibility right at the
start of training (or even before). Typically, the favorable (or unfavorable) impression that a job candidate makes in a selection interview is made in the �irst few minutes. The
same is true of the impression that the trainer makes on trainees. Since this issue is so critical to effective training, the �irst few minutes need to be managed well. In the case at
the beginning of the chapter, what kind of �irst impression do you think Jason Reston made? Did he establish any credibility with the trainees? Did he demonstrate a concern
for their needs? Did he seem approachable?

What should a trainer wear? The answer is: know the audience. If unsure, ask. In many situations, a business suit is a safe bet. Training accountants, who all come to work in
conservative business attire, suggests that a business suit is a good idea. This same attire, however, could create distance from some other groups. Training line workers from a
manufacturing plant, for example, might require more casual dress—not wearing the uniform of management. Remember, the trainees should perceive the trainer as someone
able to help them in their job. To gain this credibility, the trainer needs to dress accordingly. The right dress for training line workers might be casual dress—tasteful casual, but
casual nevertheless.

It is equally important that the clothes are clean, pressed, and �it well; that shoes are shined; and that accessories match the out�it. Hair style and coloring should be
appropriate. This �irst impression will help establish your credibility. In one instance, one of the authors was using a graduate student to assist in a project at a major
automobile manufacturer. They were to arrive on site the day before to meet with representatives of the company to go over the activities that would begin the following day.
The author picked up the student for the four-hour drive to the company only to discover that the student had purple and orange hair cut in a “monk” style. What type of
credibility do you think the author would have had if he had shown up with his “assistant”? Needless to say, a trip to the hair salon occurred prior to arrival at the client’s
of�ices.

If the dress code is a suit, and you are not as comfortable conducting your training in this attire, you can always take off the jacket and roll up your sleeves after the training
gets underway. Trainees also need to feel comfortable, and the trainer can signal a more relaxed atmosphere by removing his jacket and loosening his tie. The trainer might
say, “I think I need to loosen up a bit; please feel free to do the same.” For training spread over several days, at some point on the �irst day, the trainer should ask the trainees
to decide on a suitable dress code.

The Start of Training

Greet Participants and Make Them Comfortable
First impressions begin when trainees walk through the door of the training room. Before trainees arrive, make sure you have created the type of environment that will foster
effective learning. Make sure your projector has a welcoming slide showing or some other attractive visual relevant to the training topic. Sometimes soft music playing in the
background is a pleasant way for trainees to wait for the session to begin. When trainees begin to arrive, greet them individually. Small talk with individual trainees before the
session helps make them comfortable and, in turn, will facilitate discussion once the training begins. If there is assigned seating, show the participant where they will be sitting.
Make sure to explain any materials that are at their seats and what to do with them. Point out the location of refreshments and invite the participant to partake.

Start Up, Objectives, Expectations, and Ground Rules
Starting on time is important, but most trainers we know allow for some tardiness the �irst day, when trainees might not know exactly where the training room is, or simply did
not give themselves enough time to get to the location. Whether you start on time or not, one reason for starting with an icebreaker is that it allows those who may arrive a
little late to �it right in with little disruption and not miss any of the content of the program.

After the icebreaker, begin training by warmly greeting the participants (if you haven’t done so prior to the icebreaker). Follow this with a description of the purpose of the
training and a review of the learning objectives. This will help provide focus for the training, and, if the needs analysis was successful, it will mean that all trainees will

understand the need to learn the KSAs. When going through the learning objectives, you will want to make sure that they are stated in easily understood language. If you have
an extensive number of learning objectives, you will probably want to list major objectives only (ones that incorporate a number of lesser objectives).

Trainees might come with differing expectations about what the training will be about, and they also may have a variety of personal goals related to the training. After
reviewing the objectives, it is useful to ask trainees if they have any additional expectations for training. You might ask each person to develop lists to present to the larger
group or ask them to do this in small groups. Typically, this will not take long as your discussion of the learning objectives will have addressed most of the participant
expectations. As participants report out their expectations, write these on a �lip chart or whiteboard for future reference. Indicate to the trainees which of the points
mentioned will be a part of the training and which will not. For any points that are not part of the training design, you might offer to try to �it them in if they coincide with your
objectives. If not, explain why they are not appropriate for this training session and offer to meet with them during break time to discuss where they might go to address that
need. This process clari�ies for the participants what the training will and will not cover. Make sure to refer back to the list periodically as you move through the training to be
sure that all the things you promised were in fact covered. At the conclusion of training, it is useful to review the list with the participants to ensure that you have not forgotten
to address any of their expectations.

Following the discussion of expectations, go through the agenda to indicate what will be happening over the duration of the training. As you go through the agenda, indicate
where the items on the list of expectations will be covered. Explain how breaks will be distributed and how messages for the trainees will be handled.

Following the agenda, initiate a discussion of the ground rules for training. This should cover things like starting and ending on time, breaks, leaving the training room while
training is being conducted, use of cell phones, how messages from the of�ice will be handled, and so on. You might start off the discussion by focusing on the issue of starting
on time and why this is important. Recall reinforcement theory as discussed in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) .
If those who arrive late discover that training has not begun, it reinforces the belief that showing up on time is not necessary. A late start also punishes those who do arrive on
time. For the rule of starting on time to be effective, however, it is necessary to obtain commitment from the trainees. Thus, you provide the rationale and then ask for any
discussion. Following the discussion, you can ask for a consensus vote of all in favor of starting and ending on time. You can use the same procedure for the other ground
rules. The trainees are more likely to abide by these rules because they helped develop them. To expedite the process, prepare a set of suggested ground rules and explain why
they are useful. Then ask the trainees for any suggestions to modify, add, or delete from the list.

The Podium
One of the authors was hired to assist a consultant in training automobile workers in a new plant. The consultant hired a number of local people because of the size of the
project. Concurrent training sessions allowed opportunities for the trainers to observe one another. One trainer was in the habit of sitting behind a table while talking to the
trainees, another stood behind a podium, and the rest stood and moved around, going back to their notes only occasionally. Which procedure is best? Again, it depends.
Standing behind the podium or sitting at a desk is acceptable for one-way communication, but it is not the most effective style for training adults, for whom two-way
communication is important. In these cases, any barriers (desk, podium) present nonverbal impediments to the communication process. Additionally, seeing someone who is
teaching them sitting behind a desk might remind some trainees of unpleasant school experiences. Being out in front of a desk or podium and moving around helps make the
trainer look more accessible and open to input. In any event, two-way communication is much more important in the lecture/discussion method, whereas for the straight
lecture, a podium is perfectly acceptable. A skilled trainer will use the podium to signal to trainees when interruptions and comments are acceptable and when they are not.

Communication Tips
Communicating with trainees occurs continuously in face-to-face training programs. We provided several trainer tips earlier in our discussion of the lecture/discussion
method. We need to elaborate a bit here on how trainers should respond to trainees when they make comments. Trainers may think that they are encouraging trainees to talk,
but, in reality, trainer responses often do not facilitate learning or encourage the trainee. For example, comments following a trainee’s response such as “yes,” “OK,” “thank you,”
and so on, do little other than acknowledge that the trainee has spoken. Examine the following exchange between a trainer and a participant:

Participant: “At the company where I used to work, we made product changes based on customer feedback.”

Trainer: “That’s very interesting. Does anyone else have a comment?”

The trainer’s response, while acknowledging the comment doesn’t indicate why the response is of interest or how it �its into the topic. A better response would have been to
say

Trainer: “That’s very interesting since it relates to our discussion of how to meet or exceed customer expectations. Can you tell us how you were able to get the
customer feedback and the process that was used for integrating that into your work�low?”

Trainee comments and dialogue need to be encouraged by the trainer, but the trainer needs to do more. The trainer must use those comments and dialogue to foster
learning. That can only be done if the trainer understands the content of the training well enough to incorporate the comments into learning opportunities.

Following are some other things to consider as you respond to participants in your training.

Listening and Questioning
Good listening and questioning skills separate good trainers from average or poor trainers. This statement is not to demean presentation skills but rather to stress the
importance of listening and questioning. The techniques discussed earlier cannot be emphasized too strongly. If you are using the lecture/discussion method, use the
experience and information provided by the trainees. Control the urge to tell them continually about your experiences. Remember that trainees relate to one another and their
experiences more often than to yours. In the beginning, it might be helpful to share your relevant experiences to establish credibility and to show that sharing of experiences is
desirable and useful. As training moves on, you will want to encourage trainees to begin sharing their experiences that are related to the training.

This requires being a good listener. Good listening is dif�icult for several reasons, including the ones listed next:

We can process information much faster than someone speaks, which gives us opportunities to do or think of other things.

We often believe that we know what the person is going to say, so we interrupt to respond.

We believe that speaking, not listening, is where the power and control are.

Therefore, listening requires practice. Active listening, originally developed for clinical counseling, involves three steps:

1. Listen carefully to what is said.

2. Summarize in your mind what was said.

3. Feed the summary back to the individual.

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Following this process helps keep us focused, but more important, it con�irms to the speaker (and all other trainees) what has been said, and leaves little room for
misunderstandings. Training in Action 8-4 provides an example of active listening.

8-4 Training in Action Active Listening
Dialogue between trainer and trainee at the training workshop on decision making:

Trainee: This is training in decision making, but I am in sales. What I want to know is how will this training help me?

Trainer: You want to know how this training will help you improve your sales?

Trainee: No, not necessarily in sales . . . Just help me do my job better.

Trainer: So you would like to know what the bene�its of this training are and how these bene�its will help you do your job.

Trainee: Yes, that’s right.

Providing Instructions
It is important to provide clear instructions with each exercise used. Many role-play exercises are wasted because trainees do not understand exactly what is expected. Oral
instructions certainly need to be provided, but a handout containing the same information is also a useful resource for trainees. Even then, it is helpful to provide an example
of what is expected. Once the exercise has begun, it is too late. It is discouraging both to the trainer and to the trainees if the trainees are confused and embarrassed because
they misunderstood what they were supposed to be doing.

Moving Around While Talking
This technique does not imply methodically pacing back and forth, but rather moving out from behind the podium. If a podium must be used, step away from it at times. If
possible, stay away from it altogether. Moving around while lecturing shows knowledge of, and comfort with, the material. Approaching trainees from time to time and talking
speci�ically to them sets up a friendly atmosphere. The movement also requires trainees to follow the trainer with their eyes, preventing the “glazed stare” that can occur if the
trainer is stationary.

Using Nonverbal Communication
Everyone is always sending out nonverbal cues (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_006) , so it is important that these
cues are the correct ones. Keep eye contact on a trainee who is asking a question; do not turn and walk away while the trainee is talking. Give a head nod when a trainee
answers a question, and hold eye contact. Also, maintain eye contact with the trainee group as a whole while talking to them. Avoid talking to the image on the screen, or the
lecture notes. Avoid folding your arms, as it can suggest displeasure or that the discussion is over. If writing on the board or �lip chart, turn your head to the trainees while
talking.

The key to nonverbal behavior is to convey enthusiasm about the information being discussed. If the enthusiasm is real rather than feigned, it will show in nonverbal
expressions. Think of someone passionately arguing a point of view. Are her arms out in front and her palms up? Perhaps she is moving her hands up and down in short
gestures. In any case, it is unlikely that her arms are folded across her chest.

What if the trainer is not enthusiastic about the material that must be presented? This lack of energy can develop after presenting the same material a number of times.
What to do? First, realize how important enthusiasm is to effective training. Recall training sessions in which you were the trainee. It is easy to distinguish a good trainer from a
not-so-good trainer. The good one was enthusiastic. So the trainer needs to psych himself up to generate enthusiasm. The trainer needs to give himself reasons to be
enthusiastic about the material. Remember, the trainees are not as familiar with the material as the trainers. Starting off enthusiastically will be infectious, for both the trainees
and the trainer.

Getting Rid of Dys�luencies
Dys�luencies (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_007) are those “and uh,” “like,” “um” space �illers injected into speech.
Everyone uses them occasionally, but some use them far too often. This tendency is usually more prominent when a trainer is nervous or unsure. It becomes immediately
noticeable, and trainees tend to focus on these utterances rather than on the material. Videorecording lectures, or simply asking others to inform you when you use
dys�luencies, can help you get rid of them.

Tips on Dealing with Different Participant Personalities
A successful trainer needs to understand how to deal with the various types of trainees that might be encountered. Some will need to be encouraged to become more involved
in discussion, while others are far too involved.

Quiet Trainee
In Chapter 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) , we discussed methods for encouraging quiet trainees to become more
involved (small group discussions, writing their answers �irst), and these approaches are usually successful. What if they do not work? If there are several small groups for
discussion sessions, one way to encourage the quiet trainee is to ask each group to rotate the person who is responsible for reporting back to the larger group. The quiet
trainee will then take a turn reporting to the larger group, thus increasing his participation. However, too much pressure to become involved is not a good idea. If a quiet
person is speaking up during the small group sessions, he is providing input. Do not attempt to get these trainees to participate at a level equal to others if they are not so
inclined. Doing so can create too much tension in the environment. If all these methods are tried with little change in the quiet trainee’s behavior, do not push any further.
Further attempts will only create barriers to the trainee’s learning.

Talkative Trainee
The talkative trainee is usually far more of a problem than the quiet one. No matter what question is asked, this trainee wants to answer. Usually the answer involves a long
story, and soon other trainees are rolling their eyes and tuning out. The trainer loses the trainees’ attention, and valuable training time is wasted on irrelevant stories. It is

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important to tone down that trainee’s input but not embarrass anyone. One approach is to ask others for their opinion. Say something like “We have been making Lex do all
the work here so far—how about someone else responding?” Or use the direct questioning technique to get the focus away from the talkative trainee. It may be helpful to
speak to the talkative trainee in private, suggesting that her comments are appreciated, but there is a concern that others are not participating as much as they should. In this
context, asking the talkative trainee to hold back on participation usually works.

Angry Trainee
Some trainees who come to training simply do not want to be there. They set out to ruin the session for everyone. Such trainees must be dealt with early on before they
disrupt the class. One of the authors was training line workers in team concepts, and although the union executive and most union members were supportive of the training,
some were violently opposed. In the �irst session, one of these trainees said, “I really do not want to be here; this training is management propaganda designed to weaken the
union.” The author’s response was “I have heard that said before; how do others feel about the training?” At that point, a number of others indicated support for the training,
and although the angry trainee did not participate much in the rest of the training, he did not disrupt it either.

If in such a situation most trainees felt the same way, it would be wise to spend some time discussing the issue because such an attitude will certainly affect training. The
important point is to focus on how training can bene�it them. One way to accomplish this task is to ask trainees to identify ways they would be able to use the training.

The Comedian
These trainees are a gift and a curse. They are a gift because when their jokes work, and if they are not put forth too often, they will do wonders to set a positive tone. Laughter
is good medicine, and a comedian is able to provide it. The potential curse is in the nature and frequency of the jokes. Some jokes are clearly out of place. In other cases, it is
dif�icult to know what is offensive. However, it is not productive for even a small number of trainees to feel that a particular joke was offensive. Also, if the comedians do get a
lot of laughs, they are likely to continue to joke around. This behavior can disrupt the timing of the sessions and put the trainer behind.

What to do? If the joking gets out of hand or some jokes are inappropriate, you can talk with the comedian at a break. Indicate a concern that some of the humor is offensive
to some of the other trainees or is distracting from the focus of training. In taking this approach, you need to indicate appreciation of the comedian’s intention to contribute to
the training, but reach an agreement about how often the jokes can be offered and what types of jokes are acceptable. This conversation should be enough to curb such
behavior. Sometimes the comedian’s jokes are directed at the trainer. In these cases, the trainer must have a tough skin and be willing to laugh without taking it personally. This
reaction will defuse any tension that may have been created, reduce the amount of distraction, and show that the trainer is not “too full of herself.” It is only when the jokes
become distracting or offensive that action needs to be taken.

Dry Run
In the training model, the process component of the implementation phase contains two important steps that should be completed before training is ready for general use:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_025) the dry run and the pilot program. The former is a rehearsal of the training
program to test out new material, work out delivery issues, and �irm up the timing of different segments. In some situations, the training package might not need to be
presented in its entirety. The pilot program is the �irst full-blown presentation of the training using �inished materials.

The dry run (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_008) is not designed to actually train participants who assume the
role of trainees. Instead, it is designed to determine the value and clarity of the various pieces of the training program, identify and correct any delivery problems, work
through timing issues and otherwise make sure that the training is ready for delivery. The dry run provides a controlled setting in which these issues can be discussed and
resolved. In general, the dry run will take much longer than the actual training, so enough time should be set aside to not only deliver the material but also make necessary
adjustments. To this end, it is necessary to get as many key perspectives as possible to view the training. The trainer should be the person(s) who will actually deliver the
training. For a really effective dry run, use some potential trainees but choose them carefully; consider their diverse backgrounds, their general supportiveness of the value of
training, and their willingness to provide feedback. More seasoned employees will be able to help evaluate the transferability of the training back to the job. Include some
content experts who can provide feedback on the validity of the material and its usage. Some members of the training design and development team should also participate in
the dry run, assuming the role of trainees or observers. They can provide feedback as to how well the various pieces of the design �it together.

The dry run might not require that all the training modules in the program be tested. If a previously used speci�ic exercise, case, or role-play has been used with a similar
target population, the dry run for this exercise might simply involve the participants reading through the exercise and providing feedback as to its relevance. However, you
should make sure that the exercise or activity has enough history to provide you with an accurate estimate of the time it will take during an actual training session. Newly
developed or occasionally used exercises and activities require the dry run participants to go through the full process, providing feedback after it is completed.

It is important to ask participants and observers a list of questions after each exercise or module that is tested. For example, after participants complete a role-play, you ask
the following:

Is the situation realistic for this organization? If it is not, future trainees might dismiss the training as being irrelevant.

Is the information and direction for the exercise clear enough for trainees to do the exercise?

Is the time allocation too long or too short?

After the dry run is completed, examine the feedback carefully, and revise the training where applicable. Then it is time for the pilot program.

Pilot Program
The pilot program (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_009) is different from the dry run in that trainees are there to
be trained. It will be a full-�ledged training program. The dry run re�ines the training to eliminate any major glitches. In the pilot program, trainees are again chosen carefully, as
you want people who are generally supportive of training and who are not likely to be disruptive. Trainees will spread the word about training to others in the organization
quickly. That word should be as positive as possible so that when new trainees come into the program, they bring positive expectations. The pilot program will provide
additional input to further re�ine the training (if necessary), and disruptions are not conducive to this process. To evaluate how the training comes across to different groups, it
is desirable to have a good cross section of those who will be in the later training sessions.

The main goals of the pilot program are as follows:

To provide the trainees with the relevant training

To assess further the timing and relevance of modules and various training components

To determine the appropriateness, clarity, and �low of material

The pilot program provides valuable responses and viewpoints that are inserted in the trainer’s manual. These inputs will help guide new trainers in what to expect.
Another use of the pilot program is to provide an opportunity for future trainers to attend the training and experience what takes place �irsthand. Finally, the pilot program
will provide valuable feedback to designers regarding the effectiveness of the training.

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After the pilot program, any revisions are documented in the training plan and trainer’s manual and implemented in future training sessions. If new material or activities are
added, these should be perfected in a dry run. Thus it is possible that a training program might have a dry run, followed by a pilot program, followed by another dry run that
would be followed by the actual training. One �inal note: Although a dry run and a pilot program will help improve the program, evaluation and appropriate revisions should
not stop here. Training evaluation goes on continuously. The primary objective of training is the transfer of the training to the job to positively affect organizational results.
Training should continue to be modi�ied until desirable outcomes can be reliably achieved.

Going back to the model, the output of the implementation phase is the learned KSAs and evaluation (discussed in Chapter 9
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) ). When trainees are back on the job, it is expected that the new learning will be
transferred to the job. This issue of transfer was discussed in Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) and will be
further elaborated on here.

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8.4 Transfer of Training
Transfer of training to the job can be simple and easy, or, at the other extreme, complex and next to impossible. Consider training on how to complete a new requisition form.
Once training is complete and the form is available, transfer of the new behavior should be relatively easy. However, consider the supervisor training that teaches a supervisor
to take time to use con�lict resolution skills to deal with subordinates. Back on the job, the supervisor is measured by the units his subordinates produce. In the past, being
angry and yelling at them resulted in high productivity. Here, transfer of the new behaviors is less likely. Figure 8-3 helps us understand the factors necessary to support this
type of transfer to occur.

Figure 8-3 Factors In�luencing Transfer of Training

First, because the new behaviors are more dif�icult and not part of the trainee’s regular behavior, he will need to practice these new behaviors on the job. Examining Figure
8-3, there are two inputs that speci�ically in�luence this: trainer support and relapse prevention/goal setting. Trainer support can come from a sit-in. The development phase is
where you would obtain the trainers commitment to do a sit-in. Recall from Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05)
that in a sit-in the trainer follows the trainee around for a while noting how he is using the skills, and then provides feedback. Providing the trainee with the relapse
prevention/goal setting process will help him when relapses do happen. These two inputs along with the other nonshaded inputs in the model are factors that the trainer can
directly in�luence. The shaded factors can also in�luence transfer back on the job but are not directly controlled by the trainer. All these inputs will increase the likelihood that
transfer will occur. Two of these not directly controlled by the trainer, are supervisor and peer support. Supervisor support
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_026) and feedback from the supervisor
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_027) have been shown to be important factors in the transfer of training. Other
evidence suggests that the supervisor needs to have a good relationship with the subordinate for the feedback to be most effective.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_028) Effective coaching usually results in a positive supervisor/subordinate
relationship, which in turn assists the subordinate in transferring their new skills to the job though the supervisors support and feedback. So, having supervisors with good
coaching skills will aid in the transfer of training. These coaching skills will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 11
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i157#ch11) .

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)
However, it can also have the opposite effect. Of all the forces that are important to ensure transfer, peer support can be the most problematic. Peer pressure from those who
have been around for a long time and who are comfortable doing things the “old way” can do a great deal to inhibit a trainee’s ability to change, even if she wants to. In many
cases, this peer pressure for the status quo is very dif�icult to change. Training in Action 8-5 provides an example where Ford was successful in dealing with potential peer
pressure. However, this involved a new plant, new relationships, and training focused on changing attitudes. It is very different in an older plant where employees are set in
their ways and there are strong relationships among the workers. In cases like this, change management skills are required to help employees see the advantages of new ways
and obtain their support. A review of Training in Action 5-2 provides a reminder of just how much can and should be done to ensure that transfer of training takes place. After
all, without it, the training was a waste of money.

8-5 Training in Action Peer Pressure and New Skills
Ford needed a new plant and was determined to implement a more �lexible work system that included teamwork in this new plant. So, before agreeing to build the plant
in Windsor, Ford management insisted that the Canadian Auto Workers union sign a “special operating agreement” to allow such changes. However, the union was
strong, and many of those who transferred to the new plant were strong union members who believed in the old way of working. They laughed at the idea of teamwork.
Peer pressure in such a situation was a concern. It could derail any effort to institute this major change to the way work was done. If peers on the shop �loor were
making fun of the idea of teamwork, it would be dif�icult to get others interested and willing to be involved.

At the opening of the plant, all workers who had transferred to the new plant were required to attend a week of training. To deal with this potential negative impact
of peer pressure, Ford incorporated information designed to change attitudes toward this more �lexible system of working into this training program. In the beginning,
some trainees were openly hostile to the training. One said: “The company pays me to come here, but they cannot force me to learn this stuff.” Others, by their lack of
participation, were likely feeling the same but were not as vocal. However, by the end of the week, many were actively involved, and when asked at the end of training
what they thought of the more �lexible work systems, most indicated a positive response. Was there transfer to the job? There was no formal evaluation, but most did
become actively involved back on the job. Although there were still those actively opposed to it who did not get involved, there were not enough of them to create the
pressure on peers to stay uninvolved.

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Trainers hope for supportive climate and culture, as these will increase the likelihood that the new behaviors will be practiced and maintained during and after transfer.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch08biblio_030) Recall from Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that successful completion of training should have a positive impact on the trainees’
posttraining self-ef�icacy. This, in turn, should encourage them to practice the learned KSAs on the job. Finally, alignment of the reward systems to encourage the new
behaviors will add to the likelihood that the transfer will take place and be lasting, provided they have a high enough valence.

From the training needs analysis, any reward systems that were not aligned, or supervisor and peer attitudes toward the training that were dysfunctional, should have been
identi�ied. Plans to make needed changes in these areas should have been addressed in the design phase and implemented prior to training. The output of Figure 8-3 is the
complete transfer of the KSAs to the job. The degree to which this is achieved depends on how many of the input factors are aligned to support the transfer.

Case: Jack Goes to Training . . . (Conclusion)
“Get up. Get up, you’re going to be late for the training!”

“Huh,” grunted Jack. “What time is it?”

“It’s 7:30 and you have to go downtown to the training center today, remember?” said his wife.

Wow, what a dream, thought Jack, feeling a little nervous as he walked up the steps of the training center. The training room was not at all like a schoolroom. No windows, no
blackboards. As he entered the room, a nicely dressed man approached him and said, “Hi, my name is Doug, welcome to the training center. Have you ever been here before?”
The name tag indicated that Doug was the trainer. He seems like a nice guy, thought Jack.

“There’s some coffee and doughnuts over there—help yourself,” said Doug. This might even be enjoyable, thought Jack, although he still felt a little apprehensive.

With introductions out of the way and the objectives and agenda explained, Doug summed up by saying, “So at the end of the two days you will be expected to take a set of
speci�ications and program them into the machine. Are there any questions?”

“So there are no tests?” asked Jack.

“Well,” responded Doug, “that is the test.”

Jack was a bit confused. “But that is what we do at work—I don’t see it as a test. A test is where I have to write down an answer to some question you pose about all this
stuff.”

“There are no paper-and-pencil tests, just behavioral tests,” said Doug.

Suddenly it was lunchtime. Jack thought, “It’s true, time does go fast when you are having fun. This sure isn’t like school.” All 23 trainees went to another room where lunch
was served.

“I can’t believe it. This is nothing like I expected,” said Ron. Ron was the fellow who Jack had to interview and introduce to the group in what was called an icebreaker. That
icebreaker sure did a lot to get me relaxed and actually interested in the training, thought Jack.

Ron continued, “I always did poorly in school and was petri�ied about coming here.” Jack responded, “Me too.”

Ron said, “I like the idea of his periodically giving us mini-tests. Gives us an idea of how we are doing and provides us with extra help if we are falling behind.”

“Tests . . . oh, yeah, I �ind it hard to consider them tests. They’re hands-on, exactly what we will do on the job,” said Jack.

Later Jack thought, “Wow, it’s already over.”

“Nice job, Jack. You are now certi�ied on this piece of equipment,” said Doug.

“Hey, Ron,” said Jack, “do you believe how much fun learning can be?”

Ron agreed: “Doug was great. He kept getting our input and tying our experiences to the new stuff we had to learn. I never thought I would say this, but I would like to get
more training like this.”

“You bet,” said Jack. “I still can’t believe how great this was, especially after the dream I had.”

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Summary
First, we discussed the development of training. At this stage, creating a program development plan is crucial to ensure that everything that needs to be done is done. This plan
outlines everything that must be done to prepare for training, from material and equipment to trainee and trainer manuals. Content learning points from each learning
objective need to be highlighted to clearly identify what needs to be learned.

The type of training facility chosen is also important. Arrangement of the seating and closeness of the trainer to the trainees should be a function of the objectives of the
training, not the design of the room. Also, noise levels from adjoining rooms or from outside the room need to be determined before choosing a training room. The proper
training facility then allows the seating to be arranged in a manner that best re�lects what type of training will be taking place.

We examined the factors to consider when choosing a trainer, and speci�ically an OJT trainer, because of the unique issues that revolve around OJT trainers.

Alternatives to development of the training were examined. After all, sometimes it is simply not viable to develop training. In cases like this, the use of consultants,
prepackaged training, and outside seminars can provide a solution. This is especially true for the small business.

In the implementation of training, we �irst focused on some practical issues related to keeping trainees’ interest in training. Use of icebreakers, learning objectives, variety,
and an example of a type of exercise to keep training interesting was discussed. Next we provided some tips for trainers in the execution of the training program. Preparation,
importance of the �irst impression, what to consider at the start of training, and how to use the podium were all discussed. Finally, some tips on communication and how to
deal with certain types of trainees were provided.

The dry run and the pilot program were discussed. Before implementation of a large training program, it is useful to have a dry run in which the material is tested to see
how effective it is. This dry run is not an actual training session but a process of going through the material and determining whether it is doing what you expect it to. The next
step is a pilot program in which the �irst trainees go through the training, but with selected supportive trainees, so they can spread the word about the training program in a
positive manner. Also, constructive feedback from the trainees is solicited to put the �inishing touches on the program before it is formally launched.

Fabrics, Inc., Development Phase
Recall that in the design phase for Fabrics, Inc., we developed objectives. The output from the design was an examination of the various methods of instruction and factors that
affect learning and transfer. These outputs are now the inputs into the development phase of training. The process is to develop an instructional strategy, which leads to a
program development plan. The program development plan includes developing instructional material, obtaining needed instructional equipment and facilities, creating or
obtaining trainee and trainer manuals (if applicable) and selecting a trainer. Following are partial examples of some of these outputs, starting with the instructor’s manual.

Instructor’s Manual
First we will provide a section of the instructor’s manual that will take you through the start of the active listening training. This will lead into the practice sessions for active
listening followed by an example of that material.

Instructor’s Notes Timing Points to be Covered Reference

The question being asked is to get the trainees’
attention and involvement in determining the need to
learn how to listen.

20 min Ask the question
“Why do we need
to attend a
training session
on how to listen?
After all, listening
is a natural thing,
right?”

As you get trainee involvement, record their responses
on an easel sheet. When ideas have been exhausted,
examine the sheet, compare it to the prepared easel,
and discuss any that had not been thought of by the
trainees. Tape both to the wall next to each other.

Easel points

tend to believe that we have the correct answer
so why listen to others; they need to listen to us

message overload, too much going on at once

>believe that talking is more important

listening is the responsibility of the listener

listening is a passive activity

Easel

Now ask for a volunteer to play a peer of yours at a
meeting. When you have someone, set up the scenario
of you two sitting in a room waiting for others to show
up for a meeting. Progress on the task has been slow
but sure. Ask them to respond to what you say as they
would in a real situation.

Say “OK, now it is time for practice. I am
handing out instructions for the practice
sessions using Person 1, 2, 3; it is titled
Handout 1. Now go to Instruction Sheet 1, and
read the instructions to the trainees.

The volunteer will answer as most people do in
situations like this as they move directly to dealing with
the issue. Responses will likely be something like the
following:

So what should we do about it?

We have made some progress.

It’s not as bad as all that

After they respond, point out to all that this is a
typical response, as most people move toward
trying to address the concern in some way.
Point out that what you need to do is provide
support through active listening �irst, then
move to deal with the problem.

Give volunteer the statement to read, and ask to
reverse the roles and say that same statement to you.

When they read the statement, respond
something like “So you are saying that we are
wasting our time at these meetings?”

Handout with
statement on it

Now ask for volunteers. To each one say one of the
following statements. Then provide feedback as to its
effectiveness regarding active listening. . . .

I do not want to work with Bill on any more
projects; he never does his share.

You are always giving me unscheduled work. I
can’t get it done.

We tried that last year, and it did not work, so
let’s not go there again.

Now you are going to provide the trainees with the
opportunity to practice their new skill. You will need
Instruction Sheet 1 to read from and Handout 1 to give
to trainees while you read the instructions from
Instruction Sheet 1.

This is the end of the instructor’s manual example

The preceding example is a sample of what should be contained in an instructor’s manual. Now let’s turn to instructional material.

Instructional Material
Part of the training is going to involve trainees practicing active listening skills they have been taught. Following are the instructions for this (Instruction Sheet 1) and a sample
of the exercise “Person 1, 2, 3,” which is an exercise designed to provide trainees with practice situations where they can use the new skill.

Instruction Sheet 1 (Instructor reads this to trainees)
“Now that you have seen how to use active listening in your response, we are going to give everyone an opportunity to practice this skill. To do this, we are going to put
you into groups of three trainees. Each person in the triad will have a sheet labeled “Person 1,” “Person 2,” or “Person 3.” Now look at the Active Listening Exercise
Instructions I have just handed out titled Handout 1, and follow along while I read it out loud.”

The trainer now reads the instructions from the sheet (Handout 1) going down to the third situation (

Situation

C) and then asks if everyone understands or has any
questions. Once the trainer is satis�ied that everyone understands their roles, she puts them in groups of three and hands out the Person 1, 2, 3 sheets, one to each of
the three person groups, again asking “Are there any questions?”

Following are the instructions that are handed out for the exercise “Person 1, 2, 3.”

HANDOUT 1 Active Listening Exercise Instructions
Initiator: Begins the exercise with a con�lict-provoking statement.

Active Listener: Receives the statement from the initiator and provides an appropriate response.

Observer: Watches the interchange between the initiator and the active listener. After completion, the observer gives feedback regarding the appropriateness of the
active listener’s comment. NOTE: You have an example of an effective active listening response to that situation, so as an observer you can coach the active listener if
necessary.

Each group member will be alternating among the three roles!

Situation Person 1 Person 2

Person 3

A Initiator Active Listener Observer

B Observer Initiator Active Listener

C Active Listener Observer Initiator

D Initiator Active Listener Observer

E Observer Initiator Active Listener

F Active Listener Observer Initiator

And so forth

Following are the handouts for the three person groups. Each person in a group will receive Person 1, 2, or 3.

Person 1

Situation

Person 2 is the Active Listener

Person 3 is the Observer

You Are The Initiator

Your boss just �inished giving you a lecture for not being at the job site.

You start.

Say angrily:

“HOW COME YOU NEVER WAIT TO HEAR MY SIDE
OF THE STORY. YOU JUST ASSUME I’M IN THE
WRONG.”

Person 2 is the Initiator

Person 3 is the Active Listener

You Are the Observer

The active listener is meeting with a subordinate regarding their performance. The listener has
just told the subordinate that her performance is average. Listen and provide feedback

Response example:

“YOU’RE SAYING I RATED YOU LOWER THAN WHAT
YOU DESERVE.”

Person 2 is the Observer

Person 3 is the Initiator

You Are The Active Listener

A group of equal-level managers are meeting on a project. You believe that these meetings need
some structure, so you have taken control of the meetings. Listen, then respond to the comment by
saying:

Person 2

Situation

A Person 1 is the Initiator

Person 3 is the Observer

You Are the Active Listener

You just reprimanded your subordinate for not being at the job site. Listen,
then respond to comment by saying:

B Person 3 is the Active Listener

Person 1 is the Observer

You Are the Initiator

You have just been told that your performance rating for the year is average.
You are angry.

Say angrily:

“YOU ONLY RATED MY PERFORMANCE AS AVERAGE. THAT’S
RIDICULOUS. I AM 10 TIMES BETTER THAN ANY OF THE OTHERS IN
MY DEPARTMENT.”

C Person 1 is the Active Listener

Person 3 is the Initiator
You Are the Observer

A group of equal-level managers are meeting on a project. The active listener
believes that the meetings needed some structure and took charge. Listen and
provide feedback.

Response example:

“SO YOU ARE SAYING THAT WHEN I BEHAVE THIS WAY, I’M ACTING
TOO MUCH LIKE A BOSS.”

Person 3
Situation
A Person 1 is the Initiator
Person 2 is the Active Listener
You Are the Observer

The active listener just reprimanded a subordinate for not being at
the job site. Listen and provide feedback.

Response example:

“SO YOU’RE SAYING I NEVER GAVE YOU THE OPPORTUNITY TO PRESENT YOUR
POINT OF VIEW.”

B Person 1 is the Observer

Person 2 is the Initiator
You Are the Active Listener

You are meeting with a subordinate regarding their performance.
You have just told the subordinate that their performance was average.

Listen, then respond using decoding and feedback.

C Person 1 is the Active Listener
Person 2 is the Observer

You are the Initiator

A group of equal-level managers are meeting on a project. One of
these people has just taken control of the meeting, and you don’t like it.

You start. Say angrily:

“YOU’RE CONTROLLING THESE MEETINGS LIKE YOU WERE THE BOSS. WE ARE
ALL EQUAL HERE AND I AM SICK AND TIRED OF YOU ACTING LIKE THE BOSS.”

And so forth

We will return to Fabrics, Inc., in the next chapter (evaluation) to complete the example. As you might expect, similar exercises appear in the evaluation chapter that are
designed to measure how much learning took place.

Key Terms
Dry run (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term01)

Dys�luencies (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term02)

Icebreaker (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term03)

Instructional strategy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term04)

Learning point (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term05)

Nonverbal cues (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term06)

Pilot program (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term07)

Program development plan (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term08)

Training plan (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term09)

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term02

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term03

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term04

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term05

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term06

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i117#ch08term07

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term08

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i116#ch08term09

Questions for Review
1. You are asked to deliver a two-day workshop for managers on effective feedback skills. It is focused primarily on performance reviews. Approximately 100 managers

need to be trained. Describe what the content of the training would entail, the methods you would use (e.g., lecture, case study, role-play), and the instructional media
and equipment you would want, and explain why. Also, what type of room setup would you want, and why? Indicate how many sessions you would need for this
number of managers, and explain why.

2. Describe how the experiential learning model relates to the social learning model.

3. What are some typical dif�icult trainees, and how would you deal with them?

4. How do the dry run and pilot training differ? Why?

Exercises
1. Check the room where your class meets. Does it meet the requirements of a good training room? What changes would make it more amenable to effective training?

2. Assume that you are in training on con�lict resolution. Think of a situation in which you got into an argument with someone, and write up the role of the person with
whom you were in con�lict. Follow the instructions in the chapter. Do not forget that you need to write the role of the other person, not you, because you will play
yourself. Show the role to a classmate and ask her to play it. As you play your part, try to behave differently from the way you did in the original confrontation.
Although you do not have any training in the area of con�lict resolution, simply try to remain calm and not turn the situation into a confrontation. Now debrief. How did
it go? Was the role-play useful in helping you practice being calm? Ask the classmate whether the role you wrote could be better in terms of providing information as
to how the classmate is to act.

3. In a small group, each person takes a turn giving a three-minute impromptu speech (on anything). Have someone designated as the bell ringer. Each time the speaker
uses a dys�luency (uh, and uh, um, etc.), the bell ringer will hit a glass with a spoon (or make some other sound). Keep score for each person. Over the next few weeks,
ask friends to tell you when you use these dys�luencies, and try to reduce them. Then get together with your group and redo the exercise. Do you note any
improvement?

4. In small groups, choose someone who worked in a particular job. Interview the person to determine the job requirements and develop a procedure for providing OJT
for the job.

Web Research
Conduct a search on the Internet to identify tips for trainers in dealing with dif�icult trainees. Compare the types you �ind with the types identi�ied in the text. If different,
compare those you found with those in the text, and offer an explanation as to why you think they were not included. If types are similar, compare how the text and Internet
suggest handling these types, noting any differences and explaining which method you prefer.

Case Analysis
Jim worked as a laborer for a gas utility in Winnipeg, Manitoba. When the opportunity came to apply for a backhoe/front-end-loader operator job, he was excited. Three
people applied. To select the one who would get the job, the company asked each of them to go out and actually work on the backhoe for a day. Jim felt his chance for the job
disappear because he had never even driven a tractor, let alone used a backhoe. When he went out, he did not know how to start the tractor. One of the other backhoe
operators had to show him. He managed through the day, and to his surprise, did better than the others. He was given the job.

On his �irst day at the new job, one of the other backhoe operators showed him where to check the hydraulic �luid and said, “These old Masseys are foolproof. You will be
okay.” Jim taught himself how to dig a hole by trial and error. He initially believed that the best way was to �ill the bucket as much as possible before lifting it out of the hole and
emptying it. He would wiggle the bucket back and forth until it was submerged and then curl it. When it came out of the hole, the earth would be falling off the sides. This job
was not so dif�icult after all, he thought.

He cut through his �irst water line about two weeks after starting his new job. Going into a deep, muddy hole did not make the crew happy. After Jim cut through his third
water line, the crew chief pulled him aside and said, “You are taking too much earth out with each bucket, so you don’t feel the bucket hitting the water line; ease up a bit.”
Water lines were usually six to eight feet down, so Jim would dig until about four feet and then try to be more careful. It was then that he pulled up some telephone lines that
were only about three feet deep.

Realizing that more was involved in operating a backhoe than he �irst had thought, he sought out Bill Granger, who was known to have broken a water line only twice in his
15 years. It was said that he was so good that he could dig underneath the gas lines—a claim that Jim doubted. Bill said, “You need to be able to feel any restriction. The way to
do that is to have more than one of your levers open at the same time. Operating the bucket lever and the boom lever at the same time reduces the power and causes the
machine to stop rather than cut through a line of any type.” Jim began to use this method but still broke water lines. The difference now was that he knew immediately when he
broke a line. He could feel the extra pull, whereas in the past, he found out either by seeing water gushing up or by hearing the crew chief swearing at him. He was getting
better. Jim never did become as good as Bill Granger. In fact, two years later, he applied for another job as gas repairperson and was promoted, but the training as a gas
repairperson was not much better.

Case Questions
1. What are the potential costs to this lack of training? Why do you think the company operated in this manner?

2. What type of training would you recommend: OJT, classroom, or a combination? Describe what the training might entail.

3. What type of training environment would you provide?

4. Who would you get to do the training, and why?

5. Would you consider purchasing a training program for backhoe operators? Provide your rationale.

Five Training Design

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify three constraints a human resources department (HRD) might face in the design of training, and what might be done to deal with each.

Describe the purpose of learning objectives, the criteria for evaluating such objectives, and the advantages of developing these objectives.

List the reasons that learning objectives are a bene�it to the trainee, training designer, trainer, and training evaluator.

Use expectancy theory to explain how to motivate a trainee to attend training.

Describe social learning theory and how it helps in the design of training.

Identify what to include in training to facilitate transfer of training to the workplace.

Identify the help that supervisors, peers, and trainers can provide back on the job to assist in the transfer of training.

Explain the relationship between the Gagné–Briggs theory of instruction and social learning theory.

Use elaboration theory and the Gagné–Briggs theory of instructional design to design a training session.

Describe the advantages a small business has to facilitate the transfer of training.

5.1 Case: The Real World of Training . . . What Is Wrong Here?

Case

Mechanics from dealerships across the country attended a three day training session put on by the manufacturer. The cost of the training, including travel and lodging was split
between the manufacturer and the dealerships. The focus of the training was on the electrical systems in three lines of automobiles. Given the number of trainees, it would
have been too expensive to provide three automobiles for each mechanic to work on and it would be nearly impossible to �ind a facility large enough to do so. So the training
was designed for the instructor to give instruction on the various systems and then to pose various problems that might occur. The trainees would then try to identify the
symptoms that would result. For example, the problem might be given as “The car has a burned-out capacitor.” The trainees would then try to identify the symptoms that would
appear (e.g., High current surge demands on the vehicle’s electrical systems can damage the electrical system, including the battery, alternator and voltage regulator.). The
training covered a wide range of electrical problems and the mechanics rated the program highly as they left. When doing a follow-up evaluation, the training director was
disappointed to learn that the dealerships reported that their mechanics showed no improvement in trouble shooting electrical problems.

Case

You are the training director for a training program designed to prepare people to become certi�ied as program managers. The training is divided into �ive sections. Each
section consists of two days of training for each of four weeks. Each section has a different trainer who is an expert in the content of that section. At the end of each week, the
trainees take a test to measure what they have learned. You’ve just reviewed the results of the last four cohorts to have completed the training. You are surprised to notice that
the trainees did poorly on the �irst exam but then did considerably better on the second and third exams. Then the trainees did poorly on the fourth, but improved on the �ifth
and sixth. This trend continued throughout the 20 weeks, even for the brightest trainees. You wonder “What is going on here?

5.2 Introduction to the Design of Training
The design phase of training is a process of identifying the set of speci�ications that will be used in the development phase for creating the training modules. It creates the
guidelines that need to be followed when creating the content, delivery process and materials to be used for the training. In the simplest terms, the design phase answers the
following questions:

Why is training needed?

Who will be trained?

What are the training objectives, and what methods will be used?

When and where will training take place?

What are the overarching guidelines that need to be followed to facilitate the learning of the material and its transfer to the job?

The model of the design phase at the start of the chapter provides an overview of the process and guides our discussion in this chapter. The training needs analysis (TNA)
results, along with organizational constraints and learning theories, are the inputs into the design phase. These inputs are used to determine the learning objectives
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i

7#glossch05_001) —the process part of the model. The �irst of the three outputs for this phase is
to determine the factors that facilitate learning and transfer of training, which is discussed in this chapter. Learning theory is used for identifying how to best facilitate learning
and transfer. The other two outputs that come from the design phase are discussed in separate chapters. Identifying the most appropriate method of instruction is discussed in
Chapters 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) and

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i

100

#ch07) . Determining the methods for evaluating the training is discussed brie�ly here, and in
much more detail in Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) .

In summary, training needs, and an understanding of the constraints placed on the training process are the inputs into the �irst step of the design phase—developing
objectives. The objectives you develop are then used to drive the rest of this phase and subsequent phases (development, implementation, and evaluation). Decisions we make
about how best to facilitate learning and transfer integrate what we know about how people learn (learning theory) with what they need to learn (training objectives). From
there, we move on to the next phase and develop the appropriate training, taking into consideration the constraints (money, time, facilities, etc.) we face. Suppose that an HRD
department completed a TNA that identi�ied that supervisors need training in effective communication skills. Objectives for the training would be developed on the basis of
speci�ic KSAs that were required for effective performance. These objectives would identify what the training is to achieve. But, before developing the objectives, the
organizational constraints need to be addressed (you need to know the constraints in order to develop realistic objectives). So, we must address the following types of issues:

Time allotted for the training

Number of trainees to be trained at the same time

Timing of the training—regular hours or overtime

Voluntary or mandatory training

Location of the training

Identi�ication of training program personnel

Financial resources needed

Organizational constraints will in�luence many of these decisions. For example, if the HRD department does not have the resources to develop the program, or if supervisors
cannot be off the job for more than a half-day, then these factors will help shape what the training will look like and how it will be offered.

Organizational Constraints
In a perfect world, it would be possible to develop the perfect training program for every training need identi�ied. For supervisors who need effective communication training,
you could develop a two-week intensive training package using the most effective methods with plenty of practice built in. Reality prevails, however, and you must consider the
constraints on training design. Many of these constraints in�luence the type of training that can be offered. Table 5-1 provides a list of some of these constraints and various
ways to approach training design on the basis of these constraints. This list is not exhaustive and serves only as an example of the ways in which organizational constraints
affect the methods and approaches used to meet the

Table 5-1 Some Organizational Constraints and Ways of Dealing with Them

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_001

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch0

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch0

Constraint Suggestion for How to Handle

Need high level of simulationa
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05fnt01)
because:

Law (�ire drills)

Task is critical to the job (police �iring a gun) Incorporate longer lead times to prepare simulations/ role-plays.

Mistakes are costly (airline pilot) Purchase simulators.

Differences among trainees

Trainees vary in amount of experience Consider modularization.

Trainees have large differences in ability levels Use programmed instruction—Have high level of trainer–trainee interaction.

Mix of employees and new hires trained on a new procedure Consider different training programs because of possible negative transfer for
employees but not for new hires.

Long lag between end of training and use of skill on the job Distribute practice through the lag. Provide refresher material or models for the
employees to follow.

Short lead time Use external consultant or packaged training.

Bias against a type of training (e.g., role-play) Develop proof of effectiveness into the training package. Use another method.

Few trainees available at any one time Use electronic-based training.b
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05fnt

Small organization with limited funds Hire consultant or purchase training—Join consortium.

a (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#r__ch05fnt01) This constraint results when you are forced to provide a more costly training
program involving simulators or costly practice sessions, and so forth.

b (�ilech05.xhtml#r__cch05fnt02) There are a variety of e-learning approaches discussed in Chapter 7
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) that provide self-paced learning.

training needs. We discuss two major categories of constraints: organizational/environmental and trainee population. Each affects the issue of whether to train and the type of
training that can be offered.

Organizational Priorities
Budgets generally are limited, so choices must be made about who gets trained and what type of training they receive. One way of making these decisions is to use the strategic
direction of the organization to set priorities. The strategic plan provides a rationale for determining who gets how much of what kind of training. Recall the Domtar case
presented in Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) . The “Domtar difference” was “tapping the intelligence of the
experts, our employees.” The tactic for doing this was the introduction of Kaizen. Clearly, then, training dollars will be marked for such training given that it is a primary
operating principle. The next decision is to determine whether Domtar plans to use internal resources for the training or hire outside consultants. Here, they decided to hire
someone with the expertise and bring them in-house to oversee a major undertaking—the training of all employees in the Kaizen method. This is again based on an
organizational constraint since the required expertise was not present in Domtar.

Even if the organization does not have a clear strategic plan in place, the top managers in human resources (HR) can establish priorities by meeting with senior executives.
Such meetings help de�ine HR and HRD priorities and determine how to put resources in line with the direction of the company. A side bene�it is that the process might
stimulate top management to engage in strategic planning.

The technological sophistication of the organization affects the type of training that can be offered. If, as in the Domtar case, there are many locations, and each location has
access to computer networks or videoconferencing, the type of training you can offer will be different from that offered by an organization without these capabilities.

Decisions about training priorities also must follow the law. As discussed in Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) ,
some training is mandated by law. For example, a 2010 study noted that 90 percent of organizations surveyed provided mandatory or compliance type training and 1

percent
expected the amount they provide to go up. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_001) A little over 60 percent of this
training is provided on line.

Budgeting for Training
The budgeting process presented here is from the perspective of the HRD department that charges its customers (departments in the organization) for the services that HRD
provides. Charging for services is occurring more frequently in organizations because HRD departments are being asked to justify their existence just like other departments.
In fact, in some cases, they are expected to market their training outside and inside the organization.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_002) This budgeting process is, for the most part, similar to that used by an outside
consultant bidding on a project. So, when providing estimates, understand that departments are competing for resources and that the estimate must be as accurate as possible.
Otherwise, the department could lose the training to an outside consultant or have the training cancelled due to cost.

1
2

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05fnt01

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In creating a budget for a particular training program, estimates of training cost can be dif�icult to determine accurately. Because the budget estimate is often expected
before a needs assessment is completed (or even begun), providing budgets for several scenarios is helpful to decision makers. Before a TNA, there is not really a clear idea of
what, or how much, training is required. So how to start? Begin with the triggering event, as explained in Chapter

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . Provide budget estimates for different training scenarios or deal with this issue the way
it was done in the Fabrics, Inc., example presented at the end of Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . In the Fabrics
case the consultant offered to do a TNA at a given cost, providing the company with a clearer idea of what would be required. To avoid any ethical issues the consultant offered
to bid on any training that might result from the TNA in competition with any other consultants Fabrics might consider. The resulting bids would be more accurate because the
issues were identi�ied and the type of training required would be clearer.

Once the objectives of training are determined, it is necessary to estimate the amount of time it will take to design and develop the training for delivery. The more accurate
this estimate is, the more accurate the costing will be, and the more credibility the department will have with clients. The length of the training program (how long it takes to
actually deliver the training) is often used for estimating the length of time to prepare. However, the ratio of preparation time to training time varies a great deal. It can range
from 10:1, if much of the material is in some form of readiness, to

0:1, if it is computer-based, multimedia training with little already prepared. In many cases, when training
is requested, the client wants a proposed training solution and its associated costs quickly.

We have provided a relatively easy and quick way to estimate the time required in developing a training program. This guide is shown in Table 5-2. To make a rough
calculation of the length of time it will take to develop the training, begin by estimating the number of days of training that will be required. Typically this will be based on the
amount of material that needs to be covered. However, sometimes a company will place a limit on the number of days or hours of training. Multiply that number by 2 as a
starting point for the time it will take for designing and developing (D/D) the training. Then you need to factor in how skilled the person is who will be doing the D/D and how
well they understand the subject matter. Circle the number in the right-hand column of rows 2 and 3 that is your best estimate of these characteristics. Then multiply the
numbers in rows 1–3 together to get the minimum D/D estimate and enter that number in row M. Then go through items 4–10 and write down the number; this is your best
estimate for that factor. Now, add up the numbers you have written down for rows 4–10, and put that number in the space next to Additional (A) Design/development Days
Required. Add this number to the number you calculated for M. That is the approximate number of days it will take. Obviously, this is just an estimate, and the actual time
required will depend on the accuracy of your estimates as well as other issues not addressed here. But it should give you a good general idea of the amount of design and
development time you’ll need in order to deliver the program.

Table 5-2 Estimating the Time Required to Design and Develop Training

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For lines 2-

, circle the number in the right hand box that re�lects the level of the factor for the training you are developing.

Factors to be considered Level of Time Required (smaller numbers 5 less time)

1. Number of Days of Training

Determine the amount of material that must be covered and convert that into the estimated days
of training needed.

Typically you should �igure on 2 days of
design/development (D/D) work for every day of
delivered training.

Enter D/D days here _______

2. Designer/Developer’s Skill in Training Design/Development 1 = high 1.5 = medium 2 = low

3. Designer/Developer’s Understanding of Subject Matter 1 = high 1.5 = medium 2 = low

M Multiply the numbers for items 1, 2 and 3 and enter the result in the box to the right. This will
give you an estimate of the number of days required.

Minimum (M) days

M 5______

4. Size of Largest Group to be Trained

(Little to no additional design/development time is needed when delivering the same training to
multiple groups)

0 = small (less than 10)

1.5 = medium (10-25)

2 = large (26 or more)

5. Group’s Diversity of KSA in Topic Area 0 = very homogenous

1 = moderately diverse

2 = very diverse

6. Diversity of Learning Styles in Group 0 = very homogenous

1 = moderately diverse
2 = very diverse

7. Amount of Participation Needing to be Designed & Developed 0 = none 1 = some

2 = a moderate amount

3 = a great deal

8. Complexity of Training Material 0 = not at all complex

1 = moderately complex

2 = complex

3 = highly complex

9. Requirements for handouts and other AV material. Determine the number appropriate for your
training, with “0” being the lowest and “3” the highest.

0 = simple Xerox sheets and basic AV material

3 = many professionally developed high grade
manuals handouts and AV presentations

For lines 2-11, circle the number in the right hand box that re�lects the level of the factor for the training you are developing.

10. Degree of Client Collaboration and Input 0 = none

1 = minimal

2 = approval of each module

4 = multiple levels of approval needed.

11. Now Add items 4 through 10 and place total in the box to the right next to A This will give you
the additional days necessary to complete the design and development of training.

Additional (A) Design/development Days Required

= _______

Total required time to design and develop the training
is: M + A = _________

Note: Total D/D days required are arrived at by adding M (items 1,2, and 3 multiplied together) to A (total sum of lines 4–11).

Imagine calculating the bid on a one-day workshop on effective communication and the training designer is relatively inexperienced. Using Table 5-2, you check “low” for
rows two and three. Your DD score will be 2 3 1 5 2, and your M score will then be 8 (2 3 2 3 2). Now let’s move down to box 4, the largest group you will train is 16 people (

1.5). For box 5, you know the trainees are moderately diverse in their communication KSAs (5 1.5), and for box 6, you believe there are a very diverse range of learning styles
(5 2). To improve skills you are going to have to have design/develop numerous ways of generating active practice as well as trainee participation in discussions. So, for box 7,
your number will be three. For box 8, the training will be moderately complex (1). Your A/V materials (box 9) are going to be basic (slides, training manual, and handouts) so
you would circle a 1 in this box. You will need to get approval (box 10) from the client on each module of the training (5 2). So, adding these together you have 12 additional
days. Add this to the minimum you estimated at 8 days and you have 20 days of design and development work to produce a single day of training. As you can see it can take
quite a bit of time to design and develop an effective day of training from scratch. However, your estimates will depend on the experience and resources available to your D/D
person. A seasoned training design specialist has the advantage of her past efforts and a considerable amount of D/D time can be reduced by drawing on and using past
efforts, or the efforts of other training designers within the organization. For example, the training might require a lot of participation and activities, but the seasoned designer
wouldn’t have to design and develop these because she has already done this for previous training programs. All she will need to do is make some minor modi�ications to
adapt them for this speci�ic training. The point here is that judgment will need to be exercised in assigning the numbers to the boxes.

A simple calculation on overall cost could be done on the basis of this information, but it might seem high to those not knowing what is involved in the development of
training. So it is useful to have some sort of breakdown, as depicted in Table 5-3. With such estimates, it is a good idea to build in a contingency fund of about 10 percent, to
help cover unforeseen costs. This portion is indicated under “miscellaneous.” The “rate” should include both the trainer’s fee and overhead costs. In the example depicted in
Table 5-3, if the training were presented only once, the cost of designing and developing the training package would be $3,400. Remember that this is only part of the cost for
the training. However, this is a one-time cost. If it is to be offered 10 times, then the total cost of the development can be amortized over the 10 sessions, making its cost per
session or per employee much less. The cost in the table is based on using an internal design/development specialist making about $50,000/year. If an external consultant is
used the cost would likely be �ive to ten times higher.

Table 5-3 Proposal for Developing a One-Day Workshop on Effective

Communication

Action Time
(Days)

Rate
($)

Total
Amount ($)

Interview relevant employees to determine issues and context to develop training (or review needs analysis and follow up where
necessary).

1 200 200

Develop objectives and guidelines for developing training, including identifying appropriate strategies to facilitate learning and
transfer; also develop evaluation objectives.

3 200 600

Create content, organize module sequencing, organize content within modules, and so on. 3 200 600

Develop training materials on the basis of objectives. Develop exercises and activities to engage trainees and reinforce learning. 7 200 1,400

Develop basic training manual, handouts and so on. 1 200 200

Collaboration and miscellaneous expenses 2 200 400

Total cost for design and development 17 3,400

So far, we have dealt only with the developmental costs associated with training. Direct costs associated with delivering the training (trainer compensation, travel, facilities,
food and beverages, and so forth), indirect costs, overhead costs, participant compensation, and evaluation costs must also be included to determine the total cost. For an
example of a more inclusive estimate of the total costs associated with delivering a training program, see Table 5-4.

Table 5-4 Training Costs for Grievance-Reduction Training

Developmental Costs

1. 20 days of director’s time at $50,000 per year $ 4,000

2. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year $ 600

3. Materials $ 1,000

Direct Costs

1. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year $ 600

2. Training facility rental for 5 days at $150 per day $ 7

3. Materials and equipment $ 2,000

4. Coffee, juice, and muf�ins $ 600

Indirect Costs

1. 1 day of trainer preparation at $30,000 per year $ 1

2. 3 days of administrative preparation at $20,000 per year $ 2

Participant Compensation

1. 30 supervisors attending 5-day workshop (average $

,000/year) $

,000

Evaluation Costs

1. 6 days of evaluator’s time at $30,000 per year $

2. Materials $ 800

Total Training Costs $ 32,

Note: Calculations for the personnel costs are based on a 250-day work year.

Trainee Population
What if the TNA identi�ies two or more subgroups with the same learning objectives but different levels of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs)? It is dif�icult to develop a
single training program to meet all their needs. Going back to our supervisors who need the communication training, what if the TNA indicated that half of them previously
received training in active listening and were reasonably pro�icient in it? The effective communication model we plan to use in the training of supervisors involves �ive steps,
the �irst of which is active listening. The training could be designed in a modular manner to provide only the relevant modules to each subgroup. In our supervisor example,
the �irst module would be skill building in the active listening process, and only those not already pro�icient would need to attend. Then all of the supervisors would receive the
effective communication training, with the understanding that all were pro�icient in the active listening portion of the model.

Sometimes the needs analysis identi�ies a wide variability in the KSAs of the target population. In this case, the training design could provide individualized instruction,
accomplished through computer-based or video instruction, although both take a long time to develop. Another alternative would be to allow for small classes and a high level
of interaction between the instructor and each trainee.

Often your trainee population will have a wide variety of learning styles. This is an organizational constraint that we will discuss in more depth later in this chapter. You will
have to take this into account as you design your training. Likewise, in some instances you may �ind that trainees hold negative feelings about a particular training technique.
One way of dealing with this constraint is to use a different technique that trainees feel more positively about. Alternatively, if the technique is the best approach to achieving
the desired learning, the design could build in attitude-change modules at the beginning. We found, for example, that many managers do not want to role-play in training. We
often hear arguments such as “This is silly,” or “These never work.” One way to handle this resistance is simply to call it something different. The term play, for some, suggests
that it is not serious learning. Sometimes when we present the technique, we suggest it is time for some “behavioral practice.” This simple change in terms causes the exercise
to be received more positively. The point here is that if, through the needs analysis, it is discovered that a particular method of training is disliked because of past experience or
word of mouth, the training design should include a way of changing the perception or another method should be used.

While organizational constraints in�luence most aspects of the training process, they can have a real impact on the development of the training objectives. As stated earlier, it
would be wonderful if we could always deliver the perfect training to satisfy the training needs. Unfortunately, we face constraints on what we are able to do, thus the
objectives we set for training must realistically re�lect what is achievable. The organizational priorities, the budget available, the nature of the employees needing training, and
so on, will place limits on what can be achieved. Once you have general idea of how the organizational constraints will be accommodated and have a general understanding of
what can be achieved, you will need to re�ine that into clear objective statements and a set of speci�ic guidelines for how the training program is to be developed. The next
section focuses on the development of objectives.

Developing Objectives
The term training objectives refers to all the objectives that are developed for the training program. There are generally four types of training objectives: reaction, learning,
transfer of training, and organizational outcome (see Table 5-5). Reaction objectives refer to the objectives set for how trainees should feel about the training and their
learning environment. Learning objectives describe the KSAs that trainees are expected to acquire throughout the training program and the ways that learning will be
demonstrated. Transfer of training objectives describes the changes in job behavior that are expected to occur as a result of transferring the KSAs gained in training to the
trainee’s job. Organizational outcome objectives describe the outcomes that the organization can expect from the changes in the trainees’ job behavior as a result of the
learning. Ideally, a training program would develop objectives in all four areas.

Table 5-5 Types of Training Objectives

Trainee Reaction
Objectives

Describes the desired attitudinal and subjective evaluations of training by the trainee

Learning Objectives Describes the type of behavior that will demonstrate the learning, the conditions under which the behavior must occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a suf�icient level of learning has occurred

Transfer of

Training
Objectives

Describes the job behaviors that will be affected by training, the conditions under which those behaviors must occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a suf�icient transfer of learning from training to the job has occurred

Organizational
Outcome Objectives

Describes the organizational outcomes that will be affected by the transfer of learning to the job and the criteria that will signify that
organizational outcome objectives were achieved

Creating Objectives
The TNA is a critical part of determining what the objectives of training should be. As part of the TNA you have integrated the results of the organization, operation, and person
analyses to identify the relevant performance gaps that should be addressed by training and the KSAs causing those gaps.

From this information, we set the learning objectives, transfer of training objectives, and organizational outcome objectives. Trainee reaction objectives can be linked to the
person analysis but also to the key aspects of your training design and development such as satisfaction with the value and relevance of the training. We will discuss what
should be included in the reaction objectives following our discussion of the learning objectives.

Although the content of the various types of objectives differs, the structure and process of developing good objective statements is the same. Objectives are statements
about what is expected to be accomplished. A good objective has three components:
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1. Desired outcome: What should be expected to occur?

2. Conditions: Under what conditions is the outcome expected to occur?

3. Standards: What criteria signify that the outcome is acceptable?

It is dif�icult to write good objectives. You must take care to ensure that the three components are speci�ied in unambiguous terms and that the full range of expectations is
addressed.

Writing a Good Learning Objective
We focus attention on learning objectives for two reasons:

1. Learning objectives are often the most dif�icult to write.

2. Learning is training’s �irst priority. Unless trainees learn what they are supposed to learn, the performance gaps will not be reduced or eliminated.

Clearly articulated learning objectives are a critical �irst step in developing an effective training program. Learning can be observed only through its in�luence on behavior.
Thus, when writing a learning objective, think not only about what will be learned but also about how the learning will be demonstrated.

Desired Outcome: Behavior
The desired behavior must be worded clearly and unambiguously. Anyone reading the objective should be able to understand what the learner will be required to do to
demonstrate that she learned the KSA. A learning objective that states, “After completing the training, the trainees will understand how to splice electrical wire” is ambiguous. It
fails to specify what trainee behavior will indicate that the trainee “understands.” Recall that just a few sentences ago we said—think not only about what will be learned but
also about how the learning will be demonstrated. A clearer learning objective would be: “will be able to splice electrical wires of any gauge.” This statement indicates what the
learner should be able to do at the end of training. Consider another example: “The trainee will be able to differentiate (by sorting into two piles) between computer chips that
are within speci�ication and those that are outside of speci�ication.” Here the behavior is clear, but not how the trainee is expected to differentiate between the computer chips.
Will the trainees have gauges to work with? Will they have to be able to tell the difference by simply looking at the chips? The conditions under which the person will sort the
chips are not stated.

Conditions
Explaining the conditions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_002) under which the behavior must occur further
clari�ies exactly what is required. In the preceding example, it is not clear what, if any, aids will be available to the trainee to determine whether the computer chips are within

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speci�ications. Providing the conditions makes the objective even clearer: “Using an ohmmeter and a chart, the trainee will be able to differentiate (by sorting into two piles)
between computer chips that are within speci�ication and those that are outside of speci�ication.”

A description of the conditions (assistance or barriers) under which the desired behavior will be performed should be provided when creating objectives. For example, the
statement “Using an ohmmeter and a chart” indicates the help that is provided. If the objective began with the phrase “Without the use of reference material,” it is clear that the
trainee must discriminate between the chips without using any aids.

Writing in conditions is necessary in some cases but not in others. In the following example, it is critical to know that the pie charts must be developed using a speci�ic
software package: “Present the results of an accounting problem in pie chart form, using the Harvard Graphics software.” Objectives often begin with the phrase, “After
completing the training, the trainee will. . . .” This is a condition, as it states when the behavior will occur. However, for transfer of training and organizational objectives, the
point at which the objectives are achieved and measured typically doesn’t occur until sometime after training has ended, so this should be included in these objectives. For
example, a transfer of training objective might read as follows: “Six weeks after the completion of training, the rate of incorrectly sorted computer chips will drop from the
pretraining rate of 3 percent to less than 0.01 percent.” Conditions should be included only if they help clarify what is required.

Standards
Standards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_003) are the criteria for success. Three potential standards are accuracy,
quality, and speed. For example, a learning objective might de�ine accuracy as “being able to take a reading off an altimeter with an error of no more than three meters.” A
quality standard might be indicated by the statement “is within engineering speci�ications

.9 percent of the time.” Or, if speed is a critical concern, “will be completed in

minutes or less.”

Here are a few examples of learning objectives for a telephone repairperson. The desired behavior is bolded, the conditions are italicized, and the standards are
underlined.

Using a drop wire, bushing, and connector, but without the use of a manual, the trainee will splice a drop wire meeting the standards set out in the manual.

Using a standard climbing harness and spikes, the trainee will climb a standard telephone pole within �ive minutes, following all safety procedures.

The trainee will splice, according to code, six sets of wires in ten minutes while at the top of a telephone pole wearing all standard safety gear.

The Formula for Writing the Objective
The outcome speci�ies the type of behavior; the conditions state where, when, and what tools will be used; and standards describe the criteria for judging the adequacy of the
behavior. Remember that a learning objective should state clearly what the result of the training will be. Here are the steps to follow:

1. Write out the “desired behavior.” Here, the verb needs to describe clearly what will be done: A “doing” verb is used to indicate some action. Do not use the word
understand. Always make sure that the verb describes an action. Examples of “doing” verbs are provided in Table 5-6.

2. Now add the conditions under which the behavior must be performed. This description encompasses the use or nonuse of aids. So “using an ohmmeter,” “using
reference material provided,” “using a standard climbing harness and spikes,” “while at the top of a telephone pole,” “without the use of a manual,” “without the use of a
calculator” are all examples of conditions that would be expected in certain situations.

3. Finally, it needs to be clear what standards for success will be used. How will the trainee know that he successfully completed the training? What level of accuracy is
required? Is quality or speed an important part of success? “According to code,” “following all safety procedures,” “within �ive minutes,” “according to the manual”
“within 15 minutes,” “with no more than three errors,” and “obtaining a score of 80 percent” are all possible standards.

Table 5-6 Types of Doing Verbs

Knowledge Analyze, cite, compare, de�ine, describe, distinguish, explain, identify, list, provide, name, quote, reproduce

Skills Assemble, compute, construct, count, design, demonstrate, eliminate, install, list, measure, operate, place, recite, replace, solve, sort

Attitudes Align, belong, choose, commit, criticize, decide, praise

Now, to test whether the learning objective is effective, ask someone to read it and explain exactly what she believes a trainee needs to do, under what conditions, and how
the trainee will know if she is successful. If the person can articulate these factors, the learning objective is a good one.

Table 5-7 provides some examples of poorly written learning objectives followed by an improved version. For some practice in writing a good learning objective, cover the
right column of Table 5-7 and read the poorly written learning objective on the left side of the table. Improve this objective using the formula. Now check the right side for an
example of how the objective can be improved. How did you do? Now do the remaining objectives, as this will provide good practice for writing effective learning objectives.

Table 5-7 Learning Objectives Improved

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Before After

Upon completion of training, the
trainee

Upon completion of training, the trainee

Will be able to apply theories of
motivation to different situations.

Will be able, after reading a scenario of an unmotivated trainee, to identify orally what she would do to motivate the trainee, and
explain which theory she used and why. The explanation must identify at least three motivators and tie them to correct theory. The
trainee must do the above on four of �ive scenarios, without the use of any outside material.

Will be able to recognize and
identify different personalities, and
know how to motivate them.

Will be able to watch a fellow trainee role-play a situation and correctly explain in writing what type of personality is being
exhibited and what to do to motivate the trainee. Trainee must be 100% correct on the personality and identify at least two
motivators.

Will understand what is necessary
to have an effective team.

Will be able to correctly list �ive things that are required for an effective team and explain why they are necessary.

Will have knowledge of three types
of active listening, and will be able to
use the appropriate one in a
particular situation.

Will be able to correctly identify in writing, three of the active listening techniques that were identi�ied in training and match them
with the appropriate situation.

In a role-play, will be able to respond verbally to an angry comment using one of the appropriate active listening types, and orally
explain which was used and why.

Will be able to say no to boss and
peers when asked to do extra work.

After reading a scenario in which the trainee is asked to do extra work which is not possible to complete, will be able to correctly
use an appropriate way of saying “no” and explain which technique was used and why, with 100% accuracy.

Will be able to give an 5-minute oral
presentation on a topic provided by
the instructor using all the skills
taught

After being given a topic by the trainer and 15 minutes to prepare a presentation, will give an oral presentation on the topic. The
trainee will cover all the major points, use no more than three 3 3 5 cue cards; have fewer than �ive dys�luencies, maintain eye
contact with the audience for a minimum of 4 minutes 30 seconds, and follow the guidelines for an effective presentation with an
opening, body, and closing.

The other three types of objectives listed in Table 5-5 require similar components. For example, a transfer of training objective might read as follows:

After completing training, participants, at their regular job station and using an ohmmeter and a chart, will be able to separate acceptable (within
speci�ications) from unacceptable (outside speci�ications) computer chips with an accuracy of 99.99 percent while sorting a minimum of 10 chips per
minute.

Attitudes
Sometimes attitudes, in addition to knowledge and skills, are the focus of training. How do you write a learning objective for an attitude? When the goal of training is attitude
change, the focus of training activities is to provide the trainees with information that contradicts inappropriate attitudes and supports more appropriate attitudes. Thus,
training does not focus on changing attitudes speci�ically, but rather on providing new knowledge. This new knowledge might consist of alternative views and information
related to attitudes. Therefore, learning objectives for attitude change should focus on acquisition of the relevant information rather than on the resulting attitude change.

Consider training that is attempting to improve attitudes toward teamwork in a group of trainees who all scored below the midpoint on a TNA teamwork awareness survey.
In this case, the learning objective might read as follows: At the end of training, trainees will demonstrate an increased awareness of the positive aspects of teamwork (new
knowledge) as demonstrated by a 50 percent improvement on the team awareness survey.

Recall that the reason we want to affect an attitude is to in�luence behavior. In this example, we want trainees to have positive attitudes so that once they are back in the
workplace, they will participate fully in team meetings and provide input. The transfer of training objective in this case might be “Eight weeks after completing training, the
participants will have attended all team meetings and, using the skills taught, provide ideas and suggestions in those meetings.” Another might be “Eight weeks after completing
training, the participants’ performance rating in team meetings (as rated by other team members) will average one point higher than before training.”

Purpose Statements
At times you will need to communicate only a short statement of what the training is intended to accomplish. This is called a purpose statement. The purpose statement is used
to synthesize the individual training objectives into one clear statement regarding what the training will be all about. This can be useful when �irst communicating with trainees
or others about an upcoming training program (invitations, announcements, and the like). In these initial communications, you want to convey the overall purpose of the
training without getting into the detail of the individual objectives. So, the purpose statement should describe what the trainee will be able to do as a result of the training but
should not contain all of the detail in the formal objectives. For example, if the previous section of this chapter were to be converted into a training workshop, some of the
formal training objectives might be those described next.

Given a set of training needs, organizational priorities, and constraints, the trainees, at the end of training, using notes and materials from the training, will be able to

1. Identify all the training needs that should be met by the training

2. Write effective learning objectives for each of the needs that meet the guidelines speci�ied in the training (i.e., behavior, standards, and conditions)

3. Write effective transfer of training objectives for the needs that meet the guidelines speci�ied in the training (i.e., behavior, standards, and conditions)

4. Write effective organizational objectives for the training that meet the guidelines speci�ied in the training (i.e., observable changes in outcomes, standards, and
conditions)

The purpose statement might read as follows: “The purpose of the Writing Training Objectives workshop is to provide participants with the ability to construct training
objectives that effectively facilitate the design, development, and evaluation of training.” This conveys the essential purpose of the training in a simple and straightforward
manner. However, as we indicate in the following section, there are signi�icant advantages to communicating the speci�ic objectives to various audiences.

5.3 Why Use Training Objectives?
Developing good learning objectives takes time, effort, and careful thought. Why not spend that time constructively developing the actual training? In fact, some HRD specialists
seriously question the value of speci�ic learning objectives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_004) Some concerns
about the use of objectives include the following:

Waste of valuable time

Inhibited �lexibility

Focus moved from other areas

Unrealistic for management training and other soft areas of training

Not practical in today’s workplace

We respectfully disagree with those HRD specialists regarding the �irst concern; the argument is that resources are often scarce and the time taken to develop the objectives
takes away from more important endeavors. On the face of it, this generalization might be true, but the objectives guide the development of training. They might even result in
less time to develop the training because of the clear guidelines objectives provide. Go back and look at the objectives in Table 5-7. Note in the “After” column how much clearer
the focus is regarding “what will be trained” as compared with the “Before” column.

Some suggest that objectives inhibit the trainer’s �lexibility to respond to trainee needs. The counterargument here is that a comprehensive TNA is designed to determine
trainees’ needs and that the objectives focus speci�ically on those needs. They do, perhaps, inhibit the trainer’s �lexibility to go off on tangents that she might like to pursue, but
adhering to a focused direction is a positive thing. Moving the focus from other areas is again the point of having objectives. The idea is to keep the focus on the topics
identi�ied in the TNA.

Some argue that concrete objectives are not possible in management training or areas such as time management or interpersonal skills.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_005) We note that whatever the training, the goal is to achieve certain outcomes,
and those outcomes need to be translated into objectives. With time management, for example, you want trainees to gain some cognitive knowledge about strategies for time
management. The purpose is for them to develop skills to use in the workplace. Trainees must know the skills before they can transfer them into the workplace. So articulating
an objective that states, “At the end of training, trainees will demonstrate time management skills by completing an in-basket exercise within 45 minutes and be able to provide
an appropriate time management rationale for each decision” makes perfect sense.

Finally, some say that objectives have outlived their usefulness, and they are too speci�ic for today’s complex jobs.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_006) They say that we need to �ind methods that are better at determining what is
required for effective performance. Although this reasoning might be true at a more macro level, the purpose of objectives as a guide for training development is still valid. The
complexities of the job will surface during a TNA, but it is still necessary in any job to have competence in speci�ic KSAs to be an effective performer.

The majority of HRD specialists agree with us that training objectives are important from the following stakeholders’ perspectives:

Trainee

Designer of training

Trainer

Evaluator of training

The Trainee
Training objectives bene�it trainees because they

reduce anxiety related to the unknown,

focus attention, and

increase the likelihood that the trainees will be successful in training.

High levels of anxiety can negatively affect learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_007) Not knowing what to
expect in a situation creates anxiety. Training objectives provide a clear understanding of what will be taking place over the training period. This reduces the anxiety felt from
not knowing what to expect. The objectives also focus attention on relevant topics to be trained, which, recalling social learning theory in Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , is the important �irst step to learning. Thus, from a learning theory perspective, it is
important to let the trainee know what the performance expectations are and be able to refer to them throughout the training. Also, as was indicated in Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , this information will assist the learner in both focusing attention and cognitively
organizing the new information. A key here is to make sure that your objectives are easily understood. Recall the formula for writing good objectives: You should check to
make sure the objectives are clear and understandable. Finally, learning objectives increase relevant learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_008) and the likelihood that trainees will be successful in training. This makes
sense according to goal-setting research, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_009) which indicates that when speci�ic
and challenging goals are set, the probability is higher that these will be achieved than when no goal is set or an instruction to “do the best you can” is given.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_010) A goal is what a learning objective is.

The Training Designer
The learning objectives guide the designer of the training or the purchaser of a training package. The objectives directly translate the training needs into training outcomes.
With clear objectives, training methods and content can be checked against the objectives to ensure that they are consistent. Furthermore, evidence shows that following
learning objectives results in the development of better lesson plans. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_011)

Suppose the designer is told to “design training to provide salespeople with skills in customer service.” Does the designer design a course in interpersonal skills so that
salespeople learn how to be friendly and upbeat? Does the designer design a course in product knowledge so that the salesperson can provide information about the various
products and their features to customers? Does the designer design a course in technical expertise so that salespeople can assist customers in getting the product to work
effectively? Consider the learning objective that reads, “After completing training, participants will, using paraphrasing or decoding and feedback (desired outcome), respond to
an angry customer (conditions), suggesting two alternative remedies judged by the customer to be appropriate for resolving the problem (standard).” This learning objective

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provides a clear, unambiguous goal for the designer. The designer can then design a course in active listening (paraphrasing, decoding, and feedback), with the focus on dealing
with angry customers. Without that guidance, the training might not be designed appropriately.

The Trainer
With clear learning objectives, the trainer can facilitate the learning process more effectively. Clear, speci�ic objectives allow the trainer to more readily determine how well the
trainees are progressing and thus make the appropriate adjustments. In addition, the trainer can highlight the relationship of particular segments of the training to the
objectives. Some trainers might see objectives as infringing on their freedom to train the way they want to. It is probably for those trainers that objectives do the most good,
keeping the trainer on the right track.

The Evaluator
Evaluating training is much easier when objectives are used, because these objectives de�ine the behaviors expected at the end of training. With no clear indication of what
training is supposed to accomplish, an evaluator has no way to assess whether the training was effective. It is analogous to the army sergeant who tells the private, “Dig a hole
here.” The private starts to dig and the sergeant walks away. After digging for a few minutes, the private begins to worry because he knows he’s in trouble. He doesn’t know
how deep the hole should be, how long, wide, or anything else. When the private sees the platoon leader walk by, he asks him, “How am I doing on this hole, sir?” The platoon
leader, of course, says, “How should I know?” When good objectives are developed, the evaluator simply needs to assess whether the stated outcomes and standards are met.

5.4 Facilitation of Learning: Focus on the Trainee
Recall from Figure 3-1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03�ig01) the formula for factors in�luencing performance (P 5 M 3 KSA
3 E). Many issues exist within each of these factors that will make it easier or more dif�icult for the trainee to achieve the learning objectives.

Individual Differences in KSAs
The TNA supplies information not only on the need for training but also on the trainees’ readiness for such training. Let’s take the example of employees recently hired or
promoted. They were selected for their new job because of their KSAs, but they need some initial training to get them ready to perform in their new job (processes,
procedures, and the like). Perfect selection techniques would ensure that these people have the requisite KSAs to be successful in training, but few selection techniques are
perfect. Even the best selection practices result in a certain number of individuals who are selected but subsequently are not successful. If these false positives—those who are
predicted to be successful but are not—can somehow be identi�ied in the TNA, the design of training might be able to address the issues that would prevent them from being
successful.

For example, some who are identi�ied as in need of training might not have the requisite KSAs to make use of the training methods and materials that would be effective for
90 percent of the other potential trainees. Providing a preliminary training module for this group prior to the regular training might increase the likelihood of them
successfully completing training.

The selection process sets minimum criteria (based on a job analysis) that individuals must meet to be selected. Even here, however, if all met those criteria, some individual
differences in abilities would be evident. Some will show higher levels of the KSA in question, and others might not possess the minimum skills (e.g., false positive). Needs
assessment data that show large differences among the potential trainees indicate that the training design must be adjusted to address the differences, which relates back to
organizational constraints (Table 5-1). If the variance in KSAs is large, you need to consider a design that allows those with lower levels of the KSAs to “catch up.” Otherwise,
the training reduces motivation for many by being too boring for some and too complex for others.

By not accounting for trainee differences, companies can be the losers. For example, there was an insurance company that hired a number of older workers for its call
center. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_012) The company believed that an older voice could relate to older
customers better. The older workers were sent through the company computer-training program. Many of them quit before completing training, and those who did stay were
substandard performers. The company decided that it was simply a bad idea to hire older workers, as they were not capable of learning the new technology. After discussions
with a consultant, the company decided to try again. This time, the training was extended. Trainers were able to work more closely with the older trainees. As a result,
performance on the job after training was on par with that of the younger employees.

Just how important is the individual difference issue? Consider the following:

Increased ethnic diversity—Hispanics will become the largest minority group in the U.S. workforce by 2016.
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A very large portion of the workforce is made up of older workers. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_014)

Women will continue to increase as a percentage of the workforce. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_015)

New technology and government legislation in North America is making it easier for people with disabilities to enter the workforce.

These facts suggest an increasingly diverse workforce in North America. With this increase in diversity comes individual differences in ways of viewing the workplace and its
norms and values. Care in the needs assessment to understand these differences will help tremendously in designing a successful training program.

Differences in Learning Styles
Individual differences also exist in how people learn. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_016) There are a number
of different learning style models to choose from. A recent Google search turned up over 80 different inventories. Although each has a slightly different perspective based on
the particular research premises of the authors, they do have much in common. We chose the Felder–Silverman model to use as an example of how different trainee learning
styles can in�luence the effectiveness of the training. We chose this model because it is consistent with many other models and the scale has reasonable reliability and
validity. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_017) In this model, there are four different dimensions of learner
preference. Within each dimension, the learners will differ in their preference for how they like to learn. The different learning styles are described next.

Sensing versus Intuitive Learners
Your preference for one style or the other may be strong, moderate, or mild. Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. To be effective as a learner and problem
solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if
you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.

Sensing learners don’t like training that doesn’t connect closely to practical application, tend to like learning facts, and prefer solving problems by well-established
methods. They dislike complications and surprises. They are good at memorizing and are patient with details. They like hands-on learning opportunities. Sensors are
more likely than intuitors to resent being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in training.

Intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and relationships, like innovation, and dislike repetition. They seem to be better at grasping new concepts and
are often more comfortable than sensors with abstractions and mathematical formulations. Intuitors don’t like “plug-and-chug” courses that involve a lot of
memorization and routine calculations.

How Can Trainers Help Sensors?
Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are training in an area where most of the material is abstract and
theoretical, you may have dif�iculty. You can be helpful by providing speci�ic examples of concepts and procedures and how they apply in practice.

How Can Trainers Help Intuitors?
If your training requires primarily memorization and plugging in formulas, you may have trouble with these trainees. Provide interpretations or theories that link the facts, or
ask these trainees to �ind the connections. You should also create incentives for memorizing details and correct solutions (reinforcing the trainee for checking her completed
solutions). Some type of competition (either among a group or individual improvement) might work well when the content of the training doesn’t match the intuitor’s
preferred approach.

Visual versus Verbal Learners

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Visual learners remember best what they see—pictures, diagrams, �lowcharts, time lines, �ilms, and demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words—written and
spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.

How Can Trainers Help Visual Learners?
The simple answer is to �ind diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, �low charts, or any other visual representation of course material that is predominantly visual. Even
showing a short video of someone else presenting the material will help the visual learner. Prepare a concept map showing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and
drawing lines with arrows between concepts to show connections.

How Can Trainers Help Verbal Learners?
Have trainees write summaries or outlines of course material in their own words. Put trainees into groups where they can gain understanding of material by hearing others
explain the concepts. The most learning will occur when the trainee does the explaining.

Sequential versus Global Learners

Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. They are able to absorb and use material even
though they do not understand the big picture, but the material has to be presented in a logical order.

Global learners are not able to absorb the details until they understand the big picture. Even then, they may not be great with the details. They tend to learn in large
jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly “getting it.” They tend to be able to solve complex problems quickly or put
things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have dif�iculty explaining how they did it.

How Can Trainers Help Sequential Learners?
One useful technique here is to provide trainees with a copy of the lecture material with blank spaces in place of key terms and de�initions. Ask trainees to �ill in the blanks as
the training progresses. At the end of the module, as a review, go through the blank spaces and ask the trainees to tell you what should be in the space. You can help strengthen
the trainees’ global thinking skills by asking them to relate each new topic to things they already know.

How Can Trainers Help Global Learners?
Before beginning each module, indicate how that module �its into the overall purpose of the training. Follow this up with how the module �its into the world of the trainees. As
indicated earlier, one way to do this is to get the trainees to make the connection between the new topic and things they already know. This helps the global learner to put the
new topic into a familiar context and see the connections. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more rapidly.

Active versus Re�lective Learners

Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it—discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. These trainees
want to try it out and see how it works because that’s how they most effectively process the new information (e.g., symbolic coding, cognitive organization, and
symbolic rehearsal). Because they process information externally, these trainees like working in groups.

Re�lective learners prefer to think about the new information before applying it. They are more comfortable processing the new information internally, before using it
externally. These trainees prefer working alone so that they can complete their internal processing of the information.

Sitting through lectures without any activity except taking notes is hard for both learning types, but particularly hard for active learners.

How Can Trainers Help Active Learners?
Create time for group discussion or problem-solving activities as part of the training. If training requires work outside the classroom, have the trainees work in teams.

How Can Trainers Help Re�lective Learners?
Before moving to group activities, have the trainees engage in individual thinking. At the end of each module, ask trainees questions about the content. Also, ask them to think
of possible applications. It will also help this type of learner if you allow some time at the end of the module for them to write down a summary of the material in their own
words.

What’s a Trainer to Do?
Typically, a training class is �illed with trainees that have a mix of preferred learning styles. If the training is of short duration, this will not matter too much. As noted earlier,
everyone has the ability to learn material presented in their non-preferred style. However, if the training is more extensive, this becomes a problem as learners will “turn off”
and stop learning because the cognitive load becomes too great (too much stress on the trainee’s cognitive processes). The most effective approach in this instance is to design
the training to tap into the whole brain. That is, design in components to each module that cater to each of the learning styles. For example, your lecture covering the content of
each module should be accompanied by lots of diagrams, graphs, charts, and such. Organize the lecture so that you start out with the big picture and then begin covering the
details in a sequential manner. Create sets of exercises that ask the trainees to use memorized facts and details and other sets of exercises that ask them to identify
relationships and possibilities. Some of these exercises should have the trainees actually using the material, and other exercises should have them thinking and re�lecting on
the material. As you can see, our advice here is to design the training to accommodate all styles of learning unless you have the luxury of limiting the trainees to a certain
learning preference.

The individual difference issue is complex, and interactions are not easy to generalize to different situations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

) Note in Figure 5-1 that training design A produces better results for those at
all levels of the particular trait, suggesting that training design A is the method of choice. In Figure 5-2, however, design A provides positive results for those high in the trait but
not for those low in the trait. In contrast, training design B provides positive results for those low in the trait but not for those high in the trait. Ideally, those low in the trait
should receive training design B, whereas those high in the trait should receive training design A. When you are not able to create separate programs for differences in traits,
we are suggesting that you will want to design the training to accommodate the different traits as much as possible. This method offers the advantage of covering the same
learning point in different ways, thus facilitating the learning process for everyone. Disadvantages include increased time to complete training and higher costs to design and
develop the training than would be the case when simply providing one mode of instruction. However, this expense must be weighed against the cost of putting people through
training who cannot learn the required KSAs.

Figure 5-1 No Interaction Between Training Design and Individual Trait.

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Figure 5-2 Individual Trait and Training Design Interaction.

An alternative is to create separate training programs designed around the traits of each group. Here, the training is tailored to the individual trait(s), but multiple training
programs need to be designed, developed, and implemented. Time for each individual group to complete training is minimized, but the time for everyone to complete the
training is higher and cost of development is high because the training is different for each group.

Motivation of Trainee
As the performance formula (P 5 M 3 KSA 3 E) indicates, if motivation is lacking, no learning is likely to occur. Thus, training should be designed not only to provide KSAs but
also to motivate trainees to learn those KSAs and apply them to their jobs.

Self-Ef�icacy
Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , self-ef�icacy
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) (as it relates to training) is the feeling we have about our ability to successfully
complete training. Those with high self-ef�icacy are not only more motivated to learn, but also more likely transfer the learning to the job.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_019) An individual’s self-ef�icacy is based on several factors. Recall from Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that these factors are a person’s prior experiences, feedback from others, behavior
models, and emotional arousal. Three of these can be in�luenced prior to training; the fourth (prior experience) can be in�luenced during training, and will be discussed under
“Elaboration Theory.”

So, how do we in�luence an employee’s self-ef�icacy prior to training? Let’s �irst look at feedback from others. Both supervisors and peers can play an important role here.
They need to provide positive feedback regarding the employees skills, and indicate con�idence in the employee’s ability to complete the training successfully. This will enhance
an employee’s self-ef�icacy. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_020) How about behavioral models? We know self-
ef�icacy can be improved through vicarious learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_021) So what we need to
do is have the employee observe peers that are similar and who have successfully completed the training and transferred the learning to the job. Finally, we need to reduce
anxiety (emotional arousal). Recall that one of the reasons for developing clear behavioral objectives is to reduce the anxiety of trainees. Getting these objectives to trainees
early on (before actual training) would help to reduce anxiety, and improve an employee’s self-ef�icacy. Additionally, pre-training communications should be designed to put the
trainees at ease about their ability to learn the material. So, an important part of any TNA should be to determine the trainees’ self-ef�icacy. For those who have low self–
ef�icacy, consider using the methods above help raise it before training.

Suppose one of your older supervisors has poor relations with her subordinates. Sending her to training to provide her with better interpersonal skills is fruitless unless
she believes she can master the skills being taught. The person analysis of the TNA indicates she has low self-ef�icacy. Being older, and set in her ways, she actually is quite sure
that learning new interpersonal skills is hopeless. How can we help? First, have supervisors and peers tell her they are quite con�ident she can master the skills taught. They
can point out other new approaches they have seen her learn. Second, provide her with the opportunity to observe and talk with some older supervisors who have completed
the training and are successfully using the skills. Third, provide her with clear objectives for training ahead of time so she will not be anxious about the unknown. These three
interventions can help to improve her self-ef�icacy (and resulting motivation) to succeed in the training.

Expectancy Theory Implications
Let’s return to the intervention mentioned earlier. We have a trainee who believes she cannot master the skills. The intervention before training provides her with information
that shows that she can succeed in the training (increasing her self-ef�icacy regarding the training). In expectancy theory terms, we are in�luencing Expectancy 1 (E1, the belief
that effort will lead to desired performance). Also, by clarifying the positive outcomes of training, we make trainees aware of what can be achieved by being successful in
training. Finally, by showing that training increases the positive outcomes, we in�luence Expectancy 2 (E2, the belief that desired performance will lead to desired outcomes).
Increasing the expectancies (1 and 2) and also the number of positive outcomes will have the net effect increasing motivation to be successful in training.

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No one consciously goes systematically through all the steps suggested in expectancy theory to make a decision, but unconsciously, such a process does occur.
Understanding the process helps focus on an important process that in�luences motivation. An example will illustrate the point. A TNA in the area that Bill supervises found
productivity to be lower than expected. It was also found that Bill’s subordinates were afraid to talk to him about problems they experienced doing their work. An interview
with Bill revealed that he believed that the best way to supervise was to be tough. “If they are afraid of what I might do to them if they screw up, they will work harder,” he said.
Bill seemed to like the idea that subordinates were afraid of him. On the basis of this information, Bill was encouraged to attend a training workshop. The workshop covers
active listening, effective feedback, and other skills designed to teach supervisors how to interact better with subordinates, peers, and superiors. Will he be motivated to learn
these skills? Let’s look inside Bill’s head, as represented in Training in Action 5-1.

5-1 Training in Action Analysis of Bill’s Motivation
What are the outcomes Bill sees and their attractiveness (valence) to him (on a scale of 1 to 10) if he is successful in training versus if he is unsuccessful?

Outcomes If Successful Valence Outcomes If Not Successful Valence

Promotion 7 Does not have to change behavior 10

Better at job 8 Employees still afraid of him 8

Less tension between Bill and subordinates 6 Not ridiculed by coworkers for being a nice guy 9

Less feeling of stress 4

Better relationship with union 7

Fewer grievances 9

How likely is it that if Bill is successful or unsuccessful, these outcomes will actually occur (Expectancy 2)? These expectancies are based on Bill’s belief that they will
occur and range from 0.0 (not at all likely to occur) to 1.0 (guaranteed to occur).

Outcomes If Successful Expectancy 2 Valence Outcomes If Not Successful Expectancy 2 Valence

Promotion 0.2 7 Does not have to change behavior 1.0 10

Better at job 0.6 8 Employees still afraid of him 1.0 8

Less tension between Bill and subordinates 0.7 6 Not ridiculed by coworkers for being a nice guy 1.0 9

Less feeling of stress 0.8 4

Better relationship with union 0.4 7

Fewer grievances 0.6 9

Finally, how likely does Bill think it is that he could learn the new skills if he really tried (Expectancy 1)? This likelihood is also expressed as a probability (0 to 1.0).

In this case, Bill believes that the skills will be dif�icult for him to learn, and he also believes that “leopards cannot change their spots.” Therefore, Bill believes that if
he really tries, there is only a 0.5 chance that he will be successful. On the other hand, if he does not try, he de�initely (1.0) will not learn or change his behavior.

To answer the question of whether Bill will be motivated to learn, we need to examine the factors in expectancy theory. What does Bill consider to be possible outcomes of
successful training, and what is the attractiveness (valence) of each of the outcomes? An examination of Training in Action 5-1 indicates that he sees promotion as one
outcome, and it is a fairly attractive outcome (7 on a 10-point scale). Less stress is another outcome, but one not especially attractive (4 on a 10-point scale). Altogether Bill
identi�ied six outcomes that might occur if he is successful at training. If he is unsuccessful, he identi�ies three outcomes, and all three are attractive; the lowest is an 8 on a 10-
point scale. Notice that Bill does not perceive that his training can have any effect on the productivity of his workgroup.

Now examine the likelihood that Bill believes that the outcomes he identi�ied will actually occur (E2) if he is successful or unsuccessful in training. If successful in training
(improves his interpersonal skills), the likelihood of his being promoted is low (0.2, or a 20 percent probability). The likelihood he will feel less stress is quite high at 0.8. All
others are somewhere in between. If he is unsuccessful (does not learn the new skills), the probability that he will not have to change his behavior (he will behave in the same
manner as before) is 1.0, or absolutely guaranteed. If he is not successful in training, no one would expect him to change his behavior. Similarly, because he has not changed his
behavior, employees will still be afraid of him (probability of 1.0); he will be the same old Bill, and his peers will not ridicule him. As for Bill’s belief about his ability to complete
training successfully, he believes that if he really tries, it (E1) is 0.5. If he does not try, he believes that the likelihood of being unsuccessful is 1.0, or guaranteed to happen. Let’s
determine whether he is likely to try in training through the following calculations:

Formula

where V is the valence or attractiveness of the outcome.

Will try in training

Will not try in training

On the basis of these calculations, it is clear that Bill will not be motivated to learn in the training. The motivation to not try is substantially higher than the motivation to try.
What can be done to in�luence Bill to learn? A number of approaches can be taken. First, recall from Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that expectancies are beliefs about the way things are. They can be in�luenced in many
ways (e.g., past experience, communication from others). If Bill heard from other supervisors that the training was not dif�icult, he might change his belief about how dif�icult it
would be to complete the training successfully (Expectancy 1). If Bill learned that supervisors who were successful in training were promoted more often than others, this
information would in�luence Bill’s belief that if he completed training, he would get promoted (Expectancy 2). If those who go to training generally receive higher pay raises
and Bill is not aware of this fact, make him aware of the relationship between training and the raise (Expectancy 2). This relationship will add an additional positive outcome to
Bill’s calculations, with a high probability of occurring.

It is also possible that Bill did not consider some potentially positive outcomes such as “Improved productivity in his area,” “Respect from upper management,” “Better
relationship with family and friends” (because he also will be able to use the skills in his personal life), and “Better able to persuade others of his point of view.” Once made
aware of these outcomes, depending on their attractiveness, the motivation may be altered to try rather than not. For example, “Respect of upper management” might be a
given (E2 5 1.0) for all those who successfully complete the training. If this outcome were highly attractive to Bill, it would go a long way toward changing the decision to “try.”

Other ways to in�luence Bill’s motivation to learn can focus on enhancing Expectancies 1 and 2 and clarifying the types of outcomes that will result from successful training.
As Bill’s supervisor, you could do the following: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_022)

Discuss Bill’s job performance and job-related goals and reach agreement that he needs to improve some set of KSAs to achieve those goals. Providing focus on goals
presents speci�ic outcomes that the trainee might not have considered.

Agree that this particular training program is the best alternative available for achieving the desired improvement (Expectancy 1).

Agree that demonstrated improvement in the identi�ied KSA area will result in desirable outcomes for him (Expectancy 2).

These steps should result in Bill’s realizing the advantages of successful training and should make his attitude more positive. In the design of training, therefore, it is
important to include such pretraining interventions. An integral part of a training design might be working with the supervisors to ensure that the suggested discussions take
place. In large organizations with well-organized HR functions, the trainee–supervisor discussions might take place in the formal performance review. A portion of any
thorough review is the developmental aspect, which is useful for the supervisor to use with subordinates in determining training needs and increasing the motivation to learn.

As noted earlier, it is not likely that anyone consciously goes through the expectancy model process because many of the factors are not known. But the model is still useful.
It provides evidence of the complexity of the motivational process and what factors to consider when meeting with a subordinate to discuss their development and motivate
them to improve. Discussion regarding his desired outcomes, his belief in achieving them, and his beliefs about successfully completing training can assist in helping change the
person’s perceptions and improve motivation, without resorting to the complex analysis mentioned earlier.

Implications from Conditioning and Reinforcement (The Environment)

Classical Conditioning
Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that classical conditioning takes place without awareness. We
salivate when we smell something we like cooking because of prior learning. Emotional responses can be conditioned in a similar manner. A trainee who had bad experiences
in school might feel anxious and even sick on entering a training room set up like a school classroom. Trainees who experience high stress in their jobs become conditioned to
feel stressed when they arrive at work. Eventually, just seeing the building begins to create the stress because the two events are so often paired. Having someone in such an
emotional state does not facilitate effective training, which might be a good reason to hold the training off-site for employees of this type. The point here is that some situations
are associated with unpleasant emotional conditioned responses. Pleasant emotional responses are conditioned to other situations. When designing training, in most
circumstances, you want to create situations that are pleasant. When the trainees are comfortable both physically and emotionally, they are better able to focus their attention
on training. For these reasons, it is useful to know in advance as much about the trainee as possible.

Operant Conditioning
Recall from Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) that if a particular behavior is immediately followed by a reward,
the behavior is likely to be repeated. Also, punishment that immediately follows a particular behavior will decrease the likelihood of that behavior continuing. The following are
important points to consider in the design of effective training:

Know the things your trainees will see as rewarding and those that will be seen as punishing.

Plan to reward at lower levels for effort and at higher levels for success using successive approximations.

Use both tangible and intangible rewards. Do not underestimate the power of trainees learning how to self-reward. Sometimes trainers will give coupons to trainees as
a recognition and reward for participating in training exercises. These coupons are then redeemed at the end of the day for prizes such as books and/or other
mementos related to the training.

Do not forget that feedback is a reinforcer and key element in learning. Design feedback to show what the trainee did well and what needs improvement.

The following example illustrates these points.

Some trainees are reluctant to role-play. However, the role-play is an effective method for achieving behavior change. If role-plays are incorporated into the training design,
it is important to ensure that positive reinforcement, rather than punishment, follows. For example, the two trainers might �irst act out a simple role-play to demonstrate how it
is done. After it is over, the trainers thank each other and point out some positive things that each did during the role-play. They might then indicate that they would like
someone to volunteer to do another simple role-play; when the trainee is �inished, the trainer and the other trainees applaud the efforts. Of course, this approach is successful
only if the applause is seen as both real and reinforcing. You might then give the trainee feedback, highlighting the positive things done, and present the trainee with a
“participation ticket” that can be exchanged later for a training memento.

Goal Setting
Goal-setting research consistently demonstrates that speci�ic, challenging goals result in higher motivation levels than do no goals or the goal of “do the best you can.” Speci�ic
goals direct the individual’s energy and attention toward meeting the goal. Several conditions related to goal setting affect performance:
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Individuals who are given a speci�ic, hard, or challenging goal perform better than those given speci�ic easy goals, “do the best you can” goals, or no goals.

Goals appear to result in more predictable effects when they are given in speci�ic terms rather than as vague intentions.

Goals must be matched to the ability of the individual so the person is likely to achieve it. Being able to achieve the goal is important for an individual’s self-ef�icacy, for
that is how individuals judge their ability to perform well on the tasks. For this reason, the analyst will need to design intermediate goals that re�lect progress.

Feedback concerning the degree to which the goal is being achieved is necessary for goal setting to have the desired effect.

For goal setting to be effective, the individual needs to accept the goal that is set.

What is the application of this goal-setting research to training? Well, what better way to capture the interest and attention of trainees than to provide them with individual
goals? Learning objectives, discussed earlier, are a form of goal setting and could provide challenging, speci�ic goals. These goals provide the measuring stick against which
trainees can evaluate their progress and from which they derive self-satisfaction as they progress.

Goal Orientation
Goal orientation, although studied in children for years, has only recently been researched in an organizational context. It is the degree to which an individual is predisposed
toward a learning goal orientation versus a performance goal orientation. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_024)
Those with a learning goal orientation focus on the learning process. They seek challenging tasks to increase their competence, see negative feedback as important information
to help them master the task, and see failure as a learning experience. One result from this learning goal orientation is persistence when having problems doing a complex task.
Research shows that a learning goal orientation is associated with increases learning.
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Those with a performance goal orientation differ because they focus on the end result. They wish to be seen as competent and, therefore, desire favorable feedback. They
prefer easier tasks where they are able to demonstrate their competence rather than learning something new. A result of having this performance goal orientation is
avoidance of complex tasks for fear of failure, limited persistence, and a tendency to be easily distracted.
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In an organizational setting, those with a performance goal orientation have a strong desire to impress others and focus on the outcome of their performance. Those with a
learning goal orientation focus on mastery of the task to develop their competence, acquire new skills, and learn from their experience.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_027) The research using goal orientation in an organizational/training setting has
only been going on for a few years, but much of it concludes that it is better to have a learning goal orientation than a performance goal orientation in a training setting.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_028) In other words, the focus should be on the process of learning new things
rather than on some end-product performance goal.

Although there is evidence that goal orientation is a trait, the trait can be in�luenced by the situation. In fact, it seems that as long as there are situational cues suggesting a
focus on learning rather than performance, the situational cues will override the goal orientation trait.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_029) Furthermore, these �indings tend to be supported when the task is complex
and requires new knowledge and strategies. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_030)

What has this to do with design of training? First, it provides support for designing the training of complex tasks with the simple examples before moving to the more
complex. You will see how to do this later in the chapter, when we discuss elaboration theory (ET), a macro theory of training design. The use of simple tasks at the beginning
will help negate the in�luence of goal orientation. Also, getting trainees to experience success early in training will lessen the effect of goal orientation. The use of practice and
feedback will be useful in this regard. In active listening, for example, using the easiest situation possible for beginning to practice a new skill, providing positive feedback, and
suggesting alternative methods of response keep the focus on learning. In summary, goal orientation seems to be a personal trait that is in�luenced by cues in the training
environment. A training design that starts with the simplest examples and provides positive feedback should negate the negative effect of a performance goal orientation.

So far, we have discussed getting and keeping trainees interested in the training. Now let us examine how to facilitate the learning process. In this regard, a number of
important factors need to be addressed when you are designing a training program. These factors will be presented under two headings: facilitation of learning and facilitation
of transfer. Facilitation of transfer, of course, also helps facilitation of learning.

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5.5 Facilitation of Learning: Focus on Training Design
Developing effective training programs requires an understanding of how individuals learn.
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) Learning is at the heart of training. In order to facilitate learning, we must
make sure our training design accommodates the trainees’ learning processes. We do this by �irst looking at how effective training practices correspond to social learning
theory (SLT). We then look at instructional design theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_005) and see how the
concepts from SLT are incorporated into an effective training design.

Social Learning Theory
As noted in Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , SLT provides a broad description of the process of learning yet is
relatively easy to understand. Let’s examine the parts of SLT as they relate to training. Speci�ic training events that correspond to the speci�ic learning processes are illustrated
in Table 5-8.

Table 5-8 Learning Processes and Corresponding Training Events

Learning Process Training Events

Attention/Expectancy Creating the learning environment, pretraining communications, statement of objectives and purpose, highlighting of key
learning points

Retention

Activation of memory Stimulation of prior related learning

Symbolic coding and cognitive
organization

Presentation of various encoding schemes and cognitive images, associations with previously learned material, order of
presentation during training

Symbolic rehearsal and cues for
retrieval

Case studies, hypothetical scenarios, aids for transfer of learning (identical elements or general principles)

Behavioral Reproduction Active and guided practice (role-plays and simulations)

Reinforcement Assessment and feedback (positive and/or negative)

Attention/Expectancy
Social learning theory (see Figure 3-5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) in Section 3.5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03lev1sec4) ) indicates that the trainee’s motivation in�luences where attention is directed.
Trainees attend to things in the environment that are most important to them. Thus, the learning environment and process should be structured so that the most important
things are the learning events and materials. Attention distracters need to be removed and creature comforts attended to.

Eliminating Distractions
The room should be at a comfortable temperature, not too hot or too cold. People are generally comfortable at a temperature between 71 and 73 degrees Fahrenheit, with a
humidity level at about 50 percent. The walls should be a neutral but pleasant color, free from distracting objects (e.g., posters, notices, and pictures unrelated to training). The
room should be soundproof. The room should have no view to the outside, but if the room has windows, close the shades or curtains. Ideally, the learning facility will be away
from the workplace, so trainees can concentrate on learning rather than be sidetracked by what might be going on at work. If the training must be conducted at the work site,
establish a rule that no interruptions are allowed (from bosses, subordinates, or others who “just need a few minutes with . . .”). This rule also means no phones, beepers, or
other communication devices while training is being conducted. Communicating with the work area can be important, so the training facility should have a system for incoming
messages that can be delivered to trainees during breaks and after completion of training.

The seating should be such that trainees will not become uncomfortable over a two-hour period, but not become so comfortable that they must �ight off sleep. Choose
comfortable, �lexible, cloth-covered chairs with armrests. Trainees will also need a surface on which to place their training materials, for engaging in exercises and for writing.
Sometimes it is not possible to address some of the elements we identi�ied earlier. In those instances, it is important to let the trainees know that the situation prevents you
from dealing with the issue. For example, if you are unable to control the room temperature, you might say something like “The temperature in the room is not adjustable and
it might get a little warm. I’ve left the doors open so air can circulate, but if people walking by or talking in the hallway become a distraction I’ll need to close them. Please let
me know if you are getting too warm and we’ll take a short break.”

Schedule training activities with the following rule in mind: “The brain can absorb only as much as the seat can endure.” Breaks should be scheduled so that trainees do not
have to sit for too long at one time. Provide refreshments if trainees are likely to be hungry at the start of or during training. A growling stomach is a signi�icant force in taking
the trainee’s mind off the learning. Remember, food is a reinforcing, so it is important to create positive associations for training while keeping trainees attentive. If lunch is
provided, it should be light and not contain large amounts of carbohydrates, which tend to make people drowsy. Also avoid turkey, because it is sleep inducing. Remember how
you feel after a turkey dinner? Obviously, alcohol should not be available while training is going on.

Attracting Attention
The �irst steps in motivating your employees and setting their expectations are to notify them that they will be participating in the training, inform them of the nature of the
training, and explain its job-related bene�its. This pretraining communication should, at a minimum, state the purpose and agenda, the type of attire that is appropriate, and
provide contact numbers in case there are questions. You should also inform them if refreshments are going to be available. At the outset of training you should state the
learning objectives, and review them at strategic points throughout. Reiterating the objectives helps keep the focus of training on the desired outcomes and attention on the
important training activities. However, it is not enough for the trainer simply to state the objectives from time to time. The trainees must accept those objectives. To this end, at
the beginning of training, ask trainees to describe how accomplishing the objectives will lead to resolving job-related problems. This exercise not only focuses trainees’
attention on the learning objectives but also builds commitment that will facilitate the transfer of new KSAs back to the job.

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In addition to accepting the learning objectives, trainees must also feel that the objectives are achievable. This principle comes directly from both expectancy theory and goal
setting. The following is a way you can design achievable goals into the training. At the start of training, the overall objective might seem dif�icult, if not impossible, to achieve.
Point out that the overall objective is just the �inal step in a series of obtainable sub-objectives. Research on goal setting suggests that following this procedure will result in
higher levels of trainee learning. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_032) Suppose the purpose of a one-day
seminar was to “use the con�lict resolution model to calm an irate customer, without giving in to his request.” The thought of calming an irate customer using a method (con�lict
resolution model) that the trainees know nothing about might raise trainees’ anxiety level. An intermediate objective that stated, “Respond to a single angry comment using
active listening,” does not seem as imposing and would provide a view of one of the steps toward reaching the overall objective.

Finally, the trainees’ attention should be focused on the critical aspects of each step in the learning process. Techniques for highlighting the important points should be built
into the learning activities so that the appropriate material is processed into permanently stored information.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_033) The method of highlighting will vary according to the instructional method
(e.g., case study, lecture). In the example of con�lict resolution training discussed previously, suppose the training included a videotape of the correct steps. As the video
progressed through the various stages of the con�lict resolution model, these steps would �lash on the bottom of the screen. This model begins with active listening, so as the
video shows the person using active listening, “Active Listening” will be �lashed on the bottom of the screen. This device would give the trainee an idea of how to perform each
step and how the steps integrate into the total model.

Retention
An individual goes through four stages in the process of retaining something she is taught:

1. Activation of memory

2. Symbolic coding

3. Cognitive organization

4. Symbolic rehearsal and cues for retrieval

Activation of Memory
The Social Learning model does not identify the activation of memory as a separate process but includes this as a part of the symbolic coding process. We have separated
these two processes to show how each is an important consideration in the design of training. Information that is attended to is transformed into symbolically coded (typically
as language) long-term memory. From there, it is called up when the appropriate cues are present.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_034) Before the symbolic encoding process can begin, relevant prior learning must
be stimulated, so connections between the new information and the old can be established. The trainer, through stimulating the recall of the relevant prerequisite learning or
prior supportive learning, can facilitate this process.

Assume that the trainer has already discussed the various management styles and now wants the management trainees to learn the “relevant employee characteristics” for
matching managerial style to the needs of the subordinate. The trainer can stimulate the recall of the prerequisite learning by asking the trainees, “Which employee
characteristics are important for determining what management style to use?” Perhaps the trainees provide a few characteristics that are related to a few of the styles, but
seem to have run out of ideas. Recalling supportive prior learning can be stimulated by asking the trainees to draw on related experience. In this case, the trainer might say,
“Think back to employees you’ve dealt with in the past that seemed to have given you problems. What were their dominant characteristics? What would be an appropriate
management style for you to adopt with them?” This activity would recall information supporting the new learning, providing a context for the new learning to occur.

Symbolic Coding and Cognitive Organization
Once the appropriate prior learning is recalled, the trainee is ready to encode the new information. The trainer can facilitate the encoding process through the technique of
guided discovery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_015) . Typically, the trainer makes statements and then asks a
question. Assume that the trainees just watched a video of a supervisor and a subordinate discussing the subordinate’s work performance. After watching the video the trainer
might say, “Remember, certain employee characteristics are more closely related to how the employee approaches the work situation. In the video, how did the employee
approach the work situation and what characteristics are most likely to in�luence this approach?” The statement is intended to stimulate relevant prior learning, and the
question is designed to allow the trainee to discover the appropriate rule from the cues provided. The question should not contain all the information needed for the answer
but should suggest a strategy for discovering the answer. The trainee develops a coding scheme that relates the new learning to prior learning by engaging in guided discovery
with the trainer.

Encoding can be enhanced through the use of images, in addition to being coded as verbal propositions. When symbolic coding
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_032) incorporates both verbal propositions and images, retention of the
information is improved, probably because image retention and language retention occur through different cognitive channels.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_035) The addition of visual material in support of the oral and written language
increases the trainees’ ability to remember the information. So, in communication training, when you are explaining what active listening is, the showing of a video of active
listening being used will help the trainee to accurately code the concept.

Cognitive organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_033) is intimately tied to symbolic coding. When you
develop the materials and the �low of a training program, you should make sure the new learning builds on relevant older learning. This will help assure that the new learning
is organized into the cognitive structure correctly. Similarly, the use of visual models that show how the information �its together will be very helpful in facilitating the cognitive
organization of the new material.

As you design the �low of training, you want to help the learner organize the new material by providing various organizational strategies. Imagine a training program on
con�lict resolution. The model of con�lict resolution has four steps; active listening, indicating respect, being assertive and providing information. The TNA indicated all trainees
have had previous training in active listening. The training, therefore, will build on this prior knowledge. You might ask trainees to recall their active listening skills, and how
using it might help in a con�lict situation. This will provide a background for the other three steps and how they integrate into the prior learning, which helps in assuring
cognitive organization.

Symbolic Rehearsal
Symbolic rehearsal (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_034) is a type of practice. It is practicing in your mind, as when
the trainer asks the trainees to imagine a hypothetical situation and discuss how they would behave. At this point, the trainees are not actually doing what they have learned to
do—they are thinking, talking, or writing about it. Case studies provide one form of symbolic rehearsal. Trainees read about a situation and describe how they would handle
the situation. See Training in Action 5-2 for a different way of providing an opportunity for symbolic rehearsal.

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5-2 Training in Action Using Symbolic Rehearsal to Facilitate Retention
The following is a transcript from a training class regarding a Training Needs Analysis

Professor: That’s all I have to say about a TNA, does anyone have any questions?

Silence

Professor: OK I want you to imagine you are going to do a TNA for a small organization of about 50 employees. There is 1 manager (owner) 4 supervisors, and 3
clerical and 42 employees made up of welders, metal workers and laborers. The owner has asked you to come in and train her supervisors as they have had no
supervisory training whatsoever. What I want you to do is �irst create a list of questions you would want to ask and who you would ask. Once you’ve done that, then in
your groups discuss the questions and come up with a list to share with the rest of the class.

20 minutes elapse

Professor: So, how about Group 3, what have you come up with?

Burt: Well, we have lots of questions for the operational and person analysis, but as a group, we have disagreement as to the need to do an organizational analysis, so
we have no questions in that category.

Professor: What about the other groups, is an organizational analysis necessary? Yes Jan.

Jan: We had the same argument, some of us think you always need to do an organizational analysis but a few of us disagreed. Those of us that believe it is necessary
have generated some questions for the organizational analysis but there is still the disagreement as to its necessity.

Professor: What about your group Helen?

Helen: We have a number of organizational analysis questions as we all believed it is necessary to do all three levels of analysis whenever you are doing a TNA.

Professor: Alright let’s hear the reasons an organizational analysis is not necessary under these circumstances. OK Pat let’s hear from you.

Pat: Well it is a small organization and clearly the owner just wants us to provide some basic supervisory skills.

Professor: Helen, you obviously disagree, why?

Helen: Well even in a small organization there may be obstacles or poor feedback mechanisms in place that could be preventing supervisors from using effective
supervisor skills they may already know. Or, even if they don’t have the skills these obstacles could be in place. When we train the supervisors in the appropriate skills,
they would not be able to transfer the training because the obstacles or feedback issues haven’t been identi�ied and dealt with. In that case, we would have wasted the
company’s time and money.

Professor: Well does that make any sense to those why thought one might not be necessary?

I see a lot of you nodding your heads yes. So, do you see what happened here. By getting you to symbolically rehearse what you might do, and discussing this with your
group, we identi�ied an important issue that needed to be resolved. In SLT jargon we have made sure that all of you have symbolically coded and cognitively organized
the material in an appropriate manner. I would think that now after this little exercise, we all understand the importance of the organizational analysis in all situations.
Do you agree? Does anyone have anything to add?

Jan: Well I am glad we did this in class as it is an argument we would have de�initely had in our groups eventually, given our project.

Professor: Good, yes Jan I agree, and this is but one more method to assure that symbolic coding and cognitive organization have taken place accurately. Now that we
have accomplished that, let’s go through the questions you came up with for each of the categories and discuss them.

Behavioral Reproduction
Behavioral reproduction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_050) is the transformation of the learning into actual
behavior. Pilot training provides a clear example of the difference between behavioral reproduction and symbolic rehearsal. Pilots go through an extensive training process in
learning how to �ly a new aircraft. They read manuals, attend lectures, watch videos, and engage in computer-assisted, self-paced learning modules. Once a suf�icient amount of
learning occurs, the pilot trainees demonstrate their knowledge of procedures through discussions with the trainer and one another about what they would do in speci�ic
situations. Trainees are given written or visual scenarios and asked how they would respond. All of these activities are symbolic rehearsal. When trainees demonstrate
suf�icient cognitive command of the aircraft’s systems, procedures, and capabilities, they are put into �light simulators, which allow them to practice �lying the aircraft. After
they demonstrate competence �lying the aircraft in simulation, they �ly the actual aircraft under the supervision of an experienced pilot. The simulation and supervised �lights
are behavioral reproduction activities.

Design Theory
There are several theories related to the effective design of training. Some, such as component display theory,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_036) are speci�ic only to cognitive learning, and others focus only on attitude
change. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_037) For more information on these and many others, you should
consult Instructional-Design Theories and Models, Volume III: Building a Common Knowledge Base by Charles Reigeluth.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_038) For our purposes, we will examine two design theories with a broader
application: elaboration theory (ET), (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_039) a macro theory of design, and the
micro theory of Gagné and Briggs. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_040)

Theories of training design are not theories in the traditional sense, because they do not predict cause-and-effect relationships. They prescribe methods of presenting what
is to be learned in a way that enhances the likelihood that the learning will occur. So instructional design theories offer guidelines for designing effective training in terms of
what techniques to use in what situations. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

)

40
41

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Elaboration theory
Elaboration theory is a macro theory of design. It is based on a holistic alternative to the part/whole sequencing that is usually followed in training. This holistic approach is
more meaningful and motivational for learners, because from the start they see and get to practice the complete task.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_042) It is relevant only for complex tasks (and is not applicable for the design of
attitudinal training). To understand when to use ET, it is necessary to understand the issue of sequencing. Sequencing is the process of how to group and order the content of
training. It is directed at facilitating the “cognitive organization” aspect of SLT.

If you are training employees in the use of several software packages (word processing, spreadsheet, e-mail use), sequencing is not important, and it does not matter which
you teach �irst. If the operating system is Windows and it is a part of the training, it would be necessary to present it �irst (because all other programs require its use). In this
case, sequencing is important. Sequencing is important only when a strong relationship exists among the topics of the course. So, if your training included producing charts
from the spreadsheet program and integrating them into a necessary word processing document, some sequencing would be necessary.

For the purposes of training different topics, two sequencing strategies are possible: topical and spiral (see Figure 5-3). Topical sequencing requires the complete learning
of one topic before moving to the next task. Spiral sequencing requires learning the basics of the �irst task, then the basics from the second task, and so on. After completing
the basic understanding of all tasks, the learner moves to the second level of the �irst task to do the same thing. The advantages and disadvantages to each of these strategies
are depicted in Table 5-9.

Figure 5-3 Comparison of Topical and Spiral Sequencing

Table 5-9 Comparison of Topical and Spiral Sequencing

Advantages Disadvantages

Topical Concentrate on topic, no interference from other topic Once learned, move to the next topic, and the �irst is forgotten

Spiral Built-in synthesis and review, interrelationships are more obvious and understood Disruption of learner’s thought processes when moving to the next topic

A training program is seldom all one or the other, but a combination of the two, depending on the relationships among the tasks being taught. Consider a weeklong
workshop for supervisor training on topics such as effective feedback, effective communication, providing performance reviews, running an effective meeting, problem solving,
and so forth. In sequencing these topics, it makes sense to have feedback and effective communication before performance reviews, because they will provide help in doing an
effective performance review. They can also be taught separately, using topical sequencing strategy. Consider another topic—problem solving. If you were teaching a six-step
problem-solving process, you might combine the methods of sequencing. Learning to de�ine a problem correctly and brainstorming might be taught topically before the
problem-solving model is presented because they are stand-alone topics. Then the six-step model could be taught using the spiral method. The learning process is facilitated,
because some tasks are learned independently. The complexity of the overall problem-solving process and interrelationship among the steps suggest the use of the spiral
approach.

Here is where ET comes in. Recall that it is only applicable to complex tasks and is based on what Charles Reigeluth calls the Simplifying Conditions Method (SCM). As he
states:

Regarding complex tasks, the SCM sequencing strategy enables learners to understand tasks holistically. . . . Holistic understanding of the task results in the
formation of a stable cognitive schema to which more complex capabilities and understanding can be assimilated.
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SCM is based on the notion that for all complex tasks, simple and more complex versions exist. Consider driving a car, which is considered a complex task. Driving in an
empty lot is much less complex than driving on a freeway during rush hour.

The SCM is based on two parts, epitomizing and elaborating. Epitomizing is the process of identifying the simplest version of the task, which is still representative of the
task as a whole. Elaborating is the process of identifying progressively more complex versions of the task. In the design of training, the epitomizing version of the task is
taught �irst, followed by increasingly more complex (elaborating) versions of the task until the desired level of complexity is reached. Consider the job of air traf�ic controller.
The task is complex; they must assist several aircraft landings under various weather conditions. Training would take place in a simulator when the computer would simulate
aircraft landing at the airport. First, determine the epitome: the simplest version of the task possible while still representative of the complex task. It would be where only one
aircraft is on the screen, no wind or other adverse weather conditions are present, and the pilot is responding perfectly to the trainee’s instructions (when told to turn to
heading 040 and descend at 100 feet per minute, the pilot response is exactly that). Once this epitome is mastered, a number of elaborations of the task must be mastered,
each more complex, until the complexity required on the job is reached. In the air traf�ic trainee’s situation, the �irst elaboration is to add a light crosswind, then perhaps
errors in responses from the pilot (�irst regarding the heading, then both heading and descent). The �inal elaboration would be matched to the expectation of air traf�ic
controller in the �ield.

The major advantage of this approach to training is that the more complete tasks are presented immediately, which should foster better understanding and motivate
trainees as they immediately see the relationship between what they are learning and the job-related tasks. Evidence indicates that ET is not only effective but also appealing to
trainees. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_044) Students wanting to know more about the theory and see actual
examples of its use are referred to work by Carson and Curtis and others. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_045)

This process of presenting the simplest form of the task (Epitomizing) and gradually presenting more complex forms (Elaborating) until the level of complexity needed is
reached also helps the trainee develop a higher self-ef�icacy. Recall that earlier in the chapter, we discussed three of the four methods of improving a trainee’s self-ef�icacy.
These could be done prior to training. The �inal method was personal experience. Personal successes (experience) through gradual presentation of the task to be learned; �irst
in simpli�ied form (epitome), and continued successes through the gradual increase in complexity (elaboration), leads to an increase in a trainee’s self-ef�icacy. So, using the
elaboration theory to design your training accomplishes two things. First, such a design makes it easier to learn the concepts. Second, in allowing for consecutive successes,
such a design actually helps improve a trainee’s self-ef�icacy.

Let’s go back to the older female supervisor who did not have a good relationship with her subordinates and was sure she could not learn the new interpersonal skills.
Recall we suggested some ways to improve her self-ef�icacy prior to training. This would give her more con�idence in believing she could in fact master the skills. Now, in
training if we use epitome and elaboration of the skills (starting simple and moving slowly to more complex) she should have some early successes in using the skills, which
will improve her self-ef�icacy even more. As a result, she would be more likely to not only learn the skills, but also transfer the skills to the job.

Gagné–Briggs Model and Social Learning Theory
The Gagné–Briggs model of instructional design, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

) discussed in Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , is applicable to cognitive, behavioral, and attitudinal learning. It provides a set of
procedures to follow for each instructional event to enhance learning. The model identi�ies nine events of instruction, which are tied to social learning theory (see Table 5-10).
Note that the �irst event in the theory of instructional design is “attention,” which parallels that of social learning theory. The next event, “informing of the objectives,” further
activates a process of getting the trainees’ “attention” focused on training goals. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning is one aspect of activating relevant memory. The one
aspect of social learning theory (SLT) that is not addressed in the nine-step model is activation of motivation. As you may recall from SLT (see Figure 3-5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03�ig05) ), motivation needs to be activated before learning can occur. So, in our discussion of
the Gagné–Briggs model we have included an additional step that activates motivation to learn. This is why Table 5-10 is titled the “Revised Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction.” Let’s examine our ten events of instruction in more detail. Typically a training program consists of multiple modules that are integrated to meet the training
objectives. It is important to remember as you go through the ten events that they can apply to each module of a training program.

Table 5-10 Relationship Between Revised Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction and Social Learning Theory

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Social Learning Theory Gagné–Briggs
Nine Events of
Instruction

Factors to Consider

Training
Module
(name of
module)

Attention/Expectancy

Gain
attention

Beginning Create/reinforce positive
attitude toward training

Provide introductory comments to develop a relaxed atmosphere.

Inform
trainee of
goals

Describe the objectives for this module.

Activate Motivation to Learn Not included

Discuss the value/ relevance of
achieving the goal.

As you are discussing the objectives for the module have trainees explain how they are related to
the job. Draw out examples of how achieving the objective(s) will be of value. Use guided discovery
technique if no or few examples are forthcoming.

During
Module

Retention Focus material on training

Symbolic coding Stimulate
recall of prior
knowledge

Develop links between previous learning and the new learning (activation of memory).

Make relevant

Cognitive organization

Present
material

Use multiple media and make interesting.

Make
interesting

Ask questions to obtain trainee involvement.

Symbolic rehearsal Provide
guidance for
learning

Get trainees involved (symbolic rehearsal).

Use relevant examples, and offer many of them.

Behavioral
Reproduction/

Reinforcement

Elicit
performance

Encourage
learning

Provide relevant activities that allow practice with the material (including maximum similarity
and/or different situations).

Provide
feedback

Provide time to evaluate performance level accomplished and provide feedback. Tell trainees how
they are doing or design activity to provide feedback

Ending of
Module

Reinforcement

Ensure that trainees see results
of training

Assess
performance

Use an assessment tool (written or oral to determine if trainees have the KSAs). Allow trainees to
indicate their comfort with the material. Ask for any questions.

Sensitize trainees to dif�iculty in
transfer training

Enhance
retention and
transfer

Review objectives to show what was accomplished. Ask trainees to describe how this could apply
to the workplace.

Gain Attention
Attention can be gained in several ways (raise voice, clap hands, or a comment such as “Now watch me carefully”), but is best when tied to the training at hand. If the training
was in problem solving, for example, ask the question, “How do you go about solving a problem?” or “We have high absenteeism; what should we do about it?” These types of
questions focus discussion on the types of problems trainees face and their typical problem-solving approaches. This initial focus leads nicely into the introduction of the
problem-solving objectives. Another way to gain attention is to have the CEO/president welcome the trainees and indicate how important the training is to the future of the
company. High-level support for training is always important, and when a key decision maker takes time to convey this support, it is especially effective in getting trainees’
attention.

Inform the Learner of the Goal or Objective
We covered learning objectives and their importance in depth. Clearly, this step is important in getting the trainee focused and aware of not only what needs to be learned, but
also what will be required when training is complete. Also, it is useful to tie the training back to the job and how it will help trainees be better performers. Having done a TNA,

you will �ind this an easy task.

Activate Motivation to Learn
This step is not included in the Gagné–Briggs model. However, it is a key process in SLT. Trainers need to activate the trainees’ motivation to learn the new material or learning
will not occur. Remember that motivation is one of the three factors that determine whether someone will perform. In this case, performance is learning and without
motivation, learning will not occur. One way to get trainees motivated to learn the new material is to tell them how relevant the training is to their job performance and how
valuable the training will be to them. A better way would be to get the trainees to describe the training’s relevance and value. This can be accomplished in conjunction with the
preceding step (informing of the goal) and the following step (recall of prior knowledge). For example, the trainer could ask trainees to think about problems they have
experienced in their job (in the areas the training is targeting). She could then identify the training objectives and as she does, ask the trainees how achieving that objective
would be of value. Using this approach the trainer should be able to provide the link between learning the new material and the on-the-job rewards that will follow (i.e.,
elimination of problems, easier to do, better performance and so on).

Stimulate Recall of Prior Relevant Knowledge
This step is important to ensure that the trainee has accessed the information/knowledge necessary for the learning that is about to take place. At the moment of learning, all
relevant prerequisite capabilities must be highly accessible to be part of the learning event.
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) Suppose “team problem solving” training is to be conducted. Previously, some
brainstorming training and problem-de�inition training had been completed. Now trainees should be thinking about these topics so that the previous learning will be accessible
to the problem-solving training. Ask for an explanation of brainstorming from a trainee, or focus a discussion on these two topics and show how they are related to the present
learning task. Or simply review the two topics with a high level of participation from trainees.

Present Material to Be Learned
Material is presented in a logical and understandable format. This point seems obvious, but recall that what the trainer might think is obvious might not �it in the trainees’
schema. To ensure understanding, the method of instruction should include several questions designed to elicit responses from trainees regarding their level of understanding.
Highlight important points with verbal emphasis (raise voice, slow down presentation for effect). Use easel sheets with bold print to highlight important learning points. Also,
eliciting examples from trainees serves to ensure that trainees understand the material. The trainer in team problem solving should list the steps on an easel board for all to
see, with the sub-steps provided under each of the main headings. Some simple examples of problems and the procedures to solve them could be on a video for effect. The
video could be stopped at each step to highlight the step and the preparation for the next step. These examples re�lect ways in which the organization and presentation of
material assist the trainee in their symbolic coding and cognitive organization.

Provide Guidance for Learning
The key here is to guide the trainees to the appropriate answer/conclusion, not just to tell them the answer. Get trainees to examine the possibilities related to the topic, both
right and wrong. When the solution is reached, the overall discussion will have helped trainees obtain an in-depth understanding of the topic. Provide them with a problem and
ask for possible alternatives. For example, in problem-solving training, give trainees a problem such as “absenteeism is high” and ask them to “de�ine the problem” (the �irst
step in problem solving). This task gets trainees thinking and providing different perspectives. These different perspectives are shared, and all can assess (depending on
whether the response was correct) their own level of understanding. Providing numerous examples allows the trainees to see the generality of the material to many situations.
Asking for their examples con�irms that the material is being put into the correct context.

Elicit the Performance
Here, trainees actually do it. For example, in the case of learning a problem-solving model, they now would work in teams to solve a real problem. The problem should be
similar to or even the same problem they have been discussing all along. It should also be the simplest type of problem they are likely to come across. Until now, working
through the solution was piecemeal; now, as a team, they do it as a whole integrated process without interaction with other teams or the trainer. Once they are successful,
provide a more complex problem to solve—even suggest that they use one they previously encountered in their workplace.

Provide Feedback
Once the team completes a process, a feedback session as to how they did is essential. Feedback can be provided in numerous ways. Videotaping the session and going over it
with the team (time-consuming), sitting in on parts of each meeting and providing feedback, or having another team watch and provide feedback are all methods used to
provide feedback. The type you use will, to some extent, be a function of the time available and the number of trainees. Of course, designing a program in which training is
spread over a number of weeks would allow for more individual feedback between training sessions, but the bene�its must be weighed against the cost of trainer time. The
important thing is that trainees know what they are doing right and wrong, and that they can make corrections before training is complete.

Assess Performance
The Gagné–Briggs theory indicates that learning should be assessed after each topic is taught. So, after training on effective feedback skills and before moving to performance
appraisal training, you need to assess the learning that took place regarding feedback skills. The assessment need not be formal, especially when a formal evaluation may be
planned for the end of the training program. But some method of determining whether the trainees learned the material is necessary. Questioning (for cognitive knowledge) is
one way to assess this. Asking trainees for a behavioral response (a skill) is also a form of assessment. This approach has two purposes: It con�irms that learning took place
and provides for additional practice at recalling the knowledge or performing the skill.

Enhance Retention and Transfer
An important part of any training program is the transfer of the training to the job. Designing the program to facilitate retention and transfer is one of the more critical
components of the training design. If the purpose of the training is cognitive knowledge, the opportunity for review (retrieval of the information) needs to be provided at
spaced intervals after the training is complete. The same applies to skills. All of the support processes discussed earlier are relevant here. For an example of using the Gagné–
Briggs design theory to develop training, see Table 5-11. This is an example of an introductory module of a multi-module training program designed to teach supervisors how
to give feedback.

Table 5-11 Module for “Giving Effective Feedback” Using the Revised Gagné–Briggs Ten Step Model

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Event Feedback Training

Gain
attention

Ask questions of trainees to initiate interest in topic of feedback: “Who has received constructive feedback that they actually appreciated?” If some have,
ask them what it was about the feedback that made it better than other feedback they received. If no one has, ask what it was about previous feedback that
made them not appreciate it. Have a brief discussion about what is wrong with the typical feedback received and what would make it better.

Inform of
goal

Show objectives and discuss; tie to previous discussion.

Activate
motivation
to learn:

Discuss the value/relevance of the objectives. Have the trainees identify how achieving the objectives will improve their ability to work with their
subordinates, peers and supervisors.

Stimulate
recall of
prior
knowledge

Ask “How do you behave when you are trying to help someone versus when you are disciplining them?” “How do you behave toward someone you are
trying to help (helping is what feedback is all about)?” Get trainees to verbalize things they do such as “provide it in private,” “do it as soon as possible,”
and so forth, to put them in a helping frame of mind with their rules for helping in their “working memory.”

Present
material

Share a list of what makes for effective feedback—be speci�ic, not general; be descriptive, not evaluative; and so forth. Present it on an easel sheet in bold.
Provide examples for each item.

Provide
guidance

Provide trainees with multiple examples (some good, some poor) and ask for input as to effectiveness. Give a handout sheet with a number of feedback
statements, and ask trainees to rate their effectiveness. Get trainees in small groups to discuss their results and come up with a group consensus as to
which are good and which are not so good. Have them provide a rationale. Now go through each and ask trainees to discuss this in terms of their
responses.

Elicit
performance

Performance here is cognitive knowledge about what is effective, and not effective feedback. Ask trainees to form groups of three. Have one of the three
teach the others the rules of effective feedback with examples. Then switch, so each trainee has the opportunity to show that they know the information
well enough to teach it to others and provide their own unique examples.

Provide
feedback

The other two trainees receiving training complete an evaluation form giving feedback to the one doing the training (in the groups of three). The trainer
also goes around to each group and provides feedback.

Assess
performance

Conduct a quiz that asks trainees to recall the rules for effective feedback. Go through a list of feedback examples (similar to the ones earlier), and indicate
which are effective, which are not effective, and why they were not effective.

Enhance
retention
and transfer

Trainees will be back to learn the behavioral component of training in a week. At that time, review will take place to facilitate retention.

Strategic Knowledge
In the past, training was designed to provide trainees with only the KSAs needed for their particular job. Many organizations found that more broadly based training leads to
greater organizational effectiveness. In many cases, physical work is being replaced by knowledge work. An examination of some of North America’s best-managed companies
found that the use of management teams was a common approach. This use of teams is on the increase all over Northern America. The Center for Study of Work Teams at the
University of North Texas indicates that about 80 percent of the Fortune 500 companies use teams with half or more of their employees. To be effective in the team approach,
employees need a broad understanding of how their jobs interact with other jobs. In these companies, job-speci�ic training is supported with information about the job’s
relationship to other parts of the organization. This type of training incorporates aspects of strategic knowledge development because it allows trainees to understand when
and why to use their new KSAs.

Strategic knowledge development increases the breadth of what is learned by extending the training content to include learning when and why KSAs are appropriate and
developing strategies for their use. The strategies that are developed revolve around the planning, monitoring, and modifying of behavior. The trainee learns not only how to
perform the task but also how to behave strategically and adaptively. Table 5-12 compares a traditional skills training format with a strategic knowledge training format. You
can see that the main difference is that the strategic knowledge training provides information as to when the skill is used and why it is important. Trainees are also provided
with practice sessions in determining when to use the skill.

Table 5-12 Comparison of Traditional and Strategic Knowledge Training
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Training Topic: Reading and Interpreting Quality Control Charts

Traditional Training Strategic Knowledge Training

Step 1

Declarative Knowledge (what) is presented. Trainees are told the
purpose of the training and given speci�ic objectives.

The different types of charts that are used in the work area and
their purpose are explained.

The different components of the charts are presented with a brief
explanation

Step 1

Declarative Knowledge (what) is presented in the same way as in traditional training.

Step 2

The context is presented. How the information from each of the charts is used to make
decisions about production processes is explained. It is explained that if the trainees could read
and interpret quality control data, mistakes would be caught earlier and the product saved
instead of scrapped.

Step 2

Procedural Knowledge (how) is presented.

Trainees are guided in recalling required mathematics skills.

Then the information and materials required to master the task are
presented. Trainees are shown how to create the charts during
production and interpret them. Examples of charts with explanations
are provided.

Step 3

Procedural Knowledge (how) is presented in the same was as traditional training, but with the
following addition.

The context for the procedures is added by explaining why the procedures used to create the
charts are important and the appropriate times for applying the procedures.

Step 3

Trainees practice using the charts and interpreting the results.

Step 4

Trainees practice using the charts and also are given exercises to allow practice in determining
when and why to use them.

Workers are provided opportunities for rehearsal and reinforcement of both declarative and
procedural knowledge.

Step 4

Trainees are given feedback.

Step 5

Trainees would be given feedback (same as in traditional training).

5.6 Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Training
Transfer of training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_011) refers to how much of what is learned in training
transfers to the job. Training can result in the following transfer outcomes: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_048)

Positive transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_012) : a higher level of job performance,

Zero transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_013) : no change in job performance, or

Negative transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_014) : a lower level of job performance.

The goal is to have training result in positive transfer to the job.

Research into factors that in�luence transfer of training focuses on three areas: conditions of practice, identical elements, and stimulus variability. The research also provides
evidence that the nature of feedback, the strategies used for retention, and goal setting can in�luence how well the training is transferred back to the job.

Conditions of Practice
Opportunities for trainees to practice can be designed in several ways. Each will facilitate the transfer of training more or less effectively depending on the nature of the KSAs
to be learned.

Massed versus Spaced Practice
Which is more effective—having trainees practice continuously for four hours, for one hour on four different days, or for a half hour on eight different days? Research
demonstrated that material learned under the latter approach, spaced practice
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_015) , is generally retained longer than is material learned under the �irst approach,
massed practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_016) .
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_049) This �inding is one of the most replicated in psychological research,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_050) and additional support was found for simple motor tasks in a recent meta-
analytic review of the research. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_051) However, spaced practice requires a longer
training cycle, and management generally resists it. Training departments need to become more creative in developing their training to allow for spaced practice. Instead of the
traditional one-day workshop, eight one-hour sessions at the beginning of the workday might be possible. Instead of a �ive-day workshop, consider once a week for �ive weeks.
This approach also gives trainees time to think about and even practice the knowledge or skill on their own.

Regarding more complex tasks, the research is less clear. A recent meta-analytic review suggests that using spaced practice for complex tasks is not as critical.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_052) Tasks that are dif�icult and complex seem to be performed better when
massed practice is provided �irst, followed by briefer sessions with more frequent rest intervals.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_053) More recent work suggests that although there is no difference between the
two with regard to acquisition of the complex task, spaced practice seems to inoculate trainees against skill loss over extended periods of nonuse.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_055)

Whole versus Part Learning
First we need to be clear that in most instances it is important to provide an explanation of the whole before getting into the details of the individual parts of the training
material. The learner needs to understand the “big picture” to see how the facts, principles, and concepts that will be presented in each of the “parts” of the training relate to
each other and to the job. A wall chart that visually depicts the overall structure and individual parts of the training will be useful to trainees as a reference as the training
moves through its individual modules.

Once the big picture is understood, the question still remains, should the training be designed to teach everything together or should it be separated into its component
parts? From the learner’s perspective this is termed part learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_017) and whole
learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_018) . Whether trainees should learn parts of a task separately or learn
the whole task all at once depends on whether the task can be logically divided into parts. In many cases, it is just too dif�icult to design part training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_056) Whole training devices are much easier because the design can be modeled
after the real device (e.g., pilot-training simulators). James Naylor suggests that even when the task can be divided into parts, the whole method is still preferred when

The intelligence of the trainee is high,

The training material is high in task organization but low in complexity, and

Practice is spaced rather than massed. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_057)

Task organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_019) relates to the degree to which the tasks are interrelated
(highly dependent on each other). For example, in driving a car, the steering, braking, and acceleration are highly interdependent when you are turning a corner (high
organization). Starting a standard-shift car, however, requires a number of tasks that are not as highly organized (pushing in the clutch, putting the gear shift in neutral, placing
the foot on the accelerator, and turning the key to start). Task complexity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_020)
relates to the level of dif�iculty of performing each task. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

)

In the design of training, it is often not practical to attempt to subdivide the task into meaningful parts. If it is possible to subdivide them, use the whole method if the task
organization is high and use the part method if task organization is low.

As an example of high-task organization, imagine training a backhoe operator to dig a hole by �irst having her practice raising and lowering the boom, then moving the outer
arm in and out, and �inally moving the bucket. This sequence simply does not make sense. Ultimately the trainee has to learn how to open each of the valves concurrently and
sequentially in the digging of a hole. An example of low-task organization is the maintenance of the backhoe. Here a number of tasks (check the teeth on the bucket, check the
hydraulic oil, and inspect the boom for cracks) are not highly organized, so each could be taught separately.

A third option, progressive part training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_021) , can be used when tasks are not
as clear in their organization. Consider the training of con�lict resolution skills. Imagine that the model to be taught involves four steps (actively listen, indicate respect, be
assertive, and provide information). These tasks are interdependent but might also be taught separately. In this case, a combination of the two types may make sense. The
process is as follows:

1. The trainees learn and practice active listening.

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2. Then the trainees learn and practice active listening and indicating respect.

3. Then the trainees learn and practice active listening, indicating respect, and being assertive.

4. Finally, the trainees learn and practice the whole model.

Whole, part, and a combination of the two (progressive part) learnings are represented in the following diagram:

Phases

Training Type Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5

Whole A + B + C + D A + B + C + D A + B + C + D A + B + C + D A + B + C + D

Part A B C D A + B + C + D

Progressive Part A A + B A + B + C A + B + C + D A + B + C + D

As mentioned previously, “whole learning” is generally preferred. However, you will need to take into consideration the cognitive load
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_022) that is being placed on your trainees. Cognitive load refers to the amount of
mental processing that is needed for the trainee to learn the material. The less familiar the trainee is with the material, the more complex the material, and the more material
there is to learn, the higher the cognitive load. Other factors such as stress, fatigue, low self-ef�icacy, and so forth, can also increase the cognitive load. Perhaps you’ve
experienced the situation in which the instructor just presented a constant stream of facts, principles and concepts until you felt that you just couldn’t take anymore. At that
point you probably shut down your processing of the information, feeling that your brain was overloaded. As a trainer you can avoid this type of situation by designing the
material to be presented in organized and “right-sized” chunks. Allowing trainees to master smaller tasks (overlearning) leads to better learning of the whole.

Overlearning
Overlearning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_023) is the process of providing trainees with continued practice far
beyond the point at which they perform the task successfully. The more a task is overlearned, the greater the retention.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_059)

Overlearning is particularly valuable for tasks that are not used frequently or if the opportunity to practice them is limited. In a study of soldiers assembling and
disassembling their weapons, the overlearning group received extra trials equal to the number of trials it took them to learn the task. The other group, called the refresher
group, received the same extra number of trials as the overlearning group, but at a later date. The third group received no extra trials. The overlearning and refresher groups
both outperformed the third group, but the overlearning group also retained more than the refresher group.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_060) Even when information or skills are overlearned, however, it is important to
put mechanisms in place to reinforce the use and practice of the learned behaviors on a continual basis, especially when it is a newly learned knowledge or skill.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_061)

When trainees practice a skill beyond the ability to simply do the task, the responses become more automatic and eventually do not require thinking. For this reason,
overlearning is most valuable for tasks performed in high-intensity or high-stress situations such as emergencies. For example, one trainee recalls that numerous times during
initial pilot training in the air force, the instructor would pull back the throttle of the aircraft and yell, “Emergency!” He did it frequently, and soon the trainee discovered that
thinking was not even required—the emergency procedures became automatic. This re�lexive nature is important in a situation where correct responses are critical.

In Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) we de�ined the concept of automaticity, a concept closely related to
overlearning. It could be thought of as an outcome of overlearning, although it could also occur after a great deal of on-the-job practice. It is a shift to a point where
performance of a task is �luid, requires little conscious effort, and, as the name implies, is “automatic.” Automaticity, through overlearning, should be designed into training
when the task will be performed in high-stress situations, or those that are encountered infrequently but must be performed correctly.

Maximize Similarity
Maximizing similarity is also known as identical elements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_024) . The more the
elements in the training design are identical to the actual work setting, the more likely it is that transfer will occur.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

) Two areas of similarity are possible: the tasks to be performed and the
environment in which they are to be performed. How to increase similarity? A newscaster reading the news on television must use a teleprompter (the task) while someone is
talking to him via an earphone (environment). After the basic skill is learned, the trainees practice the skill in an environment similar to their actual workplace environment to
ensure transfer. A machinist is exposed to the background noise of the factory �loor and the interruptions common to the job. The secretary is exposed to the of�ice noise and
to the interruptions that occur in the of�ice.

Vary the Situation
It is much easier to use the concept of identical elements for motor or technical skills, where most of the elements required for learning are in the job situation. When
conceptual or administrative skills are required, as in management training, a great deal of variability often characterizes typical situations, and the use of identical elements
simply is not effective. In such cases, the general principles approach is more useful.

General Principles
For much of management training, it is impossible to provide speci�ic training for what to do in every situation that might arise. It is necessary, therefore, to provide a
framework or context for what is being taught, which is what strategic knowledge training attempts to do. Training through general principles will better equip trainees to
handle novel situations.

Suppose that in teaching managers how to motivate employees, you tell them that praise is a good motivator. A manager goes back to the job and begins praising workers.
Some workers are not motivated and, in some cases, they even become less motivated. The manager is at a loss. If, however, the managers were taught some general principles
about motivation, they would understand the responses they get and alter their own behavior. The principles related to expectancy theory suggest that certain rewards are
attractive to some and not to others. Furthermore, it indicates that praise must be a function of performance to be motivating. The manager could think through these
principles and identify what change was required to motivate those not responding to the praise. For some of these employees, the attractive outcome might be for the
manager to say nothing and stay away when they perform at an appropriate level.

Other Considerations to Facilitate Transfer

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Knowledge of Results
Providing feedback (knowledge of results (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_025) ) to a trainee is important to
learning and the transfer of training back to the job. Feedback performs three functions:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_063)

1. It tells trainees whether their responses are correct, allowing for necessary adjustments in their behavior.

2. It makes the learning more interesting, encouraging trainees to continue.

3. It leads to speci�ic goals for maintaining or improving performance.

When providing such feedback, it is better to indicate that the trainee can control the level of performance. Sometimes inexperienced trainers will try to be supportive by
suggesting that the task is dif�icult, so any problems in mastering it are understandable.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_064) This approach reinforces low self-ef�icacy. Feedback indicating that a trainee
can master the task improves a person’s self-ef�icacy, and trainees with high self-ef�icacy tend to be more motivated and achieve more.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_065)

Frequent opportunities to provide feedback should be part of the training design. Providing feedback takes a rather long time if the group is large because the trainer needs
to get to all trainees and monitor improvements. To help overcome this problem, other trainees can be used to provide feedback. For example, three-person groups can be
used in interpersonal skills training. One of the three acts as an observer of the behavior and provides feedback to the person who is practicing.

Combination of Relapse Prevention and Goal Setting
A major reason that training does not transfer to the job is that, once back on the job, the trainee faces many of the same pressures that caused reduced effectiveness in the
�irst place. Marx (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_066) instituted a system of relapse prevention
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_026) into his training, modeled after a successful approach to assisting addicts to
resist returning to their addictive behavior. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_067) The strategy sensitizes trainees
to the fact that relapse is likely, prepares them for it by having them identify high-risk situations that will result in relapse, and helps them develop coping strategies to prevent
such a relapse.

Goal setting has also been shown to increase the likelihood of transfer. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_068)
With goal setting, the trainees are required to meet with fellow trainees to discuss the goals and how they will accomplish them. Furthermore, trainees are required to keep a
record of their goal accomplishments, return these records to the trainer, and promise to meet at a later date to discuss these accomplishments publicly. This public
commitment, through documentation of behavior, discussions with fellow trainees, and monitoring by trainers, further increases the likelihood of transfer.

Some evidence shows that relapse prevention without goal setting is not always successful,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_069) so Marx incorporated both the goal setting and public commitment into his
relapse prevention training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_070) This revised relapse prevention training is
presented in Table 5-13. Table 5-14 presents some of the relapse prevention strategies (step 4 in Table 5-13) used in training. In preparation for relapse prevention training,
trainees complete a relapse prevention worksheet (Figure 5-4) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_071) to get them
thinking of the issues involved.

Table 5-13 Seven-Step Relapse-Prevention Training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_072)

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Step Purpose

1. Choose a
skill to retain

Helps manager to identify and quantify the skill chosen. Goal setting and monitoring of the skill require clear de�initions of the skills, so this is an
important step and often requires help from the trainer. “Be nice to my employees” is not clear enough and needs to be revised to something more
concrete such as “Provide praise to employees when they meet their quota.”

2. Set goals Once a skill has been de�ined and quanti�ied, then appropriate de�initions of what a slip (warning that goal is in jeopardy) and relapse (more serious
disengagement from goal) are. From this, goals are set as to what is desired. For example, the goal might be to praise at least �ive employees a minimum
of once a day when they meet their quotas. Then de�ine what a slip is: “Two consecutive days where �ive employees are not praised”; and what a relapse
is: “A week where targeted behavior is not met.”

3. Commit to
retain the skill

Need to think about the reasons for maintaining the skill. Trainees write out advantages of maintaining the skills.

4. Learn
coping
(relapse
prevention)
strategies

These strategies help increase awareness of potential trouble spots, how to respond emotionally and behaviorally, where to get help, and so forth.

5. Identify
likely
circumstances
for �irst
relapse

The trainees are asked to think of a situation that would most likely cause them to slip back to old behavior. Prepares them for when it really happens and
provides a nice transition to the next step, which is practice.

6. Practice
coping
(relapse
prevention)
strategies

With an understanding of what will cause a slip, trainees work in small groups practicing (using role-plays, and so forth) how to maintain the skill in such
situations.

7. Learn to
monitor
target skill

Develop feedback mechanisms to help you monitor the frequency of using the speci�ied skill. Use of whiteboard in of�ice or notepad where you can check
off each time you use the skill.

Table 5-14 Coping Strategies for Relapse Prevention

Step Purpose

Understand the
relapse process

By understanding that relapses are common and can be expected, it better prepares the trainee for such events. When a slip or relapse occurs, it is
expected.

Recognize
difference
between
training and the
work setting

In training, there is often a lot of positive feedback from peers and the trainer. This creates some overcon�idence about how easy it will be to continue
with the new skill when back on the job. However, you need to think about the likelihood that this attention and feedback will not happen back on the
job, so realize that the transfer will be more dif�icult.

Create an
effective
support
network on the
job

Identify and enlist others who can support you back on the job. Peers who have also attended the same training and superiors who are supportive can
be asked to provide you with needed feedback on how you are doing.

Identify high-
risk situations

Determine times and situations where you are likely to slip back to old behavior. These cognitive “�ire drills” help you determine cues that signal a
potential slip.

Reduce
emotional
reactions that
interfere with
learning

Understanding that there will be slips and not reacting with feelings of failure, or tendency to blame the poor training. These responses are self-
defeating, and being aware that they are likely to occur prepares you to take them in stride. Realize that it is a part of the learning process and does not
re�lect poorly on you or the training

Diagnose
speci�ic support
skills necessary
to retain new
skill

Determine what support skills are necessary to assist in the transfer of the trained skill. Consider the skill of allowing the team, rather than the
supervisor, to make the decisions. This is dif�icult to change, and the skill of time management is an important collateral skill. If you are always running
behind, the tendency to make the decisions yourself or push the team to hurry will interfere with the taught skill. You need to be aware of this and, if
necessary, also get training in the collateral skills.

Identify
organizational
support for skill
retention

Determine who in the organization will support the skill, and actively seek them out for assistance in providing feedback. Ask supervisor to give
feedback even if initially, the supervisor is not that interested in doing so.

This combination of relapse prevention and goal setting is a powerful tool for encouraging transfer. The relapse part uses both cognitive and behavioral components to
facilitate long-term maintenance of the newly learned behaviors. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_073) Trainees
leave the training expecting that relapse is a strong possibility, but possessing a repertoire of coping responses to deal with it. The addition of the goal setting and public
commitment further provides an incentive for transfer. Recent research indicates this method is particularly effective where the climate for the transfer is not supportive.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

)

Figure 5-4 Relapse Prevention Worksheet

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5.7 Facilitation of Transfer: Focus on Organizational Intervention
In Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) , we noted that once a performance gap is identi�ied, the next step is to
determine how much of the gap is a function of inadequate KSAs and how much arises from other factors. Remember what Nancy Gordon from Ameritech said, that many of
these gaps are a function of organizational forces and not a lack of KSAs. Just as these forces can interfere with effective performance, they can also interfere with new learning
and inhibit transfer. To increase the likelihood of transfer, therefore, it is useful to harness as much help as possible back on the job.

Supervisor Support
Supervisor support is one of the key determining factors for the transfer of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_075) Supervisors need to understand the behaviors being trained and provide
support for trainees who use these new behaviors back on the job. In addition, research indicates that transfer is more likely when supervisors provide trainees with desired
outcomes upon successful completion of training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_076) These actions on the
part of supervisors will go a long way toward facilitating transfer.

Supervisors also can affect their employees’ learning and transfer of training in other ways. If employees who are motivated to improve (involved in their own development)
receive support from their supervisors for such developmental activity, this support enhances their motivation.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_077) Also, motivation to learn can be enhanced when employees understand
realistic information regarding the bene�its of their development activities. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_078)
Two other factors that affect motivation to learn are the employee’s perception of training relevance and reduction of negative side effects (like work that piles up) of attending
training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_079) These two factors can also be controlled, to a great extent, by the
supervisor.

Peer Support
Research indicates that peer support can also have a positive effect on transfer of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_080) If the trainee is the only one from a department who receives training, peers
back on the job might not understand how to provide social support. In some climates, this situation could result in pressure from more experienced peers to “forget all that
stuff.” With the right climate, however, peers can provide the proper support to use the training. What is the right climate? Learning must be considered an integral aspect of
the organization’s ongoing operation, becoming part of the employees’ and managers’ responsibilities. If everyone is involved in the learning process, it continues beyond the
classroom. Most important, all employees must understand and support overall organizational objectives. By involving the entire workgroup in training, the resulting peer
pressure will support company goals and objectives. With this type of climate, it is possible to use peer support in a more formalized manner. Peers could be considered
potential coaches. Although it is the supervisor who is generally thought of as a coach to help recently trained employees transfer their skills to the workplace, experienced
peers can also take on this role. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_081) The peers would receive training as
coaches and be provided with speci�ic checklists to evaluate trainees periodically on their performance. In addition, more experienced peers can serve as mentors, willing to
answer questions and provide advice, guidance, and support to remedy the dif�iculties trainees may encounter in applying the new skills to the work situation.

We discuss strategies for dealing with different climates in a later section. For now, it is suf�icient to note that it is the training department’s responsibility to inform upper
management of the advantages of creating such a climate if the goal is to encourage transfer of training.

Trainer Support
Conventional wisdom is that the trainer’s job is done when training is over. More recent research, however, demonstrates the value of continued trainer involvement in the
transfer of training. Trainees who commit to meet the trainer and other trainees at some later date to discuss transfer of training use the training more effectively.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_082) Thus, value derives from the continued involvement of the trainer, who can be
a useful resource in helping trainees work through any problems encountered in the workplace.

In this regard, one idea is to have trainers monitor trainees at some point after training to assess how they are doing and provide feedback.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_083) The trainer sits in and observes the trainee in a situation where she is
required to use the trained behavior. To be effective, the sit-in (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_027) must be

voluntary on the part of the trainee,

con�idential between the trainer and trainee, and

only for developmental purposes, not administrative

During the sit-in, the trainer must not interrupt the interaction between the trainee and others and provide feedback only after the session is over. After all, “Who is better
to be coaching the trainee on behaviors that were learned in training than the trainer?”
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Using the trainer in a follow-up to facilitate transfer of training might spread the trainers rather thin. However, it is important to consider the investment already made in
training. If transfer does not occur, the investment is lost.

Reward Systems
As noted earlier, valued outcomes contingent upon successful training enhance training transfer.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

) Operant conditioning is a powerful regulator of behavior. Employees are quite
adept at determining which behaviors can get them in trouble, bring them rewards, or result in their being left alone. If trained behaviors are not reinforced, then the
likelihood is small that such behaviors will be exhibited. Part of the trainer’s responsibility is to work with the supervisor and other parts of the organization to align reward
systems to support the behaviors learned in training.

Climate and Culture
Using a systems approach to training, you facilitate transfer of learning by focusing as many forces as possible on reinforcing the learned behaviors. Although supervisors,
peers, and reward systems all in�luence an organization’s climate and culture, these factors need to be discussed in their own right.

Climate

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Climate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_028) can in�luence the transfer of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_086) Climate is generally conceptualized as the perception of salient characteristics
of the organization. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_087) Such salient characteristics as company policies,
reward systems, and management behaviors are important in determining the organizational climate. Supervisor support and peer support are part of the total climate that
will reinforce the use of the trained skills, but they alone do not make up an organization’s climate. Other climate factors such as company policies and the attitudes re�lected by
upper management regarding training, if positive, will also support the transfer of training. Consider how trainees perceive training. If they believe adequate resources (time
and money) went into the development of training, trainees are more motivated to attend and learn. The message here is that the company cares enough about this training to
devote valued resources. If these characteristics do not describe the climate, it might be better not to offer training at all.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_088) Cultivating such a supportive climate toward training is important and does
facilitate transfer. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_089)

Climate is related to, and in many ways re�lects, the culture of an organization. When asked, “What is useful in promoting transfer of training?” HR specialists and
supervisors responded that it is critical to have a culture that supports training.
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Culture
Culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch05_029) is de�ined as a pattern of basic assumptions invented, discovered, or
developed by a group within the organization. It can be considered a set of shared understandings about the organization.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_091) One type of culture—a continuous learning culture—evidenced by the shared
understanding that learning is an important part of the job, shows a positive effect on the transfer of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_092) A continuous learning culture is in�luenced by a variety of factors such as
challenging jobs, social support (peer and supervisor), and developmental systems that allow employees the opportunity to learn continually and receive appropriate training.

In�luencing Climate and Culture
Given the importance of climate, what can be done if the climate is nonsupportive or neutral regarding training? Changing climate and culture in an organization is a long and
dif�icult process and must be done from the top. Issues related to the mismatch of the training goals and organizational climate and culture should surface in the organizational
analysis part of the needs analysis. This information would then be provided to the top HR manager.

Evidence in North America indicates that the HR departments of organizations now carry more in�luence in organizational decision making than in the past
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_093) and that employees in these departments are better trained in HR issues.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_0

) With this increased in�luence and training, HR professionals are responsible
for helping the company leadership to understand and resolve con�licts between organizational strategies and objectives and the existing climate and culture. Training in
Action 5-3 provides an example of things that, when incorporated into the training process to facilitate transfer, help change the learning climate and culture.

5-3 Training in Action Helping Ensure Transfer
Dr. Richaurd Camp is a consultant to many organizations in the United States and abroad. A few years back, an executive search �irm hired him to train its employees on
effective interviewing techniques. This was a key part of their work. Dr. Camp, in a meeting with the �irm’s management, discussed the importance of approaching the
training as an organizational intervention and the need to consider several organizational factors to ensure that the training transferred to the job. The client would be
spending a great deal of money on the training and was willing to do what was necessary to ensure transfer, which would be especially dif�icult because the
international company is highly decentralized.

After a number of meetings with management, Dr. Camp designed a three-day workshop to provide the interviewing skills requested. The �irst group to go through
the training consisted of all the top managers, including the president. This not only provided them with the necessary skills but also garnered their support for the
process throughout the organization. He then began training of all the other employees, from the top down. At the beginning of each training session, to indicate the
importance of the training to the trainees, a video of the president of the company was shown. In the video, the president indicates the importance of the training and
how it would make them a more effective organization. Furthermore, a senior manager who also verbalized support for the training was in attendance at each training
session. The manager was also able to provide real-life examples of when employees had used old versus new training skills, and he answered questions that arose
about using the training back on the job. This put the training in a real organizational context for the trainees.

In each local area, “stars” were identi�ied (those using the process very effectively) and used as a resource people to facilitate transfer. After training, employees were
also assigned coaches (recall that everyone has received the training, so experienced coaches were available). To reinforce the importance of using the skills on the job,
Dr. Camp developed a “one-day refresher” training and went to the various of�ices to provide this. Part of the “refresher” training was to share concerns about the
dif�iculties in implementing the process and to generate ideas on how to make transfer easier. At the end of this training, Dr. Camp encouraged trainees to send him
copies of the “outcome of an interview process” so he could provide them with feedback to again facilitate effective transfer to the job.

Dr. Camp then suggested that the company develop a task force to examine how effective the transfer of training was and consider other steps that could be taken to
ensure that what trainees were learning was being transferred to the job. A representative of the task force began meeting with employees (while they were at different
training sessions) to explore ways of facilitating the transfer. One of the ideas to come from these meetings was that each trainee team up with another trainee who was
at the training session. When they got back to their respective of�ices throughout the world, they would stay in contact, providing support, feedback, and ideas for
dealing with obstacles to using the trained skills.

How successful has the training been? Management has looked at some bottom-line results and has determined that the training has helped them become more
pro�itable. Does everyone use the skills as effectively as they could? No, but the organization continues to work on ideas to encourage the transfer. Recently, the task
force has begun discussing the possibility of videos and online information to introduce the skills and to reinforce their correct use.

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Focus on Small Business
Small businesses follow more sophisticated HR policies today than in the past.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_095) In fact, a recent study suggests that many of their policies and practices are
not much different from those of large businesses. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_096) Furthermore, like larger
businesses, effective HR practices have been shown to have a positive effect on quality
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_097) and productivity.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_098) These �indings suggest that small businesses are beginning to realize the
importance of sound HR practices.

Much of what was discussed earlier is relevant for any size organization. Ensuring that employees are highly motivated to learn, and presenting interesting and relevant
training, is the goal no matter what the size of the company. Again, the major problem in many training programs is not the learning of the skills but the transfer of these skills
to the job. We believe that given the requirements necessary for transfer of training, the small business enjoys a de�inite advantage. We see that climate and a continuous
learning culture go a long way toward ensuring the transfer of training. Although any organizational change is dif�icult, a small organization should be able to accomplish
climate and culture change faster and more easily than a large one. Furthermore, in the small business, it should be easier to obtain and demonstrate top management’s
commitment. In many of the large company interventions conducted by the authors, top management provides written or verbal support for the intervention, but little else.
Most of our dealings are with the HR manager, rather than with the CEO or president. Although we stress the continued involvement of upper management, we often have little
interaction with top management once the intervention has begun. Top management typically feels they must spend their time on more important things.

In the small �irm, it is often the CEO or owner who makes decisions about the type of training and development that will be provided.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_099) Access to these individuals is much easier and provides a greater opportunity
for you to in�luence them. Because of their greater involvement, they often develop a clearer understanding of their role in making training successful. An example of this
involvement is shown in our Training in Action 5-4.

5-4 Training in Action Real Support
The Sandwich Community Health Centre is a service-oriented organization with about 35 employees located in Sandwich, Ontario, Canada. The executive director and
assistant executive director of the organization wanted to integrate the two areas of the organization (clinical and health promotion) and develop a team approach to
much of the community care they offer. After a discussion on the issue, a consultant conducted a TNA and provided training on communication skills and con�lict
resolution.

Everyone attended training, even the executive director. This involvement by top management conveyed an important message about the importance of the training.
Top management also insisted that the training be evaluated. Knowing that an assessment would be made at some future date kept everyone focused on the need to
change. Finally, although no formal culture assessment was made, the interviews conducted in the TNA clearly indicated a climate of continuous learning.

Will the training in Training in Action 5-4 transfer? According to the research, it stands a good chance. The fact that the organization is small enough that all could attend the
same training at the same time and experience the same things will help the transfer process. This situation simply could not occur in a larger company.

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Outcomes of Design
As noted at the start of this chapter, to develop effective training programs you need to understand the various factors that facilitate learning and transfer. This is one of the
three outputs of the design phase. The other two outputs are the development of evaluation methods and the identi�ication of alternative methods of instruction.

Evaluation
The design of the evaluation for your training has already begun if you have been following our training process model. The methods you used to determine the organizational
and person performance gaps are the same methods you should use to evaluate whether the training has reduced those gaps. The objectives you set (reaction, learning, etc.)
de�ine the behaviors, standards and conditions for evaluating the effectiveness of the training. These become one set of inputs to the evaluation process discussed in Chapter
9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) . Recall the learning objective from earlier in the chapter:

Using a drop wire, bushing, and connector, but without the use of a manual, the trainee will splice a drop wire according to the standards set out in the manual.

This objective assists us in development of the evaluation. From the objective it is clear that we need to develop a behavioral test that will assess how well the trainee will splice
a drop wire compared with the standards set out in the manual. Ideally, you would have developed such a test when you were assessing employees to determine their needs.
Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) discusses evaluations strategies when this is not the case. In any case, you
should begin the design of your evaluation strategy once you have addressed the other design issues. Once you have completed the development phase you should �inalize the
evaluation strategy (develop the evaluation instruments, determine the time frame and location and so on). Note in Fabrics, Inc.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i79#ch05sidebar05) how we use the learning objectives in the development of the evaluation. You
should �ind it useful to re-read this portion of Fabrics, Inc., just prior to reading Chapter 9
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) on evaluation, so that the contiguity between design and evaluation remains clear.

Identi�ication of Alternative Methods of Instruction
In addition to developing the evaluation for the training, you also begin developing the training. To do this, you �irst need to understand the various methods available and
what their effectiveness is in terms of training KSAs. So the next two chapters (Chapters 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06)
and 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) ) provide that information. Then in Chapter 8
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) we return to the development of training, which, as noted earlier, is done in tandem with
developing the evaluation.

Case: The Real World of Training . . . What Is Wrong Here? (Conclusion)
Were you able to �igure out what went wrong in the two cases at the beginning of the chapter? Both deal with the need to develop good training objectives.

Case 1
Recall the incidents discussed in Case 1 at the beginning of the chapter. Training in troubleshooting did not transfer well. What went wrong? Would more training
have helped the mechanics become better troubleshooters? Reexamine the training that took place. The instructor provided a problem, and the trainees indicated the
symptoms that would result from the problem. This problem/symptom sequence was the exact opposite of what they would have been required to do on the job,
which involved seeing a symptom and then determining the problem. A given set of symptoms might have several different causes, but the mechanics weren’t trained
to use symptoms to diagnose the cause. Had proper learning objectives been developed before the design of the training, the instructor would have realized this
mistake. For example, consider the learning objective, “Upon identifying the symptoms of the electrical problem, the trainee will be able to list and describe the
possible causes of these symptoms.” Had this objective been developed before training, the type of training required would have been more obvious.

Case 2
In case incident 2, all the trainees followed a cycle of doing poorly on tests 1, 5, 9, 13, and 17, and much better on the other exams. Remember, a different instructor
taught each section. On the very �irst test, the trainees did not know what to expect and so did poorly. Once they understood what to expect on the tests, they
improved on the remaining three tests. When a new instructor arrived, they prepared as usual, only to �ind the type of test had changed; once again they did poorly.
When they understood what the new instructor wanted, they did better. It was “getting used to what the instructor wanted” that caused the cycle. The training
director then looked at the objectives for each section and found them to be loosely worded and unclear about what would constitute trainees having learned what
they were supposed to have learned. If done correctly, the objectives for each of the sessions would clearly describe the performance expectations and the way in
which they are to be measured. Knowing this, the training director revised the learning objectives for all sections, providing guidance to both instructors and trainees
as to what would constitute successful learning. The problem soon disappeared.

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Summary
Table 5-15 provides a tool to use in reviewing design phase activities and whether the design is ready to be moved into the development phase. In the design of training,
several constraints need to be considered, such as how much time will be given to prepare and present training, how much of a priority it is, and how much money can be
spent. These will all place constraints on the type of training offered. Once these questions are answered, it is necessary to determine the type of trainees, their current level of
KSAs, their motivation to learn, and the degree of homogeneity for the group. Answers to these questions will provide you with a framework that will be used to develop the
objectives for training.

Table 5-15 Design Matrix

Design
Component

Activities and Issues Ready to Move to Development?

Organizational
Constraints

Review analysis data, and then identify any additional constraints that might relate to the “who,
what, when, where and how” of the training program.

All constraints are identi�ied, and
accommodation strategies developed.

Training
Objectives

Trainee reaction, learning, transfer, and organizational results objectives need to be developed.
These must have a clear description of the desired outcome, the conditions under which that
outcome will occur, and the standards that will signal that the outcome has been achieved.

All objectives have been reviewed and approved
by the appropriate parties.

The evaluation instruments are developed, and
decisions about when and where to evaluate
have been made.

Learning
Theory

Focus on the
trainee Individual differences (KSAs, learning style, etc.) must be addressed.

Trainee motivation issues must be addressed.

The issues to the left have been completed and
documented. This document will drive the
development and implementation of the
training.

Focus on
training
design

Review Social Learning theory, the Nine Events of Learning model, Elaboration theory, and other
learning theories to arrive at the rules, policies, and procedures that will guide the development of
the training and facilitate learning.

Focus on
Transfer Appropriate use of whole/part practice, maximized similarity, varied situations, and general

principles to maximize transferability from the classroom.

Using data from the analysis phase, develop strategies for addressing organizational
impediments to transfer.

Alternative
training
methods

With the learning objectives in mind, identify the methods most suited to achieving those objectives
and which �it within the constraints that have been identi�ied are selected to be used for the
training

Learning objectives provide clear, unambiguous goals for the training. An effective objective contains three parts: (1) desired behaviors, or what the trainee is expected to
be able to do; (2) conditions, or what help/environment trainees will have when performing the expected behavior; and (3) standards, or what will be required to be
successful. Learning objectives should be developed for reaction to training, learning, transfer to the job, and organizational outcomes. These objectives provide guidance for
designing and developing the training. They also provide the trainer with clear instructions on what to train and how to do it. Finally, they inform the trainees about what to
expect.

In the design of training, consider two aspects: learning and transfer. To facilitate learning, the design must address the motivation of the trainees and the environment in
which training will take place. Social learning theory and the Gagné–Briggs micro theory of design provide a framework for setting up each instructional event in a manner that
is most effective. To facilitate transfer, consider issues such as type of practice, whole or part learning, overlearning, and similarity to the job. Also, using a combination of goal
setting and relapse prevention helps trainees transfer the KSAs to the job.

The support of the supervisor and peers in the work group is just as important to transfer, and sit-ins by the trainer will help too. Finally, congruent reward systems and a
supportive climate/culture need to be present to ensure transfer.

ET, a macro theory of design, is useful for determining the sequencing of events and just how to present them in a training context. This theory argues that one should focus
on whole rather than part learning, but to make the whole as simple as possible at the beginning and then make it more dif�icult in stages until it reaches the level of complexity
found in the workplace.

This chapter sets the stage for showing the link between the learning objectives and the methods used to provide training. Understanding what makes a good learning
objective and the groundwork in terms of what facilitates learning and transfer on the basis of theory allow for an examination of the methods of training and the link between
these methods and the learning objectives. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i79#ch05sidebar05)

The Training Program (Fabrics, Inc.)
This continues the description of the Fabrics, Inc., training program that we began in Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . Recall that Fabrics, Inc., grew quickly and experienced problems with its
supervisors. In Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) , we described how the consultant completed a needs

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analysis. From this TNA, the consultant determined a number of areas in which supervisors could use training. A partial list included a lack of KSAs in the following
areas:

Effective listening

Communication

Con�lict resolution

Effective feedback

Measuring employee performance

Motivating employees

For the purpose of this exercise, we deal with only one, con�lict resolution. The �irst step will be to develop the learning objectives.

The Learning Objectives
Some of the learning objectives are as follows:

The trainee will, with no errors, present in writing the four types of active listening, along with examples of each of the types, with no help from reference
material.

When, in a role-play, the trainee is presented with an angry comment, the trainee will respond immediately using one of the active listening types. The trainee
will then explain orally the technique used and why, with no help from reference material. The trainee will be presented with �ive of these comments and be
expected to correctly respond and explain a minimum of four.

The trainee will, with 100 percent accuracy, provide in writing each step of the con�lict resolution model, along with a relevant example, with no help from
any reference material.

In a role-play of an angry customer, the trainee/employee will show concern for the customer by listening and providing alternative solutions, using the
steps in the con�lict resolution model, with help from an easel sheet that has the steps listed on it. The trainee must use all the steps and two types of active
listening in the role-play.

After watching a role-play of an angry person and an employee using the con�lict resolution model, the trainee will, without reference to material, immediately
provide feedback as to the effectiveness of the person using the con�lict resolution model. The trainee must identify four of the six errors.

Reaction Objective
The trainee will, upon completion of training, respond to a 15-item reaction questionnaire with minimum scores of 4 on a 5-point scale.

Transfer of Training Objective
When an angry customer approaches the employee and begins speaking in an angry tone of voice, the employee will, immediately, use the con�lict resolution model to
calm the customer down.

Organizational Objective
Three months after training, there will be a 75 percent drop in letters of complaint from customers.

Design Issues
We turn now to design issues. The con�lict resolution model has four steps and requires attending to cues at verbal, vocal, and visual levels. From an ET perspective
then, it is a complex task. The four steps in the model are as follows:

1. Use active listening.

2. Indicate respect.

3. Be assertive.

4. Provide information.

Further examination of the model reveals that the �irst part, active listening is a complex task by itself,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch05biblio_100) as is the total model. So the �irst decision is what mix of spiral/topical
sequencing to use in the training of this model. Active listening, being a skill that can also be used on its own, suggests the use of topical sequencing to train employees
in active listening �irst. Then we will use spiral sequencing to train the total con�lict resolution model.

Teaching of the cognitive component of each of these skills will be completed before the skills training, but for brevity we will discuss only the behavioral component.
Using SCM, as proposed by ET, we �irst determine the epitome (simplest version of the task that still embodies the whole task). For active listening, it will be to use the
skill in an everyday situation, such as discussing which movie to see. In this situation, the initiator (person in the role of disagreeing with the trainee) will simply disagree
regarding a movie the trainee wants to see. This situation has minimal emotional content and should require minimal monitoring of the initiator by the trainee, as it will
not result in an argument. The same epitome used for active listening can also be used for the con�lict resolution model because the latter simply takes the discussion to
a different level.

The most complex task will require dealing with a great deal of anger on the part of the initiator of the discussion. Once these two extremes are conceptualized, those
in between can be determined.

Let’s now examine this training at a micro level using Gagné–Briggs theory. For the module related to teaching active listening, we want to begin by getting trainees’
attention, as suggested by Gagné–Briggs design theory. This can be accomplished by showing a video of two people in a heated argument and then asking, “Has that
situation ever happened to you? Would you like to have a better way of responding in such a situation so tempers do not �lare?” This would allow you to introduce
active listening. The next step in the theory is to inform the trainees of the goal. Presenting the learning objective related to active listening accomplishes this. The
training would continue to be designed paying close attention to the steps in the design theory.

Now let’s turn to the evaluation component as an output from the training design. To consider these, we turn back to the learning objectives, which are as follows:

100

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The trainee will, with no errors, present in writing the four types of active listening, along with examples of each of the types, with no reference material.

The trainee will, with 100 percent accuracy, provide in writing each step of the con�lict resolution model, along with a relevant example, with no help from
any reference material.

These, along with a number of similar objectives not shown, will require a paper-and-pencil test of declarative knowledge.

Regarding the behavioral component of the evaluation, consider these objectives:

When, in a role-play, the trainee is presented with an angry comment, the trainee will respond immediately using one of the active listening types. The trainee
will then explain orally the technique used and why, with no help from reference material. The trainee will be presented with �ive of these and be expected to
correctly respond and explain a minimum of four.

In a role-play of an angry customer the trainee/employee will show concern for the customer by listening and providing alternative solutions, using the
steps in the con�lict resolution model, with help from an easel sheet which has the steps listed on it. The trainee must use all the steps and two types of active
listening in the role-play.

After watching role-play of an angry person and an employee using the con�lict resolution model, the trainee will, without reference to material, immediately
provide feedback as to the effectiveness of the person using the con�lict resolution model. The trainee must identify a minimum of four of the six errors.

These objectives will require carefully developed standardized role-plays. The role of the initiator will be scripted and standardized to provide each trainee with similar
situations to respond to. In addition, a standardized scoring key, which will guide the scoring of a trainee in the behavioral tests, will be developed. These scoring keys
will provide examples of acceptable and unacceptable behavior of the trainee, and a rating scale for different responses. There will also be a scoring key provided for
the explanations (oral test) that follow the behavioral part of the test.

We will return to Fabrics, Inc., in Chapter 8, (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) to provide a look at the
development process.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08

Key Terms
Behavioral reproduction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term01)

Climate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term02)

Cognitive load (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term03)

Cognitive organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term04)

Conditions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term05)

Culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term06)

Design theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term07)

Guided discovery (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term08)

Identical elements (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term09)

Knowledge of results (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term10)

Learning objectives (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term11)

Massed practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term12)

Negative transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term13)

Overlearning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term14)

Part learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term15)

Positive transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term16)

Progressive part training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term17)

Relapse prevention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term18)

Self-ef�icacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i73#ch05term19)

Sit-in (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term20)

Spaced practice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term21)

Standards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term22)

Symbolic coding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term23)

Symbolic rehearsal (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term24)

Task complexity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term25)

Task organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term26)

Transfer of training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term27)

Whole learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term28)

Zero transfer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term29)

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term02

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term03

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term04

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term05

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term06

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term07

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term08

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term09

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term10

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term11

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term12

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term13

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term14

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term15

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term16

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term17

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term18

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i73#ch05term19

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i76#ch05term20

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term21

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i71#ch05term22

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term23

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i74#ch05term24

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term25

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term26

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term27

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term28

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i75#ch05term29

Questions for Review
1. What is a learning objective? List and explain its three components.

2. What can be done long before the trainee attends training to ensure that the trainee will be motivated to learn?

3. How does knowledge of classical and operant conditioning assist you in designing effective training?

4. How would you present training material in a manner that facilitates retention?

5. If a particular task were critical to saving a life (police of�icer shooting a gun, pilot responding to an emergency), what factors would you build into the design of
training to ensure that the behavior was both learned and transferred to the workplace?

6. To help ensure transfer of training, what would you do outside the training itself? Who would you involve and how? What would you do about the organizational
structure/environment?

7. Suppose you are designing a training program for a group of 40 employees. These employees come from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds and have
different educational and experience backgrounds relative to the content area of the training. What training design features would you use to address these
constraints?

8. Discuss the Gagné–Briggs theory of design and its relationship to social learning theory.

9. Explain ET and how it would help you design a training program.

Exercises
1. You perhaps already noted that the learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter do not completely follow the three criteria we identi�ied. They all describe the

outcome in behavioral terms but do not identify the conditions or standards, which vary with the instructor. Assume you will be the instructor for this chapter and will
rewrite each of the learning objectives at the beginning of the chapter in complete form. Your trainees are corporate HRD employees, and you are training them on the
contents of this chapter. Additionally, write an objective for each of the other types of training objectives (trainee reaction, transfer of training, and organizational
outcome).

2. Examine each of the �ive objectives below, and rewrite them using the criteria presented in the chapter

Upon completion of training, the trainee:

A. will be able to identify the different types of employee motivation, and methods that could be used to motivate the employee

B. will be able to give a 20-minute oral presentation on a topic of their choice using all the skills taught

C. Without the use of any training material, the trainee will be able to list and provide a description of four methods of providing incentives, two monetary based
and two nonmonetary based.

D. Will feel more positive toward union stewards

E. After watching a video of a supervisor–subordinate interaction will be able to identify what the supervisor did wrong and how she should have responded.

3. What is your grade point average since you started your education at this institution? How hard do you work to maintain that average: 3 (very hard/hard), 2 (about
average), and 1 (enough to get by)? Now ask yourself why. Tie your answer into Expectancies 1 and 2 and the valence of outcomes. Break into groups that contain a
mix of 1s, 2s, and 3s. Discuss what makes the person in your group a 3. Is it attractive outcomes (valence), con�idence in ability (Expectancy 1), or belief that it will
result in the positive outcomes desired? From that information, is there any way you believe you could in�luence the 2s or 1s to be more motivated? What would you
try to in�luence? Explain your approach in terms of Expectancies 1 and 2. How does this process relate to trainee populations in the workplace?

4. In the chart below, identify from the column on the right which prescription �its with which of Gagne’s 9 events in the left column. Write the appropriate letter in the
middle column.

Event Letter Prescription

1. Gaining
attention

A) Restate the problem in general terms, and then add speci�ic details: (a) rectangular lot 50 by 100 ft; (2) radius of the sprinklers, 5 ft; (3) water
source in the center of the lot.

2. Inform the
learner of
the objective

B) Present a different problem using the same type of sprinkler, with different lot shape and size. Check the ef�iciency of the student’s solution in
terms of coverage and amount of materials used.

3. Stimulate
recall of
requisites

C) Have the learners recall applicable rules. Since the sprinkler heads they will use spray in circles and partial circles, rules to be recalled are (1)
area of a circle, (2) area of quarter and half circles, (3) area of rectangular areas, and (4) area of irregular shapes made by the intersection of
circular arcs with straight sides.

4. Presenting
the stimulus
material

D) Have the student design tentative sprinkler layouts, draw them out, and calculate the relative ef�iciency of each. Guide the learner through
various options if it appears that rules are not being applied correctly. For example, “Could you get more ef�icient coverage in the corner by
using a quarter- circle sprinkler head?” or “It looks like you have a lot of overlap; are you allowing for 10 percent non-coverage?” Ask the
learner what rule he is following for placing the sprinkler.

5. Providing
learning
guidance,
and

E) The problem to be solved is to design the most ef�icient sprinkler system for a plot of ground—one that covers at least 90% and uses the least
amount of materials.

6. Eliciting
performance

7. Providing
feedback

F) Present several different problems varying in shape of lot, position of the water source, and area of sprinkler coverage. Assess the student’s
ability to generalize problem solving to these new situations.

8. Assessing
performance

G) Show pictures of sprinkler coverage of a rectangular plot of ground. One highly successful (90 percent coverage), one unsuccessful (70
percent coverage), and one using too many sprinkler heads. Show these rapidly, asking for them to identify differences.

9. Enhancing
retention
and transfer

H) Con�irm good moves, when in a suitable direction. If the learner doesn’t see a possible solution, suggestions may be made. For example, “Why
don’t you draw four circles that barely touch, calculate the area, then draw a rectangle around the circles and calculate the area of coverage to
see how much you have?”

Web Research
Conduct an Internet search to identify two companies that provide training design consulting services. Identify the design process for each. Compare and contrast each in
terms of their approach.

Some Interesting Sites
Conditions of Learning (R. Gagné)

http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html

Zenon Environmental, Inc. (small business with ef�icient HR management)

www.zenonenv.com

Case Analysis

1. Review the Domtar case from Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) , and answer the following questions:

A. In the implementation of Kaizen, what groups of employees are likely to need training? How should the trainees be organized? Think of this issue from a
training design perspective and from a training content perspective.

B. For the type of training envisioned, what are the learning objectives? Write these objectives in complete form.

C. For each group of employees that will need training, what are the organizational constraints that need to be addressed in the design of the training? What
design features should be used to address these constraints? Be sure to address both the learning and transfer of training issues.

2. Review the Multistate Health Corporation case from Chapter 2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i19#ch02) , and answer the
following questions:

A. In the implementation of the HRPS, what groups of employees are likely to need training? Think of this from a training design perspective and from a training
content perspective.

B. For the type of training you envision for each group, what are the learning objectives? Write these in complete form.

C. For each group of employees that will need training, what are the organizational constraints you will need to address in the design of your training? What
design features will you use to address these constraints? Be sure to address both the learning and transfer of training issues.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i19#ch02

Four Needs Analysis

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS

6.1/sections/i

8#ch04un�ig01)

Describe the purpose of a needs analysis.

List and describe the steps in conducting a needs analysis.

Explain what a competency is and why it is useful.

Differentiate between proactive and reactive needs analysis approaches, and describe the situations favoring
the use of one over the other.

Outline the rationale for using performance appraisal information for a needs analysis, and identify what
type of performance appraisal method is appropriate.

Describe the relationship between needs analysis and the design and evaluation of training.

List four contaminations of a criterion.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04unfig0

4.1 Case: Developing a Training Package at Westcan
Chris is a human resources (HR) manager at Westcan Hydraulics, and Irven, the VP of HR, is her boss. One morning
Irven called Chris into his of�ice. “I just saw an old training �ilm called Meetings Bloody Meetings starring John Cleese,”
he said. “It deals with effective ways of running meetings.” Irven, a competent and well-liked engineer, had been
promoted to VP of HR three months earlier. Although he had no HR expertise, he had been an effective production
manager, and the president of the company had hoped that Irven would provide a measure of credibility to the HR
department. In the past, employees saw the HR department as one that forced its silly ideas on the rest of the
company with little understanding of how to make those ideas work.

“Well,” said Chris, “I . . .”

“Oh, yes,” Irven interjected, “I talked to a few managers this morning and they were enthusiastic about it. It’s the
�irst time I have ever seen managers enthusiastic about any type of training. Do we have such a training package
available?”

“No, I do not believe so,” Chris replied.

“Well,” said Irven, “we need a one-day training session. It must be interesting, useful, and generalizable to all
managers. Okay?” With that, Irven stood up, signaling that the meeting was over.

Chris went to work designing the training. She began by going to the local university and viewing the meetings �ilm
her boss had seen. After examining some books that dealt with meetings, she decided that she had a good idea of
what made meetings effective. She then called Larry, a friend at Satellite Systems, to see what he had.

He faxed over a copy of a lecture he had given on the dos and don’ts of an effective meeting. It was nicely broken
down into three parts: premeeting, meeting, and postmeeting. That information and a simulated meeting (to provide
hands-on practice) could make up the one-day training program. Chris had never written a simulation and needed
help. She put in a call to Karen, a subordinate who was fresh out of university and had majored in HR. Karen would
surely be able to help develop a simulation, Chris thought.

Why Conduct a Training Needs Analysis?
What is wrong with the situation at Westcan? It is a scene that repeats itself in some form every day. The boss wants
some training, and the HR manager complies. After all, the boss must know what kind of training the employees need.
Right? Maybe not. Recall from Chapter 1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) that a training needs analysis
(TNA) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i1

7#glossch01_00

) is a
systematic method for determining what caused performance to be less than expected or required. Performance
improvement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_01) is the
focus of training. This is obvious when you turn to the beginning of the chapter and look at the analysis phase �igure.
Note that the “trigger” for doing a needs analysis occurs when actual organizational performance (AOP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_00

) is less than
expected organizational performance (EOP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_006) . We refer to this
difference as the organizational performance gap (OPG)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_004) . Does an OPG exist
at Westcan? Perhaps. In this situation, we might consider the VP’s suggestion that there is a need for training as the
“trigger” to conduct a needs analysis. Are the meetings producing less than expected results? To answer this
question, Chris would need to conduct a TNA.

If AOP is less than EOP at Westcan, Chris needs to identify where these differences exist in terms of the meetings.
Once these are known, other questions need answering. How many meetings are ineffective? What is causing the
problem? Is it the manager’s knowledge of “how to run an effective meeting,” or are other issues causing the
meetings to be ineffective? How much do these managers already know about meetings, and how skillful are they at
applying this knowledge? Chris needs to answer these and other questions by conducting a TNA before she begins to
design the training program for effective meetings. Instead, Chris assumes that she knows what managers require
and begins to develop the training on the basis of her assumptions. She does not conduct a TNA to determine exactly
what the de�iciencies are. Think about this scenario as we examine the process of a TNA. Would you want to be in
Chris’s shoes? We refer back to this example throughout the chapter, and at the end, we give you the rest of the story.

A TNA is important because it helps determine whether training can correct the performance problem. In some
cases, the TNA indicates that employees lack the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) to do the job and
they require training. In other cases, employees have the KSAs to do the job, but there are roadblocks that prevent
effective performance. These barriers need to be identi�ied and removed. As a training professional, you will use the
TNA to ensure that you provide the right training to the right people. Chris at Westcan is overlooking a critical part of
the training process by not completing a TNA. Instead, she is relying on what Irven says and jumping directly to the
training design phase. If Chris were to conduct a TNA �irst, she could accomplish several important things:

Increase the chances that the time and money spent on training is spent wisely

Determine the benchmark for evaluation of training

Increase the motivation of participants

Align her training activities with the company’s strategic plan

This is one of the longest chapters in the book and that re�lects its importance in the training process. Unless you get
this part right, the rest of what you do as a trainer won’t make any difference. After all, why spend thousands of
dollars, or more, on a training program no one needs or which doesn’t �it with the needs of the organization? With
increased concern about costs, it is important that all departments, including HR and HRD, use resources wisely. So,
what will the TNA do for you?

A TNA will provide a benchmark of the performance levels and KSAs trainees possess prior to training. These
benchmarks will let you compare performance before and after training. This will allow you to demonstrate the cost

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_009

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_01

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_00

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_004

savings or value added as a result of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_02) We will say more
about these evaluation issues in Chapter 9
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i1

#ch09) .

A TNA provides more than just evaluation measures. A good TNA ensures that only those who need the training
attend and provides the data to show trainees why the training will be useful to them. Consider the employees who
do not need the training but are sent by their supervisor anyway. Are they going to take the training seriously?
Probably not. In fact, their lack of interest might be distracting to those who need and want the training. Worse, they
might cause other trainees not to take the training seriously. Using a TNA also ensures that your training focuses on
KSAs the trainees really need. The needs analysis allows the trainer to begin by explaining how the training will be
useful. If trainees see the training as relevant, they are more likely to be interested in attending and maintain interest
during the training.

As noted in Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01) ,
implementing a strategic plan requires careful analysis of the organization’s HR capabilities. A TNA is one process for
determining the degree to which employees possess the necessary KSAs to carry out the strategies. Training can then
be designed in alignment with the strategic plan. The TNA also provides the human resources department (HRD)
with information as to the relevance of training to the strategic plan. This information is helpful in determining which
training needs are more important.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_02

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i6#ch01

4.3 When to Conduct a TNA
In spite of the compelling arguements in the preceding section, there are times when a TNA might not be necessary.
For example, if the organization is trying to communicate a new vision or address legal concerns, it might be
advisable to train all employees. Suppose the company has concerns regarding sexual harassment. Everyone should
be aware of how seriously top management considers breaches of their “sexual harassment” policy. Here, company-
wide training on the issue might be necessary. Sending everyone to a workshop on sexual harassment ensures that
management’s expectations regarding this issue are clear. It also demonstrates an employer’s position on sexual
harassment to the courts, should an employee consider a sexual harassment lawsuit.

Another situation in which a TNA might not be necessary is if a team requires team-building skills. In this instance,
the goal of training is to build the dynamics of the team so that the members work together cohesively and effectively,
and also to provide the relevant KSAs. In this case, everyone on the team should be part of the training, even though
they already might possess many team KSAs.

For most types of training, however, a needs analysis is bene�icial and will increase the relevance and effectiveness
of training. For example, team building for teams that have been working together for a while would bene�it from a
TNA. In this case, the needs analysis focus is on the team itself, not the individuals in the team. Only teams that
demonstrate problems in effectiveness or cohesion would go through a TNA to determine if training is necessary.
Teams already functioning effectively would not need to attend, so the overall cost of training is reduced.

4.4 The TNA Model
Examine the model at the start of the chapter. The �irst part of the model is the triggering event that initiates the TNA.
For example, when a key decision maker suggests that there is a performance problem now or in the future, a TNA is
triggered.

The next step in the TNA model is the input, which consists of an organizational analysis, an operational analysis,
and a person analysis. The organizational analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_005) is an examination of
an organization’s strategy, its goals and objectives, and the systems and practices in place to determine how they
affect employee performance. An operational analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_006) is the examination of
speci�ic jobs to determine the requirements, in terms of the tasks required to be carried out and the KSAs required
to get the job done. It is analogous to a job analysis, or a task analysis, as it is sometimes called. A person analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_007) is the examination of
the employees in the jobs to determine whether they have the required KSAs to perform at the expected level.

In the process phase, the operational analysis provides information on expected performance (EP). Expected
performance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_008) is the
level of performance expected in a particular job.

The person analysis provides information on actual performance (AP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_009) . Actual performance
is the current level of performance by an individual on a particular job. When AP is lower than EP, a more speci�ic
performance gap (PG) is identi�ied. As noted in the model, this speci�ic performance gap
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_0

) is the difference
between EP and the employee’s AP.

(�ilech04.xhtml#r__ch04fnt01) Note that for the TNA trigger, the difference between actual organizational
performance and expected performance is called an “organizational” performance gap. The difference between actual
and expected performance obtained from the operational and person analysis of the TNA is simply termed a
“performance gap.”

The “output” phase is your conclusion as to whether the PG indicates either training or nontraining needs, and in
some cases, both. This will be explained later.

So, as you can see from the model, a TNA is conducted when a key decision maker in the company notes an OPG
(AOP is, or will be, less than EOP). A reactive TNA
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_011) focuses on current
performance problems (the OPG currently exists). A proactive TNA
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_012) focuses on
performance problems in the future (the OPG will exist at some point in the future). Let’s look at an example of each.

A current OPG triggers a reactive TNA. For example, if the expected number of widgets produced per week is
5,000 and actual production is only 4,

0, you need to investigate this gap.

As an example of the proactive approach, consider an organization’s decision to implement statistical process
control (SPC) to improve the quality of its widgets. Sometime in the near future, the employees producing widgets
will begin using SPC methods. Potential for a future OPG exists (the trigger) because if the employees do not have the
appropriate KSAs for SPC, they will have a PG that will lead to an OPG. This potential gap triggers a proactive TNA to
determine whether employees will be able to perform as needed when the organization implements SPC. You
conduct an assessment of employees’ capabilities regarding SPC and �ind that they are not able to perform the
arithmetic needed in the use of SPC. This PG will need to be addressed before SPC can be implemented. As this

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example illustrates, when you expect an OPG to occur at some point in the future, you should conduct a proactive
TNA to verify that the gap will exist and identify the speci�ic KSAs that need to be developed.

An OPG may occur for many reasons (see Figure 4-1), only one of which is a lack of KSAs. You need to conduct the
TNA to discover why the gap exists and what can be done to correct it. Consider the problem at a regional telephone
company a few years back. Sales revenue did not meet expected levels (AOP was less than EOP), triggering a TNA.
The TNA identi�ied that sales were indeed below expectations. The TNA narrowed the source of the less-than-
expected sales to the installation and repair unit. The phone company had hoped to increase revenue by having their
installation and repair employees make sales pitches to customers for additional services when on a service call.
However, data on sales indicated that few such sales took place, so AP was less than EP. Note in Figure 4-1 that
several possible causes of a PG are listed. If the cause is not a gap in required KSAs, then some nontraining solution
is required to alleviate the PG.

Figure 4-1 Model of Process When a Performance Gap Is
Identi�ied.

What caused the PG? It was not a KSA de�iciency. Installation and repair employees’ performance was based on
the time it took them to complete a call. They had a certain amount of time to complete each call. If they took longer
than the time allotted for a number of calls, their performance was rated as below average. The time allotment was
not changed, even though employees were now expected to stick around and try to sell their products and services.
So, most employees simply did not spend any time selling. In this example, performance consequence incongruities
leading to low motivation were what caused the PG. We return to examine Figure 4-1 in more detail later, but now
let’s examine where we look for PGs.

4.5 Where to Look for OPGs
There are numerous places to look for information related to OPGs. A company’s archival data, such as its
pro�itability, market share, grievance levels, productivity, and quality measures, provide indicators of how it is
operating. These are included in Table 4-1, which provides a list of sources for gathering data related to potential
PGs. Let’s examine a few to see how the process works. The �irst data source, organizational goals and objectives and
budgets, provides standards against which unit performance can be measured. Suppose, for example, that the
triggering event was a loss in pro�itability because of excessive costs related to warranty work. A reactive TNA is
implemented, which might lead you to examine the quality standard for rejects in the production department. The
standard (EP) is less than 1 per thousand, but you see that the AP is 12 per thousand.

Table 4-1 Recommended Data Sources for Investigating Gaps in Performance

Sources of
Data

Implications for Training Needs Examples

1.
Organizational
Goals

This source suggests where training emphasis should be
placed.

Maintain a quality standard
of no more than one reject
per thousand.

a. Objectives
and Budget

This source provides information on both standards and
direction.

Achieve a goal to become ISO
certi�ied and allow $90,000
for this effort.

2. Labor
Inventory

This source helps HRD identify where training is needed
because of retirement turnover, age, etc.

30 percent of our truck
drivers will retire over the
next four years.

3.
Organizational
Climate
Indicators

These “quality of working life” indicators at the organization
level provide indicators of organizational performance gaps.

a. Labor-
management
data, strikes,
lockouts, etc.

These indicators relate to work participation or productivity
and are useful in PG analysis and in helping management set
a value on the behaviors it wishes to improve through
training.

b. Grievances 70 percent of the grievances
are related to the behaviors
of six supervisors.

c. Turnover

d.
Absenteeism

High absenteeism for clerical
staff.

e. Suggestions

f. Productivity

g. Accidents Accident rate for line
workers increasing.

h. Short-term
sickness

Line workers’ attitude
toward teamwork is poor.

i. Attitude
surveys

Surveys are good for locating discrepancies between
organizational expectations and perceived results.

Sources of
Data
Implications for Training Needs Examples

4. Analysis of
Ef�iciency
Indexes

a. Costs of
labor

Labor costs have increased
by 8 percent in the last year.

b. Quality of
product

Number of rejects has
increased by 30 percent
since the new batch of
workers began.

c. Waste Wasted steel has increased
by 14 percent since the
company began using part-
time workers.

5. Changes in
System or
Subsystem

New or changed equipment may require training. The line has shut down
about once per day since the
new machinery was installed.

6. Management
Requests or
Management
Interrogation

One of the most common techniques of identi�ication of
performance discrepancies.

Production manager
indicates a drop in quality
since the layoffs.

7. MBO or Work
Planning and
Review Systems

Provides actual baseline performance data on a continuous
basis. From these measures, the company is able to
determine improvement or deterioration of performance.

Source: References for all at these methods can be found in M. Moore, P. Dutton (1978). Training Needs Analysis: Review Critique.
Academy of Management Review 3, pp. 532–

The process is similar when you expect future performance to be less than what it should be. Here, a proactive
TNA is initiated. Suppose the company’s new strategic plan indicates a substantial modernization of the plant,
including new computerized machinery. There is no OPG now, but the plant manager believes there will be when the
new machinery arrives. This possible OPG in the future prompts a “proactive” TNA. As part of this TNA, the HRD
department will need to assess the employees’ current level of KSAs for operating the new machinery. If these
current KSAs are not suf�icient, a gap exists for the future.

The second data source, labor inventory, is also useful to determine an OPG in the future and the types of training
necessary to prevent such a gap from occurring. Knowing that a number of senior engineers are retiring over the
next few years can trigger the HRD department to start training those in line for promotion to maintain the
necessary skills. Not being aware of these retiring employees could lead to an OPG because the company would lack
enough senior engineers to manage the expected number of projects.

Finally, let’s examine the third data source, organizational climate indicators. Identi�ication of high absenteeism in
a particular area, or an increasing accident rate, provides you with early signs of problems. The quicker you are able

to identify problems, the quicker you will be able to �ind and implement solutions. This is one secret to an effective
HRD department. Cindy Baerman, the human resource development of�icer of Miller Brewing Company, provides an
example for this. She began attending production meetings a few years back. She received funny looks, as the
meetings were held to focus on production problems. Why would HRD want to be there? As Cindy pointed out,
“What better place to learn of the type of performance problems the line manager is having?”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_03) For her, the focus
was on performance management. Being able to react quickly to maintain and improve performance is the �irst step
in a continuous performance improvement framework, which is so important in today’s environment.
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4.6 The Framework for Conducting a TNA
Recall from Figure 1-3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01�ig03) (on
page 7 in Chapter 1) that all �ive phases of the training model have an input, a process, and an output component.
The “input” for the analysis phase, as shown in the �igure at the start of this chapter, is made up of organizational,
operational, and person analysis. The “process” is where we determine the speci�ic nature of any PGs and their
causes. The “output” provides us with either training or nontraining needs—and in some cases, both. So, oncea
trigger has set a TNA in motion, the three levels of analysis—organizational, operational, and person—need to be
completed. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_05) In the
section that follows, we provide an overview of the three TNA inputs. Following this, we provide a detailed
examination of each area.

Organizational analysis looks at the internal environment of the organization—in�luences that could affect
employee performance—to determine its �it with organizational goals and objectives. It is this analysis that provides
identi�ication of the OPG at the organizational level. Imagine that company ABC decides one of its goals is to become
team oriented in its production operation. Examining the various policies of the organization reveals an incentive
system that pays up to

percent of base pay for individual productivity above quota. This focus on individual
productivity is not in line with the new goals of a team approach and could cause team members to be more
concerned with their individual performance. It needs to be removed or changed to align with the goals of a team-
based approach. The organizational analysis is also an examination of how the internal environment affects job
performance. In the ABC example, if both Bill and Mary again do not come to the team meeting, does it mean they are
not interested? Perhaps, but it is more likely that they are working on beating their quotas so they will receive the
bonus pay. Finally, the organizational analysis identi�ies constraints on training. Consider the small-business owner
who employs unskilled assembly-line workers who are unable to read well. He wishes to move to a more team-
oriented approach. The owner does not have the funds or time to develop a remedial reading course. This presents
an organizational constraint and leads to the development of training that does not require reading.

Operational analysis examines speci�ic jobs to determine the requirements (KSAs) necessary to get the job done
(i.e., expected job performance). This process is generally called a job analysis, or task analysis, and it requires an
extensive analysis of a job to determine all the tasks necessary to perform the job at the expected level. After all tasks
are identi�ied, the next step is to determine the KSAs necessary to perform each of the tasks. Each task needs to be
examined by asking the question “What KSAs are necessary to be able to perform this task at the expected level?”
The KSAs obtained from the analysis are the ones that an incumbent must have to perform at the expected level.
There are several ways to obtain this information, such as interviewing incumbents and their supervisors, observing
the job, and so forth.

Finally, person analysis examines those who occupy the jobs to see whether they possess the required KSAs
necessary to do the job. Here we measure the actual job performance of those on the job to see whether they are
performing at an acceptable level. This might seem easy enough: Simply look at the supervisor’s appraisal of the
incumbents. As you will see later, however, many problems can arise with performance appraisals completed by
supervisors, such as halo, leniency, and other effects. In addition, an employee’s low performance doesn’t necessarily
mean he doesn’t have the KSAs. So, as a result, other methods are also used to obtain this type of information. For
example, asking incumbents themselves and asking coworkers are two other methods. Using job knowledge,
behavioral and attitudinal tests are also ways to determine the employee’s KSAs. All methods have strengths and
weaknesses that will be discussed later.

These “inputs” (organizational, operational, and personal analyses) are conceptually distinct, but in practice, much
of the information is gathered around the same time and is closely interrelated. For example, information related to
all three types of analyses can be collected from the job incumbents. Questions would include, “Do any particular
organizational policies or procedures that you must follow negatively affect your job performance?” (organizational
analysis); “Describe for me the tasks you perform when you �irst arrive at work” (operational analysis); and “Do you
believe you are lacking any skills that, if you had them, might enhance your ability to perform at a higher level?”

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(person analysis). Additionally, the process moves back and forth between the different types. For example, once you
�ind out that the incumbents believe there are organizational impediments, you need to go back to examine if these
are real or simply perceptual distortions. Now that you have an overview of these TNA input factors, let’s examine
each in more detail. Then we will look at some speci�ic issues surrounding the two types of TNA, proactive and
reactive.

4-1 Training in Action Incongruities in the Organizational Environment
Often bank managers will send their tellers to training workshops about the products and services the bank
offers. The idea is to give the tellers an understanding of the products and services so they can provide that
information to customers who come into the bank. The belief is that this will increase the number of products
and services sold. There are numerous accounts of banks providing this type of training, but not seeing any
increase in sales. Why is this? Is it just bad training?

Analysis shows that when tellers return from training, they also return to the same performance system
(appraisals, salary increases and so on) that had been in place before the training. If the performance system
focuses mainly on the number of customers the teller is able to process through the day, what do you think
the tellers will focus on? Why would a teller risk receiving a low performance rating to spend time telling
customers about the products and services being offered by the bank?

Organizational Analysis
An organizational analysis focuses on the strategies of the organization, the resources in the organization, the
allocation of these resources,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_06) and the total internal
environment. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_07) The
internal environment includes an examination of structures, policies and procedures, job design, work�low
processes, and other factors that facilitate or inhibit an employee’s ability to meet job performance expectations.

An organizational analysis is necessary to help identify the cause of OPGs and, speci�ically, to determine whether
OPGs are, in fact, correctable through training. According to Nancy Gordon, a TNA analyst at Ameritech, about 85
percent of all requests for training turned out to be related to issues that could not be addressed by training. They
were, instead, motivational problems (situations where performance consequences were incongruent with desired
performance), which of course, inhibited or prevented the appropriate work behaviors. Training in Action 4-1
provides an example of where this is the case. As you can see in this example, the bank manager neglected to
consider the need to align the tellers’ performance appraisal with the goals of the new training. So, even if the KSAs
were learned, there was no incentive to use them. In fact, tellers would be penalized under the existing performance
appraisal system.

An organizational analysis, then, should be able to provide information about the following:

The mission and strategies of an organization.

The resources and allocation of the resources, given the objectives.

Any factors in the internal environment that might be causing the problem.

The effect of any of the above on developing, providing, and transferring the KSAs to the job if training is the
chosen solution to the OPG. These would be considered to be organizational constraints. Should training
become one of the solutions for the OPG, you will need to revisit these to determine how the training will be

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designed to deal with them. We will discuss this in more depth in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) .

Mission and Strategies
The organizational analysis helps the analyst align the training with the organization’s mission and strategies.
Consider the Windsor Ford Engine Plant mission statement: “Our mission is to continually improve our products and
services to meet our customers’ needs, allowing us to prosper as a business and provide a reasonable return to our
stockholders.” A strategy arising from that mission statement was to focus on the team approach for continuous
improvement. Two types of training traditionally used to support this strategy are training in problem solving and
negotiations. But what if the workers in the plant are offered training in traditional negotiation skills? Is this in line
with the team approach? Perhaps not. Problem-solving training requires openness and trust to be effective.
Traditional negotiations training often teaches that it is useful not to reveal all your information but instead to hold
back and attempt to get the best deal that you can for yourself or your department. To offer such training would, at
best, not reinforce an environment of openness and trust, and at worst, would impede it.

A company’s mission and strategies also indicate priorities for training. Training resources are always �inite, so
decisions must be made as to where to spend the training budget. If, for example, “Quality is job one” at Ford, the
analyst knows that development of KSAs relating to quality should receive priority. Thinking back to the Westcan
case, can you identify how that company’s priorities would be related to the need for effective meetings?

Capital Resources
A company’s �inances, equipment, and facilities are considered to be capital resources
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_013) . During strategic
planning, decisions are made as to where money should be spent. If a large expenditure is made on new equipment
for the machinists, or toward becoming ISO 9000 certi�ied, these strategic decisions will help determine the priorities
for the HRD department. In the case of purchasing new equipment for machinists, HRD’s priority would be the
machinists’ positions. You would need to assess the machinists’ level of KSAs to determine whether they need
training to operate the new machinery. This decision to focus on the machinist is based on the �inancial decisions
made at the strategic level. Likewise, the strategic choice of becoming ISO 9000 certi�ied should indicate to you that
support in that area is needed. After all, signi�icant company resources will be directed toward these strategic
initiatives. If the employees cannot operate the new equipment or engage in the tasks required for ISO certi�ication,
the money put toward those initiatives will be wasted.

Another concern for HRD is its own budget. Decisions about how to provide the required training are a function
of the money that HRD has available for training. The decision whether to use external consultants or internal staff
depends on a number of issues, not the least of which is cost. In the Westcan case, Chris decided to develop the
training herself. Hiring a consultant to provide the training might get better results, but Chris would have to weigh
that decision against other training needs at Westcan, given her limited budget.

Human Resources
The other area of resources that needs to be addressed is human resources. Examination of the KSAs in HR occurs at
two levels. It includes a general strategic needs assessment and a more speci�ic training needs assessment. First, at
the strategic level, HRD provides top management with an assessment of the current employees’ ability and potential
to support various strategies. With this information, top management knows its employees’ capabilities and can
factor those capabilities into its strategic decision making. Heinz Canada’s Leamington plant decided several years
ago that its strategic plan was to improve ef�iciency in producing ketchup. Heinz wanted to purchase a state-of-the-art
automated ketchup maker. The HRD department provided top management with information on the KSAs of the
current workforce. This information indicated that no one had the skills necessary, and, in fact, many had reading
dif�iculties such that operating computer-controlled machinery might be a concern. Because the strategic planning
group knew this information early in the strategic planning phase, they were able to make an informed decision
about how to proceed. They considered the following choices:

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Abandon the idea of purchasing such equipment, and consider alternative strategic plans.

Hire employees who have the skills to operate such machinery.

Train current employees to operate the machinery.

Heinz chose to move forward with the plan and train the current employees. Since they addressed the issue early,
Heinz had plenty of time to do this.

HRD’s strategic needs assessment is more proactive and provides a great deal of information about the
capabilities of the workforce to carry out various strategic alternatives. This information helps decision makers
decide which strategic alternatives will be followed. Once managers approve a strategic plan, HRD can focus on areas
where priorities are identi�ied from the strategic plan.

At the second level, HRD focuses on those employees who are identi�ied to be working in areas contributing to
OPGs. This is really part of the person analysis, but an example will help clarify the difference. In our earlier example,
it would be the machinist who had to learn to use the new computerized machinery. What about in the Heinz
example? Recall that none of the Heinz employees has the required KSAs to operate the new ketchup equipment. As
a result, although they are effective employees now, an OPG will develop when the new equipment arrives. The HRD
department’s priority is to provide the employees with the requisite KSAs so that when the ketchup machine arrives,
they will be able to operate it effectively.

Organizational Environment
Another key objective of the organizational analysis is to examine the organizational environment. The
organizational environment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_015) is made up of
various structures (e.g., mechanistic or organic) and designs (e.g., work�low, division of labor, pay system, and reward
policies). The environmental analysis tells you whether these structures are aligned with the performance objectives
of the unit in which OPGs have been identi�ied. A misalignment of the structure or design of the unit will mean that
even if the employees have the KSAs to eliminate the performance gap, they will not use them. Identifying this lack of
alignment early and aligning the environmental factors with the objectives of training will help ensure that when
training is complete, the new skills will transfer to the job.

Consider two organizations:

Organization A decides to adopt a more team-oriented approach. The company’s mission and
objectives re�lect this recent change in company policy. Present procedures include the use of a
suggestion box and provide rewards for individual suggestions that improve the company’s
performance.

In this scenario, do you believe that the individual incentive system would reinforce or hinder the team approach?
If, after training and implementing the team approach, teams were not producing innovative ideas, would that mean
that the training was not effective? You cannot really tell. The skills might be learned but not transferred to the job.
Consider the motivation problems (see Figure 4-1) that occur when rewarding for individual ideas (suggestion box)
while expecting a team approach (which means sharing ideas with the team). If you can get a reward for your idea by
putting it in the suggestion box, why would you want to freely share it with the team? Identifying this incongruence
between rewards and desired behavior and removing it before instituting the team approach would facilitate
transfer of the training. If you did this and also implemented a team-incentive system, you would have aligned the
unit’s reward system with the team approach.

Organization B’s mission and objectives can be summed up as “quality is most important.” A
misalignment occurs in this organization because one of its policies is that performance appraisals
for �irst-line management provide a measure of how well these managers meet productivity quotas,
but measure nothing related to quality of the product.

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In this scenario, would you expect training these managers in quality improvement to result in improved
quality? It might be possible that they already have the quality KSAs and simply redesigning the appraisal
system to emphasize quality will close the performance gap. As in the �irst example, providing the KSAs will
not translate into changes in job behavior unless the organizational systems are aligned to support that
behavior.

These examples illustrate the value of conducting an organizational analysis into the structures, systems and
policies as they relate to performance gaps. Obviously, the analysis at the environmental level can’t be conducted
until you have an idea of what organizational units and jobs are targeted either for their performance problems or
because of future changes. This targeting allows for a certain degree of focus when you are conducting the analysis;
you gather data that are relevant only to those jobs. Otherwise, you end up gathering an enormous amount of
information on jobs that do not have any current or future problems. This is not only a waste of your time, but also
the company’s valuable resources.

To summarize, before looking at the individuals whose work is causing performance gaps, you need to examine
the organization. Data gathered from the organizational analysis must be examined to determine if organizational
systems, structures, and policies are aligned with the behavior that is desired. In almost all cases where training is
needed, there are some environmental factors that need to be realigned to support the new behavior that training
will be focused on. If they are not, transfer of the training to the job is highly unlikely.
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Where to Collect Data
Table 4-2 identi�ies potential individuals to be interviewed and points to raise with them. Once a gap in performance
is identi�ied in a speci�ic department or location, the cause of the gap needs to be determined. You should not assume
that training is required to alleviate the gap. Do not forget Nancy Gordon’s words: “About 85 percent of training
requests turn out to be solvable without training.”

Table 4-2 What Do You Ask and of Whom?

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What to Ask About Who to Ask

Mission Goals and Objectives

What are the goals and objectives of the organization?

Top management

How much money has been allocated to new initiatives?

Is there general understanding of these objectives?

Relevant department managers, supervisors,
and incumbents

Social In�luences

What is the general feeling in the organization regarding
meeting goals and objectives?

Top management

What is the social pressure in the department regarding these
goals and objectives, and regarding productivity?

Relevant department managers, supervisors,
and incumbents

Reward Systems

What are the rewards, and how are they distributed? Top management

Are there incentives tied to the goals and objectives?

What speci�ically do high performers get as rewards?

Relevant department managers, supervisors,
and incumbents

Job Design

How are the jobs organized?

Where does their work/material/information come from
and where do they send it when done?

Relevant supervisors and incumbents, and
perhaps relevant department managers

Does the design of the job in any way inhibit incumbents from
being high performers?

Job Performance

How do employees know what level of performance is
acceptable?

Relevant supervisors and incumbents

How do they �ind out if their level of performance is
acceptable?

Is there a formal feedback process (performance appraisal for
example)?

What to Ask About Who to Ask

Are there opportunities for help if required?

Methods and Practices

What are the policies/procedures/rules in the

organization?

Do any inhibit performance?

Relevant department managers, supervisors,
and incumbents

Operational Analysis
When an OPG is identi�ied, an operational analysis is conducted in conjunction with the organizational analysis to
fully understand the nature of the OPG. The operational analysis determines exactly what is required of employees
for them to be effective. The typical technique for obtaining the task and KSA data that are required to meet expected
job performance standards is the job analysis. Table 4-3 shows sources for operational analysis data. The most
frequently used process includes questioning employees doing the job and their supervisors. Let’s now examine this
process of analyzing a job and the issues to consider.

Analyzing the Job
HR employees need to know how to conduct an effective job analysis. The following steps are useful in doing this.

What Is the Job?
The �irst step is to determine exactly what job is going to be analyzed. In today’s environment, a common job title can
mask real differences in the tasks that are carried out. An extreme example is at Honda Canada Manufacturing,
where everyone from line workers to top management has the job title of “Associate.” Other organizations use the
same job title for employees who do different tasks because they work in different departments and geographical
locations.

Where to Collect Data?
As Table 4-3 indicates, data can be gathered from a number of sources. Job descriptions and speci�ications are one
source of data for understanding the job and its basic requirements. If this information was gathered through a job
analysis, you can be con�ident of its value. Even if it was not, it provides a basic understanding of the job and is useful
to have before starting to ask questions of these employees.

Table 4-3 Recommended Data Sources for Operational Analysis

Sources for
Obtaining Job
Data

Training Need Implications Practical Concerns

1. Job Descriptions This source outlines the job’s typical
duties and responsibilities but is not
meant to be all inclusive.

Need to determine how developed. Often
written up quickly by supervisor or
incumbent with little understanding of what
is required

2. Job
Speci�ications

These are speci�ied tasks required for
each job. More speci�ic than job
descriptions and may include judgments
of required KSAs.

May be product of the job description and
suffer from the same problems

3. Performance
Standards

This source provides objectives related to
the tasks required and their standards in
terms of performance.

Very useful if available, and accurate, but
often organizations do not have formal
performance standards

4. Ask Questions About the Job

1. Of the job
holders

2. Of the
supervisor

Asking both job holder and relevant
supervisors provides accurate data.

Must be done correctly to be of value

Who to Ask?
When analyzing a job, the incumbent needs to provide relevant information about the job; after all, she is the expert
regarding how the job is done. Data should also be gathered from the incumbent’s supervisor because of the
following reasons:

This information provides a different perspective and helps yield a well-rounded concept of exactly what is
required.

When discrepancies are noted between what the supervisor and the incumbents say, an investigation into
the reason for the discrepancy can provide useful information.

we have suggested that trainers need organizational development (OD) skills. In this instance, those skills provide
an effective way of resolving differences between incumbents and supervisors regarding how the job should be
performed. A more proactive approach is to avoid con�licting beliefs between subordinates and supervisors in the
�irst place by implementing the job expectation technique
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_016) .
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_09) This technique includes
facilitating a meeting between subordinates and supervisors to discuss the job responsibilities of the subordinates.
The goal here is to clarify job expectations. This process may sound simplistic, but it requires trust and respect
between supervisors and their subordinates. In reality, many job incumbents learn about their job through working
with other incumbents and through trial and error.

Who Should Select Incumbents?

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The selection process should be carried out by the job analyst, not the supervisor or manager. If you let supervisors
make the decision, they might choose on the basis of who is available at the time or to whom they prefer to give the
opportunity, or any other reasons that quite likely would result in a biased sample. Perhaps more important,
however, is that the incumbents might question the real purpose of the assessment and provide inaccurate data.

How Many to Ask?
Different jobs in any organization are �illed with different numbers of incumbents. Exactly how many to ask is
determined by your method of data gathering and the amount of time available. Let’s say that a job has �ive
classi�ication levels with 20 incumbents in each level, for a total of 100 incumbents. You have chosen to interview in
small groups. You might have four interview sessions, each with �ive incumbents—one from each level. If time and
resources allowed, you might want to double the sessions to eight for increased participation and a more
representative sample.

How to Select?
The best way to select the participants is through representative sampling of all those incumbents who are
performing “adequately or better” on the job. The incumbents need to be placed into subgroups on the basis of
relevant characteristics, such as their level in the job (e.g., mechanic 1, mechanic 2). Once the categories are
developed within the job, the job analyst should choose within these categories on the basis of other factors, such as
years in the category, performance level, gender, and so on, to ensure that different views of the job are obtained.
Note that we do not advocate random sampling. Random sampling is effective only when you have large numbers of
incumbents who are similar, which is seldom the case in a particular job. One other issue needs to be considered.
What if the number of incumbents is large and they are scattered across the country? Table 4-4 provides the process
used to identify the tasks and KSAs for salespeople at a large computer �irm in the United States with of�ices across
the country. Because of the breadth of the job—many different types of equipment (hardware) were sold—and the
many different locations, the needs analysis was a major undertaking. The effort was worthwhile, however, because
important information was obtained. For example, it was determined that irrespective of the type of hardware sold
(cash register or computer), similar tasks and identical KSAs were required. It was also determined that the job was
the same in Los Angeles as it was in Detroit. Finally, from the importance scale, it was determined that a number of
tasks and KSAs, although performed, were not critical to effective job performance. For example, knowledge of
computer operations, and program language, as well as the ability to write simple computer programs were
bene�icial but not necessary because it was possible to obtain such support in the �ield.

From these data, the company was able to refocus its selection procedures to include the KSAs necessary at the
time of hire and to provide its training department with a clear picture of the training necessary after the salespeople
were hired.

What to Ask About?
Several job analysis techniques are available for gathering information about a job. The two main categories are
worker-oriented and task-oriented approaches. A worker-oriented job analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_017) focuses on the KSAs
that are required on the job rather than on the tasks or behaviors. Incumbents are asked to rate how important a list
of KSAs (e.g., far visual differentiation—the ability to differentiate details at distances beyond arm’s length—use of
precision tools, use of measuring devices) is to the job (see Figure 4-2). A drawback of this approach is that task
statements are not available to show how the KSAs are linked to the tasks. Such a link not only provides justi�ication
for the KSA requirements but also can be used to develop scenarios for use in the actual training.

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_0

Figure 4-2 Worker Oriented Approach

The task-oriented job analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_0

) , as the name
implies, identi�ies the various work activities (tasks) required to perform the job. After the tasks are identi�ied,
systematically examine these tasks to determine the KSAs necessary to perform them. Now you have justi�ication for
the KSAs and potential ideas for developing training. That is why this approach is preferred for a TNA.

One example of the task-oriented approach is the job–duty–task method
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_019) , depicted in Figure
4-3. Note that the job is identi�ied �irst, and then each of the duties is written out. The writing out of the duties
provides a stimulus to generate tasks and subtasks for each of these duties. From the duties, identify the relevant
tasks and any subtasks each of these tasks might have. Once all the tasks are identi�ied, identify the relevant KSAs
required to perform each of these tasks. This provides the justi�ication for requiring these KSAs. It is possible to list
all duties �irst, followed by tasks and subtasks for each duty, and then go back and identify the KSAs for each of the
tasks and subtasks. It is equally appropriate to go through each duty, determine the subtasks, and then identify the
required KSAs before moving to the next duty.

Figure 4-3 Example of Form for Recording Job-Duty-Task
Data

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Determining what the incumbents do in the job identi�ies the duties, tasks, and subtasks. This information is
generally obtained by interviewing several incumbents and their supervisors. The list of tasks necessary to do the
job is developed by systematically examining each duty and inquiring about the tasks. Identifying the required KSAs
is carried out through the examination of each task and asking the question, “What KSAs are necessary to perform a
particular task?”

Figure 4-4 depicts an example of a completed job–duty–task method for the job of a HR professional.

Figure 4-4 Example of Applying the Job-Duty-Task Analysis
to an HRD Job

Another step in the process is to determine how critical each of the tasks is and how important it is to be able to
perform the task at the time of hire. By determining this aspect, you can identify those tasks that new employees will
be expected to be able to perform at the time of hire and those that new employees will not need at the time of hire
(those that will require training). To obtain this information, ask those providing information to rate each of the tasks
on a scale such as the one depicted in Table 4-4. This step not only documents the importance of the tasks but also

provides valuable evidence for which KSAs will be used in selecting employees and which will not (and therefore
require training). Finally, the KSAs necessary to perform each of the important tasks and subtasks are identi�ied.
These aspects should also be rated for importance to the job and importance at the time of hire.

Table 4-4 Assessment Procedure Followed by a Large U.S. Computer Firm

1. De�ine the job in question. The analyst met with management to discuss the scope of the assessment. It
was determined that the assessment would include all salespeople in the company.

2. Who to ask. Because of possible differences between what was being done in of�ices in different states,
incumbents who work in each state would need to provide input. Furthermore, because of the different
types of equipment being sold by different salespeople, it would be necessary to have a representative
number of incumbents from these subgroups.

3. What method to use. Because of the need to include a large number of incumbents who were located in
different geographical regions and sold different equipment, the questionnaire method was chosen. This
allowed a large number of incumbents to provide input that could be easily analyzed.

4. Develop a questionnaire. To develop a questionnaire relevant to the job, the analyst obtained job
descriptions from the various locations and for the different types of hardware being sold. He then met
with incumbents (in small groups) and with supervisors (in separate small groups) to obtain input on
what tasks were done. After the tasks were identi�ied, he asked them to indicate the KSAs that they
believed were necessary to do the tasks. The small-group interviews were scheduled so that out-of-state
incumbents who were to be at the head of�ice for other reasons could attend, thus providing input from
the various states.

5. Rate importance of tasks and KSAs. The questionnaire included all the tasks and KSAs that had been
identi�ied. Two ratings were requested for each task and KSA. The �irst related to how important the task
(KSA) was to successful job performance (see “How Important Is the Task?”).

How Important Is the Task?

A. Not Very Important Poor performance on this task will not affect the overall performance of the
job.

B. Somewhat Important Poor performance on this task will have a moderate effect on the overall
performance of the job.

C. Important Poor performance on this task will have an effect on the overall performance of the job.

D. Very Important Poor performance on this task will have a serious effect on the overall
performance of the job.

6. Rate task importance for new hires. The other rating was related to how important it was to be able to do
the task successfully at the time of hire. The following scale is used for that rating.

Importance at the Time of Hire

A. Not Important A person requires no speci�ic capability in this area when hired. Training will be
provided for an individual to become pro�icient in this area.

B. Somewhat Important A person must have only a basic capability in this area when hired.
Experience on the job or training is the primary method for becoming pro�icient in this area.

C. Important A person must show considerable pro�iciency in this area when hired. There is time or
training available only to provide “�ine tuning” once the person is on the job.

D. Very Important A person must be completely pro�icient in this area when hired. There is no time
or training procedure available to help an individual become pro�icient in this area after being
placed on the job.

7. Send out questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to all incumbents and their immediate supervisors.

8. Analyze data. Returned data were analyzed to determine if there were any differences between states
and between salespeople who sold different hardware.

9. Display analysis data. Those tasks that came up with a mean rating of 2.5 and above were placed in the
relevant quadrants (see the following chart).

To understand the difference between the worker-oriented and task-oriented approaches, note the different
results obtained using each of these methods, as depicted in Table 4-5.

Table 4-5 A Comparison of the Outcomes for Worker- and Task-Oriented Approaches to Job
Analysis

Job Task-Oriented Approach Worker-Oriented Approach

Garage Attendant Checks tire pressure Obtains information from visual displays

Machinist Checks thickness of crankshaft Use of a measuring device

Dentist Drills out decay from teeth Use of precision instruments

Forklift Driver Loads pallets of washers onto trucks High level of eye-hand coordination

If There Are No Incumbents Available
Incumbents are a critical group for obtaining information about the job in a job analysis. But what if no incumbents
are available? In today’s environment of fast-changing technology, jobs are constantly changing. In some cases, new
technology creates a job that requires skills distinctly different from the job it is replacing. In the example cited
earlier in this chapter, management at the Heinz plant in Leamington ordered a state-of-the-art ketchup machine.
Previously, ketchup was made with low-technology equipment. This new machine required new skills, so the issue
was to �igure out how to perform a job analysis for a job that did not exist. Dr. Mitchell Fields was approached by
Heinz Canada to assist in determining the selection and training requirements for the new job. Table 4-6 describes
how Dr. Fields did this.

Table 4-6 Job Analysis When There Are No Incumbents

The H. J. Heinz Company in Leamington, Ontario, Canada, is unionized. The union contract stipulates that
new jobs go to existing employees. The company was purchasing a new machine for making ketchup
and wanted to be sure that those selected for this new job would have the KSAs to do the job. A person
analysis indicated that most employees did not have much formal education and had very low reading
levels. An operational analysis (job analysis) is necessary to determine future KSAs needed. But how do
you do a job analysis when there are no incumbents, as the job does not exist? Dr. Fields outlines how
he did the job analysis.

1. I contacted the manufacturer of the new equipment and asked if that or similar equipment was being
used elsewhere, so that job analysis data could be obtained from another company. In this case, no other
application existed.

2. I obtained speci�ications and operating manuals for the new machinery. The manuals were incomplete
and dif�icult to understand. In fact, they were more complex than they needed to be. As a result, initially I
thought that a high level of reading comprehension would be necessary.

3. I interviewed engineers who were responsible for designing the new machinery. This is where I received
important information as to its operation. However, the engineers tended to overestimate the level of
aptitude required. They believed that operators would be making modi�ications to the programming
software. Further discussions revealed that for the operator’s job, reading requirements were minimal.
Operating manuals were needed only for maintenance and repair.

4. I obtained blueprints and layouts of the physical equipment and �lowcharts of the operating software.
This material indicated that the operators would be required to interface with a user-friendly, icon-driven
software package (far less than the complex programming tasks envisioned by the engineers).

5. I identi�ied two main tasks. First, the operators would be required to keep track of the mechanical
operations of a number of different (but integrated) assembly operations. I determined, therefore, that
mechanical aptitude was necessary. Second, the operators had to look at a two-dimensional video display
terminal (VDT) and make decisions about the three-dimensional assembly-line operation. Having skill in
spatial relations, therefore, would also be important.

6. On the basis of the skills identi�ied, I suggested two subtests of the Differential Aptitude Test for use in
selection of employees: mechanical comprehension and spatial relations tests. All operators were
selected from current employees. The major advantage to these two tests is that reading level (which was
determined not to be important) is not a factor.

What You Should Get from the Job Analysis (EP)
Using the task-oriented approach yields both the tasks and KSAs required to perform the job. KSAs are important, as
it is the KSAs that need to be trained. But the tasks are also important for the following reasons:

Identifying the expected behavior that needs to be performed on the job and performance gaps

Developing actual training programs

Making subsequent evaluations of the training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_10)

Knowing all the tasks that are necessary to be effective in a particular job provides justi�ication for the KSAs that
employees are expected to have. In the ketchup machine example, the machine operator was required to watch a
video display (which is two-dimensional) and make decisions about the assembly line (which is three-dimensional).
This justi�ies the need for spatial relations skills as a job requirement.

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A list of job-related tasks would also help develop training. Once the tasks to be performed are known, training
that closely resembles the real job can be developed. Consider the job of a customer service representative. We
determined that one of the important tasks is to “deal with irate customers.” We used this task to help develop role-
plays that closely emulate the real job. The use of real-task behaviors in training makes the training more relevant
and interesting to trainees and assists in the transfer of training.

Finally, we can use task information to develop tests that are re�lective not only of the training but also of the job.
These tests can be used in the person analysis phase to identify those with training needs and can also serve to
evaluate the effectiveness of training.*
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i

#ch04fnt02) Task identi�ication leads to
identi�ication of the KSAs necessary to do the job.

* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i55#r__ch04fnt02) More will be said
about how to develop tests in the person analysis section later.

Knowledge
All jobs require some type of knowledge. The job analysis should provide a list of tasks that, when examined, will
point to the knowledge requirements necessary to be successful. For example, if one of the tasks identi�ied is to edit
manuscripts using Microsoft Word, then an inferred declarative knowledge requirement would be knowledge of
Microsoft Word edit functions. Going back to our customer service job, we �ind that knowledge of “steps in a con�lict
resolution model” would be important.

Assessing the need for declarative knowledge is possible using traditional methods of job analysis, as just
discussed. However, some jobs will have knowledge requirements at the procedural or strategic levels.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_11) The concern is that if
the job is reduced to individual tasks, the interrelatedness and complexity of the job is lost.

The operational analysis for higher levels of knowledge would be accomplished by examining the mental models
of experts. Here an “expert” could be a high-performing incumbent or someone who performs the same job in
another context (e.g., computer programmer). These types of analysis would be useful when more advanced training
is required. Techniques such as multidimensional scaling and link-weighted methods can be used to identify such
structures. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_12) Space
does not permit us to explore this area in detail, but those interested in this approach should consult more advanced
texts and research papers.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_13)

Skill
The job analysis should also provide a list of all skills required to successfully perform the job. Consider again our
customer service representative’s task of “dealing with an irate customer.” This task requires con�lict resolution skills.
The skills should be identi�ied as to the level of mastery required (e.g., compilation vs. automaticity). A completed job
analysis will identify a complete list of required KSAs for the job.

Attitude
What are the attitudinal outcomes from the job analysis? Many job analysts do not incorporate attitudes into their
model of job analysis.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_14) The job analysis
gives an understanding of the tasks that must be carried out. For each task required, knowledge and skills are
inferred. However, many analysts stop here, and that is not a good idea. We believe that attitudes are important. They
surface in our behavior, so an employee with a poor attitude toward customers is inattentive to customer needs.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_15) To determine

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attitudes of importance to the job, simply ask the question, “Can you think of any attitudes or feelings a person could
have that might facilitate or inhibit an employee from doing any part of this job well?”

What attitudes should a customer service representative have to be successful? Would a positive attitude toward
helping people be useful? What about a job that requires working in teams? Here, a person should have a positive
attitude toward the team approach or perhaps have a positive attitude toward working with others. Such data
provide the analyst with information on what should be addressed in training. Just such an issue was of concern in
the new Ford assembly plant (see Training in Action 4-2). In this instance, the incumbents were unavailable because
the plant was not yet open. So the needs analysis was conducted using their supervisors, who were brought on
board early to prepare the plant for opening.

Competency Modeling
Another approach to conducting an operational analysis is to identify key competencies of the job. Businesses are
increasingly adopting competency models, as they have proven their value as an HR management tool.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_16)

A competency (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_029) is
a cluster of related KSAs that differentiates high performers from average performers.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_17) This de�inition is
speci�ic to North America. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and Australia, de�ine competencies as simply
“what someone needs to be doing to be competent at their job.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_18)

4-2 Training in Action Changing Attitudes Toward the Team Approach
The Ford production plants have moved toward a team approach. The team approach is part of the
“Ford Production System.” The Windsor Engine Plant was new, and there was an agreement with the
Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) stipulating that employees from other plants had �irst choice of the
new jobs.

Employees transferred from other plants for many reasons: cleaner plant, closer to home, old job
being phased out, and so forth. Few transferred to work in a team environment. In fact, it is well
known that the CAW traditionally opposes such efforts. They made an exception in the case of the
Windsor Engine Plant.

In the determination of the skills needed, it became evident that many of the employees would be
older, and the concern was that they would be set in their ways and generally against the team
approach. The training consisted of team skills such as communication, effective meeting, and
problem-solving skills. Also, a component was added to in�luence attitudes toward the team
approach.

This “component” consisted of an orientation to the team process. Modules were designed to show
the advantages of teams for the company and workers. An exercise called “Best Job/Worst Job”
allowed trainees to describe what they considered to be a “best job.” Then trainees were asked to
consider what teamwork provided in terms of what they would do. Trainees discovered that their
own description of a “best job” looked quite similar to what their job would look like in a team
environment. The training also provided a six-hour session on individual growth and self-ful�illment.
It was assumed that helping employees to focus on these issues would improve their attitudes
toward the team approach.

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Did the training have a signi�icant impact on attitudes? No one knows for sure. After all the time and
money spent on the training, there was no formal evaluation of the process. This omission should
not be a surprise, as you will see in Chapter 9
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) on evaluation.

Some disagreement arises as to whether deriving competencies is a process different from job analysis. Some
experts in the HR �ield indicate that the process is the same, but the many have suggested that it is different.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_19) The major difference
is that traditional job analysis identi�ies the “tasks” (or the “what”) that are done on the job, leading to the
determination of knowledge and skills but not attitudes. A competency-based approach focuses on all the
characteristics that underlie successful performance,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_20) not just on the
knowledge and skills required for the tasks. Competencies place equal weight on attitudes, and motivation, in
addition to knowledge and skills. Because we incorporate attitudes into our job analysis model, we are more in line
with this approach. The process for determining competencies is similar to the typical job analysis. Before discussing
the “how-to” regarding competencies, let’s look at the makeup of one.

Consider the competency “time management” for a manager. Skills for this competency include delegating work,
prioritizing assignments, and making to-do lists. The knowledge required is “knowledge of the value of a manager’s
time.” For example, if the manager knew that she was valued at $120 per hour, it would help her see the value of
determining what she does and what she should delegate. Attitudes re�lecting “I have no one I can trust to do this,” “I
cannot say no,” or “It is quicker if I do it myself ” all get in the way of effective delegation, which in turn affects time
management. So, in order for a manager to be effective in this competency (time management) she will need to
develop new attitudes, such as “It may take more time now delegate this task and show the person what needs to be
done, but in the long run it will save me time,” and “I know my boss will be disappointed if I say no to this request,
but she will be more disappointed if I say yes and don’t get higher priority work completed.” These attitudes will
support the manager’s motivation to delegate tasks which will lead to more effective time management.

Why Competencies?
When compared with KSAs, competencies

are more general in nature.

create a common vocabulary to discuss successful performance.

help employees better understand how to target their efforts.

promote dialogue between managers and employees that focuses on performance.

have a longer-term �it.

include knowledge, skills, attitudes, and motivation.

tie into corporate goals.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_

)

Development of competency models helps companies understand the key factors required for high performance.
Competencies identify capabilities and, therefore, are applicable to more than one job. In some cases, competencies
are applicable to everyone at a particular level no matter what department, such as all �irst-line supervisors, or even
multiple levels of a job, such as all managers. Table 4-7 provides an example of a competency that is used for all
levels of management. Note that while the competency remains the same for different levels of management, the
behaviors expected are different. In this way, the focus is always on the same set of key competencies but with
different behaviors required, depending on the management level.

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Table 4-7

Demonstration of the Competency

Competency First Level Mid Level Senior Level

Customer
Orientation

Develops customer
consciousness in others

Understands customer needs
and translates to the goals of
the organization

Establishes a relationship at
the strategic level

Communicates
and resolves
con�lict

Ensures work
(own and team)
exceeds
customer
expectations

Fosters process
improvement and
change with linkages
to customer groups

Instills and maintains
customer focus of
work unit

Gains trust of
customers

Formulates
strategies to meet
identi�ied and
anticipated
requirements

Is considered by
customers to be an
extension of the
organization

In today’s environment, jobs are always changing. Even shop-�loor jobs are under constant change, in many cases
requiring more decision-making and other new responsibilities. This constant evolving means that the speci�ics
obtained in job analysis can become dated. A more general focus of competencies is advantageous to such ever-
changing jobs. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_22)

Using competencies makes it easier to identify the emotional aspects of work performance. For example,
organizations increasingly focus on issues such as “meeting customer expectations.” This area of the job, which
requires dealing with people rather than producing goods, requires a broad view of good performance. Many argue
that this broad view is easier to obtain using competency models.

Finally, in the process of developing the job competencies, a great deal of effort is made to understand the
business context and competitive strategy. Competencies are then developed with a focus on these broader goals of
the organization in conjunction with the speci�ic job in question.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_23)

How You Develop Competencies
Several methods have been used to develop competency models.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_24) According to Maxine
Dalton of the Center for Creative Leadership, some are not very effective. She indicated that about 70 percent of
competency models are just a list of positive attributes obtained in a half-day meeting with senior management.
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Generally, more methodologically sound procedures entail the following process:

Meet with upper management to

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determine strategies, goals, speci�ic challenges, or speci�ic focus, and

generate some tentative competencies.

Identify speci�ic jobs.

Meet with high performers of those jobs and their supervisors to

determine critical incidents that make “high performers” different from average performers,

focus on the aspects that tie into the strategic direction of the company, and

formulate some tentative competencies.

Determine the competencies that overlap with upper-management competencies.

Verify the preceding information with another group of high performers and their supervisors.

Link this information to job analysis information obtained from the job to articulate speci�ic KSAs that make
up the competency.

Regarding the last point, competency models are more general and �it several jobs. Linking these competencies to the
KSAs of the job will ensure that the competencies are not only valid but also able to stand up in court. This linkage
also provides the information needed to develop training. Having the KSAs that make up the competency helps
determine what the training should look like.

Issues Related to Competencies
When carried out correctly, a job analysis is scienti�ic and defendable in court. It re�lects what is required to do the
job, thus making selection, training, and performance appraisal relevant and valid. However, sometimes organizations
develop competency models with little understanding of the process outlined above (see Training in Action 4-3). This
can lead to the identi�ication of inappropriate competencies and possible problems should they be challenged in legal
proceedings. Competency models continue to be developed, particularly for training and development, for the
following reasons:

Training based only on task analysis can become dated quickly as the nature of work undergoes constant
dynamic change.

Hourly paid employees are expected to participate much more in decision making and ensure customer
satisfaction, rather than simply produce a product.

Corporate downsizing forces a move away from tight job design to more �lexible job design.

Competencies help the HRD department focus its training.

This latter point is particularly important. Competencies not only are related to each managerial level in the
organization but also are tied to the strategic direction of the organization. Furthermore, by de�inition, competencies
are what separate high performers from others. With limited resources, decisions related to what needs to be
provided in the way of management training are clear.

4-3 Training in Action Development of Competencies
The consultant was discussing a training need with a client. As they �inished, the client said “I’d like to
ask you a question about competencies? The consultant said OK and the client indicated that she had
just completed a survey of her company’s managers, asking them to identify the competencies that
would be required for the various manager positions. She indicated that so far she had gathered

over 50 and wondered if the consultant would mind looking at them. “Perhaps,” she said, “you might
be able to think of some important ones that they had not thought of.” The consultant, whose
training �irm deals with these issues all the time, thought it might be useful to provide her with a mini
lecture on what competencies are and are not. He suggested that rather than go through the list they
go for coffee and discuss it. Once they sat down with their coffee, the consultant began, “The
problem is that most managers and many trainers do not understand what a competency is.” When
managers are asked to think of all the competencies necessary to be effective in their job, often what
is obtained is a list of what managers believe is important to effective performance. The managers
usually identify things like initiative, decisiveness, leadership, analytical ability and so forth. In fact,
the list really ends up being what you would like a person to be like and not what is required to be
effective on the job, which of course is the problem. Too often determining competencies is not done
in a methodologically sound way to obtain the information you really want; and so you get wish lists
of traits, characteristics, skills, and attitudes with little organization to them. “Well,” said the client, “I
guess we better talk a bit more about this.”

In very well run organizations, the HR department has a human resource information system (HRIS). This system
provides information on individual managers in terms of what positions they have held, what training they have
received, their performance levels related to the competencies, and, of speci�ic interest to the HRD department,
required competency training for managers. This system makes the task of identifying what training needs to be
offered much easier. Examination of the HRIS tells the HRD manager how many need training in each of the
competencies. Use of competencies also makes it easier for managers to identify employee strengths and
weaknesses, thereby facilitating employees’ developmental goals. The easier and clearer the process is, the more
likely managers will take the time to do it.
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)

Some concern might be raised that competencies are not developed with the rigor of job analysis, and the lack of
speci�icity might not be able to withstand possible court challenges. We argue that as with any tool, proper
methodology will result in relevant and de�inable competencies. Organizations that decide to use competencies
should not abandon job analysis, but use its methodology to demonstrate the link between the relevant KSAs and key
competencies of the job.

Now let’s go back and consider the total operational analysis process, whether KSAs or competencies are used.
Data related to the job are gathered to determine standards for acceptable performance. From these standards,
criteria are developed. Developing criteria is an important but complex process, so an examination of the issues
involved in criterion development is presented in Appendix 4-1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i67#ch04app01) . Understanding this
information will also help you understand the criterion issues related to evaluation presented in Chapter 9
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) .

Person Analysis
There is a long-standing rule in carpentry that says “measure twice, cut once.” The point of this is that if you don’t
have your measurements right, then you just waste your time and material. The same applies to the person analysis.
If you don’t measure your KSAs well, you will waste time and resources. The operational analysis determines the
tasks (or competencies) and KSAs necessary to reach or exceed EP. It is also where the measures for these things are
created. A person analysis will identify those incumbents who are not meeting the performance requirements and
will determine why. Those not meeting performance requirements are relatively easy to identify. What is more
dif�icult is determining whether they have KSAs needed to meet EP. Here, each employee is examined to determine if
they have the necessary KSAs to meet performance expectations. Imagine that the EOP for a department that
assembles widgets is �ive rejects per month. This department’s AOP is 20 rejects per month. This triggers a TNA. The

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operational analysis identi�ies the KSAs necessary to build the widgets properly. A person analysis is conducted to
identify those not meeting the EP and to determine which, if any, of the employees do not have the required KSAs.
Those employees will be sent to training. Recall from the needs analysis model at the beginning of the chapter that
the formula for a PG is:

*
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* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i55#r__ch04fnt03) Recall that this
“performance gap” is different from the “organizational performance gap” in that it is obtained through comparing the
operational analysis (what is required) with the person analysis (how the person actually performs). It is the
combination of PGs that create the OPG.

A PG is most often thought of in the reactive sense, as the difference between EP and AP. For example, assume that
the standard number of snowmobile trailers that a “Builder Class 2” is expected to produce is 1.5 per day. For the
last three weeks, three employees in this class are averaging 0.6 trailers per day. The PG is 0.9 trailers per day (1.5 2
.6 5 .9).

In the proactive analysis, the EOP is what is needed in the future and AOP is the likely performance level with
current KSAs. Suppose that the trailer manufacturer in the preceding example decides to purchase equipment that
will bend the trailer frame to the correct shape, eliminating several welds. The engineering studies indicate that this
change in production process will increase the “Builder Class 2” output to three trailers per day. At the present KSA
level, “Builder Class 2” employees are expected to produce 1.5 trailers per day. Here, the PG is the “future” required
performance level (three trailers per day) minus their predicted performance level in the future, given their current
level of KSAs. This PG will be 1.5 trailers per day. In addition to collecting information regarding the PG, you should
also examine individual differences that might be present in the trainee population, which might affect the type of
training you offer. Self-ef�icacy of trainees, for example, has been shown to be an important variable related to
successful completion of training. Refer back to Figure 3-6 (page 77) for a number of areas to consider related to
individual differences.

Where to Collect Data (AP)
Table 4-8 shows sources for person analysis information. The decision of what to measure and how to measure it is
made in the Operational Analysis. Once these decisions are made the measures themselves need to be developed. The
development of the measures also occurs in the Operational Analysis. We discuss them here in the Person Analysis
because of the close connection between what evaluative measures are used and what is learned about the people
who are evaluated.

Table 4-8 Data Sources for Person Analysis

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Sources for Obtaining
Data

Training Need Implications Remarks

1. Supervisor
Performance Appraisals

Useful if done speci�ically for TNA. Supervisor ratings often not just for TNA,
and often not done well.

2. Performance
Data

1. Productivity

2. Absenteeism and
tardiness

3. Accidents

4. Grievances

5. Waste

6. Product quality

7. Downtime

8. Customer
complaints

Shows who is not meeting
performance standards, but not
why.

Useful, easy to analyze and quantify for the
purposes of determining actual
performance.

3. Observation—Work
Sampling

More subjective technique but
provides both employee behavior
and results of the behavior.

This is done effectively in some situations
such as customer service where employees
know that the telephone calls employees
answer from customers can be monitored.

4.
Interviews/Questionnaires

Used here to focus on employee’s
perception of her training needs
and attitudes. Also involvement in
TNA motivates employees to
learn.

Need to be sure employee believes it is in
her best interest to be honest; otherwise,
she may not be forth-coming as you would
like. Also she may not know what her needs
are.

5. Job Knowledge Tests Shows speci�ic KSA levels. Care in the development of tests and scoring
keys is important and dif�icult to do if not
trained in the process. Can be tailor-made or
standardized.

6. Skills, Tests, Simulations

Role-play

Case study

Business games

In basket

Certain knowledge, skills, and or
attitudes are demonstrated in
these techniques.

Care must be taken so that they measure
job-related qualities.

Useful, but again, care in development of
scoring criteria is important.

Sources for Obtaining
Data
Training Need Implications Remarks

7. Assessment Centers Combination of several of the
above techniques into an
intensive assessment program.

Although expensive, these are very good as
they use multiple raters and exercises to
assess employees. Also, criteria for
performance are well developed.

8. Coaches Have extensive interactions with
trainee and can get a good feel for
gaps in competencies.

Coaches must be competent to assess
training needs.

9. Individual’s objectives Shows the relationship between
performance data and the
individuals’ goals.

Good process when implemented properly.

We will discuss two of the more commonly used sources, performance appraisal and pro�iciency tests, in some
detail. We will also address the less commonly used attitude survey.

Performance Appraisal
Supervisors are the ones who most often complete performance appraisals.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_27) If supervisory
ratings actually provided an accurate assessment of an employee’s performance gaps, other assessment tools would
hardly be necessary. But these ratings often suffer from a lack of reliability and validity for a number of reasons:

Lack of supervisor training on how to use appraisals

Lack of opportunity for the supervisor to see substantial amounts of a subordinate’s performance

Rater errors such as bias and halo and leniency effects, among others

Poorly developed appraisals and appraisal processes

If appraisal instruments are developed properly and the process of completing them is followed conscientiously,
performance appraisals can be a valuable source of employee training needs. The literature, however, suggests that
this is not often the case.

Supervisor ratings provide less-than-accurate assessments of the incumbent’s KSAs for both political and
interpersonal reasons.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_28) This inaccuracy is
less likely to occur if performance appraisal information is gathered speci�ically for employee development, where
the climate in the organization fosters such development.
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Several things can be done to minimize problems with supervisor ratings, such as:

Have the appraisal system be relevant to the job. Sometimes appraisals are too generic to meet speci�ic
needs. Also, they need to be acceptable to both supervisor and employee.
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Be sure that the supervisor has access to relevant information to make accurate appraisals. As noted earlier,
in some cases, supervisors are not in contact with subordinates often enough on the job to be aware of their

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performance.
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Provide incentives for supervisors to complete accurate ratings. One way to do this is to use the performance
appraisal for the TNA only. As Murphy and Cleveland note,

“It is likely that a supervisor experiences little con�lict when information from a performance appraisal is
being used for providing feedback to employees on their strengths and weaknesses and to recommend
employees to training programs.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_32)

One way to obtain better supervisor assessments is to provide training on how to complete such appraisals. Training
should address how to avoid various types of rater bias, such as halo
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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_34) effects.

Another concern is that for some jobs, such as teaching and sales, supervisors do not often get to see the
employee in action. Sometimes the supervisor is unfamiliar with the job details. Perhaps the best way to deal with
these concerns is similar to the method suggested for dealing with gathering job analysis data: The more the
perspectives, the better the picture. For this reason, it is useful to consider additional potential raters of employee
performance.

Self-Ratings
A possible way to determine employee needs is through self-ratings
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_021) . Much of the
research on self-ratings suggests that the individual tends to overrate her capabilities. However, evidence also
indicates that the in�lated ratings are a function of the rating instruments rather than the individual attempting to
sound better. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_35) Also,
when self-raters understand the performance system, they are more likely to agree with supervisor ratings.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_36) These �indings
suggest that self-ratings are accurate if subordinates are more involved in the development of the appraisal process.

McEnery and McEnery examined self-ratings and supervisory ratings gathered for a needs analysis related to
training. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_37) They
noted that self-ratings were in�lated but were also more discriminating in identifying different needs than were
supervisory ratings. Furthermore, the results suggested that supervisory assessment of “subordinate needs” more
closely resembled the needs of the raters themselves. More recent research noted that self-ratings actually have
lower measurement errors than supervisor ratings on some performance dimensions.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_38) In short, self-ratings
are an important part of any needs assessment.

Generally, the more sources used to gather information, the higher the reliability and validity of the results. This
tendency supports use of the 3

-degree performance review
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_022) , by which an
employee rates himself on a number of dimensions and receives ratings on these dimensions from his supervisor,
peers, subordinates, and sometimes even customers.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_39) This information is
fed back to the individual. This broader view takes pressure off the supervisor, especially when others in the loop
agree more with the supervisor than with the individual. Such data provide a springboard for dialogue between the
supervisor and the subordinate regarding the subordinate’s needs. Also, there is evidence that those being appraised
view this process more positively than they do the traditional methods of appraisal.
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The advantages of this process are that the various groups see the person under different conditions, maintain
different relationships with the individual, and also have different expectations regarding performance. Evidence
indicates that ratees �ind feedback from peers and subordinates particularly useful in planning their developmental
goals. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_41) As noted
before, the more the sources of such information, the better. The disadvantages of the 360-degree performance
review are the amount of time it takes and the cost of implementation. If not properly integrated into the company’s
HR system, it can also lead to negative results.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_42) So, for it to be
effective, a supportive climate is necessary for development in general,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_43) and, as always,
support from top management is helpful.
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)

To summarize, performance assessments designed to focus on development are more likely to provide accurate
data than are more generic or all-purpose appraisals. Also, to determine developmental needs, both supervisory
ratings and self-ratings should be gathered. Both parties need to be involved in the assessment process. As McEnery
and McEnery suggest, the supervisor provides a valuable perspective on the subordinate’s needs. The subordinate
gains insight into his needs through discussion with the supervisor. This process will also improve communication
between the supervisor and the subordinate and will serve to improve the accuracy of the assessment. The 360-
degree feedback data are also very useful in determining an employee’s needs. These data will allow for an
examination of the performance from a broader perspective. It is important, however, that if 360-degree feedback is
being used, it must be incorporated properly into the organization. United Parcel Service, in Training in Action 4-4,
seems to be doing it properly. Rather than rely on ratings of job performance an alternative is to test individuals
under controlled conditions. Testing can measure either knowledge (cognitive) or skills (behavior).

4-4 Training in Action
Most managers at United Parcel Service (UPS) participate in a 360-degree feedback process. They are
measured on a number of critical skills such as “customer focus,” “people skills,” “business values,” and so
forth. To be effective, however, managers need to understand why this 360 degree feedback is useful, and how
it will work. To assure this happens, HR trainers hold short training sessions to explain the purpose and
process of 360-degree feedback to all involved, as well as to provide them with training in feedback skills.

Each manager that has received the training will then begin to rate peers, supervisors and
subordinates as well as be rated by their peers supervisors and subordinates on a semiannual basis.
After receiving their ratings, the managers and their supervisors will have a discussion about the
feedback. Objectives for improvement over the next six months are set, and the manager has the
option of attending programs that provide skills training and practice in areas identi�ied as requiring
improvement. This process is repeated every six months to determine where improvement has
occurred and setting new objectives based on the new 360 degree feedback data. What has been the
reaction by those being rated? According to one of the trainers at UPS most employees have
responded very positively. But the trainer goes on to say that an important part of the
implementation was making sure all those affected understood the purpose of the process and were
given appropriate training in how to give and receive feedback.

Job Knowledge (Cognitive) Tests

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A cognitive test (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_023)
measures a person’s knowledge. Every job has a knowledge component. Plumbers need to understand government
regulations for installing water and drainage systems in a house, supervisors need to understand the procedures for
assigning overtime, and salespeople need to understand the procedures for accepting returned merchandise. A
cognitive test to measure that job knowledge can be developed or found in the marketplace. For example, there are
paper and pencil tests that are available in the public domain. The Mental Measurements Yearbook,™ a publication
produced by the Buros Institute of Mental Measurements at the University of Nebraska, provides users with a
comprehensive guide to over 2,700 contemporary testing instruments. Typically, the type of knowledge examined in
the TNA is declarative knowledge. But remember that there are also two higher-level knowledge outcomes:
procedural and strategic. One �inal note about cognitive (and other) tests: A common belief holds that a speci�ic time
limit needs to be given for a test. Understand that speed tests provide different information than power tests.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_45) Speed tests should
be given only if speed in retrieving and using information is an important job characteristic. If, however, the critical
component is accuracy of retrieval and use of the knowledge, time limits should not be used. In general, however,
power tests do need some sort of time limit, as without one, some trainees will remain for twice the time of others to
check and recheck their answers. A good approach is to indicate a general time limit (e.g., about one hour). When the
time is up, ask, “How much time do you need to �inish?” This question is usually enough incentive for those who are
simply reluctant to hand the test in.

Declarative Knowledge Tests
If the job requires some sort of factual knowledge, such as “rules covering search and seizure” or “understanding the
type of question that cannot be asked in an interview,” a test can be developed to determine whether trainees have
this declarative knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_023) . Paper-and-pencil
tests such as the multiple-choice test are often used. One concern in using such tests is that they might re�lect the
reading level of the participant when reading is not an important skill for the job. If you are concerned about the
knowledge level of incumbents and reading is not a required KSA, paper-and-pencil tests would not be appropriate.
In such cases, these tests could be given orally.

Multiple-choice tests offer many advantages. They can assess the knowledge of a large number of employees at a
lower cost than most other forms of measurement. They are easy to administer and score and, when skillfully
developed, can accurately measure knowledge.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_46) A big advantage of
multiple-choice tests is that their reliability is typically higher than other types of tests. This is especially true when
they are well constructed. Also, because of the number of questions that can be asked, it is possible to cover a
broader range of the content than with other methods. Some trainees indicate that they are not good at taking
multiple-choice tests. However, evidence suggests that such tests consistently correlate highly with other forms of
testing. The major dif�iculty with this type of test is in the construction of the items. A complete discussion on how to
write good multiple-choice questions is beyond the scope of this text, but some general rules to consider in
constructing questions are found in Table 4-9. Table 4-10 provides some examples of common errors in the
development of multiple-choice tests and how to �ix them. More comprehensive information can be found in
Evaluating Training Programs, a book published by the American Society for Training and Development.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_

) It might be wise to
contact a local university and discuss the project with someone who has the appropriate background. Even small
companies with limited budgets should be able to obtain such help from a supervised graduate student eager to get
some real-world experience.

Table 4-9 Guidelines for Developing a Multiple-Choice Test

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1. Examine objectives to gain a clear understanding of the content area to be tested.

2. Write the questions in a clear manner. Shorter is better.

3. Choose alternatives to the correct response that are plausible, take from typical errors made during
training. Make alternatives realistic.

4. Do not consistently make the correct response longer than incorrect responses.

5. Limit the number of alternatives to the amount necessary to measure the knowledge or opinion. For
measures of knowledge, it is dif�icult enough to write three reasonable alternatives along with the correct
answer. For other types of measures (such as the one below), too many alternatives ask the respondent
to make unnecessarily �ine discriminations.

Bad: What percentage of the time are you sure of what your compensation will be?

Good: What percentage of the time are you sure of what your compensation will be?

6. Place the correct answer randomly among other options.

7. Avoid double negatives. Also avoid as much as possible negatively worded questions and alternatives. If it
is necessary to use negatives, put the negative words in capital letters and underline them. For example,
such a question might look something like this: Which of the following alternatives is NOT correct?

8. Try to avoid the use of alternatives such as “None of the above” and “All of the above.” As much as
possible, the alternatives should contain only the correct response.

9. Pretest items by giving the test to those expected to know the material. Ask them for feedback on clarity.
Note any questions that many of them get wrong.

10. Give revised items to a group of fully trained (experienced) employees and a group of not trained
(inexperienced) employees. The former should score well, and the latter should do poorly.

11. Write simply and clearly, and make the meaning obvious.

Bad: To what extent do supervisors provide information regarding the quality of performance of
people at your level?
Good: How often does the person you report to give you feedback on your job?

12. Ask one question at a time.

Bad: Both the organization’s goals and my role within the organization are clear.
Good: The organization’s goals are clear.
My role within the organization is clear.

13. Provide discrete response options.

Bad: During the past three months, how often did you receive feedback on your work?

Good: During the past three months, how often did you receive feedback on your work?

14. Match the response mode to the question.

Bad: To what extent are you satis�ied with your job?

Good: To what extent are you satis�ied with your job?

Table 4-10 Examples of Mistakes in Developing Multiple-Choice Questions

Example 1

The stem of the original item below fails to present the problem adequately or to set a frame of reference for
responding.

Original Revised

Who do you go to when you have a con�lict? Who should you go to when you have a con�lict at
work?

1. Superior/Supervisor

2. Subordinate

3. Colleague

4. Customers/Stakeholders

1. Superior/Supervisor
2. Subordinate
3. Colleague
4. Customers/Stakeholders

Example 2

There should be no grammatical clues to the correct answer (a 5 a).

Original Revised

Barack Obama was a:

1. senator from Illinois

2. eastern European

3. Arabic prophet

4. Imam

Barack Obama was:

1. a senator from Illinois

2. an Eastern European

3. an Arabic prophet

4. an Imam

Example 3

Alternatives should not overlap (e.g., in the original form of this item, if either of the �irst two alternatives is
correct, “C” is also correct.)

Original Revised

How old were you when you �irst started smoking?

1. While in grade school.

2. While in middle school.

3. Before I graduated from high school

4. After I graduated from high school

How old were you when you �irst started smoking?

1. Less than 10 years old.

2. Between 10 and 15 years old.

3. Between 16 and 19 years old.

4. Over 19 years old.

Example 4

Example of how the greater similarity among alternatives increases the dif�iculty of the item.

Easier Harder

Which of the following statements about training in
different cultures is true?

1. Europeans will resist training that requires
trainee involvement.

2. Russians require training to be attention
Grabbing.

3. Asians look forward to the “�lash” of North
American–style training.

4. Greeks require lots of technical components to
be successful.

Which of the following statements about training in
different cultures is true?

1. Europeans require training to be attention
grabbing.

2. Russians require training to be attention
grabbing.

3. Asians require training to be attention
grabbing.

4. Greeks require training to be attention
grabbing.

Procedural Knowledge
The second type of knowledge is procedural knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_024) . Here, the learner
begins to develop meaningful ways of organizing information into mental models. Mental models are also known as
cognitive maps, knowledge structures, and task schemata. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, experts develop more
complex mental models for the way they organize their knowledge than do new learners. As a result, the expert can
access a solution strategy more quickly.

There are several techniques for assessing how someone has organized procedural knowledge.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_48) One method uses
paired comparisons to determine how the person sees the relationship between topics. For example, trainers could
be asked to indicate the relationships among several training concepts, such as instructional design, criterion
development, needs assessment, organizational analysis, and so on. Then, these relationships would be compared
with the relationships identi�ied by an expert. Another method (see Figure 4-5) uses a con�iguration of concepts that
are linked. Some of the links are blank, and the trainee must place the appropriate concepts in the blanks next to the
one that makes a best �it. Strategies for measuring these structures are too comprehensive to be discussed here, but
several publications deal with this topic.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_49)

Figure 4-5 Test of Knowledge Organization for Civil
Engineers
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_

)

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Strategic Knowledge
The category of strategic knowledge deals with the ability to develop and apply cognitive strategies used in problem
solving. It assesses the trainee’s level of understanding about the decisions or choices a trainee must make.
Determining a person’s strategic knowledge is more dif�icult than the other two types of knowledge. One process that
is useful is called Probed Protocol Analysis.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_50) First, subject matter
experts de�ine a problem and the strategies necessary to solve it. Trainees are then asked to explain step-by-step
what they would do to solve the problem. Questions such as “Why would you do that?” “What would it mean if it did
not help?” and “What other test could you do?” help determine the trainees’ strategies. Once again, for more detailed
information, several excellent publications are available.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_

)

Skills (Behavioral Tests)
Behavioral tests (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_026)
measure skills and are an important means of determining an employee’s training needs. Such tests can incorporate
work samples (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_027) ,
which are simply work situations designed to re�lect what actually happens in the workplace. Standardized rating
methods are developed so that everyone is presented with the same situation and measured according to preset
criteria. For example, a welder might be required to measure and cut three pieces of channel iron and then weld
them at right angles to make a U; a salesclerk might be required to respond to an irate customer who provides
standardized antagonistic responses to the salesclerk’s handling of a situation; or a manager might be required to
make a presentation to a boss on the advantages of going global. An important part of the development of these
types of tests is determining the criteria for successful performance. In the case of the welders test noted above,
what amount of error in measurement is still considered acceptable; 1/8 inch, 3/16, 3/8? Also, what error in terms
of the 90 degree angles is acceptable? And �inally how strong does the weld have to be? These data would all be used
in grading the welders test, and where she was not up to standards would be the PG for that welder. Assessment
centers (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_028) are an
expansion of the work sample approach. They often involve several work samples and other tests along with

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assessors who evaluate individuals in different situations. Although assessment centers are costly to develop and
administer (they often require two to three days off-site), they provide a comprehensive analysis of needs, especially
for managerial positions.

In addition, there are many simulations
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_029) that can be used to
assess an employee’s skills. Equipment simulators, role plays, business games and so on can be used to determine a
person’s skills in particular situations. As indicated in the �irst chapter, skills can be broken down into two levels,
compilation and automaticity. The focus of the person analysis will depend on the level of skill required that was
determined in the operational analysis.

Compilation
Developing behavioral tests and standards for scoring such tests can be dif�icult. A number of situations need to be
created in which the trainee is required to demonstrate the target skill(s). The dif�iculty lies in developing scoring
standards. Consider a study that examined the training of machinists.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_53) It was noted that
passing the training was more a function of the trainer who was running the course than of the trainees. Different
trainers used different standards for passing. This problem should have been addressed in the TNA where the
performance standards for the job were identi�ied and the employee’s skills were measured to see if they met
expectations. Criteria based on tolerance requirements and �inished speci�ications should have been used to
determine who needs training. These criteria, once developed, are incorporated into the training objectives that will
be developed to guide the training. They also become clear standards from which to evaluate the effectiveness of the
training. For skills that have a speci�ic output, such as a part for an automobile, assessment simply compares what
was produced with what was required. For other skills, such as those required for con�lict resolution, assessment
could occur through the use of a structured role-play scenario in which a person acts in an angry and aggressive
manner and the employee responds. These types of tests can be scored using multiple raters or standardized forms.
Achieving inter-rater agreement is important in developing such tests. This consistency is accomplished through
standardized methods of rating that are clear to the trainer or whoever is required to conduct the testing.

Automaticity
In some cases, the skill must be so well learned that it can be done quickly and without much thought. For this level
of skill, the assessment would need to use more stringent criteria for what constitutes successful performance. One
method for determining whether the trainee reached automaticity would be the speed that required performance
was completed and the quality of the response. Emergency procedures for commercial pilots would be an example of
skills that are actually periodically tested using aircraft simulators.

Attitude Measures
Attitudes are an important part of organizational effectiveness. If, for example, the team approach is an
organizational objective, then attitudes toward this approach are important. Some organizations routinely conduct
various attitude surveys. In such a situation, a scale related to the attitude toward teamwork could simply be
included. If this practice does not exist, it might be useful to consider instituting one. At the very least, organizations
could survey trainees before training to determine how they feel about teams and teamwork (if teamwork was a PG).

Developing attitude scales requires a great deal of skill; therefore, it is much better to use well-developed scales
found in the literature. Numerous attitude scales are available through journals (Personnel Psychology, Journal of
Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management
Executive) and books (Assessing Organizational Change, The Experience of Work, Buros Book of Mental Measurements).
Another source that publishes such scales is the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_54) Contacting a local
university’s psychology department or business school for help in this area would likely yield good results. Graduate
students are always anxious to apply their knowledge in real-world situations.

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Developing attitude scales requires care, and you should use existing scales whenever possible rather than
attempting to develop one yourself. However, items in the survey might need to be reworded to re�lect the speci�ic
training being done. An example of an attitude scale (attitude toward empowerment) can be found in Table 4-11.

Table 4-11 Examples of Attitude Questions

Attitudes toward Empowerment

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with the following statements.

1 = Strongly disagree

2 = Disagree

3 = Neither agree nor disagree

4 = Agree

5 = Strongly agree

1. Empowering employees is just another way to get more work done with fewer
people. [Reverse scored]

2. Empowering employees allows everyone to contribute their ideas for the
betterment of the company.

3. The empowerment program improved my relationship with my supervisor.

4. Empowerment brought more meaning to my life at this company.

5. Empowerment interventions should be introduced in other plants in this
company.

6. The empowerment process provided a positive in�luence in labor-management
relations.

Gathering Data for the TNA: Final Thoughts
For a conceptual understanding of the types of data required to conduct a TNA, it is useful to divide the TNA input
phase into three distinct stages: organization, operation, and person. Practically, however, they are highly
interrelated, can be conducted the same time and usually require some amount of moving back and forth among the
levels of analysis. The sources for each of these analyses, as found in Tables 4-1, 4-3, and 4-8, have a great deal of
overlap. For example, if you were interviewing incumbents regarding operational analysis, you would at the same
time obtain information regarding roadblocks to getting the job done, which is part of the organizational analysis.
When you examine the performance data for the person analysis, it is useful to determine any structural reasons for

the poor performance, which is part of the organizational analysis. This gathering of multiple levels of information at
one time is again illustrated in the Fabrics, Inc. example at the end of this chapter.

Once the operational analysis data determine the KSAs for the job, the person analysis will determine whether
each of the relevant employees possesses these KSAs. For those who do not, the PG between what is required and
what the employee has serves as the impetus for designing and developing necessary training.

For the TNA to be effective, it is important that employee development be of high concern to both the individual
and the organization. This is more likely to occur when an organization does the following:

Puts procedures in place that allow for developmental appraisals to take place regularly and separately from
appraisals used for other personnel decisions

Allows the individual to provide input into the process through self-appraisal

Places a high value on developing subordinates by rewarding supervisors who spend time doing so

Provides systematic opportunities for employees to receive the training and mentoring necessary for
development

Although having these procedures in place will serve the organization well, it is still not enough! Numerous stories
recount supervisors who simply go through the motions of a performance appraisal and employee development and
then get on with the “real work.” Such attitudes on the part of supervisors are likely to undermine any employee
development system. Subordinates’ perceptions of the process must also be positive, and they must believe that
training will be useful in their development, particularly when self-assessment is being used in the TNA.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_55)

Recall from the analysis phase of the training model that the organizational, operational, and person analyses are
the inputs. The process is the identi�ication of the gap, which is done by comparing the AP with the EP. The resulting
PGs become the output of the TNA.

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4.7 Output of TNA
As noted in the training model at the start of the chapter, outputs include both training and nontraining needs.
Training needs are dealt with by designing appropriate training programs, which are discussed in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) . Here, we examine nontraining
needs.

Nontraining Needs
Nontraining needs include those that show no gap in required KSAs and those characterized by a KSA gap but for
which training is not the best solution. First, let’s examine those that show no KSA de�iciency, as depicted in Figure 4-
1.

Nontraining Needs That Have No KSA Gap
These PGs are not a result of a lack of KSAs, but a result of the following:

Performance consequence incongruence

Inadequate or inappropriate feedback

Barriers to performance in the system

No amount of KSA development will improve performance in situations where these PGs exist. The causes of these
PGs will be uncovered in the organizational and operational analysis.

Performance Consequence Incongruence
Can working at the expected level of performance be punishing? The answer is yes, it can. Consider Nancy, the
employee who always has her work done on time and done well. The other three employees in the department often
complete assignments late, and their work tends to be done sloppily. Now the supervisor has a very dif�icult
assignment that must be done in record time. Whoever gets the job will need to work late for the next few weeks.
Who is assigned to the job? Nancy, of course. Nancy’s reward for being a good performer is to get the dif�icult
assignments that require staying late to complete. Soon Nancy catches on and begins acting more like the rest of the
employees in her department. When Nancy is not working at the expected level, providing her with training will not
help. Her lower performance is not a KSA problem. So, although training for Nancy will not help, training her
supervisor how to motivate all department employees might be useful. It would also be useful to have systems in
place to motivate the supervisor to reward employees appropriately.

Inadequate or Inappropriate Feedback
Another nontraining need comes from employees not receiving appropriate feedback. Numerous examples tell of
employees who believe they are good performers, but their supervisors believe otherwise. Supervisors generally
dislike providing negative feedback.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_56) In fact, some suggest
that it is the most disliked of all managerial activities.
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) So they simply do
not say anything to the employees. Once again, the problem is not a training issue for the subordinate, but it could be
for the supervisor.

Barriers to Performance
Conditions in the workplace that obstruct the desired performance level are a third reason for de�iciencies in
performance. Receiving material too late, using worn-out machinery, and being constantly interrupted are but a few

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of the possibilities that could hinder performance. Once identi�ied, these roadblocks need to be removed, a complex
task that, in some cases, might require high-level support. Suppose a supervisor has too many reports to �ile each
week and this responsibility takes away from the time needed to help subordinates; however, middle management
needs these reports. The only way to reduce the amount of paperwork is to request that middle management reduce
the number of reports they receive or �ind another way to generate them. This problem is not an easy one to solve,
but as you can see, providing the supervisor with training related to helping subordinates will not solve the problem.

Non Training Solution Choices for a KSA Gap
Nontraining needs can exist where a gap in required KSAs is also present as shown in Figure 4-1. As noted in the
�igure, the nontraining causes of the performance gap need to be corrected before any solutions to the KSA
de�iciency can be effective. After all nontraining causes of the PG have been corrected, then using Figure 4-1, the
answer to the each of the �irst three questions is “no.” and you can move on to the question of whether there is a gap
in KSAs. Note that training is not always the appropriate solution to a KSA gap. Other solutions are discussed next.

Job Aids
A job aid (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_030) is a set of
instructions, diagrams, or other form of providing information that is available at the job site. Its purpose is to
provide guidance to the worker. A job aid is useful if the worker’s task is complex, if it requires a number of steps, or
if it is dangerous to forget a step. Airline pilots use job aids—a list of things they must do prior to takeoff—so that
they do not forget any of the steps required. Another example of a job aid would be a diagram. Rather than teaching
someone a number of steps in wiring an automobile, a picture depicting where the wires should go should suf�ice. It
is often cheaper and more ef�icient to use job aids when practical, rather than developing elaborate training
packages, as Bill Stetar notes in Training in Action 4-5.

4-5 Training in Action Training Is Not Always the Answer: So Do a TNA
First

A few years back, a Fortune 500 durable goods manufacturer decided to increase its design engineer
complement by about 40 employees. They wanted to get these new hires up to speed as quickly as
possible, so they called Bill Stetar, president of Performance Technology Group, to assist in the
development of an appropriate training package.

On arrival at the company, Bill learned that the company had already decided that the training should
consist of a series of lectures and seminars and other formal learning processes. However, Bill
suggested that before deciding to use a particular type of training, it would be useful to do a TNA.
The company was initially reluctant to do a TNA because they wanted to get the training set up as
quickly as possible. However, Bill was able to convince them that it would be a useful step.

The TNA indicated that much of the required learning could be completed without any formal
classroom training. Instead, job aids (task-speci�ic job instructions) and supplementary self-help
information was put online for access by the new hires at their convenience. Much of it was related
to

what the person needed to do,

how to do it (self-help instructions were provided), and

where to go for help if you needed it.

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The results were that new hires got up to speed faster, made fewer mistakes than in prior years, and
did not have to spend any time in the classroom.

How much did the company save? Well �irst of all, they saved approximately 50 percent of what they
had originally budgeted for the training. But there was more. Learning of the material was faster.
Management expected it to take about 90 days for a new engineer to be up to speed; it only took on
average about 45 days. Without the TNA, traditional training clearly would have been less ef�icient.
So, as Bill would say: “Training is not always the answer, do a TNA �irst.”

Source: By permission of Bill Stetar.

Practice with Coaching
Regarding tasks that are important but are performed infrequently, employees can easily forget or become less
pro�icient at them. For this reason, police of�icers are required to practice on the �iring range each month. Schools
conduct �ire drills as practice for an important incident that might never occur. In these cases, providing the practice
is meant to prevent a PG. If a PG in an infrequently performed task is discovered, periodic practice sessions with
coaching should be considered to ensure that the gap does not continue to occur, particularly if its occurrence can
have serious consequences. If the skill has been lost, a coach is needed to provide the guidance to regain the skill. In
addition, having a coach work with the person, helps speed the acquisition of the desired performance level. This is
discussed at greater length in Chapter 6
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) .

Redesign the Job
This approach might seem extreme, but it is sometimes worth considering. Several years ago, salespeople in
automobile dealerships were completely responsible for the job of selling a car, from meeting the customer through
to closing the deal. The most dif�icult part of selling is closing the deal, which requires certain KSAs that are dif�icult
to impart through training. As a result, many car salespeople did not last long in the business. This de�iciency led the
dealers to change the job. They provided the salesperson with the skills to show the car, discuss various options, and
negotiate to a certain extent. Then, when it came to closing the deal, the salesperson could send the customer to the
sales manager. Thus, the job was changed so that the salesperson no longer needed to know how to close the deal.

Termination or Transfer
Sometimes neither training or any of the other options we’ve discussed are the best answer to eliminating the PG.
Sometimes it is necessary to remove the employees from the job. If lack of motivation is the reason for the PG, and
the employee has been given ample opportunity to improve, then termination needs to be considered. If it is that the
employee is unable to grasp the KSAs necessary to do the job, then transfer to a more suitable job may be the
answer.

Training Needs
For those PGs that result from the employees’ lack of KSAs, and for which training is a solution, the KSAs need to be
listed and described clearly and unambiguously. These KSAs will be used to develop training objectives (discussed in
detail in Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) ).

It is important to understand that in most cases, even if a training need is identi�ied, nontraining needs are usually
also present. We cannot emphasize enough the importance of these nontraining factors. Even if training results in the
employee gaining the required competencies, these will not be used on the job, unless any nontraining causes of the
performance gap have been removed. For training to be successful and transferred to the job, these “nontraining”

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factors must be aligned with the training and the desired employee performance. As Robert Brinkerhoff, an
internationally recognized expert in training effectiveness said,

The reality is that these non-training factors are the principle determinants [for transfer of training],
if they are not aligned and integrated they will easily overwhelm the very best training [inhibit
transfer]. . . . Best estimates are that 80 percent or more of the eventual impact of training is
determined by performance systems factors [nontraining needs].
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_

) (p.
304)

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4.8 Approaches to TNA
Now that we have examined the general approach of conducting a TNA, we examine more closely the distinction
between proactive and reactive approaches.

Proactive TNA
The proactive TNA focuses on future HR requirements. From the unit objectives resulting from the organization’s
strategic planning process, HR must develop unit strategies and tactics (see Figure 2-1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02�ig01) ) to ensure that the
organization has employees with the required KSAs in all of its critical jobs. Two approaches can be taken to develop
the needed KSAs:

1. Prepare employees for promotions or transfers to different jobs.

2. Prepare employees for changes in their current jobs.

An effective, proactive procedure used for planning key promotions and transfers is succession planning. Succession
planning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch11_023) is the
identi�ication and development of employees perceived to be of high potential so they can �ill key positions in the
company as they become vacant. The �irst step in the development of a succession plan is to identify key positions in
the organization. These positions, if left vacant for any length of time, would affect organizational functioning
negatively. In practice, these positions are often high-level management positions such as vice president of �inance or
plant manager, but they could be at any level (e.g., mold maker, if the position is key to the operation and dif�icult to
�ill). Once the key positions are identi�ied, employees with the potential to �ill these key positions are identi�ied. Then
information is provided on employees’ readiness to �ill the position if it becomes vacant. Employee readiness, of
course, is the difference between what is expected in the new job versus what the employee is currently capable of
doing. Organizations with this type of system in place have a ready-made TNA.

When preparing employees for changes in their current jobs, it is important that the TNA identify the expected
changes in performance. Once the performance expectations are determined, the new KSAs required for that job can
then be identi�ied. These future KSAs are compared with the incumbent’s current KSAs, and any resulting PGs are
addressed through training. Consider Heinz in Leamington, Ontario (see Table 4-6). When they determined that they
would be moving to a high-tech ketchup machine, it was necessary to determine what KSAs would be necessary to
operate it. Training in these KSAs occurred before the new equipment was in place.

Organizational Analysis
The proactive approach starts with expected changes and any new objectives. As an analyst, try to determine the best
�it between the organization’s current internal environment (structures, policies, procedures, etc.) and future
expectations and objectives. As an example, questions regarding the formal structure might include the following:

Are pay practices congruent with the new direction taken by the company? Example: Would a strict hourly
pay structure �it if the plan were to treat each department as entrepreneurial?

Is the emphasis of the new priorities congruent with the performance appraisal system? Example: If the
priority is quality, does the performance appraisal have a dimension to measure this?

Is the strategy congruent with the current practices? Example: The new strategy is to move to a more
positive union–management relationship. Currently, a policy does not allow any union business to be
conducted on company time. Should this policy be revisited?

Are enough employees available to accomplish the objective? Example: The plan is to improve quality to meet
ISO 9000 standards, but employees are constantly rushed because of a lack of personnel. Does the company

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need to consider massive hiring or training of current employees?

Informal procedures might be evaluated with the following questions:

Do norms that would restrict output exist?

Will workers believe that changes in performance are required?

What formal procedures are short-circuited by informal procedures, and what are the implications (perhaps
the formal procedure is inappropriate)?

These questions need to be asked at all levels in the organization, but speci�ically at the departmental level, where
more meaningful data will be found. Often, those in higher levels of management take a different view of the effect of
various policies on behavior.

Operational Analysis
Job analysts gather information not only on what tasks are carried out currently, but also on what tasks will be
required in the future. Strategic job analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_032) is de�ined as the
identi�ication of the KSAs required for effective performance in a job as it is expected to exist in the future.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_59) Data gathering is
identical to that in traditional job analysis, with the addition of a section called “gather information on the future.” For
this section, it is necessary to look at changes in areas such as societal values, political and legal issues, economics,
market, labor, and technology, and also how those changes would affect the job in question. In this case, input from
more than just incumbents and supervisors is necessary. Information from the following people is necessary:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_60)

At least one person involved in corporate strategy and closely tied to the job in question

Someone who is aware of how the competition structures the job (technologically and from an HR
standpoint)

An ef�iciency expert (internal technology/communication expert)

Someone who worked his way up through the job in question

A forward-thinking incumbent (one willing to suggest new ideas)

This list is not exhaustive and serves only as a guide. Once these data are gathered, a revision of the tasks and KSAs
based on these changes can be determined. The training function then uses this information, coupled with person
analysis, to determine future training needs. The previous discussion about what to do if no job incumbents are
available is helpful here. In reality, no job incumbents exist if the job will change in substantial ways.

At �irst this task might seem rather daunting; however, it does not need to be. The �irst step is to identify the
critical jobs. For example, if the primary function of the organization is writing software, the computer programmer’s
job will be more critical to the effectiveness of the organization than the �ile clerk’s and should be examined �irst.
Likewise, if the organization is making parts for the automotive industry, mold making might be a critical job.

Person Analysis
Assessment of the person (for the required KSAs) is identical for both the proactive or reactive TNA, so the
information presented earlier on person analysis is applicable.

Let’s do it

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In the Multistate Health Corporation (MHC) at the end of Chapter 2
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i19#ch02) , a strategic plan was outlined,
and from it a number of potential objectives were developed for HR related to developing a human resource
planning system (HRPS). The main focus of the HRIS objectives was that MHC was having �inancial problems, and it
seemed as if the trouble could be traced to the competency of the chief executive of�icers (CEOs) at their hospitals.
Unfortunately, no clear documentation exists describing the required KSAs for the 30 CEOs; as a result, no one knows
the KSAs needed to be successful or to be promoted to CEO. To deal with this lack of KSA documentation for CEOs
and other key positions in the organization, the MHC executive committee developed six objectives. The �irst step in
addressing these objectives (as they affect the position of CEO) is to conduct an operational analysis of the CEO
position. Recall how the job analysis was conducted for the large computer �irm (Table 4-4). You could use a similar
process here and conduct interviews, given the small number of incumbents. You can interview all incumbents (four
or �ive small group meetings), or hold one meeting with six CEOs: two from each region, one from the largest and
one from the smallest hospital in that region.

At the meeting, ask the CEOs to list all the tasks and subtasks they perform, or prepare a partial list from previous
conversations to use the time available most ef�iciently. Then, using a scale similar to the one in Table 4-4, ask each of
them to rate each task on its importance for the job. On the basis of the ratings provided, determine which are
important. You need to examine these tasks to determine whether any differences distinguish between geographical
locations or large versus small hospitals. If any differences are noted, they need to be resolved. If a large number of
critical tasks are different, the jobs themselves could be different and may need different titles. It might also be that
the task was not identi�ied as important by some because it never was required. The task of “effective cost cutting”
might not have been identi�ied in some smaller hospitals because it was not used. It is still an important task for CEOs
(assuming that CEOs in larger hospitals indicated it as important), and would be included, although some CEOs might
not have the KSAs to do it effectively, as noted in the case. Once you identify all the tasks, it is useful to classify them
into broader duties, as outlined in Figure 4-3.

Next, you need to identify the KSAs necessary to perform each task. These KSAs will be used to make either
selection or training decisions, depending on where they were classi�ied concerning “need at the time of hire.”
Publishing the ones required at the time of hire for the recruitment process makes the selection criteria clearer to all.

A team of subject matter experts on the position of CEO (see the discussion of strategic job analysis in
“Operational Analysis” of the preceding selection) should be consulted to develop the strategic part of the job
analysis (how the job might look in �ive years). This information, when compared with the information on current
requirements, highlights what the future requirements would likely be. At this point, executive development
programs could be put in place to develop the KSAs needed for the future job of CEO at MHC.

Let’s look at one duty. From the job analysis, one duty might be de�ined as the “development of subordinates.” You
might identify the following tasks related to that duty:

Initiates action to identify developmental needs

Provides timely feedback to help subordinates improve

Provides subordinates with opportunities to develop

Meets with subordinates to discuss performance and development

Coaches subordinates in a manner that allows them to improve their skills

Several other duties (and relevant tasks) would, of course, be identi�ied. Finally, the KSAs necessary to perform
the tasks would be identi�ied. From the preceding list of tasks, KSAs that would be relevant include the following:

Knowledge of the performance review process

Knowledge of basic coaching skills

Skill at providing feedback in an effective manner

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Skill at interviewing

Positive attitude toward the participative approach to problem solving

Positive attitude toward helping others

Based on the assessment of the skills of the 30 CEOs at MHC, some or all of these KSAs might be lacking, and training
might be necessary. To determine which CEOs need which KSAs, the person analysis is conducted.

For the person analysis, let’s just focus on the speci�ic KSAs necessary to appraise performance. Here you want to
know about CEOs’ knowledge of the appraisal process and their skill in providing effective reviews. This information
is obtained in part by asking CEOs directly (a subpart of your job analysis meeting). If managers have no con�idence
in a performance appraisal system, they will have no compunction about telling you that “it’s not worth the time” or
“it’s never used anyway so why bother.” If they do not believe that they have the skill, they might also tell you that.
Another place to obtain such information is from the CEOs’ subordinates. You might get information from the CEOs’
subordinates such as “She really tries to do a good job but is constantly telling me what I need to do and never asks
my opinion” or “He tells me I have a bad attitude. I’m not sure what he means but am in no mood to ask either.”
These types of comments suggest a lack of skills on the CEO’s part, or it is possible that the CEO has a negative
attitude toward the process. Again, asking the CEO directly could determine which it is. You can also use the option of
behavior testing to assess the skills. Put CEOs in a role-play situation where they must provide feedback to an
employee, and score them on how well they do.

For the organizational analysis part of the TNA, some information has already been gathered from interviews
conducted by the consultants. One of the objectives based on those �indings was the inclusion of a succession plan. It
provides the mechanism for supplying instant information on who should be considered for the next promotion,
rather than relying on individual CEOs to make that determination. Of course, you need a standardized performance
review system in place to make such determinations.

The job analysis provides relevant data for developing standard performance appraisals necessary in both
promotion and developmental decisions. With such a system in place, each CEO would be responsible for completing
performance reviews on his subordinates and providing developmental plans for them. This process would help
address the lack of interest in some CEOs for recommending their subordinates. Although not explicitly noted, one
important measure of the CEOs’ performance appraisal would need to be how well CEOs prepare and develop their
subordinates for promotion. This measure, speci�ically as part of their performance review, along with the use of a
succession plan in general, will serve to encourage all CEOs to work toward developing their subordinates for
promotion.

Reactive TNA
The reactive TNA begins with an existing discrepancy in job performance. In this sense, Figure 4-1 represents a more
complete picture of the reactive process. A middle manager might notice that production is dropping, a supervisor
might see that a particular employee’s performance has declined, or HR might note an increase in grievances from a
particular department. Once you identify a performance gap, you need to determine whether it is worth �ixing.
Although this decision may be based on �inancial implications, it does not have to be. For example, the company
notes that one department has lower ratings of supervisory consideration (as rated by subordinates) than the
organization expected. The cost of this lower rating would be dif�icult to assess. It might take a long time (if ever) to
notice any signi�icant effect on the company’s bottom line. If the company makes a strong commitment to developing
a good employee–management relationship, it may decide to try to alleviate the problem.

In the reactive TNA, you still conduct the organizational analysis, operational analysis, and person analysis, but the
distinction among them is even more blurred, for the following reasons:

The focus is primarily on the one department.

Those who demonstrate the discrepancy (and their peers and subordinates) are the key persons to be
interviewed about all three components.

The discrepancy focuses the issue on a particular part of the job (e.g., interactions with subordinates, as
previously noted).

Organizational Analysis
Organizational analysis can uncover the three issues identi�ied earlier the KSA gap in Figure 4-1 (Incongruent
Consequences, Feedback Problems, and Performance Barriers). Once the decision has been made that there is a
positive cost/bene�it to �ixing the PG, a complete analysis of all causes of the PG is needed. Even if a lack of KSAs is
identi�ied as a problem, additional roadblocks might exist that would prevent performance even if the KSAs were
learned.

Operational Analysis/Person Analysis
In the reactive approach, the performance discrepancy is already identi�ied; it triggers the analysis. Operational and
person analyses are aimed at identifying the cause of the current gap between EP and AP. These analyses are
conducted in a manner consistent with our earlier descriptions. Note that the operational analysis may also uncover
performance barriers that were not visible at the organizational level.

Let’s do it
When a reactive performance gap is identi�ied, it is best to work from the gap and deal only with those issues
indicated from the gap analysis. Instead of moving step by step through this analysis, let’s look at Training in Action
4-6, an actual example of this process.

4-6 Training in Action Where Do You Start When You Have a Performance
Gap?
Students in a training and development class decided that for their class project, they would like to determine
why some professors are interesting and informative, whereas others are not. The needs analysis of this
performance gap (PG) would help determine whether the issue is training or something else.

They examined the PG using operational analysis (expected performance) and person analysis (actual
performance). As is noted in Table 4-3, one way of obtaining expected performance data is to observe the job.
The group of students had observed the job (lecturing) of professors for two years, and also using data from
other students they interviewed, they developed a list of behaviors that they believed made lectures
interesting and informative.

For person analysis (actual performance), the students used observation and performance data (see Table
4-7). Using the observation method, the students identi�ied six professors who were considered as having a
performance discrepancy. These data were compared with OTHER performance data (published student
surveys) about the professors’ teaching skills, which veri�ied the observations. An attempt to verify this
information further was made by asking the dean to provide student (customer) complaints about professors
over the past two years. The dean declined to provide such information.

The organizational analysis was then conducted. Because of the nature of the PG (only business school
professors were identi�ied), the organizational analysis focused primarily on the business school. Examining
the university-wide mission and other documents was not necessary. From Figure 4-1, questions about the
performance consequence incongruence, inadequate feedback, and barriers to performance in the system
were examined. This was done through an interview (management interrogation as noted in Table 4-1) with

the dean of the business school. Questions related to adequate feedback were as follows: (1) Are there other
performance ratings of professors? (2) Do the professors receive feedback on their performance? The dean’s
answer was that the only measure of their teaching performance is student surveys and any unsolicited
complaints from students. Regarding feedback, the professors receive the student evaluations along with a
ranking of themselves and all other faculty members based on these data. Any student complaints would also
be made available to the professor. The dean noted that the same professors tended to be rated low each year
but again declined to provide speci�ics. A question related to performance consequence incongruence was as
follows: What happens to those who are rated high and low? The answer was nothing; there are no extrinsic
rewards or punishment for being a good or poor teacher. Finally, in response to a question about
performance barriers in the system, the dean emphasized the pressure for publications. “Publish or perish”
were the words he used. Promotions, tenure, travel, and other rewards were all provided to those who were
publishing on a regular basis. These were the overall �indings of the needs assessment.

From the information provided in Training in Action 4-6, will training help? You cannot really determine the
answer yet, although some factors identi�ied suggest that few external forces are acting on the professors to change
their teaching.

Let’s suppose that you did talk to the professors, and they told you that they always teach this way and suggested
that their job was not to entertain, but to teach. Through some subtle questioning, you determine that they do not
seem to understand some basic skills about making a lecture interesting and effective. They evaded questions about
how an effective slide show should be set up, how questions can be used to create interest, and so on. Thus a KSA
de�icit is revealed. Would training alone be enough? It might, if the training were designed in a way that was
interesting and it motivated the professors to go back to the classroom to try some different ideas. They would more
likely try these new ways of teaching if organizational changes were made that encouraged them to improve. For
example, when they reached an average on teacher evaluations of 3.5 on a 5-point scale, the professors could be
offered a bonus (in the form of travel money or computer equipment if a cash bonus were not possible). Changes in
the way pay increases are offered, with heavier emphasis on the importance of student evaluations in getting tenure
or promotion, would encourage professors to be more concerned about their teaching. Even personal interest by the
dean could be effective. The dean might meet with the professor and indicate a concern with the performance; they
could set goals for improvement and then meet on a regular basis to encourage the change. All these changes,
combined with a well-designed training program that would also motivate the professors, should result in an
improvement.

Reactive versus Proactive
From a systems perspective, it makes sense that a proactive approach would be better than a reactive approach.
Obviously, anticipating needs is better than waiting until they cause problems. Companies that integrate the training
function with strategic objectives are more readily able to respond to the rapidly changing technology and business
conditions that are an everyday part of corporate life.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_61) However, even when
operating proactively, the organization will at times need to react to changes in the environment. Strategic plans are
not cast in concrete but must be adapted to current events. Using a combination of proactive and reactive strategies
allows an organization to be most effective. It is, in fact, possible that a proactive approach is more important for
market leader organizations than for cost leader organizations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_62) Market leaders need
to be much more aware of their environment and anticipate how they will respond to that environment; otherwise,
they will not survive.
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) In reality, however,
many organizations operate from a reactive perspective when it comes to training.

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4.9 Focus on Small Business
Some suggest that the small business is not simply a miniature large organization but a unique entity in itself.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_64) So what is true for
large organizations might not be relevant for small ones. This assessment might be true in some areas but not
necessarily in the area of HR practices. Research has shown that small �irms with high-quality HR practices are
generally higher performers than those without such practices.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_65) Also, small �irms with
higher amounts of training consistently demonstrate more innovativeness than those with lower levels of training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_66) What is unique
about the small �irm is that the HR procedures that management decides to implement are likely much more critical
(compared with the large organization) because errors in judgment that create challenges for large companies (such
as the building of the Edsel car by Ford) could destroy a small business. Therefore, the proactive approach to
training would seem to be more important for the small business. Furthermore, in smaller organizations, it is easier
to integrate a proactive approach because fewer employees are involved.

The top management of a small business is usually the owner, who is usually responsible for any training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_67) However, this person
likely does not have any HR background and might not understand how a proactive approach to training can be
advantageous. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_68) In
fact, much of the dissatisfaction with training in the small business sector is a function of the reactive approach,
which responds to a crisis with a “quick �ix.” The small business owner/manager needs to realize that sound training
practices tied to the strategic plan will pay off in the long run, as Metro Tool & Die discovered in Training in Action 4-
7.

4-7 Training in Action Training: Where Is the Return?
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)

Metro Tool & Die of Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, has 42 employees, most of whom have little education or
training. Mr. Pantano, the owner, was interested in improving the quality and ef�iciency of his shop. He
contacted Fabian Hogan, a consultant with the Ontario Skills Development Ministry. After an assessment, Mr.
Hogan suggested that all employees receive training in basic literacy skills, blueprint reading, and
instrumentation die setup. Doing this would entail a considerable expense, but the consultant convinced Mr.
Pantano that the investment was, in the long term, a good one. At 3:30 every day, training sessions were held
on company premises and company time. Was this commitment to training worthwhile? Since completion of
the training, rejects dropped from 7,500 per million to 325 per million. The company won the prestigious
Xerox Quality Award in a worldwide competition. Metro recently provided one of its customers with a $9,600
cost savings. In the owner’s own words, “Training has paid for itself. There is no tool and die company like us.
We are a small company using big-company tactics.”

That was in the early 1990s. Today, the company has grown to 100 skilled employees, and their market
expanded from business machines to the auto industry, appliances, computers, etc., and they have clients all
over the world. They have become ISO 9000 and QS 9000 certi�ied. These certi�ications were very time
consuming and costly in terms of training, but as Anna Pantano said, “We are committed to having a highly
trained workforce. One of our niches is being able to meet unreasonable deadlines and last minute changes to
specs, while still meeting deadlines. This is accomplished because we believe in cross-training and have a
number of our employees capable in more than one operation, making us very adaptable to last minute
changes by our customers. On top of that each employee must receive a speci�ic amount of training each year.
Without the training commitment we have, that simply would not be possible.”

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Other evidence indicates that more small manufacturing businesses are undertaking TNA. One reason for this is
the wish to become ISO certi�ied. David Alcock works for the Canadian Plastics Training Centre (CPTC) in Toronto,
which provides training to many of the small mold-making companies in the region. He says that because of the
investment required in becoming ISO certi�ied, companies are requesting a TNA to obtain the maximum effect for
their training dollars. He noted that in the last few years, more than half of the company’s customers, many of which
are small businesses, requested a TNA.

The time factor is always a concern for any business, but particularly for small business. For small business, the
TNA often seems a waste of time. Techniques can speed up the process of working through a TNA, but generally
these techniques require using a trained analyst to be effective.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_70) Here are some tips
for the small business HR person or manager to consider when faced with conducting a TNA:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch04biblio_

)

Be clear on what is to be done.

Examine existing available data.

Develop some ideas related to the issue and test them in the data gathering.

Collapse the steps.

Use technology.

The most important thing is to clarify what type of OPG you have, and then map out a plan of what to do for the
TNA before venturing out to do it. Examine records, minutes, and any other documentation related to the gap.
Determine who needs to be talked to and what questions will need to be asked. (A reexamination of Tables 4-1 and
4-2 might be helpful here.) Sometimes it is dif�icult to help employees understand exactly what is being sought.

Consider Fred, the only salesperson in the organization who consistently gets letters of praise from customers
and high repeat business. When Fred is asked what he does that makes him so successful, his response is, “I do not
know, I just treat them well.” To explore this more, outline a scenario that you think might be correct. Such a scenario
might look like this: When customers come in, Bill greets them by name, asks about the family, asks questions about
themselves, then asks what he can do for them today, and so forth. Once Fred hears the scenario, he can correct or
amend it so the scenario �its what he actually does. You provided Fred with a template from which to provide
information to you. Clearly, one way to speed up the process is to collapse the steps. For example, meet with
everyone at once and give them a possible solution to the problem. Now ask for candid responses to questions such
as, “Is this an adequate description of the problem? Is the proposed solution the best one? What would you do
differently?” or “What would prevent the successful implementation of this solution?” Of course, it is necessary to be
sure that everyone at the meeting is willing to be open and honest. Finally, the use of e-mail, discussion boards, and
so forth, can help to gather information from several employees, with minimum time spent actually meeting them.
Place the problem or issue on a discussion board and ask for comments. Return to it from time to time to review
comments and questions and pose new or follow-up questions. E-mail is also a way of soliciting input. Simply get a
group on an e-mail list, and conduct meetings using the technology.

However, problems can arise when you do not do the full TNA, which can lead to less-than-ideal solutions. Still, the
shortcut is better than not doing a TNA at all. Often the rami�ications of not doing a TNA are time and money wasted
on things unrelated to solving the problem. Even for a small business, it is important to do something, rather than
nothing, even if it is less than ideal.

Assistance for Small Business

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Small-business owners can access resources to aid them in training their employees. The different levels of
government assist in various ways to help fund training. For example, most states have small business development
centers (SBDCs) that provide assistance in training. In California, customized training programs assist companies in
becoming ISO certi�ied and are available from the California State Department of Education at no cost. Instructors
with factory experience conduct a TNA and develop training on the basis of the analysis, making the training
organization-speci�ic. As a result, employees can see its advantages to their job. The major hurdle to these programs
is convincing management of their value. Also, the training must be integrated into the overall plan of the
organization, or it is not successful.

When the small business does not have time or expertise, government-sponsored consultants can provide
support. Furthermore, in most universities, graduate students in psychology or business would welcome the
opportunity to become involved. These individuals often operate under the watchful eye of highly trained professors
and are willing to do the work, at a fraction of the cost a professional would charge, simply for the experience. In fact,
if the situation provided research possibilities, the project might be done for free. Moreover, many business schools
have professional training consultants associated with their continuing education or executive education programs
who also provide seminars and/or consulting. For those who argue that small businesses simply cannot afford the
time to do a comprehensive TNA, we argue the opposite; they cannot afford not to. It is better to do something rather
than nothing.

4.10 TNA and Design
We return now to the opening case, Westcan. Remember that Chris was all set to begin developing an “effective
meeting” training program. As you read the rest of the case, think about the things you learned about conducting a
TNA. Note that the TNA Westcan uses is much simpler and less formal than some we discussed. However, the value of
doing the TNA is quite obvious.

The needs assessment at Westcan shows that training was required but not the training that Chris �irst imagined.
Her problem was that she did not have enough information to understand the types of needs the managers had.
Without this information, she began to design what she thought would be a good “effective meeting” training session.
What would have happened if she had gone ahead with her original plan? After conducting the TNA, she is now in a
much better position to design an appropriate training program. The next step is to develop a clear set of training
objectives that will drive both the design and evaluation of training. The importance of sound training objectives
cannot be overstressed. Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) provides a step-by-step
procedure for developing these objectives and meshing them with training design issues and constraints.

Connection to Training Evaluation
One of the critical byproducts of identifying training needs is that you will have also identi�ied the measures you will
use for evaluating the effectiveness of training (did they acquire the KSAs they needed). This will be covered more
thoroughly when we discuss the development of training objectives. However, a brief summary of the
interconnections will be useful here to give you a framework as you move through the rest of the text. Once training
needs have been identi�ied and the organization decides that it will provide training to address them, the training
design process begins. As stated earlier, the �irst step in that process is to develop the objectives for the training. The
learning objectives will need to re�lect the criteria that were used to determine that a training need existed (employee
KSAs were de�icient). These objectives then serve as the focus for the rest of the training process (design,
development, implementation and evaluation). After the training is conducted, it needs to be evaluated. One of the
most important evaluations is whether trainees learned what they needed to learn. The learning objectives specify
how you will measure if learning occurred and you will use the same measures (and instruments) that were used to
identify the KSAs that were training needs. So, there is a direct link between the KSAs you identify as training needs
and those you evaluate at the end of training. For example, if you developed a multiple-choice test to assess needs,
that test (or a similar one) would be used to evaluate learning. If you used role-plays to assess training needs, then
these role-plays or very similar ones would be used to evaluate the learning.

Case: Developing a Training Package at Westcan (Conclusion)
Chris told Karen about the conversation with Irven and what she had put together. Chris said, “What remains is to
develop the simulation. Can you help?”

“Sure,” said Karen, “but it’s too bad you are so far along. I might have been able to help you design the training.”

Chris indicated that she had not put a great deal of time into designing the training and was open to any
suggestions.

Karen suggested that Chris consider doing a needs analysis. “In a way, you completed a partial operational
analysis by determining what is required in running an effective meeting. What we do not know is where the
managers are de�icient; we call that a person analysis. One way to obtain that information is to ask the managers to
describe how their meetings currently run and the areas they see as ineffective. Their answers should re�lect the
areas in which they are de�icient. Also, by asking the managers what training they want, we could ensure that the
training is relevant. Another method would be to sit in and observe how they run their meetings. It would allow us to
identify performance and KSA gaps they might be unaware of,” said Karen. Karen noted that in her brief time at

https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05

Westcan, it seemed that premeeting information was well distributed and understood, agendas were given, and
notice of meetings always contained the relevant information.

“You might be right,” said Chris. “I simply never thought of asking them.” Together they developed a questionnaire
asking questions related to effective meetings, such as, “What would you like to see contained in a one-day effective
meeting workshop?” and “How well do the meetings with your staff stay on track?” They also got permission to sit in
on a number of meetings.

The returned surveys and meeting observations indicated that most managers understood the rules of effective
meetings. All had, at one time or another, attended a lecture or read material on running an effective meeting. The
problem was that they had never been able to turn the knowledge into action. They knew what to do, just not how to
do it. They wanted practice, with feedback from a professional. They also wanted the training to be for the exact
teams they continually operated in, which required that management and nonmanagement from a team attend the
same training and learn the behaviors required for effective meetings together. After going through the TNA with
Karen and documenting all the information, Chris said to Karen, “Well, it looks like the training I was going to provide
was way off the mark compared with what we now know they need. I owe you a dinner.”

Summary
Training is a reasonable solution when a PG is caused by an employee’s lack of KSAs. However, most problems
identi�ied by managers as requiring training actually do not require training. Most such problems are a function of
organizational barriers (reward/punishment incongruities, inadequate feedback, or system barriers) to
performance. A TNA will reveal the location and reason for the problem.

When a gap in required KSAs creates a PG and training is required, the TNA ensures that the KSA de�iciencies are
identi�ied. Training that is focused on these KSAs will be relevant and therefore more motivating for the trainees. The
likelihood is higher that training will be successful when a TNA is conducted because

the appropriate KSAs required to do the job are identi�ied (operational analysis),

the KSAs of the employees in that job are determined (person analysis) so that only those needing training
are trained, and

the roadblocks to transfer of the training are identi�ied (organizational analysis) and removed.

The TNA consists of organizational, operational, and person analysis. The organizational analysis is designed to
assess the capital resources, HR availability, and the work environment. It is important to understand the amount and
type of resources available and what type of environment the affected employees work in. Often, employees are not
performing at the expected level for reasons other than a lack of KSAs. The organizational analysis identi�ies these
reasons so they can be recti�ied. Even where KSAs are the problem, other remedies (job aids, practice, and so forth)
can be considered before training.

The operational analysis provides information pertaining to the KSA requirements for the job in question.
Observing the job, doing the job, and examining job descriptions and speci�ications are some of the ways of
determining this information. The method most often used, however, is to ask incumbents and supervisors what is
required in a systematic way.

The person analysis provides information on each employee’s speci�ic level of competence regarding the KSA
requirements. Several methods can be used to determine competence levels, such as examining performance
appraisals, testing, or simply asking employees where they encounter problems. Each of these approaches offers
advantages, and the one you choose depends on factors such as time and availability.

There are two types of TNA: proactive and reactive. With proactive TNA, the focus is on planned changes to jobs
and performance expectations. Typically, these changes evolve from strategic planning, but also might occur from
other processes. Because the proactive TNA anticipates future changes, it also must anticipate the KSAs required to
meet or exceed performance expectations in the future. As a result, some of the types of information collected are
different from those collected for the reactive TNA.

The reactive TNA is far more common and is a response to a current PG. Here, the TNA needs to be completed
more quickly because the gap is already affecting productivity. An effective organization uses both proactive and
reactive types of TNA.

The Training Program (Fabrics, Inc.)
This section is the beginning of a step-by-step process for developing a training program for a small
fabrications company. Here, we examine the TNA for the program, and in subsequent chapters, we will
continue the process through to the evaluation.

Fabrics, Inc., once a small organization, recently experienced an incredible growth. Only two years ago, the
owner was also the supervisor of 40 employees. Now it is a �irm that employs more than 200. The fast growth
proved good for some, with the opportunity for advancement. The owner called a consultant to help him with
a few problems that emerged with the fast growth. “I seem to have trouble keeping my mold-makers and
some other key employees,” he said. “They are in demand, and although I am competitive regarding money, I
think the new supervisors are not treating them well. Also, I received some complaints from customers about
the way supervisors talk to them. The supervisors were all promoted from within, without any formal training
in supervising employees. They know their stuff regarding the work the employees are doing, so they are able
to help employees who are having problems. However, they seem to get into arguments easily, and I hear a lot
of yelling going on in the plant. When we were smaller, I looked after the supervisory responsibilities myself
and never found a reason to yell at the employees, so I think the supervisors need some training in effective
ways to deal with employees. I only have nine supervisors—could you give them some sort of training to be
better?”

The consultant responded, “If you want to be sure that we deal with the problem, it would be useful to
determine what issues are creating the problems and, from that, recommend a course of action.”

“Actually, I talked to a few other vendors and they indicate they have some traditional basic supervisor
training packages that would �it our needs and, therefore, they could start right away. I really want this �ixed
fast,” the owner said.

“Well, I can understand that, but you do want to be sure that the training you get is relevant to the
problems you experienced; otherwise, it is a waste of money. How about I simply contract to do a training
needs analysis and give you a report of the �indings? Then, based on this information, you can decide whether
any of the other vendors or the training I can provide best �its your needs in terms of relevancy and cost. That
way, you are assured that any training you purchase will be relevant,” said the consultant.

“How long would that take?” the owner asked.

“It requires that I talk to you in a bit more detail, as well as to those involved; some of the supervisors and
subordinates. If they are readily available I would be done this week, with a report going to you early next
week,” the consultant replied. The owner asked how much it would cost, and after negotiating for 15 minutes,
agreed to the project. They returned to the of�ice to write up the contract for a needs analysis.

The interview with the owner (who was also the manager of all the �irst-line supervisors) was scheduled
�irst and included an organizational and operational analysis. What follows is an edited version of the
questions related to the organizational analysis.

The Interview

Direction of the Organization
Q: What is the mission of the company? What are the goals employees should be working for?

A: I do not really have time for that kind of stuff. I have to keep the organization running.

Q: If there is no mission, how do employees understand what the focus of their job should be?

A: They understand that they need to do their jobs.

Q: What about goals or objectives?

A: Again, I do not have the time for that, and I have never needed such stuff in the past.

Q: That may be true, but you are much larger now and do need to communicate these things in some
fashion. How do employees know what to focus on: quality, quantity, customer service, keeping costs
down?

A: All of those things are important, but I get your point. I never actually indicated anything about this
to them. I simply took it for granted that they understood it.

Q: What type of management style do you want supervisors to have, and how do you promote that?

A: I assumed that they would supervise like me. I always listened to them when they were workers. I
believe in treating everyone with dignity and respect and expect others to do the same. I do not have
any method to transmit that except to follow my style.

HR Systems
1. Q: What criteria are used to select, transfer, and promote individuals?

2. A: I hired a �irm to do all the hiring for me when I was expanding. I told them I wanted quali�ied
workers. As for the promotion to supervisor, I picked the best workers.

3. Q: Best how? What criteria were you using?

4. A: Well, I picked those who were the hardest workers, the ones who always turned out the best work
the fastest, and were always willing to work late to get the job done.

5. Q: Are there formal appraisal systems? If yes, what is the information used for promotion, bonuses,
and so forth?

6. A: I do not have time for that. I believe that people generally know when they are doing a good job. If
they are not, I will not keep them.

Job Design
1. Q: How are supervisors’ jobs organized? Where do they get their information and where does it go?

2. A: Supervisors receive the orders for each day at the beginning of the day and then give it out to the
relevant workers. They then keep track of it to see that it is done on time and out to the customer.

Reward Systems
1. Q: What incentives are in place to encourage employees to work toward the success of the

organization?

2. A: Well, I think I pay them well.

3. Q: Does everyone receive the same amount of pay?

4. A: At the present time, yes, because they are all relatively new supervisors. I do plan to give them
raises based on how well they are performing.

5. Q: But you indicated that you do not really have a method of informing them what you are measuring
them on. How are they to know what is important?

6. A: Well, I will tell them. I guess I need to be considering that issue down the road.

Performance
1. Q: How do the supervisors know what their role is in the company?

2. A: I told them that they needed to supervise the employees and what that entailed.

3. Q: How do they �ind out how well they are doing in their job? Is there a formal feedback process?

4. A: I talk to them about how they are doing from time to time, but I get your point and will think about
that.

5. Q: Are there opportunities for help if they are having problems?

6. A: Take this problem with the yelling and getting employees angry at them. I have talked to them about
it and have offered to get them training.

7. Q: How do they feel about that?

8. A: Actually, they thought it was great. As I said, none of these supervisors have had anything in the
way of supervisory training.

Methods and Practices
1. Q: What are the policies, procedures, and rules in the organization? In your view, how do they

facilitate or inhibit performance?

2. A: I really do not think there is anything hindering their performance. I am always willing to help, but I
also have work to do. That is why I promoted employees to supervisors, so I would not have to deal
with that part of the business.

After gathering information on the organization, the consultant gathered operational
analysis data from the manager (owner). The consultant used the method provided in Figure
4-3. What follows is a portion of the completed form.

JOB TITLE: SUPERVISOR SPECIFIC DUTY: BE SURE WORK IS
COMPLETED AND SENT TO THE
CUSTOMER ON TIME

Tasks Subtasks KSAs

Organize jobs in manner
that ensures completion
on time

Examine jobs and assess time
required

Knowledge of types of jobs we
get

Knowledge of times required for
jobs to be completed

Sort and give jobs to
appropriate employees

Organization and prioritizing
skills

Knowledge of employees’
capabilities

Monitor progress of work Talk to employees about their
progress on jobs

Knowledge of proper feedback

Effective feedback skills

Helping attitude

Examine speci�ic job products
during production to ensure
quality

Knowledge of quality standards

Quality assessment skills

Listen effectively Provide feedback to
employees about performance

Knowledge of effective listening
skills

Knowledge of con�lict styles

Con�lict resolution skills

Knowledge of proper feedback
Effective feedback skills

Positive attitude for treating
employees with respect

And so forth . . .

Next, the consultant met with the supervisors, �irst as a single group of nine to do an operational analysis
and then individually to discuss individual performance. He chose to use a slightly different approach to the
operational analysis because he expected that they might have some problems working from the form used
with the owner. The following excerpt comes from that interview.

To begin the meeting, the consultant said:

I am here to �ind out just what your job as supervisor entails. This step is the �irst in determining what
training we can provide to make you more effective in your job. First, we need to know what it is you do on
the job. So I am going to let you provide me with a list of the things you do on the job—the tasks. Let me give
you an example of what I mean. For the job of a salesperson, I might be told a required task was to “sell
printers.” This description is too general to be useful, or you might say you must “introduce yourself to a new
client,” which is too speci�ic. What we need is somewhere in between these two extremes, such as “make oral
presentation to a small group of people.” Are there any questions? OK, let’s begin.

1. Q: Think of a typical Monday. What’s the �irst thing you do when you arrive at work?

2. A: Check the answering machine.

3. Q: That is a little too speci�ic. Why do you check the answering machine?

4. A: I need to return any important calls from suppliers or customers.

5. Q: What do these calls deal with?

6. A: Complaints usually, although some are checking on the status of their job.

7. Q: Anybody else do anything different from that?

8. A: No.

9. Q: What do you do next?

10. A: Examine the jobs that have come in and prioritize them based on their complexity and due date.

11. Q: The task, then, is organizing and prioritizing the new jobs you received. What next?

12. A: Meet with each subordinate, see how they are doing, and distribute the new work.

13. Q: Tell me what “see how they are doing” means.

14. A: I make sure that they are on schedule with their work. I check their progress on the jobs they are
working on.

15. Q: OK, so check on progress of subordinates is the task. What next?

16. A: After all the work is distributed, I check to see what orders are due to be completed and sent out
today.

17. Q: OK, but I guess that assumes everyone is on schedule. What do you do if someone is behind in their
job?

18. A: Depends how far behind the job is. If it is serious, I may simply take the job away and give it to
someone I think can do the job faster.

19. A: I do not do that. I �ind out what the problem is and help the person get back on track.

20. Q: So you spend some time training that person?

21. A: Well, sort of. It is not formal training, but I will see why the person is having problems and give
some of my “tricks of the trade” to speed things up.

22. Q: Anybody deal with this issue differently?

23. A: I do not usually have the time to do any training. I will give it to someone who can do it, or in some
cases, just do the job myself. Sometimes that is faster. After all, we have all this useless paperwork that
we have to do.

24. Q: I want to come back to the paperwork, but �irst, are you saying that no standard exists for dealing
with employees who are having problems with particular jobs?

25. A: Sure there is. The boss expects us to train them, but with the pressure for production, we often do
not have time to do that.

26. A: Well, I agree with that. Even though I do stop and spend time helping, I often feel the pressure to
rush and probably do not do a good job of it. I do try and tell them what they need to do to improve
in the particular area.

Although the format used in the session starts �irst thing in the morning and continues through a typical
day, clues often emerge as to other tasks that are done. The mentioning of “tell them what they need to
do to improve” causes the consultant to focus on that task and what other tasks are related to it, because
the owner did indicate that providing feedback was an important task.

1. Q: OK, let’s look at the issue of telling them how to improve. We could think of that as giving feedback
to employees. What other tasks require you to discuss things with subordinates?

2. A: We are supposed to deal with their concerns.

3. A: Yeah, that’s right, and also we are supposed to meet one-on-one with them and discuss their
performance. Trouble is, these new employees are know-it-alls and not willing to listen.

4. A: You’re right about that. On more than one occasion, many of us resort to yelling at these guys to get
them to respond.

5. A: Boy, is that ever true.

6. Q: What about the paperwork?

7. A: Well, it is stupid. A clerk could do it, but we are expected to do it. If we do not, then billing and other
problems come up, so we have to do it or else. …

A: Yeah, it takes away from us being out here where we are needed.
And so forth. …

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