I need someone to respond to peers’ 4 discussion responses. and need back tomorrow. 150 to 250 words each response. It is a total of 4 responses needed. Also, DO NOT BE CRITICAL IN RESPONSES AND ASK QUESTIONS
Motivating Employees
A major influence on job performance is motivation. There are several theories explaining the concept of motivation (expectancy theory, ERG theory, reinforcement theory, etc.). Select one of the following three scenarios to use as a framework for your discussion. In your post, apply a specific motivational theory to one of the three scenarios. Complete an analysis of the motivational theory using the scenario as a framework for your discussion. Respond to two other posts regarding items you found to be compelling and enlightening. To help you with your reply, please consider the following questions:
· What did you learn from the posting?
· What additional questions do you have after reading the posting?
· What clarification do you need regarding the posting?
· What differences or similarities do you see between your initial discussion thread and your classmates’ postings?
· How do your classmates’ chosen theories apply to other situations?
Your reply posts should be a minimum of 150-250 words each.
Scenario A
You are a manager at a manufacturing plant forced to reduce 25% of its workforce due to budget constraints caused in part by the increased prices of a raw material. The vast majority of the tasks once performed by employees are now outsourced to India. Consequently, your remaining workforce has suffered a significant lack of motivation. It is your task to move the remaining team forward under the current circumstances ensuring weekly quotas are reached and none of the production numbers suffer.
Scenario C
You have been employed at the same company for 20 years. You have come to terms with the fact that you have no promotional opportunities here and you are at a “dead end job.” You contemplated changing jobs a few times in the last few years, but some of the reasons you stay include a manageable work load, flexible work hours, friendly co-workers, and a supportive upper management team. Yet, you are not motivated to go above and beyond the expectations identified for your position and job description.
Respond to
Zakeeyah Rahim
post
Scenario A provides an example that emphasizes the value of Expectancy Theory, as developed by Victor Vroom. This theory is based on the idea that individuals select a behavior based on what they perceive that the result of that behavior will be. People are rational thinkers and are capable of recognizing the rewards and benefits of their actions. Vroom believed that people were able to perceive multiple options when making strategic decisions and weigh the relative merits of each. Expectancy Theory is dedicated to understanding the motivations of individuals, particularly of employees in a workplace environment (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013).
One example of Expectancy Theory is the idea that employees will be encouraged to work harder if they sense that there will be a reward that directly results from their efforts. In this way, Vroom believed that people were motivated by the outcomes of their actions rather by those actions on their own (Gontoro et al., 2013). For example, an employee may be more likely to put in extra effort if they are working toward a promotion or if there is a specific financial benefit connected to their work. They may work less hard if there is no attendant reward. The use of rewards and punishments around clearly stated benchmarks can be a valuable strategy for increasing morale, in part because this allows employees to know where they stand and to feel as though they have personal agency regarding how their feel about their jobs and the nature of their relation with management.
Scenario A describes a case in which an employer has cut 25% of its workforce due to budget concerns and outsourcing. As a result, remaining employees will have either lost close associations or will be asked to take on additional roles. A manager in this environment could cultivate motivation by attaching extrinsic rewards to high-performers, including the possibility of promotion and pay raise. The employer could clarify to the remaining employees that there are no more terminations in the foreseeable future, and that the remaining staff is still on board because they are valued and appreciated as part of solid team going forward. The manager could then ensure that employees sense that their productivity directly contributes to the welfare of the team by emphasizing potential rewards, future job security, and the chance to grow with a consolidated, highly motivated team. A leader could prioritize a more democratic decision-making process that would only be possible in the context of a smaller team. A leader could also ensure that a family-oriented, cohesive culture exists, and that communication and professional development are guiding principles in ways that were not possible in the past. In these ways, the leader could utilize expectancy theory to move the team forward in the wake of seismic employee losses.
Blanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. W. (2013). Effective training: Systems, strategies, and practices (5th Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Gontoro, B., Saisaukul, F., Oriamia, B. (2014, May). Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory: Application in goat smallholder farmers in Indonesia, International Journal of Current Research, 7(3), 2771-2779.
Respond to
Ashley Burks
post
Employee motivation has a significant impact on employee performance. My initial thought when reading this discussion post is recalling back to a book I have read called the 5 Love Languages, which summarizes the 5 ways in which individuals like to receive love. To me this is very similar to how employee motivation works. Leadership could provide extrinsic or intrinsic motivating factors. Personally, after reading this article, the motivating factor that resonates with me the most is career advancement. As leaders, you will sustain high levels of motivation from your employees if you can open doors of opportunity and accelerate their chances for advancement (Llopis, 2012, para. 11).
Analysis of ERG Theory (Scenario C)
As an employee referenced to be working a “dead end” job after 20 years of service with no available promotional opportunities, I would relate this scenario to the ERG Theory. Clayton Paul Aldefer developed ERG which represents three basic needs; existence, relatedness, and growth (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013, section 3.3). This theory’s framework proposes that employees need to feel safe, have meaningful interactions within the workplace and be provided with advancement opportunities. These three needs must be met simultaneously for employee to experience a sense of fulfilment in the work that they are doing. When leadership understands their employees’ needs it allows for better understanding of their behavior (Blanchard & Thacker). Employee frustration can result in regression, failure in this fulfilment can result in their motivation to be very low, which validates how an employee could feel like they are working a “dead end job” with little to no opportunities of new challenges. Absence of promotions can be extremely demotivating and growing employees without motivation or growth opportunities is challenge and can ultimately cripple an organization due to lack of high performance. Motivation depends upon how the value leadership places on their employees.
References:
Llopis, G. (2012, July 16). The Top 9 Things That Ultimately Motivate Employees to Achieve. Retrieved May 14, 2020, from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/glennllopis/2012/06/04/top-9-things-that-ultimately-motivate-employees-to-achieve/#6dd2ebe3257e (Links to an external site.)
Blanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. W. (2013).
Effective training: Systems, strategies, and practices
(5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
|
Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSAs) |
Review the Training in Action 1-3 scenario titled, “Training Needs in the Student Registration Office” in Chapter 1 of the Blanchard and Thacker (2013) text. Assume that you were hired to develop a training program for the Customer Service Representatives (CSRs) as described in the scenario. Identify four of the most important KSAs (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes) a training program for the CSRs must address and include your reasoning for selecting these. Discuss the specific activities to be performed in the five phases of the training process model: Analysis Phase, Design Phase, Development Phase, Implementation Phase, and Evaluation Phase.
Use this week’s lecture as a foundation for your initial post. Incorporate into your discussion the transfer of training concepts from the Jaidev and Chirayath (2012) article with an emphasis on pre-training, during-training, and post-training activities. Utilize concepts from the Develop a Training Plan video and the Blanchard and Thacker (2013) text in your discussion. Your initial post should be 250 to 300 words.
Respond to at least two other posts regarding items you found to be compelling and enlightening. To help you with your reply, please consider the following questions:
· What did you learn from the posting?
· What additional questions do you have after reading the posting?
· What clarification do you need regarding the posting?
· What differences or similarities do you see between your initial discussion thread and your classmates’ postings?
· Compare the KSAs you identified with those identified by others.
· What are the differences or similarities in the activities identified for the five phases of the training process model between your initial discussion thread and others?
· Analyze your classmates’ chosen KSAs. Do you agree or disagree with the choices? Why or why not? Provide examples where possible.
Your reply posts should be a minimum of 150-250 words each.
Reply to
Latasha Jones
post
Training and development are vital in an organization’s and an employee’s growth and success. Typically, successful organizations implement training programs in an attempt to be proactive in resolving workplace concerns and opportunities. As a developer for a training program for the Customer Service Representatives (CSRs), it is the mission to resolve the existing concerns with competency of functional expertise within the registrars office. The organization’s employees fully understand the expectations within the workplace, but fail to execute them appropriately. Because of this, students are being impacted when it comes to registering for courses. As Blanchard & Thacker (2013) states “the cause of the performance gap might be in inadequate knowledge, skills, or attitudes (KSAs) of employees”. There are five phases with the training process model which should be analyzed when developing a new training and development process. The five phases consist of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.
Analysis Phase: This phase consists of acknowledging the issue within the organization. Additionally time lines and action plans are established to correct the existing issue. This process consists of acknowledging the opportunity with employees failing to execute job duties and follow procedures.
Design Phase: The design phase consists of providing feedback to employees. This process would consist of training by performance appraisals and observations.
Development Phase: The development phase is when an outline is created to drive out the action plan. This includes holding employees accountable when it comes to following the protocol and being compliant.
Implementation Phase: The implementation phase provides employees with new activities to adjust their current behaviors. This includes soft skill activities such as online training.
Evaluation Phase: The evaluation phase consists of focusing on the results of the organizational change to acknowledge its effectiveness. Leaders should review if performance appraisals and soft skill training have increased employee’s abilities to follow the protocol.
Although the organization has not focused their efforts on molding their employees, employees should also be held accountable for not following processes and for failing to keep good attitudes within the organization. KSA’s are vital in focusing on training and selection. As Wooten (1993) states “however, KSA’s can be either selection criteria or training criteria.”
References
Blanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. W. (2013). Effective training: Systems, strategies, and practices (5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Wooten, W. (1993). Using knowledge, skill and ability (KSA) data to identify career pathing opportunities:.. Public Personnel Management, 22(4), 551. https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.1177/009102609302200405
Reply to
Sade Malone
post
Customer service representatives (CSRs) need relevant knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) to enhance quality service delivery. Based on Blanchard and Thacker (2013) case study, the CSRs have failed to meet students’ satisfaction during registration for classes. Therefore, these workers require appropriate training that reflects KSAs. The four KSAs include competitive computer literacy, effective communication, positive attitude, and academic qualifications. Firstly, students’ complaints about poor services might have arisen from technological problems, which involve computer skills. Secondly, the CSRs may be lacking adequate communication skills to address the organizational crisis. Thirdly, the CSRs may have poor attitudes due to low job satisfaction. The final KSAs, academic qualifications can assist in determining if the CSRs have the necessary training to provide quality services. As a result, an appropriate training program for the CSRs must address computer literacy, effective communication, positive attitude, and academic qualifications.
After identifying the most significant KSAs, the training will occur in five phases. The process will utilize the ADDIE model that focuses on analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (Danks, 2011; Jaidev & Chirayath, 2012). In the analysis phase, the trainers will examine the potential causes of the problem and propose suitable solutions. Some of the appropriate data collection techniques will include surveys and interviews to identify the factors that lead to poor service management. Therefore, this stage will enable the trainers to formulate the timeline, budget, and the general outline of the training. In the design phase, the change agents will create the learning objectives of this program. The development phase will consist of designing the model of the training and providing the deliverables in writing. The training will be delivered in the implementation phase, and its outcomes will be assessed in the evaluation phase.
References
Blanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. (2013). Effective training: International Edition. Pearson Higher Ed.
Danks, S. (2011). The ADDIE model: Designing, evaluating instructional coach effectiveness. ASQ Primary and Secondary Education Brief, 4(5), 1-6.
Jaidev, U. P., & Chirayath, S. (2012). Pre-training, during-training, and post-training activities as predictors of transfer of training. IUP Journal of Management Research, 11(4), 54.
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One Training in Organizations
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the components of a general open systems model.
Describe how an open systems model applies to the training unit of an organization.
List and describe the interrelationships among the �ive phases of the training process model.
Explain how the training model can be applied to organizational improvement and problem solving.
Describe the challenges/opportunities facing training.
De�ine key terms used in the training literature.
Describe the bene�its of integrating organizational development and training principles.
Describe the differences in how small and larger businesses might implement the training process
model.
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Case: Taking Charge at Domtar: What It Takes for a
Turnaround*
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i8#ch01fnt02)
Domtar is the third largest producer of uncoated freesheet paper in North America. In the decade prior to
1996, Domtar had one of the worst �inancial records in the pulp and paper industry. At that time it was a
bureaucratic and hierarchical organization with no clear goals. Half of its business was in “trouble areas.”
Moreover, the company did not have the critical mass to compete with the larger names in the �ield. The balance
sheet was in bad shape, and the company did not have investment-grade status on its long-term debt.
In July of 1996, Raymond Royer was named president and chief executive of�icer (CEO). This was quite a
surprise because, although Royer had been successful at Bombardier, he had no knowledge of the pulp and
paper industry. Many believed that to be successful at Domtar, you needed to know the industry.
Royer knew that to be effective in any competitive industry, an organization needed to have a strategic
direction and speci�ic goals. He decided to focus on two goals: return on investment and customer service.
Royer told Domtar executives that to survive, they needed to participate in the consolidation of the industry and
increase its critical mass. The goal was to become a preferred supplier. The competitive strategy had to focus on
being innovative in product design, high in product quality, and unique in customer service. At the same time,
however, it had to do everything to keep costs down.
When Royer took over at Domtar, he explained to the executive team that there were three pillars to the
company: customers, shareholders, and ourselves. He noted that it is only “ourselves” who are able to have any
impact on changing the company. He backed up his words with action by hiring the Kaizen guru from
Bombardier. Kaizen, a process of getting employees involved by using their expertise in the development of new
and more effective ways of doing things, had been very effective at Bombardier. Royer saw no reason why it
would not be successful at Domtar. Royer also knew that for the new strategic direction and focus to be
successful, everyone needed to both understand the changes being proposed and have the skills to achieve
them. The success of any change process requires extensive training; therefore, training became a key part of
Royer’s strategy for Domtar.
This last point re�lects the belief that it is the employees’ competencies that make the difference. The Domtar
Difference, as it is called, is re�lected in the statement, “tapping the intelligence of the experts, our employees.”
Employees must be motivated to become involved in developing new ways of doing things. Thus, Domtar
needed to provide employees with incentives for change, new skills, and a different attitude toward work. The
introduction of Kaizen was one tactic used to achieve these goals.
Training at Domtar went beyond the traditional job training necessary to do the job effectively and included
training in customer service and Kaizen. This is re�lected in Domtar’s mission, which is to
meet the ever-changing needs of our customers,
provide shareholders with attractive returns, and
create an environment in which shared human values and personal commitment prevail.
In this regard, a performance management system was put in place to provide a mechanism for employees to
receive feedback about their effectiveness. This process laid the groundwork for successfully attaining such
objectives as improving employee performance, communicating the Domtar values, clarifying individual roles,
and fostering better communication between employees and managers. Tied to this were performance
incentives that rewarded employees with opportunities to share in the pro�its of the company.
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Has Royer been successful with his approach? First-quarter net earnings in 1998 were $17 million,
compared with a net loss of $12 million for the same time period in 1997, his �irst year in of�ice. In 2002, third-
quarter earnings were $59 million and totaled $141 million for the year. That is not all. Recall his goal of return
on equity for shareholders. Domtar has once again been included on the Dow Jones sustainability index.
Domtar has been on this list since its inception in 1999 and is the only pulp and paper company in North
America to be part of this index. To be on the list, a company must demonstrate an approach that “aims to
create long-term shareholder value by embracing opportunities and managing risks that arise from economic,
environmental, and social developments.” On the basis of this, it could be said that Royer has been successful. In
2003, Paperloop, the pulp and paper industry’s international research and information service, named Royer
Global CEO of the year.
It was Royer’s sound management policies and shrewd joint ventures and acquisitions that helped Domtar
become more competitive and return their long-term debt rating to investment grade. However, joint ventures
and acquisitions bring additional challenges of integrating the new companies into the “Domtar way.” Again, this
requires training.
For example, when Domtar purchased the Ashdown Mill in Arkansas, the management team met with
employees to set the climate for change. The plan was that within 14 months, all mill employees would complete
a two-day training program designed to help them understand the Domtar culture and how to service
customers. A manager always started the one-day customer focus training, thus emphasizing the importance of
the training. This manager returned again at lunch to answer any questions as the training proceeded. In
addition, for supervisor training, each supervisor received skill training on how to effectively address employee
issues. How successful has all this training been? Employee Randy Gerber says the training “allows us to realize
that to be successful, we must share human values and integrate them into our daily activities.” The training
shows that “the company is committed to the program.” Tammy Waters, a communications coordinator, said that
the training impacted the mill in many ways and for Ashdown employees it has become a way of life.
The same process takes place in Domtar’s joint ventures. In northern Ontario, Domtar owns a 45 percent
interest in a mill, with the Cree of James Bay owning the remaining
55
percent. Although Domtar has minority
interest in the joint venture, training is an important part of its involvement. Skills training still takes place on
site, but all management and teamwork training is done at Domtar’s headquarters in Montreal.
Royer’s ability to get employees to buy into this new way of doing business was necessary for the
organization to succeed. Paperloop’s editorial director for news products, Will Mies, in describing why Royer
was chosen for the award, indicated that they polled a large number of respected security analysts, investment
of�icers, and portfolio managers as well as their own staff of editors, analysts, and economists to determine a
worthy winner this year. Raymond Royer emerged a clear favorite, with voters citing, in particular, his talent for
turnaround, outstanding �inancial management, and consistently excellent merger, acquisition, and
consolidation moves as well as his ability to integrate acquired businesses through a management system that
engages employees. Of course, that last part, “a management system that engages employees,” could be said to
be the key without which most of the rest would not work very well. That requires training.
* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i8#r__ch01fnt02) Swift, A.
“Royer’s Domtar turnaround.” Financial Post (October 6 2003), FP3. Allen, B. 2003. The Domtar difference.
www.pimaweb.org/conferences/june2003/BuddyAllen . Anonymous (January 2001) Partnership between
Domtar and Cree First Nations brings results. www.diversityupdate.com. Richard Descarries, Manager, Corporate
Communications and External Relations, Domtar, personal communication (2004).
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Overview of Training
Everyone in an organization is affected by training. Everyone receives training at one time or another, usually
multiple times. Managers and supervisors need to be sure that their direct reports have the competencies
required to perform their jobs. Subject matter experts (managers and others) are asked to provide training.
Signi�icant budget dollars are allocated to training employees. Although the US economy has suffered signi�icant
losses over the last several years, companies still dedicate substantial resources to employee learning. In 2010,
it is estimated that over $171.5 billion was invested in training activities. Most ($103 billion) was devoted to
internal training services, with the rest allocated to external providers. The average expenditure\ per employee
increased from $1,081 in 2009 to 1,228 in 2010.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_01)
Why do companies continue to invest in training, even in the most dif�icult economic times? Evidence shows
that companies investing more in training produce improved �inancial results in terms of higher net sales, gross
pro�its per employee, stock growth, and ratio of market to book value.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_02) For example, in
a Mutual of Omaha study, it was determined that those with higher levels of training generated, on average, an
additional $150,000 of new business premium each year. However, training doesn’t always lead to an improved
bottom line. Many companies report that they perceive little value from their training initiatives.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_03) Obviously,
companies that report very positive improvements are using more effective training practices than those that do
not. Effective training differs from ineffective training in terms of the processes used to determine what
employees need to learn and how training is designed and implemented. The �irst three chapters of this book
provide you with an understanding of the context and theoretical foundation on which effective training is
based. Chapters 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i
48
#ch04) through
8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) provide you with an in-
depth understanding of how to determine training needs and how to design, develop, and implement training to
meet those needs. Even companies that have reported unsatisfactory results from their training efforts are
doing at least one thing right—they are evaluating their training and can take corrective action. Companies that
don’t evaluate their training don’t have a clue about its effectiveness. We believe that it is useful, �irst, to give an
overview of what an effective training unit should accomplish in an organization. This chapter and the next
cover a broad set of organizational issues that provide the context for developing and implementing effective
training. As we discuss this context, we will be referring back to the Domtar case from time to time, to illustrate
in concrete ways how training relates to organizational effectiveness.
Training System and Processes
Training provides employees with the knowledge and skills to perform more effectively. This allows them to
meet current job requirements or prepares them to meet the inevitable changes that occur in their jobs.
However, training is only an opportunity for learning. What is learned depends on many factors, such as the
design and implementation of training, the motivation and learning style of the trainees, and the organization’s
learning climate.
Training is also part of an integrated system in which performance is measured against criteria (best
practices benchmarks) that are tied to strategic objectives. Training is used extensively to help employees
understand how they can assist in meeting corporate objectives. Clearly, Domtar knows that. Recall, when
Domtar purchased the Ashdown Mill, training was an immediate focus. Within 14 months, all mill employees
completed a two-day training program so they would understand Domtar’s culture and know how to service
customers in the appropriate manner. Always having a manager kick off the training and later return to answer
questions shows the importance Domtar attached to training. But effective training requires more than just
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having key managers available. It requires that effective systems are in place to address the performance issues
facing the organization. With that in mind, we turn to the design of an effective training system.
Training as an Open System
Figure 1-1 shows a general open systems model
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_001) .
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_04) Open systems
have a dynamic relationship with their environment; closed systems do not. Obviously, a business must interact
with its environment, making it an open system.
As Figure 1-1 indicates, an open system depends on the environment for the input that supports the system.
A business, for example, needs raw materials, capital, and employees in order to operate. The environmental
inputs are transformed into outputs by the system’s processes. For a business, these would include its products
and services. The system’s outputs �low into the environment and might or might not in�luence future inputs
into the system. In effective systems, the system output in�luences the environment to supply new supportive
input to the system.
Figure 1-1 General Open Systems Model
A system, such as a business, must be responsive to the needs and demands of its environment because the
environment provides the input needed for the system to replenish itself. Forexample, if a business is
responsive to the needs of society by providing valued goods and services (output), it receives �inancial and
goodwill credits (input). The business uses these inputs to continue operating. If the business does not provide
suf�icient value to its environment, it will fail because the environment will not provide the necessary input for
the system to replenish itself.
Many open systems exist as part of another open system and, therefore, are called subsystems of that larger
system. For example, a product assembly system is a subsystem of a manufacturing system, which itself is a
subsystem of the company, which is a subsystem of the industry, and so on. Training can be seen as a subsystem
within the larger human resources (HR) unit, which itself is a subsystem of the company. Figure 1-2 illustrates
some of the exchanges that take place between the training system and the larger organizational system. The
organization’s mission, strategies, resources, and the like, all represent sources of input into the training
subsystem. Of course, if the training department is part of a larger HR function, then these inputs would be
�iltered through that system. Organizational and employee needs, training budgets, staff, equipment, and so
forth, are all inputs from the organization to the training subsystem. Training processes transform these inputs
into usable output for the organization (improved knowledge, skills, and attitudes; job performance; and so on).
Looking at the training unit from an open system perspective shows how interconnected training activities are
with what is happening elsewhere in the organization. The point here is that the organization invests money in
the training function, for which it expects a favorable return. Periodically, the organization will examine the
returns from training and determine whether the training system is working properly and what further
investment is appropriate. Training in Action 1-1 demonstrates the consequences of a poor match between the
training system and the organizational environment.
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Figure 1-2 Training as an Open System
The Training Process Model
This book will take you through the complete training process as it would be conducted under ideal conditions.
Unfortunately, most organizations do not operate in ideal conditions. Insuf�icient �inancial resources, time, and
training professionals represent just a few of the challenges faced by most companies. Recognizing these
limitations, we also provide variations to training practices and systems that, although not ideal, do a reasonable
job of accomplishing training objectives
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_002) . Of course,
these shortcuts exact a price, and we identify the major consequences associated with these shortcuts. Thus, we
try to provide both “ideal” and more practical approaches to implementing the training processes. Nonetheless,
even in less-than-ideal conditions, all of the training processes are critical to the success of training. Although
less-than-ideal methods may be used to carry out the training processes, elimination of one or more of the
processes places the entire effort at grave risk.
1-1 Training in Action Team Building Sizzles, then Fizzles
The director of a city utilities department felt that creating employee problem-solving teams would
improve the quality of operations and the ef�iciency of the department. All employees were provided the
opportunity to participate in team-building and problem-solving training. About 60 percent of the
employees, including the director and his management group, signed up for the training. Three-hour
training sessions took place once a week for ten weeks. Working on a common process within their
department, employees were grouped into teams for three weeks of team-building training and seven
weeks of problem-solving training.
At the beginning of the problem-solving training, each team identi�ied a problem in its area of
operation. Each team then worked through the problem as they progressed though each step of the
training. The team members were delighted to be learning new skills while working on a real problem. By
the end of training, each group actually solved, or made signi�icant progress toward solving, the problem
it was working on. Evaluations taken at the conclusion of training indicated that trainees enjoyed the
training and understood the steps, tools, and techniques of team building and problem solving. The
director was pleased with the results and submitted a report documenting the successes of the training
to the city manager.
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Follow-up evaluation conducted six months later showed only one team still in operation. The other
teams fell apart for various reasons, such as excessive workloads, little recognition being given when
problems were solved, nontrained employees resisting making changes in work processes, or teams
being ridiculed by those who had not participated in training. Clearly, the training did not achieve the
desired outcomes. If the director had understood the system and what was and was not rewarding, a
more successful outcome could have been achieved. By using the analysis phase of the Training Process
Model, the relevant aspects of the system would have been identi�ied and adjustments to either the
system or the training could have been made.
Effective training is not just running a lot of people through a lot of training programs. To view training this
way is shortsighted. Instead, training should be viewed as a set of integrated processes in which organizational
needs and employee capabilities are analyzed and responded to in a rational, logical, and strategic manner.
When training is conducted this way, both the employees’ and organization’s performance will improve. This
will increase the value of the training unit, and, as a result further investment in training is likely to occur. Our
model of training processes, depicted in Figure 1-3, re�lects this approach.
Figure 1-3 Training Processes Model
Figure 1-3 is merely an overview of the process. A more detailed �igure for each phase is provided at the
beginning of each relevant chapter, with the input and output of each process described in considerably more
detail. Our model is an adaptation of what has become widely known as the ADDIE
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_003) model. ADDIE
is an acronym for the major processes of training: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and
Evaluation. Many, including your authors have attempted to �ind the original source for this model, but
apparently there is no single source. It seems to have evolved over time to become an umbrella term without a
fully articulated underlying structure.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_05) Like others, we
have used ADDIE as the generic basis for our own model of how training should proceed. In the following
paragraphs, we will brie�ly describe each of the ADDIE phases and their relevant inputs and outputs. This model
is used extensively throughout the book , so it is important to be familiar with it.
The training process begins with some type of triggering event. A triggering event
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person with authority to take action believes that actual organizational performance (AOP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_005) is less than the
expected organizational performance (EOP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_006) . For example,
the quality standard (the EOP) at Company X is three rejects per thousand. An examination of the data for the
previous month indicates that the actual quality level (AOP) was 17 rejects per thousand. If a person with
authority to take action sees this gap as a concern, it would trigger an analysis of why the number of rejects is
so high. This analysis is discussed next.
Analysis Phase
The analysis phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_007) begins with the
identi�ication of the organizational performance gap
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch04_004) (AOP is less
than EOP). Things such as pro�itability shortfalls, low levels of customer satisfaction, or excessive scrap are all
examples of a current performance gap. Another type of performance gap is future oriented. Here, the company
is seen as likely to perform poorly in thefuture unless changes are made. For example, if an organization wanted
to install robotic equipment in six months but employees were not able to program the robots, then there is an
expected performance gap in the future. Once a performance gap exists, the cause must then be determined.*
* There are often multiple causes of a performance gap, but we are using a single cause here for simplicity.
Once the cause is determined, and its elimination is believed to be important, the elimination of the cause
becomes a “need” of the organization.
The analysis phase is often referred to as a training needs analysis (TNA)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_009) . However, both
training and nontraining needs are identi�ied with this process, so it is incorrect to say it only focuses on
training needs. The cause of the performance gap might be inadequate knowledge, skills, or attitudes (KSAs) of
employees. If so, then training is a possible solution. However, KSA de�iciencies are only one of many reasons
for performance gaps. Other reasons, such as motivation or faulty equipment, must be separated from KSA
de�iciencies, as these are nontraining needs and require a different solution. In the analysis phase, the causes of
a performance gap are identi�ied, whether due to KSAs or something else. Those performance gaps caused by
KSA de�iciencies are identi�ied as “training needs” because training is a solution. All other causes are de�ined as
nontraining needs, and require other types of solutions.
The analysis phase also attaches priorities to the training needs that are identi�ied. Not all needs will have the
same level of importance for the company. This process of data gathering and causal analysis to determine
which performance problems should be addressed by training is the analysis phase of the training process. It
will be discussed in great detail in Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) .
Design Phase
The training needs identi�ied in the analysis phase, as well as areas of constraint and support, are the inputs to
the design phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_010) . An important
process in the design phase is the creation of training objectives. These provide direction for what will be
trained and how. They specify the employee and organizational outcomes that should be achieved as a result of
training and become inputs to the development and evaluation phases of the model. As such they become the
evaluation objectives.
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Another part of the design process is determining how the organizational constraints will be addressed by
the training. Finally, identifying the factors needed in the training program to facilitate learning and its transfer
back to the job are key outcomes from the design phase. All of these factors are used to create the guidelines
for how the training will be developed. The design phase is the topic of Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) . Chapters 6
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i84#ch06) and 7
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) provide detailed
descriptions of the various methods that can be used to deliver the content of the training.
Development Phase
Development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_011)
is the process of using the guidelines from the design phase to formulate an instructional strategy that will meet
the training objectives. Obtaining or creating all the things that are needed to implement the training program is
also a part of this phase. The instructional strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch08_001) describes the
order, timing, and combination of methods and elements to be used in the training program to meet the
objectives. The training objectives provide the focus for program development and the guidelines from the
design phase set the parameters for what will and will not work. Outputs from this phase are all of the things
needed to implement the training program. These include the speci�ic content for of the training, instructional
methods used to deliver the content, materials to be used, equipment and media, manuals, and so forth. These
are integrated into a coherent, well-organized training plan focused on achieving the training objectives. These
outputs of the development phase serve as inputs to the implementation phase. Both the development phase
and the implementation phase are the focus of Chapter 8
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) .
Implementation Phase
All the previous phases of the training process come together during the implementation phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_013) . It is useful to
conduct a dry run or even a pilot of the program before actually delivering the training. This dry run, or pilot
program, allows for the testing of the training to determine if any modi�ications are necessary before it is ready
to go live. Chapter 8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08)
addresses the key aspects of the dry run and delivery of the training.
Evaluation Phase
Although we discuss this phase of the model last, it actually begins during the development phase. Recall that
evaluation objectives are an output of the design phase. In the design phase the training objectives were
identi�ied, and these were used in the development phase to create the instruments and measures that will be
used to evaluate the training. These become inputs to the evaluation phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_014) . More input
comes from the organizational constraints. Time, money, and staff all affect how training is evaluated. Two types
of evaluation are useful. First, process evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_002) determines
how well a particular training process achieved its objectives (i.e., outputs). In other words, did the trainer
follow the exact training process suggested? For example, if role-plays were in the design, were they used
properly? Collecting and analyzing process data can provide early warning of potential problems in the training
program.
Outcome evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch09_001) is the
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organization. This type of evaluation uses the training objectives as the standard. Outcome evaluation can also
be used to improve training processes. Outcome evaluation data by themselves do not provide enough
information for program improvement, but in combination with process evaluation data, they serve as a
powerful tool for improving programs. For example, if one or more objectives are not achieved, the training
process evaluation data can then be used to identify problems in the process and corrective action can be taken.
Chapter 9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i125#ch09) provides a
detailed discussion of the evaluation process.
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Trends in Training
The business environment in North America will continue to change rapidly. These changes bring both
challenges and opportunities. Successful companies in most industries must constantly realign their activities to
meet new conditions while remaining true to their mission and strategic direction. As companies adapt, their
training function also needs to adapt. Multiple surveys over the last several years have asked HR executives and
human resource development (HRD) managers to identify their organization’s needs for the next several years.
These are the major trends in training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_06)
Aligning training with business strategy
Advances in Technology
Managing talent due to changing demographics
Improving the training function
Quality
Legal issues
Each of these issues is discussed in subsequent paragraphs in terms of the opportunities and challenges it
presents to the training function. The ways in which companies are addressing these issues are covered in more
depth in Chapter 10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i141#ch10) , Key
Areas of Organizational Training.
Aligning Training with Business Strategy
For the past �ive years, virtually all the surveys show that aligning training with business strategy is a top
priority not only of training managers, but also of HR managers and other business executives. Why is it such a
high priority? First, it is only in the last decade that reliable evidence of training’s impact on the bottom line has
surfaced. Second, and just as important, the business environment over the last decade has been changing
rapidly, and all signs indicate that this will continue. Most companies will need to continuously realign their
activities to meet new conditions. This requires people at all levels in the organization to be able to make day-to-
day decisions that support the business strategy. Training initiatives will need to support the strategic direction
of the company and the people who carry it out. Organizations now realize that effective training is a tool for
getting better job performance, better bottom-line results, and creating organization-wide adaptability.
What actions did Domtar take to align its training with its business strategy? One component was the
institution of Kaizen methods and the associated training. This aligns with the strategic goal of “tapping the
intelligence of the experts, our employees.” Was the money Domtar spent on this training worth it? It would
seem so. Using the Kaizen approach, employees developed a new way of cutting trees into planks. The result
was fewer wood chips to transport and more logs produced per tree. Since 1997, it is estimated that Kaizen has
saved Domtar about $230 million in production costs. Two of their mills are among the lowest-cost mills in
North America. Clearly, the training at Domtar was aligned with its strategic goals.
Companies are now realizing that worker knowledge is a competitive advantage and that training is a
strategic tool. As Angela Hornsby, V.P. of learning and development at Carlson Restaurants Worldwide, says:
“Things are changing so much more quickly these days, and companies have to adapt so much faster than
before to remain competitive. The fact is that one of the most powerful tools we have at our disposal to change
performance and help people to adapt more readily to that change is learning.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_07) Even though
aligning training with business strategy is an important goal, it isn’t as easy to do. We will discuss this in more
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depth in Chapter 2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i19#ch02) ,
providing suggestions for how to meet this challenge and take advantage of the opportunities it affords.
Advances in Technology
The second biggest issue for training executives to deal with is the rapid advances being made in learning
technologies. In addition to advances in Learning Management Systems, Intelligent Tutoring, interactive
multimedia, and other tools that have been around for a decade or more, new possibilities for designing and
delivering training programs are expanding exponentially. We will discuss these in depth in Chapter 7
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i100#ch07) , so here we only identify
some of the opportunities/problems these create for training executives and designers. The advent of Web 2
technologies can be applied to the design and delivery of training in a way that enhances trainees’ involvement
and learning. Tools such as blogs, Twitter, Facebook, MySpace and Linkedin offer ways to enhance or in some
cases replace the traditional training that occurs in a classroom and even some earlier types of electronic-based
training. Following are some of the ways these Web 2 applications can be used:
Social networking can provide support for on-the-job training.
Social networking and Web 2.0 tools can engage trainees before and after they attend a session and can
be used to reinforce learning back on the job.
An online community can be created for trainees for reference, sharing information, and posting best
practices. This allows trainees to continue learning beyond the classroom.
Blogs can be used to post examples and applications that keep participants engaged in the topic area.
Additionally, advances in mobile-device technology allow trainees to take all of these Web 2.0 tools, applications
and more with them wherever they go.
Training executives must develop strategies for utilizing the available technology in ways that meet their
business’ needs. Too often in the past, training executives have jumped on the latest technology bandwagon,
only to �ind it wasn’t going where they wanted to go. The lessons learned from those early adopters provide a
clear message of caution. However, the potential bene�its of these technologies mean that a careful analysis
needs to be made. The problem is the technologies keep morphing at such a rapid pace, it becomes very dif�icult
to keep up.
Managing Talent Due to Changing Demographics
Major demographic shifts have occurred in North America that affect businesses now and will for the next
15
years. Principal among these demographic shifts are as follows:
Increased gender, ethnic, and age diversity in the North American workforce
Aging of the population (baby boomers)
Diversity
Hispanics will soon become the largest minority group in the U.S. workforce. While all other minority groups
are increasing in size, the percentage of Caucasians is expected to decrease. The number of women will increase
to about 50 percent of the workforce.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_08) Increased
diversity brings both the opportunity for new ways of approaching business issues and the challenge of �inding
ways to integrate these differing perspectives. We will discuss the legal side of diversity in the “Legal Issues”
section. Along with more diversity in terms of gender, ethnicity, and so forth, the workforce is becoming more
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diverse with respect to age. Four distinct generations are currently in the workforce. Each generation has a
different set of values relating to the role of work in their life. The average age of the population is increasing
with about 14 percent of the labor market aged 55 or older. By 2015, over 20 percent are expected to be in this
range. As these people retire from their jobs, many will return to the workforce on a part-time basis because of
the demand for knowledgeable workers and the insecurity of retirement income. However, these people will not
be looking for traditional full-time jobs. Rather, they will be looking for jobs that allow them to enjoy signi�icant
periods of time away from job responsibilities. Younger workers want a more balanced work and nonwork life
and are more conversant with technologies that allow them to work from anywhere. We are seeing more
training focused on building bridges between the older managers and the younger subordinates and programs
for team skills that focus on cooperation and problem solving. In general, there are increasing demands for
these programs to be aligned with business goals rather than focusing on diversity for its own sake.
Developing the Right Talent
Some have suggested that most companies, now or in the near future, will face a severe shortage of all types of
labor. The worldwide economic recession that began in 2008 has certainly eliminated that concern, at least in
the near term. Nonetheless, it is now and will continue to be important for most businesses to secure workers
with the right skill sets.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_09) Baby boomers
with the highest knowledge and skill levels will be the ones most likely to leave the workforce, as they will have
higher levels of retirement income. Because of changes in technology, job design, and the like, it is estimated that
more than 75 percent of the workforce needs retraining just to keep up with the changes in their current jobs. It
is projected that the forces identi�ied earlier will combine by 2020 to create a shortage of 20 million workers,
especially in jobs that require the most skill and provide the highest economic value.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_10) A survey of
senior executives in manufacturing �irms indicates that replacing retiring skilled workers will cost their
companies up to $20 million a year and will continue for at least �ive years.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_11) ,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_12) Where will the
needed talent come from in the next few years? The traditional source of talent coming out of the colleges and
technical schools will be fought over �iercely, because there won’t be enough to go around. To make up the
shortage, many companies will create their own talent. For example, in 2005, Hewlett-Packard addressed this
issue by increasing their training budget by 16 percent, bringing the total to $300 million. Raytheon Vision
Systems realized that over
35
percent of their workforce would be eligible to retire by 2009. This not only
would create a huge loss of people, but also would represent a critical loss of institutional knowledge. Many of
those set to retire were the inventors of the knowledge. Raytheon set up a “Leave a Legacy” program, pairing
vital-knowledge experts with high-potential subordinates in mentoring relationships. In addition to the shortage
of new talent, existing employees will need training to keep up with the changes brought on by new
technologies. Thus, in many organizations, you will �ind the training function focusing on the following types of
initiatives:
Programs that focus on the recruiting and selection process (such as recruiter training, behavioral
based interviewing, etc.)
Programs that improve retention of knowledge workers (e.g., orientation, performance review)
Programs that assess and track job requirements and employee competencies (HRIS systems)
Development of innovative knowledge delivery systems that increase the speed with which knowledge
is obtained and provide an increased breadth of training opportunities is another way in which
companies are creating more knowledgeable workers more quickly (computer-based and other
electronic forms of training)
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In addition to technological innovation, the competitive environment demands that organizations continuously
upgrade the knowledge of their workforce. Consumer demands for higher-quality products and services and
the �iercely competitive global economy require employees at every level who are more knowledgeable, more
committed to quality, show better judgment, and demonstrate more competencies than ever before.
Tied to the increased level of knowledge expected of all workers is the speed with which knowledge is
acquired. In today’s competitive business environment, most companies have minimized the time it takes to
move a product from the idea stage to the marketplace. This, however, puts great strains on the ability of the
employees to be up to speed on the new products and production processes. The smart companies are now
making “time to knowledge” as important as “time to market.” By getting the training department involved early
in the product development stage, companies are able to provide just-in-time training and increase the breadth
of training opportunities.
Training in Action 1-2 describes how the United Farm Workers union was able to work with farm owners
and managers to create more knowledgeable farm workers. This is especially interesting since many unions
have resisted increased knowledge requirements for the jobs they represent.
Quality and Continuous Improvement
Training must be seen as an integral part of the organization’s performance improvement system. If not, it will
continue to be seen as a cost center, providing less valued contributions to the organization. Training was a
critical part of Domtar’s change process. It helped educate employees regarding the mission, strategy, and
objectives of the organization and how these objectives
translated to each employee’s job behaviors. Experienced trainers know that effective training is structured as a
continuous performance improvement process that is integrated with other systems and business strategies,
just as at Domtar. While several models exist for continuous improvement, common to them all are the
following:
Identi�ication of performance improvement opportunities and analysis of what caused the opportunity
to exist (gap analysis)
Identi�ication of alternative solutions to the opportunity and selection of the most bene�icial solution. A
training program is one of many possible performance improvement solutions
Design and implementation of the solution (training if it is one of the selected solutions)
Evaluation of results to determine what, if any, further action should be taken
Each of these steps matches well when placed against the Training Process Model. That is because effective
training is a continuous performance improvement process. Training does not stop and start with each
program. The training function in organizations continuously searches for performance improvement
opportunities, develops and implements solutions, and evaluates the effectiveness of the solutions.
Quality improvement is a key component of most continuous improvement processes. High-quality products
and services are necessary to stay in business in today’s competitive markets and thus have high priority for
most businesses. This is especially true for businesses that provide products or services directly to other
businesses. Typically, these companies must demonstrate the quality of their products through quality systems
developed by the purchasing company or by some globally accepted agency. For example, the major automobile
manufacturers impose their quality systems on suppliers. The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_017) , located in
Geneva, Switzerland, developed a set of worldwide standards to ensure consistency in product quality by all
companies that become certi�ied. In general, there are �ive stages in the certi�ication process:
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1. Preaudit: assessing how you are doing now
2. Process mapping: documenting the way things are done
3. Change: developing processes to improve the way things are done to reach a desired level of quality
4. Training: training in the new processes
5. Postaudit: assessing how well you are doing after the changes and continuing the improvement process
Once certi�ied, there are continuing audits to ensure company compliance with the standards. Thus, training is
an important part of attaining ISO certi�ication and is required on a continuous basis to maintain certi�ication.
The certi�ication process also helps improve training. A research study showed improvements in TNA, design,
delivery methods, and evaluation following certi�ication.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_14) This study also
found that these companies provided more hours and more types of training and had a larger training budget
following certi�ication.
In addition to improved training processes, companies with ISO certi�ication also �ind the following
advantages: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_15)
Improved ef�iciency
Higher productivity
Better internal communication
Improved quality image and market competitiveness
Increased customer preference
Increased awareness of opportunities for process and quality improvements
Reduced costs and improved ability to document quality control processes to their customers
Glen Black, president of the Process Quality Association in Canada, compared ISO-certi�ied companies with
those not certi�ied. He found that certi�ied companies are six times less likely to experience bankruptcy, average
76 percent lower warranty costs in customer-discovered defects, and allow 36 percent less bureaucracy within
their company structure.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_16) A cost comes
with achieving these bene�its, however. Once the company makes the decision to seek certi�ication, it must be
prepared to engage in a substantial amount of training that can be costly. Furthermore, training is only one part
of the overall cost, so each business must determine whether the costs of ISO certi�ication are justi�ied by the
bene�its.
1-2 Training in Action FIELD Partners with Growers
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_13)
A more knowledgeable workforce is a double-edged sword for unions. On the one hand, union
leadership demands that employers provide training for the rank and �ile to keep them up to date with
modern operating methods. On the other hand, union leadership also understands that more
knowledgeable workers improve the ef�iciency of the company, resulting in reductions in the size of the
bargaining unit. A major challenge for the future is �inding a way for both the company and the union to
prosper under intensely competitive conditions, where a knowledgeable workforce is a competitive
advantage. Some progress in this area is evident from the development of partnerships between unions
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and employers to create education and training programs that develop less skilled employees and
increase productivity. Even at the lowest levels of the agriculture industry, more knowledgeable workers
can improve the bottom line. The Farmworker Institute for Education and Leadership Development
(FIELD) serves as an intermediary between management and community organizations and provides
direct training to both current employees and potential employees. FIELD was founded by the United
Farm Workers (UFW) union to foster the economic and social prosperity of the low-income and low-skill
farm workers and their families. Working in partnership with agricultural owners and managers, FIELD
provides classroom training, educational literacy programs, and cross training to prepare workers for
jobs in agriculture. It also provides training for those already employed, on the basis of employer needs.
These programs include upgrading job skills, communication, quality management, leadership
development, and con�lict resolution. For example, FIELD trained over 900 workers at seven companies
in health and safety. FIELD also provides customized training, as it did for Monterey Mushrooms, a
California-based distributor of fresh and processed mushrooms with a UFW workforce. The training
developed by FIELD reinforced the company’s “be the best” principles and encouraged collaboration and
con�lict resolution. The company has bene�ited from the training with higher productivity and fewer
accidents.
Legal Issues
Equal employment opportunity, af�irmative action, sexual harassment, and related legislation have placed legal
requirements on businesses regarding speci�ic types of training. You will learn in detail the training issues
related to sexual harassment and equity (speci�ically related to females in nontraditional jobs, the glass ceiling,
and the disabled) in Chapter 10
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i141#ch10) . In addition, trainers
need to be aware of liability issues, copyright infringement, and other legal concerns. The discussion of these
issues is not intended to provide technical legal information, but rather to provide a general (and
understandable) description of the important legal issues related to training activities.
Equal Opportunity/Equity
In North America, federal, state, or provincial law and associated court rulings provide the complex legal
framework within which businesses must develop their HR policies and practices. Even though legislation
initially focused on the selection of people into the organization, there are many areas related to training that
also require attention. This is especially true as the legal battlegrounds have shifted from employment to career
opportunities over the last decade. Since this is not a text on training liability issues, we will address the topic
only in a general way. Those wishing a more in-depth coverage might want to read “Avoiding Legal Liability: For
Adult Educators, Human Resource Developers, and Instructional Designers.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_17)
United States federal law makes it illegal to exclude people from training on the basis of gender, race, age
(employees aged 40 or older), and disabilities. Generally, these categories are referred to as “protected,” as they
belong to a “protected group.” Employers must make sure that criteria for selecting people into training
programs are based on bona �ide job requirements (not race, gender, age, etc.). Employees targeted for
promotion generally receive training and developmental experiences to prepare them for the new position. The
legal issue here is that those in protected classes may claim that they did not receive the training needed to be
promoted. In general, the law says that those in protected groups must be given equal opportunity for
promotions. If members of a protected group can demonstrate that they have been adversely affected (e.g.,
fewer promotions, lower pay) because they did not receive training that was provided to those who received
those bene�its (e.g., promotions), the burden of proof falls on the employer to demonstrate that its practices are
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job-related and consistent with business necessity. In the case of promotions, a company can avoid such claims
by providing equal access to training for all employees in a job classi�ication. Once it is determined that someone
in the classi�ication will be promoted, that person can receive additional training to prepare for the new
position. The legal issue of equal opportunity then focuses on the selection process rather than the training
opportunities.
For employees with disabilities (physical or mental), the employer must not only ensure equal opportunity
for training, but also make reasonable accommodation. Reasonable accommodation means making training
facilities and materials readily accessible and useable to those with a disability. Depending on the disability, this
could include instructional media and/or providing readers. If the training is considered to be related to
essential job functions and the disability prevents the person from participating in the training, then, unless
undue hardship can be demonstrated, the employer is obligated to provide alternative training that develops
the same set of competencies.
Not only do protected groups need equal access to training, they must receive equal treatment while
participating in training. This means that the training must provide equal opportunities for learning, practice,
and feedback.
Required Training
Some training is required by law. Failure to provide this training will subject the company to sanctions from the
courts or federal and state regulators. For example, the Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers
to provide periodic training on the handling of hazardous materials and the use of safety equipment. Flight
crews on passenger airlines must complete a set of mandated training courses. In other cases, courts have
ordered companies to provide speci�ic types of training to redress problems identi�ied in court proceedings.
Companies that have lost employment discrimination cases have been ordered to provide diversity training, and
those losing sexual harassment cases have been ordered to provide sexual harassment training.
In other cases, even though training is not legally required, it makes good legal sense to provide the training.
In a 1999 ruling, Kolstad v. American Dental Association, the Supreme Court recognized the good-faith effort of
employers to implement and enforce measures to prevent discrimination and harassment in the workplace.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_18) Essentially, the
court found that even though an individual might behave in a manner that violated the federally protected rights
of another employee, no damages would be awarded if the company was shown to have made a good-faith
effort to prevent the activity. One component of such a good-faith effort is to provide training aimed at
preventing the illegal behavior. Another component is the implementation of policy and procedure for
addressing the behavior, should it occur, and �inally, the application of sanctions to individuals found to have
engaged in the behavior. We discuss how this is done and provide examples in Chapter 10
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i141#ch10) . The number of sexual
harassment claims has decreased over the last few years, but the number of discrimination claims of all types
has remained steady.
In designing training programs to deal with discrimination and harassment, trainers need to avoid training
that itself is discriminating or harassing. For example, in the early 1990s, it was documented that women
aircraft controllers who had to walk down long aisles populated by their mostly male colleagues would �ind
themselves subject to jeers and/or sexual comments, and, on occasion, would have their dresses pulled up.
After repeated complaints about such behavior, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) arranged for training
to be provided to its 8,000 employees. A part of the training involved men walking down a gauntlet of women
coworkers, who now did the jeering, sexual commentary, and groping. It was intended that the men get a
�irsthand understanding of what the women had experienced. One of the male participants was outraged by the
experience. He stated that he did not treat others in this manner and did not expect to be treated that way
himself. In the program he was accused, as a white male, of being in sexist denial. He complained to his
supervisors in the FAA but little was done. Shortly thereafter, he �iled a $300,000 lawsuit for sexual harassment.
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He won, and the FAA’s director of training was �ired.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_19)
Liability for Injury or Illness
Some types of training programs have the potential to cause physical or psychological injury or illness to
participants. For example, some simulations that require trainees to use tools or equipment might cause injury
if they are used incorrectly. Training in other instances might involve the use of chemicals that can cause illness
if inhaled. In many states, the employer is responsible for �inancial damages resulting from injuries or illness
caused by participation in training. This is true even if the training is provided by an outside vendor. Trainees
need to be warned of any dangers associated with training, be trained in methods of preventing the dangers
from occurring, and be provided with safety equipment. Employers are also liable for injuries to nonemployees
resulting from a poorly or incorrectly trained employee.
Con�identiality
An employee’s performance during and at the conclusion of training is con�idential in the same manner as other
employee information. Thus, if performance in training is to be used in promotion or salary decisions, the
employee must be informed that it will be used in that way. Unless permission has been granted, or the trainee
is informed prior to training that such discussions would occur, trainers must also avoid discussion of the
trainee’s performance with other employees.
Copyrighted Materials
The use of any copyrighted material without the permission of the owner is illegal. If your training vendors
infringe on the copyrighted material of others while providing your company with services, your company
could be liable for damages. Thus, as the training manager, you would want to make sure that your contract with
the vendor required the legal use of any copyrighted materials.
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Career Opportunities in Training
In 2011, there were a little less than twelve training staff per 1000 employees for midsized companies.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_20) To understand
the types of career paths training offers, it is necessary to understand how the training unit �its in the
organization. This can vary considerably across organizations. For example, large companies typically separate
management training and development from the training of the nonmanagement employees. Each of these
areas might be further divided into more specialized activities. For example, the employee development area
might contain separate units focused on training in customer service, employee orientation, health and safety,
and each of the organization’s major operation areas (sales, manufacturing, etc.). If the company is very large, it
might also have specialists working in evaluation and research, program design, materials development, and
needs analysis. The person in charge of customer service training, for example, would work with specialists in
these areas to do the following:
Determine the customer service training needs in the organization.
Develop training programs to meet those needs.
Develop materials to support the instructional methods to be used in the programs.
Evaluate the effectiveness of the programs.
Entry-level positions in a large company’s HRD department are usually at the specialist level. Thus, a new
hire with little experience but a good education in the training area could start out as a materials designer or a
stand-up trainer, depending on her KSAs. In a large organization, a career path might look like the one shown in
Figure 1-4. The early rotation through the various specialist positions provides the novice trainer with �irsthand
experience in all aspects of the training system. When a person has a solid grasp of the system (i.e., how it is
“supposed” to work and how it “actually” works), she is able to supervise or coordinate one of the specialist
areas. Some large companies also require their HRD personnel to spend time in a line position, to better
understand the needs of line personnel. Thus, at some point in the career ladder pictured in Figure 1-4, the
training practitioner could �ind himself supervising or working in a line operation for a period of 6 to 12
months, although this requirement is still fairly unusual. Supervisors will often also rotate across specialist
areas before moving into a manager’s role, such as manager of employee development. After suf�icient
experience and success as a manager, the trainer may be asked to assume responsibility for all training and
development activity in the organization—the training executive position.
Figure 1-4 Career Path in HRD
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The smaller the organization, the greater the breadth of responsibility each person in the training unit will
have. In a medium-sized company, with around 1,000 employees, the HRD activities of employee and
management training may not be separated into separate units, but carried out by the same small group of
people under the guidance of an HRD manager. Each individual is expected to perform all (or most) aspects of
each of the activities. Smaller companies (100–300 employees) may not have an HRD or training department at
all. Instead, a single individual may be responsible for all training activities. In even smaller businesses, many of
the HR responsibilities, including training, are decentralized out to the line managers. HR departments may
consist of only one or two people who handle the core HR activities and act as consultants and facilitators for
the line managers in carrying out their HR responsibilities, such as training.
Another career path for a training and development professional is as a member of a training or consulting
�irm. Requirements here vary greatly. There are a large number of one- or two-person consulting businesses
that do training. These people market some core set of knowledge they have acquired through their work
experience, education, or both. There are also some very large training or consulting �irms that operate on a
national or global basis. These �irms hire specialists in certain areas such as instructional design, materials
development, and evaluation. However, these �irms also prefer employees to have several years of experience as
well as advanced degrees. Generally, they are able to recruit a suf�icient number of applicants who meet the
experience and education requirements, because their compensation package is typically much better than that
of the smaller �irms, although compensation levels vary considerably from �irm to �irm.
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Important Concepts and Meanings
The literature in training and development, as in other professional disciplines, is continually evolving. As such,
you will often �ind different meanings attached to the same terms. Thus, it is important for us to be clear about
the terms and concepts we are using. It is also useful for you, the reader, to have a good understanding of how
terms are commonly used in the �ield and how they will be used throughout the text.
The basic terms and concepts used throughout the book are de�ined in the glossary at the end of the book .
However, the following terms are the foundation for all that follows, and we need to be clear about meanings at
the outset.
Learning
De�initions for learning found in the literature vary according to the theoretical background of the authors.
Unless otherwise indicated, the term learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_018) in this text
means a relatively permanent change in cognition (i.e., understanding and thinking) that results from
experience and that directly in�luences behavior. This de�inition, of course, re�lects our own theoretical
assumptions. We will discuss this de�inition and others at length in Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i
32
#ch03) .
Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes
What is learned can be separated into different categories. Again, how these categories are de�ined differs
according to the source. Historically, organizational psychologists used the acronym KSAs to stand for the terms
knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_001) —the different
types of learning outcomes. However, the term attitudes is increasingly being substituted for the term abilities.
As it turns out, the de�initions given to skills and knowledge, taken together, are not that different from the
de�inition of abilities. Thus, the term abilities is redundant with knowledge and skills. Abilities, for example, are
de�ined as “general capacities related to performing a set of tasks that are developed over time as a result of
heredity and experience.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_21) Skills are
de�ined as “general capacities to perform a set of tasks developed as a result of training and experience.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_22) The only
difference seems to be whether heredity is involved. The existing scienti�ic evidence suggests that skills are
in�luenced by heredity as well as by experience. Some authors make a distinction by categorizing skills as being
psychomotor (behavioral) in nature, whereas abilities are categorized as cognitive. In this case, abilities do not
differ from how knowledge is de�ined. The most commonly accepted de�inition of knowledge covers both the
facts that people learn and the strategies that they learn for using those facts. These are cognitive in nature.
Although some would argue that abilities are still distinguishable from knowledge and skills, we believe the
distinction to be of minimal value. On the other hand, attitudes are relatively easy to distinguish from knowledge
or skills. In addition, it is scienti�ically well established that attitudes in�luence behavior, and they are learned.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_23) Thus, to our
way of thinking, attitudes must be part of any holistic attempt to describe learning/training outcomes.
In this book, the acronym KSAs refers to the learning outcomes, knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_001) , skills
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_002) , and attitudes
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch06_003) . These three
outcomes of learning are depicted in Figure 1-5. The ways in which the three types of learning occur are
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interrelated but quite different. We will discuss these in depth in Chapter 3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) . The de�initions for the
three types of learning outcomes are as follows.
Figure 1-5 Learning Outcomes
Knowledge
Knowledge is an organized body of facts, principles, procedures, and information acquired over time.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_24) Thus, learning
refers to: (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_25)
the information we acquire and place into memory (declarative);
how information is organized for use, into what we already know (procedural); and
our understanding of how, when, and why information is used and is useful (strategic).
Declarative knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_023) is a person’s
store of factual information about a subject. Facts are veri�iable blocks of information such as the legal
requirements for hiring, safety rules, and the like. Evidence of factual learning exists when the learner can recall
or recognize speci�ic blocks of information.
At a higher level is the person’s understanding about how and when to apply the facts that have been
learned. This is referred to as procedural knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_024) . It assumes
some degree of factual knowledge, because some information must be known about an object or activity before
rules for its use can be developed. For example, one could not know when to apply the steps in an employment
interviewing process (procedural knowledge) if one does not know the steps (declarative knowledge).
Procedural knowledge allows trainees to understand the underlying rationale and relationships surrounding
potential courses of action so they can apply their factual knowledge appropriately.
The highest level of knowledge is strategic knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_025) . This is used
for planning, monitoring, and revising goal-directed activity. It requires acquisition of the two lower levels of
knowledge (facts and procedures). Strategic knowledge consists of a person’s awareness of what he knows and
the internal rules he has learned for accessing the relevant facts and procedures to be applied toward achieving
some goal. When this type of knowledge is the focus of training or education, it is often called a “learning how to
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learn” program. For example, Bill has the task of ensuring that the hiring process for his company is both legal
and effective at identifying the best candidate for the job. He would have to review and evaluate the various
employment procedures to determine which, if applied correctly, would result in the selection of the best
candidate and would �it within the law. He would have to have previously acquired procedural and declarative
knowledge related to employment law and to effective hiring procedures. He would be using his strategic
knowledge to access and evaluate the procedural and declarative knowledge to achieve his goal of a legal and
effective hiring process.
Skills
Knowledge is a prerequisite for learning skills. A person must know “what” to do and “when” to do it. However,
a gap separates knowing those things from actually being able to “do” them. A skill is a pro�iciency at being able
to do something rather than just knowing how to do it. By skills, we mean the capacities needed to perform a set
of tasks. These capacities are developed as a result of training and experience.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_26) A person’s skill
level is demonstrated by how well she is able to carry out speci�ic actions, such as operating a piece of
equipment, communicating effectively, or implementing a business strategy.
There are two levels of skill acquisition: compilation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_026) (lower level)
and automaticity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_027) (higher level).
These re�lect differences in the degree to which a skill has become routine or automatic. When a person is
learning a particular skill or has only recently learned it, he is in the compilation stage. Here he needs to think
about what he is doing while performing the skill. After a person has mastered the skill and used it often, she
has reached the automaticity stage. Here the person is able to perform the skill without really thinking about
what she is doing. In fact, thinking about it may actually slow her down. Learning how to play tennis is a good
example of the different stages of skill development. When you are �irst learning to play, you must constantly
think about each aspect of hitting the ball, such as where to stand on the court, and so on. Gradually, changes in
how you grip the racket and your movement on the court become automatic, and thinking about them actually
might reduce your effectiveness. One of the values of “practicing” as a learning technique is that through
practice the behavior becomes more automatic.
Attitudes
Attitudes are employee beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behavior.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_27) In a training
context, you are concerned about employees’ attitudes in relation to their learning the training material and
their job performance. The beliefs and opinions the person holds about objects or events (such as management,
union, empowerment, and training) create positive or negative feelings about those objects and events. Thus,
changing a person’s beliefs or opinions can change the desirability of the object or event. For example, if an
employee has positive feelings about a supervisor, those positive feelings are likely to become associated with
the employee’s job. If the employee learns from a coworker that the supervisor said negative things about her,
job satisfaction is likely to be reduced, even though nothing about the job itself actually changed. What changed
is the employee’s belief about the supervisor’s opinion of her.
Attitudes are important to training because they affect motivation. Motivation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_028) is re�lected in
the goals people choose to pursue and the effort they use in achieving those goals. Goals and effort are
in�luenced by how a person feels about things related to the goal (i.e., attitudes). Because a person’s attitude
in�luences behavior, attitudes that motivate employees to perform or learn more effectively need to be
addressed through training. Do you think Domtar employees immediately embraced the new way of doing
business? Were they eager to get involved in making the company more pro�itable before the training and other
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changes were implemented? It’s highly unlikely. That is why it is important to address attitudes as well as skills
in a training program.
Consider the situation Lockheed Corporation faced about a decade ago. Concerned about the security of
their products and product development processes, Lockheed realized that it needed either to signi�icantly
increase the current security force (which was costly) or include security in the job descriptions of all
employees. Lockheed chose the latter approach, implementing security awareness training and annual security
refresher training. The sessions were designed to change employees’ attitudes about their jobs. Employees saw
workplace security as part of their individual responsibility rather than the responsibility of only the security
department. Five years after the program started, the number of reports of “suspicious incidents” increased by
700 percent. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch01biblio_28)
Training in Action 1-3 illustrates the importance of examining not only knowledge and skills, but also attitudes
when designing training programs.
Competencies
A competency (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_029)
is a set of KSAs that enables a person to be successful at a number of similar tasks. In the broadest sense, a job
is broken down into a set of tasks, and the competencies required to perform the job are determined through
an analysis of the tasks. A competency is more than just KSAs; it is the ability to integrate and use the KSAs to
perform a task successfully. A carpenter, for example, has knowledge about different types of wood, tools and
their uses, and types of �inishes that can be applied to wood. This knowledge alone will not make that person a
good carpenter. The carpenter also might possess a set of skills such as cutting, shaping, joining, and �inishing.
These skills alone will not make a good carpenter. The carpenter might love working with wood, place a high
value on quality, and �ind great satisfaction working on the details of planning a project. These factors alone will
not make a good carpenter. It is the combination of these KSAs and others such as hand–eye coordination,
visual acuity, patience, and judgment that allow the carpenter to become pro�icient. To be successful at
carpentry, or at any other occupation, a person must acquire multiple competencies. A trainer can identify the
key KSAs that make a master performer successful at a given job and then group these KSAs into appropriate
clusters. This provides a broad set of competencies
required for the job. Linking these competencies to a set of behaviors that allow trainers to “know it when they
see it” provides a valuable tool for hiring, training, and determining pay rates for the job. We spend a great deal
of time discussing KSAs because they are the foundation of competencies. Competencies are useful for
understanding how the KSAs combine to in�luence job performance. The KSAs determine what types of training
will improve competencies and, thus, lead to improved job performance.
1-3 Training in Action Training Needs in the Student Registration
Of�ice
The of�ices of the president and provost at a large university were receiving many complaints about the
registration of�ice being unresponsive to student problems during registration for classes. The director
of registration felt that, because of the high turnover in customer service representatives (CSRs) who
handled student problems, most CSRs did not know the proper procedure. The director wanted to
initiate training in registration procedures immediately and called in a consultant to help develop and
conduct the training.
After listening to the director’s description of what was wanted, the consultant said, “You’re probably
right. Of course, we could conduct a training needs analysis to clarify the exact nature of the
performance problem.” The director was concerned about the time required for a needs analysis and
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wanted to get training started right away. However, in agreeing that the needs analysis would determine
speci�ic problem areas, the director said, “Okay, do the analysis, but let’s get started on training right
away. I want them to know exactly what they are supposed to do.”
The needs analysis revealed the steps and procedures that an effective CSR was required to complete
in dealing with an unhappy customer. For example, one of the �irst steps for the CSR was to identify and
clarify the customer’s problem and to acknowledge the feelings the customer was displaying (e.g., anger
or frustration) in a friendly and empathetic manner. Once these feelings had been acknowledged, the CSR
was to determine the exact nature of the customer’s problem through nonevaluative questioning (i.e.,
determining the facts without placing blame for outcomes).
Interviews with the CSRs established that they all knew the correct procedure and most could quote it
word for word. However, observation of the CSRs at work showed marked differences in how the
procedure was carried out. Further analysis of each CSR’s skills in performing these tasks revealed that
the primary causes of unsatisfactory performance were low skill levels and inappropriate attitudes. Even
though nearly everyone “knew” what to do, some were not good at doing it. Others did not believe that it
was important to follow every step. One CSR said, “Hey, if they get their problem solved, what do they
care if I acknowledged their feelings?”
Certainly training was required in this case, but not the “knowledge” training the registration director
thought was necessary. For those CSRs who lacked the behavioral skill to carry out the procedures,
demonstrations and practice sessions with immediate feedback were provided. For those CSRs who had
the skill but did not understand the importance of all the procedures, training sessions were conducted
in which the CSRs reevaluated their attitudes through various educational and experiential activities.
Training, Development, and Education
The terms training, development, and education are used in different ways by various authors. Here, the terms
training and development refer to distinct, but related, aspects of learning. Training is a set of activities, whereas
development is the desired outcome of those activities. Training
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_030) is the
systematic process of providing an opportunity to learn KSAs for current or future jobs; development
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_031) refers to the
learning of KSAs. In other words, training provides the opportunity for learning, and development is the result
of learning. “Training departments” are now called Human Resource Development departments, and
“management training” is called management development. These changes in terminology re�lect the change
from a focus on the process (training) to a focus on the outcome (development).
Education (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_032)
is typically differentiated from training and development by the types of KSAs developed, which are more
general in nature. While training is typically focused on job-speci�ic KSAs, education focuses on more general
KSAs related, but not speci�ically tailored, to a person’s career or job.
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Focus on Small Business
Most business texts, especially those covering human resource management (HRM), focus on medium- to large-
sized businesses for a number of reasons, including the following:
Research typically requires a larger sample size.
Larger �irms have the budgets to support research.
Policies and procedures are more formalized, thus easier to track.
Techniques described in HR texts usually require a formal HR function containing multiple areas of
specialization, such as compensation, HRD, selection, and so on.
When small businesses are overlooked, a major component of the economic engine that runs North America is
ignored. Small- to medium-sized business �irms account for more than 60 percent of the private sector’s
contribution to the economy. Most of the workforce is employed at companies employing fewer than 100
people. Almost all businesses (98 percent) employ fewer than 100 employees, and 93 percent employ fewer
than 20. No size criterion is universally accepted in the literature for categorizing a business as large or small.
We generally use the term small business
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_0
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) to refer to
organizations with fewer than 100 employees, but on occasion, we use examples with about 150 employees.
Larger companies that employ between 150 and 500 people are usually considered to be medium-sized.
The model of the training process that we present is applicable to both large and small businesses, but the
ways in which it is implemented can differ dramatically with the size of the company. One difference is the
number of employees that need to be trained. Because larger companies train greater numbers of employees,
they must use a more systematic and controlled method of determining what training needs exist. In smaller
companies, the owner or president can have a close working knowledge of each employee and his training
needs. Another difference is in developing training programs. The smaller business can easily determine what
types of training are more or less important to the company’s objectives and can design training accordingly. In
larger companies, again, a more systematic and formal approach is needed because the �irm’s strategies and
objectives are more complex. In larger companies, economies of scale can be obtained if common training
needs across the workforce are identi�ied, thus reducing the per-person cost of training. However, a more
rigorous approach to identifying needs is required because more employees are involved.
Another difference between large and small companies is that small companies can use less costly and
formalized methods for evaluating training because the results are more easily observed. Throughout the
following chapters, where applicable, we will have a “Focus on Small Business” section. Here, we will identify
strategies and practices that might be more appropriate for the smaller business. Where research results are
applicable, we highlight their implications. When research is not available, we offer logic and applied examples.
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Summary
Training was described in terms of an open system in which it receives inputs from other parts of the
organization and the external environment. That input is transformed by processes in effective training units
into output that meets the organization’s needs. Effective training occurs as a set of phases. In each phase, input
is acquired, a set of processes are engaged, and output needed for subsequent phases is produced. The training
process model provides a visual understanding of how the phases relate to each other. Although the model
shows the phases occurring as sequential steps (needs analysis, design, development, implementation, and
evaluation), in fact these phases occur in a dynamic fashion with feedback from one phase leading to the next
phase and recycling through some aspects of the previous phase.
Training faces increasing demands to demonstrate results in terms of return on investment. With these
demands come increased opportunities for the training function to in�luence the direction and operations of the
company. In higher-performing organizations, training activities are aligned with the organization’s strategies.
The challenge for training units is to align its resources with activities that provide the best match with strategic
objectives.
Changing demographics, steadily increasing market competitiveness, high demand for and short supply of
knowledge workers, and customer demands for high-quality products and services all challenge companies and
their training departments. Companies are becoming more concerned with creating their own talent, as
signi�icant losses to the workforce will occur from retirements over the next ten years. Successful companies
build their training units to serve as a continuous improvement system and problem-solving tool. Evidence is
accumulating that those companies that spend more on training are achieving better �inancial results. Improved
operating methods (such as ISO and increased employee competencies are also resulting in declining union
membership. This trend places the leadership of unions in the dilemma of demanding increased training for
their membership to ensure job security, while at the same time recognizing that higher-skilled employees allow
the company to do more with fewer people.
The legal environment places requirements on the training system in terms of providing mandatory training
and ensuring equitable treatment of employees. Training units also have responsibilities for making sure that
training is safe for trainees and that the training is consistent with protecting the safety of those with whom
trainees come into contact after training. The increased use of outside training vendors requires due diligence
to prevent copyright violations.
In large organizations, the training unit is divided into specializations. The most typical entry point into a
training career is in a large company as a specialist in one part of the training process (e.g., needs assessment,
instructional design). From there, the progression is much like any other functional area with rotation through
the different specializations before moving into a managerial position. In smaller organizations, a few people
will handle all training responsibilities, while in very small businesses, all HR functions are usually divided
among the few people in management-level positions.
Important concepts and terms in the �ield of training were de�ined and discussed, including competencies,
learning, knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The rationale for substituting attitudes for the “abilities” concept was
provided. Though differing opinions exist in the �ield of training about what constitutes training versus
development and education, training in this text will be considered to be the experiences provided to people
that enable them to learn job-related KSAs. Education will be considered to be the experiences that enable
people to learn more general KSAs that are related to, but not speci�ically tailored to, a person’s job.
Development will be considered to be the learning that occurs as a result of training or education.
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Key Terms
Actual organizational performance (AOP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term01)
ADDIE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term02)
Analysis phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term03)
Attitudes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term04)
Automaticity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term05)
Competency
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term06)
Compilation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term07)
Declarative knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term08)
Design phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term09)
Development
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term10)
Development phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term11)
Education (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term12)
Evaluation phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term13)
Expected organizational performance (EOP)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term14)
Implementation phase
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term15)
Instructional Strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term16)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i10#ch01term17)
Knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term18)
Knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term19)
Learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term20)
Motivation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term21)
Open systems model
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term22)
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term01
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term02
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term03
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term04
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term05
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term06
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term07
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term08
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term09
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term10
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term11
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term12
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term13
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term14
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term15
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term16
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i10#ch01term17
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term18
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term19
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term20
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term21
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Organizational performance gap (OPD)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term23)
Outcome evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term24)
Procedural knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term25)
Process evaluation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term26)
Skills (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term27)
Small business
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i13#ch01term28)
Strategic knowledge
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term29)
Training (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01term30)
Training needs analysis (TNA)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term31)
Training objectives
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term32)
Triggering event
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term33)
Case Questions
1. How did Domtar’s strategies align with its mission? Explain
your answer.
2. Given the dif�iculty of organizational change, what factors contributed to the success at Domtar? How
did Domtar’s management at all levels contribute to reducing resistance to change? What else might
they have done?
3. What were the major HRD challenges associated with Domtar’s acquisitions and joint partnerships?
How were these challenges addressed, and what were the risks associated with these approaches?
4. Take the critical facts in the Domtar case and place them into the appropriate phases of the training
model presented in the chapter. Begin with the triggering event and provide a rationale for why each
fact belongs in the phase in which you have placed it.
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https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i9#ch01term26
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Exercises
1. Review the material in Training in Action 1-3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i12#ch01sidebar03) .
Assume that you were hired to develop a training program for these CSRs. Write down what you believe
are the four most important KSAs your training must address and your reasoning for selecting these. If
done as a group exercise, allow each member of the group to share the KSAs she identi�ied and her
reasoning. Then reach a group consensus as to the four most important KSAs and your rationale for
including each KSA. Each group will then report to the rest of the class.
2. In small groups, discuss the training responsibilities of supervisors and managers who are not part of
the HRD department. Prepare a list of what those responsibilities might be and a rationale for your
choices.
3. Identify two organizations with different environments and core technologies. Describe what these
differences are. Indicate how the HRD strategies of these companies might be similar or different.
Provide a rationale for your conclusions based on concepts in the chapter.
4. Conduct an interview with a small business owner or manager. Get a good understanding of how the
company approaches training. What differences do you see between how this company approaches
training and what was described in this chapter? What are the reasons for this difference?
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Questions for Review
1. Describe the relationship between the HR and the HRD functions in a large organization. How might a
small organization handle the responsibilities of these two areas?
2. Consider the following problem-solving model. On the basis of the discussion in this chapter, describe
how the training process model is or is not consistent with this model.
Problem-Solving Process
De�ine and understand the problem.
Determine the cause of the problem.
Identify potential solutions to the problem.
Select the solution that provides the most bene�its for the least cost.
Develop an action plan for putting the solution in place.
Implement the solution.
Evaluate and, if necessary, modify the solution.
3. What are the signi�icant legal issues that the training unit must take into consideration when conducting
training activities? Describe how these issues might create challenges for HRD.
4. Describe ways in which training units can go about meeting the challenges they face, which were
described in this chapter. Provide a rationale for your answers.
5. De�ine and provide an example that was not used in the text for each of the following:
A. Each of the three types of knowledge
B. Each of the two levels of skills
C. An attitude
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Web Research
Each year a number of companies are identi�ied as the “Best Companies to Work For.” Conduct a Web search to
�ind a company that has recently made the list. See if there is information about the company’s training. Conduct
a second search to �ind any articles that have been written about this company’s training. Write a one-page
report summarizing your �indings. Include a separate page with your references.
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Two Aligning Training with Strategy
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the strategic planning process, its components, and their relationships.
Describe how the external environment in�luences strategic choices.
Identify the major factors in�luencing the alignment of internal strategies with external strategies.
Distinguish between an organization’s external and internal strategies, describe their relationship and
the value of each.
Describe the bene�its of including a human resource development (HRD) perspective in strategy
development.
Describe the differences, similarities, and relationships among human resource (HR) and HRD
strategies.
Describe the process for determining the training requirements of the strategic plan.
Describe the relationship between HRD and the other HR functions.
Describe the role of HR in outsourcing of training.
Describe the �ield of organizational development (OD) and its relationship to training activities,
including the value of cross training between the two.
Identify possible HRD strategic alternatives and situations in which they might be appropriate.
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2.1 Case: Hershey Aligns Training with Strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_001)
Hershey Foods is the leading North American manufacturer of chocolate-related grocery products and exports
those products to over 90 countries. Hershey sells its products to distributors (such as large grocery and drug
store chains, small retailers, wholesalers, and brokers) who then sell these products to their customers.
Hershey’s success depends on those retailers doing a good job of promoting Hershey products in their stores.
As a part of its marketing strategy, Hershey has a variety of promotional programs for its distributors that are
used to stimulate sales at various times during the year. One part of this strategy was a practice known as “trade
funding,” which has the manufacturer reinvest some of its pro�its back into joint promotional programs with its
distributors. For example, Hershey might provide �inancial support to a grocery chain to create displays
promoting Mother’s Day specials or to promote “three for the price of two” specials. Hershey’s trade funding
was often done on a promotion-by-promotion basis with each customer. Both Hershey and its customers
sometimes felt that these types of promotional strategies were not effective enough. Furthermore Hershey’s
executives felt that a better approach to allocating these funds would maximize mutual bene�its. In addition,
there wasn’t an effective-enough connection between a customer’s sales of Hershey products and how much
funding they received. Negotiations over these promotional investments would also include agreements on
other aspects of the customer’s relationship with Hershey, such as pricing, shelf space/location, placement of
product, creation and use of promotional displays in stores, and joint promotion plans (for example, coop
advertising), and these needed to be more effectively negotiated into the overall strategy for executing sales
with each customer.
At the beginning of 2002, believing that its current approach to allocating trade funding was not the most
effective method for maximizing return on investment (ROI) and customer satisfaction, Hershey’s senior
executives decided that signi�icant changes were needed in its strategy. This was at a time when Hershey’s �irst-
quarter �inancial numbers were down; they were in the middle of management reorganization; the union
workers in the largest factory were on strike; and the sale of the company was being quietly explored.
Using information from a customer satisfaction survey along with their belief that a better trade funding
method was possible, senior management came up with a new strategy with the following key elements:
Hershey and each customer would develop an annual promotional plan for which Hershey would
allocate funds.
The annual plan would include a negotiated agreement on issues such as commitment to sales targets,
pricing, shelf space, and other marketing issues outside of “special” promotional events.
The amount of funding customers would receive would be based on their past sales record and ability
to execute the agreed-upon annual plan.
The new strategy was called “Blue Chip.” Successful implementation of the new strategy would require
salespeople to change the way they interacted with customers. Some new task requirements would be
gaining access to key managers (sometimes different from their day to day buyers) and explaining to
them the new trade funding approach;
getting the customer to share sales data and information about future plans that would be needed to
help convince them of the advantages of the new Blue Chip approach;
negotiating a new and different pay for performance approach to receiving trade funding;
motivating customers to engage in a new annual (rather than “promotion by promotion”) planning
process;
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gaining compliance to annual promotion plans after they’ve been negotiated; and
negotiating during the annual promotion period when mutual goals were not achieved, or when
changes to the annual plans were needed
To accomplish these tasks the salespeople would require new KSAs. Some of these included
knowledge of the new program,
knowledge of all the factors that would be discussed in future agreements with retailers, and
negotiation skills to deal with the more complex agreements they would be required to execute with
retailers.
The knowledge required would be provided through meetings, management communications, and manuals;
however, to effectively implement the strategy, the salespeople would need to be adept at negotiating these new
long-term deals. For the negotiation skills necessary to implement the strategy, Hershey went to an outside
vendor, BayGroup International. BayGroup International developed an experiential negotiations workshop
designed to give the salespeople the skills necessary to make Blue Chip a success, and give their managers the
skills needed to coach their teams for optimal performance back on the job after formal training ended.
The Blue Chip strategy was introduced and the related training all took place at the May 2002 Sales Summit.
The training focus was to provide the entire sales force with the KSAs needed to implement the strategy.
Implementation of a strategy such as this is complex and dif�icult. Most companies would put the
implementation (in this case the training) of a new strategy on hold until they had a clearer picture of how
everything would “shake out,” given the labor strife and possible sale of the company noted earlier. What made
Hershey decide differently? Hershey needed to put both its employees and customers on notice that they were
changing how they did business. As Bernie Banas, VP of sales at the time, said, “We were going through a
transition. . . . It is critical to both Hershey and our customers that we execute the transition �lawlessly.” By
combining the introduction of the strategy and the training required to implement it, Hershey showed that it
was serious about the strategy. This wasn’t just training focused on skill gaps; it was training that connected
directly to Hershey’s business goals and strategy.
So what did the training focus on? First, pre-training executive communication (reinforced at the start of each
workshop) put the need for strategy change into a context that all the sales force could understand, and then
provided an overview of how the Blue Chip strategy would address their needs. This was followed by BayGroup
International’s negotiation training that was to provide salespeople with the skills and con�idence to
successfully implement the new strategy. This training used exercises based on typical challenging negotiation
situations the sales team would encounter when they went into the �ield to deploy it.
Discussions of Hershey’s strategic business needs included the following:
The need for a change in strategy to improve results for both Hershey and its customers
The need for a shift in the selling process from a relationship-based one to a more data-driven one
The need for a new pay-for-performance–based approach for working with customers
The need to handle increased sophistication of customer buyers in terms of purchasing and negotiating
knowledge and skill
The need to include all sources of value and negotiating leverage in discussions with customers
The Blue Chip strategy was then described in terms of (1) its bene�its to customers, (2) its ability to motivate
customers to plan better and to incorporate all aspects of product promotion within the plan, and (3) Hershey’s
ability to gain compliance to the annual plans. The training was kicked off by the senior executives, who directly
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connected the training objectives to the business needs. These training objectives were based on what was
going to be needed in terms of KSAs to effectively implement this new strategy. In other words, a future-
oriented performance gap (need for effective negotiation skills) was evident based on the current salespeople’s
KSAs. They would need to be adept at negotiating in order to implement the new strategic plan effectively. This
made the negotiating training highly relevant and central to the success of the strategic change. The content of
this training was based on the technical aspects of the Blue Chip program and its deployment through effective
negotiation skills, tools, and sales management processes. The negotiation skills helped the sales force
effectively balance Hershey’s interests with the maintenance of a collaborative relationship with the customer.
All the training was focused on the practical application of the new KSAs. Experiential and discovery learning
techniques were used to deliver this training, which was particularly important to help the seasoned Hershey’s
sales team see the weaknesses of their current negotiation approaches (built up over many years) and highlight
the need for personal skill development.
The new strategy proved very successful for Hershey, as its �inancial numbers have improved and so have its
surveys of customer satisfaction. Share price has improved as well. In May of 2002, Hershey was trading at $
34
a share. In May of 2010, it was trading at $47. The new strategy would not have been successful had the sales
force not implemented it correctly. The training provided at the summit, as well as the follow-up training and
coaching of the sales teams was crucial to the strategies’ successful implementation. But just as critical were the
changes to the internal reinforcement systems at Hershey that supported the changes required of the sales
force. Hershey continued to build on its successes by implemented follow-up training in subsequent years, as
well as consulting from BayGroup International experts for speci�ic sales teams to help them execute their
strategic account strategies.
As a side note, Hershey has an interesting training philosophy. They believe that visible short-term victories
lead to credibility and future funding for long-term training and development projects. One rule of thumb is that
every year’s training budget should include at least one key strategic initiative that is “close to return on
investment (ROI).” Clearly the Blue Chip initiative met this criterion.
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2.2 Overview
As indicated in Chapter 1, aligning training activities with the goals and strategy of the organization has been the
top priority of HR and HRD leaders for many years. The Hershey Foods case exempli�ies this process. Note how
it was done. First, the speci�ic strategic plan is analyzed and it is determined whether any new job requirements
are needed. In this case some new tasks related to being able to convince customers of the value of the new
Blue Chip strategy were identi�ied. Once the tasks are identi�ied, the KSAs necessary to complete these tasks are
identi�ied. Then training needs to be developed, or purchased, to provide these KSAs. In the Hershey case, the
training was purchased from a well-known and well-regarded consulting �irm.
Hershey realized that when you tie your training to speci�ic strategic initiatives, it ensures that training
dollars are put to the best use. This chapter provides a general explanation of business strategy and ways to
make sure that training is aligned with that strategy. To better understand how to align training with strategy, it
is �irst necessary to understand the strategic planning process.
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2.3 Strategic Planning
Formalized strategic planning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_001) is a process
used to determine how best to pursue the organization’s mission while meeting the demands of the
environment in the near (e.g., next year or two) and long term (e.g., next �ive to ten years). A proactive strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_002) focuses on the
longer term, and its process is more formalized, typically involving sophisticated analytical and decision-making
tools. This is the process Hershey used. Its purpose is to build a good �it between the organization and its future
environment. However, strategy can also develop in a more reactive fashion, responding to short-term business
conditions. In a reactive strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_003) less formal
analysis and planning occur and more attention is focused on the immediate future. Many suggest that both
reactive and proactive strategies are necessary for an organization to be effective.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_002) The proactive
process uses a best guess about what the future will bring, whereas the reactive process addresses how
operations will confront what exists now and in the next year or two. A strategic plan that positions the �irm for
long-term expectations but is modi�ied by the �irm’s experience as it moves forward is preferable to either
having a rigidly held long-term plan or reacting only to short-term experience.
To be effective, strategic planning should occur throughout the organization, with each higher level of the
organization providing direction to the lower levels. Once a strategic plan has been developed, organizational
units develop or are given objectives by higher-level units that, when combined, will implement the strategy. The
units develop their own strategies and tactics to achieve the organizational strategies. Individuals within the unit
are given or develop objectives that will help achieve the unit’s objectives. Thus, from the HR unit’s perspective,
the organizational strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_004) provides the
direction for HR’s strategic objectives. HR develops supporting tactics that provide the HR staff with a set of
objectives to achieve (see Figure 2-1). In this way, plans for implementing the organization’s strategy are
developed and coordinated throughout the organization.
Figure 2-1 Linkage Between Strategy, Tactics and
Objectives
So imagine you are the vice president of HR at Domtar (the case from Chapter 1). You have your objectives
from the strategic plan. What is the next step? Well you need to meet with the various HR units and provide
them with objectives that will help the overall strategic plan come to fruition. The unit responsible for
compensation will need to consider implementation of an incentive compensation system tied to the new
strategic focus. To implement an effective incentive system requires an effective performance review and
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feedback process. But recall that such a system would also be required to attain one of the goals of the strategic
plan; improving employee performance. Can you think of anything else? What about the organizational
development unit? Implementation of Kaizen would be high on their list of objectives. What are the chances that
all these HR projects would be approved and funded? Since they were all tied to the implementation of the
strategic plan, all were funded.
Given all you now know, what will be required from the training department? A new incentive system will
require some level of training for managers expected to implement such a program. Furthermore, suppose that
the new performance appraisal system was focused on objective setting (i.e., Management by Objectives—MBO).
This would require training in how to develop objectives with subordinates as well as effective feedback skills
for the management meetings with subordinates. The new strategic focus espoused by Raymond Royer would
require getting all managers on board with a solid understanding of this new focus through some level of
training. Also the employee orientation program would have to be modi�ied to re�lect this new focus.
These are some of the ways in which organizational training is a key to implementing the strategic plan. What
about the formation of Domtar’s strategic plan? Should the HRD unit have had any input on the front end? As
you might have noted, the success of the strategy depended heavily on the competencies of the workforce.
Without knowing the current capabilities of these individuals, Domtar does not know whether it has the
capacity to successfully implement the strategy. The same can be said of Hershey’s strategic plan. Without
Hershey having a workforce with the right competencies, the strategic plan would not get off the ground. HRD
can and should be involved with strategic planning at the following three levels: organizational strategy, HR
strategy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_005)
(tactics), and HRD strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_006) (more tactics).
We will review the factors that go into developing a strategic plan before covering these areas. Our goal here is
to provide you with the basics needed to understand strategy development, so we will not cover the area in
depth. For the sake of brevity and general understanding, we have simpli�ied many of the concepts and
principles.
Organizational Mission
Strategies are created to achieve the organization’s mission. A mission statement articulates why the
organization exists. The mission is the focal point for strategy development because it outlines what the strategy
is designed to achieve. Here are examples of relatively short and clear mission statements from two different
types of organizations.
Mission of Ozone House (a Social Service Agency)
Ozone House is a community-based, not-for-pro�it agency that seeks to help youth lead safe, healthy, and
productive lives through intensive prevention and intervention strategies. Since 1969, Ozone House has
actively developed unique, high-quality housing and support programs and services that provide
support, intervention, training, and assistance to runaway, homeless, and high-risk youth and their
families. Through these support services, we help youth develop essential life skills, improve their
relationships, and enhance their self-image so that they may realize their full potential for growth and
happiness.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_003)
Mission of Herman Miller
Herman Miller, Inc., is a leading global provider of of�ice furniture and services that create great places to
live, learn, work, and heal.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_004)
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These statements, though different, show many similarities. A good mission statement is a fairly general
description of what the organization seeks to accomplish. It describes the products or services the organization
provides, to whom it provides them, and what it wishes to accomplish.
Strategic Choices
Strategies re�lect choices that the organization makes about how to pursue its mission. An organization must
choose from among several often contradictory strategies. The strategic choices a company makes have
signi�icant implications for where HRD should focus its resources. To effectively align the unit’s activities with
the strategies, a manager will need to understand the factors that have led the organization to its strategic
choices. The literature dealing with strategy contains a great many categorizations and terms that refer to
different types and levels of strategy. For simplicity, we choose the term competitive strategy.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_007) Competitive
strategy focuses on positioning the company’s products or services in the marketplace. This important strategy
encompasses the internal and external choices the company makes to improve or retain its competitive position.
Two types of competitive strategy are market leader
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_008) and cost
leader (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_009) . Firms
that choose the market leader strategy are also referred to as prospectors
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_005) and
innovators. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_006)
Their strategy is to �ind and exploit new product and market opportunities. Success depends on their capacity
to survey a wide range of environmental conditions, trends, and events and to move quickly into windows of
opportunity. Market leaders typically use multiple technologies capable of being used in many different ways.
Companies that adopt the cost leader
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_007) strategy, also
referred to as the defender strategy,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_008) represent the
opposite end of the continuum. This strategy’s main goal is to be the low-cost provider in the industry. Success
depends on pricing competitiveness and having a product that is acceptable to (but not necessarily the best in)
the market. Success is achieved by producing a standardized product or service ef�iciently, using economies of
scale low-cost labor, and introducing innovative production methods.
Most organizations with multiple products or services will have different strategies for each product or
service. Additionally, there are many ways to pursue a single strategy. For example, one way to pursue a cost
leader strategy is to aggressively pursue competing bids from as many suppliers as possible, then accept the
lowest bids from as many suppliers as are needed to meet requirements. A different tactic is to develop long-
term relationships with a few suppliers with capacity to meet your requirements, guaranteeing sole supplier
status in return for meeting a speci�ied price target. For the HRD unit looking for outside training, this might
mean choosing between having a large number of external training contractors or a single contractor who
guarantees a low price. Both tactics can reduce the cost of needed goods and services, but they result in
different effects on the purchasing activities of the organization and on supplier relationships. Among the
feasible alternatives, the company seeks to choose the one that will best achieve the mission. Which will be
“best” depends on how the organization addresses the strategic contingencies described in the following
sections.
External Environment
An organization’s external environment consists of elements outside the organization that in�luence the
organization’s ability to achieve its mission, such as competitors, the economy, societal norms and values, laws
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and regulations, raw materials, suppliers, and technological innovation. Each organization must determine the
threats and opportunities that exist in its environment and address those that are critical in the strategy. What
kinds of environmental factors might be important in the Hershey Foods case? In addition to identifying the
critical threats and opportunities, the organization must assess how stable these will be in the future.
Environmental uncertainty
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_010) is determined
by two factors: complexity and stability. Environmental complexity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_011) refers to the
number of factors in the environment and the degree to which they are interrelated. Environmental stability
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_012) is the rate at
which key factors in the environment change—the more rapid the change, the more unstable the environment.
When the environment is more complex and unstable, it is more uncertain. When it is simpler and more stable,
it is more certain. Figure 2-2 depicts this relationship.
Figure 2-2 Factors In�luencing Environmental
Uncertainty
In more uncertain environments, the organization must be �lexible and adaptable if it is to respond
effectively. A market leader strategy is consistent with this situation. More certain environments reward “getting
it right and sticking to it.” A more standardized operating system can minimize costs and maximize pro�itability, a
situation consistent with the cost leader strategy. Uncertain environments generally favor strategies using more
decentralized decision making, whereas external environments that are certain usually �ind centralized decision
making more effective. Given two similar organizations, the one choosing the market leader strategy will, by
de�inition, compete in a more uncertain environment. The cost leader competes best in established and more
stable markets. This environment may be more hostile, but it will experience a slower rate of change.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_009)
Internal Alignment with Strategy
Once a company has chosen a competitive (external) strategy, it needs to align its internal environment with that
strategy. It needs an internal strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_013) (such as
becoming more �lexible) that provides direction for internal systems. For example, in the Hershey Foods case,
Blue Chip was the external strategy. Internally, this meant that salespeople would be required to negotiate
effectively with their customers and that trade funding allocations would be based on new criteria. Thus, some
of the internal changes required were the development of negotiating skills for the sales force (training needs),
a reward system that acted to reinforce the appropriate behavior of the sales force, and the decision-making
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system for allocating the trade funding dollars (nontraining needs). Two key factors in the internal strategy are
the organization’s core technology
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_014) (how the
principal products or services are created) and its structure (e.g., division of labor, policies, and procedures).
Since the Hershey case didn’t require changes in the product, but rather in the behavior of employees, it was
only the structure that needed to be changed to align with the new strategy. Figure 2-3 represents the
relationships among environment, strategy, structure, and technology.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_010) As the �igure
indicates, strategy is the process of making internal adjustments to accommodate the demands of the external
environment while remaining true to the mission. Note, however, that the arrow between strategy and
environment shows in�luence in both directions, re�lecting the fact that the choice of competitive strategy may
change the environment in which the �irm operates.
Figure 2-3 Relationships among Mission, Strategy,
Technology and Structure
Technology
Technology is how the work is done in the organization. Each unit in the organization uses technology to
accomplish its tasks. Core technology refers to the main activities associated with producing the organization’s
principal products and services. Technology can be categorized in a number of ways.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_011) Taking some
liberties with these approaches, we use a simple continuum of “routine” to “nonroutine” technologies. At one
end, the routine technology
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_015) label is applied
to tasks with outcomes that are highly predictable, demonstrate few problems, and use well-structured and
well-de�ined solutions when problems do occur. High-volume assembly lines, such as in a garment factory or
some automobile plants, are examples of routine technology. Such operations consist of highly specialized tasks
and well-de�ined rules for coordinating activities. Decisions are usually top–down and highly formalized, leaving
little discretion to the line employee. Routine technology is most often seen in the cost leader strategy. Even
though the initial infrastructure required to put this technology in place can be expensive, its ef�iciency in high-
volume production provides low production cost per unit.
A task using nonroutine technology
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_016) is characterized
by results that are dif�icult to predict, because problems occur unexpectedly, and solutions to these problems
are not readily available and need to be developed on a case-by-case basis. With this type of technology,
management needs to provide lower-level managers and line employees with more decision-making authority
to meet the challenges encountered. This responsibility, of course, means that the �irm needs employees with a
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higher level of KSAs. This technology also requires greater task interdependence, which increases the need for
coordination and integration. Managers and workers need decision-making authority within their own areas,
but their activities must also be coordinated with the activities of others. Thus, employees must be given clear
goals and parameters for their work outcomes but also be allowed to determine the best way to meet them.
This type of technology is more typical of market leader strategies in which the development and production of
new products is key. The cost of the nonroutine technology might be high, but new products can command high
prices in the marketplace.
Structural Choices
The internal strategy should also address the ability of the organization’s structure to carry out the competitive
strategy. Organizational structure
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_017) refers to how a
�irm is organized (how labor is divided) in addition to the rules, policies, and procedures used for making
decisions and coordinating its various activities. The organization’s structure de�ines how the internal
operations interact with the external environment. To be most effective, the organization’s structure should
funnel environmental input to those units best able to take advantage of opportunities and avoid threats. At the
same time, it must facilitate the core technology. Although there are many structural components, we will
examine only these three: organizational design, decision autonomy, and division of labor.
Organizational Design
The number and formality of rules, policies, and procedures created to direct employee behavior is the essence
of organizational design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_018) . An
organization’s design can lie somewhere on a continuum ranging from mechanistic to organic.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_012) A highly
mechanistic design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_019) re�lects an
organization with highly de�ined tasks, rigid and detailed procedures, high reliance on authority, and vertical
communication channels. A highly organic design re�lects an organization that has �lexibility in its rules and
procedures, loosely de�ined tasks, high reliance on expertise, and horizontal communication channels. Few
organizations operate on the extremes of this continuum; most lean more toward one end or the other.
The organic design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_020) places more
emphasis on KSAs, whereas the mechanistic focuses more on technical and �inancial systems and resources. In
the mechanistic design, employees’ technical and interpersonal skills and behaviors are prescribed. In the
organic design, these skills and behaviors are permitted to evolve (within broad parameters) to supplement and
complement the unit’s technology. As you might suspect, the organic design is most appropriate for nonroutine
technologies, whereas the mechanistic design is more appropriate for routine technologies.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_013)
Decision Autonomy
Decision autonomy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_021) is the amount
of authority given to employees in deciding how to complete a task, and the degree to which they are able to
in�luence goals and strategies for their work unit.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_014) Individual or
small-group decision autonomy is a function of whether decisions are centralized or decentralized. Cost
ef�iciencies are associated with more centralization, whereas �lexibility/adaptability is associated with
decentralization.
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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_015) Thus,
centralized structures are more appropriate for cost leader strategies and decentralized structures for market
leaders.
Division of Labor
The way in which the work of the organization is divided among the units and organized is called division of
labor (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_022) . One way
in which labor is divided is between line (those working directly with the core technology) and staff (everyone
else); another is between management and labor. Some organizations divide their tasks by products, some by
customers, and others by geography. Some divide work into functional areas, while others organize work
around the processes in their core technology. Even though each of these divisions is important, our focus is on
the degree to which duties and responsibilities within the organization are specialized. We place organizations
on a continuum from narrowly de�ined (specialized) to generally de�ined (nonspecialized) duties and
responsibilities. The more specialized the duties and responsibilities, the more centralized the decision making
and the more mechanistic the organization. This results from the need to closely oversee and coordinate the
activities of employees whose scope of responsibility is fairly narrow. In organizations with duties and
responsibilities that are nonspecialized, a more organic and decentralized structure is appropriate. This allows
employees to coordinate their activities less formally and provides more �lexibility and adaptability for the
organization. Again, you can see the close relationship between an organization’s core technology and division
of labor.
Aligning HR and HRD with Strategy
The HR function must support and enhance the organization’s corporate strategy. This is accomplished by
making sure that the various components in the HR system—such as staf�ing, HR planning, performance
appraisal, compensation, health and safety, employee and union relations, and, of course, training—are aligned
with the strategic plan. Each of these systems has a direct impact on the organization’s effectiveness. Integrated
under the HR umbrella, each can enhance the organization’s ability to mobilize and motivate the employees to
carry out the competitive strategy.
Why should companies invest in developing a strategic HR management capability? Two reasons. First, as
Kristi Yowell, the former Training and Development Manager of Towson University says, “I always ensured at
least 75 percent of all training had a strategic connection. Why? To ensure funding.” Second, evidence indicates
that �irms that do so will signi�icantly increase their market value.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_016) Data collected
from more than 2,400 �irms show that when HR systems achieve operational excellence and are aligned with
the �irm’s strategic goals, the market value of the �irm increases by about 20 percent. So investing in HR
excellence and bringing HR systems into alignment with business strategies provides a clear competitive
advantage.
HR should contribute to the development of the organization’s competitive strategy and of course support
those strategies once they are adopted. Decisions about competitive strategy need to be re�lected in HR strategy,
and vice versa. For example, if the company’s operations are labor intensive and a strong union consistently
demands high wages and restrictive work rules, it would be foolish to adopt a cost leader strategy without
addressing these issues. Similarly, once the company makes the decision to adopt a cost leader strategy, HR
must develop its own strategies for supporting cost leadership. Assume that a cost leader strategy requires a
change in production technology that adds more automated equipment. This change would eliminate many
labor-intensive jobs and add some technical jobs, thus providing a net labor saving. Such a change could be
successful only if HR can �ill the new technical positions with quali�ied people. Other HR factors would also need
to be considered, such as the effect on labor relations and the �inancial costs associated with eliminating the old
and staf�ing the new jobs. The HR department’s input into the strategy formulation process would be to assess
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the HR issues critical to the strategic alternatives. Failure to address the HR side of the strategy could lead to the
purchase and installation of a new technology that, among other things, is too costly to staff, creates labor
con�lict, produces con�licts in the existing culture, or requires lengthy training, thus delaying the implementation
of the technology. What were the critical HR issues at Hershey Foods and Domtar?
We are not suggesting that HR issues should be the only, or the most important, in�luence on the strategic
direction taken by an organization; however, they should be part of the equation. The relative importance of
strategic variables such as technology, �inancial assets, product mix, and HR varies from one context to the next.
Likewise, the importance of HRD issues to competitive strategy depends on how central employee competencies
are related to successful implementation. Figure 2-4 shows how HR and HRD are related to the organization’s
business strategy.
Figure 2-4 Strategy Development at Different Levels
Training in Action 2-1 describes the experience of Hewlett-Packard Canada in strategy reformulation. As
illustrated in this example, the external strategy must be supported by internal strategies that bring the
structure and core technology into proper alignment. HR and HRD are typically key players in the development
of these internal strategies.
HRD is a part of the HR unit and contributes to the development of new strategy by providing an assessment
of employee strengths and weaknesses relating to the competitive strategy being developed. Unfortunately,
many organizations do not think of HRD in this strategic sense. Business strategies are often formulated with
little consideration of employee capabilities, and it is only after implementation problems surface that HRD
considerations arise. These problems often result in costly delays in implementing the strategy, and in some
cases, even doom the strategy to failure. If the competitive strategy requires increasing the competencies of
employees, the various methods of approaching this task would need to be examined. As a part of this, HRD
would make an estimate of the time and resources required for employees to be ready to implement the
strategy. This allows the strategic planning group to determine the feasibility and cost/bene�it of the strategy.
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2-1 Training in Action Back from the Brink
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_017)
In the early 1980s, Hewlett-Packard (HP) Canada was considered to be a slow-moving, inef�icient
company compared with its new competitors in the computer equipment business. Although it had state-
of-the-art printers and other computer-related equipment, it was slow to get these products to the
market, and its prices were comparatively high. Business results were poor and projected to worsen.
Furthermore, a recession was in full swing. How did it manage to turn that around to become a market
leader? A rethinking of the competitive strategy was necessary. Top management performed the normal
strategic planning activities, but it also formed teams to target companies in need of computer equipment
and to determine what HP Canada needed to do to win their business. After analyzing their environment
and internal strengths and weaknesses, the HP strategic planning team adopted a strategy combining
elements of both quality and cost leadership.
To address the internal weaknesses related to this strategy, HP Canada cut staff and streamlined
operations. The sales force, for example, had been organized into separate groups specializing in one or
a few products. Under the new structure, the groups were merged into a sales force organized around
customers but familiar with all products. HP Canada also relied on developing economies of scale in the
production of its printers and pricing them competitively rather than taking large pro�it margins on their
popular models. This strategy of getting a smaller unit pro�it from a larger volume of units, combined
with improvements in product quality, vaulted HP Canada back into a market leadership position. Pro�its
increased in spite of a continued Canadian recession. By the late 1980s, HP Canada positioned itself to be
one of the toughest competitors in a competitive industry.
You might think that hiring from outside the organization to improve the competency base of the
organization wouldn’t involve HRD much. In this approach, competencies are imported through recruitment and
hiring. Even here, however, HRD needs to be involved in orientation and any other new employee training. If
current employees are to be terminated or reassigned, HRD is likely to be involved in outplacement or training
for the new job.
In the Domtar case, it became clear that no one had the knowledge and skills to implement a Kaizen
approach to quality management. Domtar brought in an expert from outside to oversee the implementation
process, but he would not be able to train the workforce by himself. The company wanted to improve customer
service skills throughout the organization. It also needed to instill the Domtar values in the new employees it
had inherited from mergers and acquisitions. Clearly, HRD needed to be a part of these strategic discussions.
Of course, the HRD unit’s primary responsibility is to align itself with and support the organization’s
strategies. It does this by developing training that focuses on critical competencies that are needed to meet
strategic performance objectives and delivering that training to the right people. HRD can better align itself with
the organization’s strategy by maintaining close connections to the product development area. Every business,
whether it delivers goods or services, develops and delivers a product. New products are often a part of new
strategy and require training for one or more of the following: the sales force, customers, and production
employees. The earlier the training unit is able to understand the training needs relating to the new product, the
better able it will be to meet those needs.
The HRD unit also plays a key role in identifying and assisting in the removal of barriers to desired
performance. This last role is addressed in more depth in the next section.
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2.4 OD, Strategy, and Training
The very best outcome that training, by itself, can achieve is the increase in trainee capabilities, that is, the
trainee’s ability to perform. The value of this comes from the transformation of this capability into improved job
performance. Getting improved performance from improved capability is a performance management
challenge. The HRD unit is focused on achieving the “capability,” and organizational development (OD)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_023) is focused on
the management of performance. Thus, the two should go hand in hand. The planning and implementation of
strategy involves change—both in the way the organization interacts with its external environment and in how it
manages its internal operations. OD deals with creating and implementing planned change. Thus, strategic
planning and OD should go hand in hand. Unfortunately, in many organizations, these three sides of the
organizational effectiveness triangle are not always aligned. In the sections that follow, we discuss what OD is
and how it relates to strategic planning and training.
OD provides a research base and set of techniques related to organizational effectiveness and managing
change. As the organization’s objectives and strategies change, the KSAs required of employees also change.
However, it is not enough simply to provide new KSAs. The organization’s systems and procedures must change
to support the use of the new KSAs if the desired change in performance is to occur. In the Hershey Foods case,
what types of systems and procedures needed to change to make the new strategy successful? The reward
system? The way Hershey is organized? The HRD process? The �ield of OD provides processes for identifying
when systems and procedures need to change and how to manage the change. So let’s examine the strategic
planning process and the ways that HRD and OD can support each other in the implementation of a strategic
plan.
OD and Strategy
Whether an organization’s strategies are developed proactively or reactively, they require support from the
internal systems. Organizational change is an inherent part of the process of developing and implementing
strategy. Organizations must resolve the following three core issues in developing and implementing strategy:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_018)
1. Technical design issues. These issues arise in relation to how the product or service will be
determined, created, and delivered.
2. Cultural/ideological issues. These issues relate to the shared beliefs and values that employees need
to hold for the strategy to be implemented effectively.
3. Political issues. These issues occur as a result of shifting power and resources within the organization
as the strategy is pursued.
These three issues are critical to the organization’s ability to achieve its objectives. In developing strategy,
decisions such as what products to develop, how to manufacture them, and what marketing techniques to use
will signal shifts in organizational values, power, and resources. These issues will need to be managed effectively
to create support for, rather than resistance to, the strategic plan. The �ield of OD can help organizations
manage change effectively. OD techniques provide methods for change to occur in an objective, goal-directed
manner that addresses the needs of both the organization and the employees affected by the change. OD uses
an open-system, planned-change process that is rooted in the behavioral sciences and aimed at enhancing
organizational and employee effectiveness. A model of a generic planned-change process is provided in Table 2-
1.
Table 2-1 Steps in a Generic Planned Change Model
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1. Establish a compelling need for change.
2. Develop, in collaboration with the concerned parties, the goals to be achieved.
3. Determine what is causing the need for change.
4. Identify and evaluate alternative approaches for addressing the need for change.
5. Select an approach for addressing the need for change.
6. Implement the approach.
7. Evaluate the results.
8. Feedback the results to the organization.
A. If results are favorable, go to step 9.
B. If results are unfavorable, go back to step 4.
9. Internalize the change. The changes made become routine and the normal way the organization
conducts its business.
The strategic planning process, if done properly, is an OD approach to change. The �irst step, establishing a
compelling need for change, occurs in strategic planning during the environmental scanning phase. The need
for change is made apparent when the strategic planners identify the threats and opportunities in the external
environment and compare that information with what the organization is currently doing. A need for change is
established when a gap exists between what the organization is doing and what the external environment
requires (or will require). Next, the company’s business objectives are set (step 2 in the change model). The
company’s current strengths and weaknesses are analyzed to determine what internal changes are necessary
(step 3). This information provides the compelling need for internal change, and internal strategic objectives are
developed for these areas. The rest of the steps in the OD model concern the development of tactical activities to
achieve the strategic objectives.
Levels of Change and Resistance
Whenever internal change is planned, the plan should address the following three levels in the organization:
1. The organization itself: The way the organization is put together (i.e., what we call structure and
design) must be examined to ensure that work is allocated appropriately and organizational systems
are supportive of the change. This level of analysis identi�ies how labor is to be divided and what rules
and procedures will govern operations.
2. Groups and their interrelationships: The way work is performed in the organizational units (i.e., the
sociotechnical systems) and how the outputs of the various units are integrated are the focus of this
level of analysis. The issues here concern the design of jobs within units of the organization and the
interrelationships of the jobs to one another.
3. Individuals within groups: The changes in performance that will be required of employees must be
identi�ied and mechanisms—facilities, machines, equipment, and KSAs—put into place to enable the
desired performance to occur.
Resistance to change is a common occurrence. Without suf�icient motivation to change, resistance is natural.
Change requires effort, new learning, and possible shifts of resources and outcomes. Often, those satis�ied with
the status quo can create enough resistance to derail the change effort, even to the point that the business fails.
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A major factor in this resistance is the failure of the change process to address all three levels of change. For
example, instituting a work-team system in the organization without addressing the performance appraisal
system will naturally cause resistance to the new approach. People may ask, “Why should we work as a team if
we’re getting evaluated as individuals?” Training in Action 2-2 provides a good example of what can happen if
all three levels are not addressed in the change strategy.
Achieving successful change at one level can require analysis and possibly interventions at the other levels.
Consider the effect of a change in the organizational structure. Work would be allocated differently so that some
units might get work they have not done before while others might have certain jobs taken away. The affected
units would need to change their work processes because they would have different amounts or types of work
to do. These changes would require OD interventions at the group level. Here, the OD practitioner is involved in
the design or redesign of jobs and work systems and the associated interpersonal relationships. In addition,
changes in how these work groups interact with others would be required because they would now be
producing something different. Employee resistance to new procedures would need to be addressed as jobs are
being redesigned. At the individual level, employees would also need to acquire the knowledge and skills
necessary to perform their redesigned jobs.
You might think that these three levels of change are intertwined only if the change occurs at the
organizational level. However, they are integrated no matter where the initial change takes place. This is why it is
important to take a systems perspective. Suppose you want employees to increase their skill at integrating
quality control (QC) into their production work. Of course, training at the individual level is required. But is it the
only thing necessary for the change to be successful? Even if employees’ KSAs are developed, the job itself and
the organizational systems must support using the KSAs. The company will need to ensure that the design of the
job supports the performance desired from its employees. For example, the equipment and tools might need to
be changed. Also, if employees feel that QC is just a way for management to eliminate their jobs, they might
resist this intervention, and providing new KSAs will not be enough. Work group norms (i.e., attitudes) will need
to be changed to be consistent with QC objectives. At the organizational level, reward and appraisal systems
would need to support the desired performance outcomes and work procedures. If the focus of the appraisal
system does not assess the quality of the employees’ work but only the quantity produced, employees will not
be likely to sacri�ice quantity for quality. The appraisal system needs to re�lect the importance of quality as well
as quantity. The point is that the components of the organization (structure and design, jobs and employees) are
interdependent, and changes in one need to be addressed as part of the overall change effort. The training
needs analysis process (Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) ) provides a model for
determining not only what training is needed, but also what other changes are necessary to manage
performance so that increased capabilities get transformed into increased job performance.
2-2 Training in Action Self-Managed Work Groups at an Automotive
Parts Plant
A southeast Michigan automotive parts manufacturing plant was divided into three manufacturing areas
(Areas A, B, and C). The Area B manager, after some initial research, decided to install self-managed work
groups (SMWGs). An outside consultant was brought in by the manager to assist in the change. The
following activities were carried out in the order presented:
1. A steering committee was formed consisting of the plant bargaining committee chairperson, and
two other United Auto Workers (UAW) representatives, the area manager, the plant industrial
relations manager, two area superintendents, and the consultant. This group developed and
managed the change process.
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2. An analysis of Area B employees, supervisors, and production systems was conducted to identify
areas for piloting the SMWG concept. Three production processes were selected on the basis of
employee and supervisor interest and on the ability of the production process to create natural
groupings of employees. While the equipment in these areas would remain the same, some of
the tasks, and how work was assigned to individuals, would change as a result of the team
concept.
3. Training was provided as described here, with duration indicated in parentheses.
A. All Area B employees received a general orientation to SMWGs. This orientation included
an overview of the changes that would occur in the pilot groups, the process of
determining how those changes would occur, the role of staff support functions (e.g.,
engineering, accounting, etc.), and a question-and-answer period. (2 hours)
B. Supervisors and line employees in the SMWGs were provided with the following:
A more in-depth orientation, including the goals, roles, and expectations for the
SMWGs and the salaried coordinator (formerly supervisor).
In addition, each SMWG developed a team mission and set team goals. (4 hours)
Basic team skills: interpersonal communication, interpersonal relations, con�lict
management, and problem solving. (16 hours)
Team-building training for each group consisting of both instruction and trainer-
facilitated application. After each component of training (e.g., development and
assignment of roles), the team would apply the concepts and principles to their
team. For example, after presentation of the team procedures material, the team
developed an “operating plan,” describing how work would be assigned, how
team meetings would be conducted, how coordination between shifts would
occur, and so on. (20 hours)
Training in information management, group facilitation, meeting management,
and stress management to prepare supervisors for their new roles as salaried
coordinators. Time was also provided for them to identify problems in carrying
out their new roles and to develop potential solutions. (8 hours)
C. Consultation for SMWGs and salaried coordinators was ongoing for a year after
completion of the training.
This applied example demonstrates elements of effective change management at the group and
individual levels. However, problems were encountered at the organizational level.
Group Level
All SMWGs were informed of why the change was desirable and understood what the change would
mean to them personally and how Area B and the plant would bene�it. Their representatives on the
steering committee (UAW representatives for the line employees and management for the supervisors)
ensured that all voices would be heard. Each work group helped shape the way the change was
implemented in that group by developing the team mission statement, goals, operating procedures, and
so on.
Individual Level
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Prior to implementation, each individual could choose to remain in the work group or move to a
different work group in the plant. Only a few individuals chose to leave their work groups. Extensive
training provided each individual with the KSAs needed to be successful in the SMWG concept.
Organizational Level
This effort ran into problems in two areas. First, no changes were made in the performance appraisal
system, so salaried coordinators were still evaluated on the criteria used for supervisors. Thus,
coordinators began reverting to their old supervisory behaviors, telling SMWGs what to do rather than
helping the groups learn what to do. Second, no changes were made in support systems such as
engineering and accounting. Accounting would not furnish the SMWGs with cost and operating ef�iciency
information in a form they could understand. Without this information, the SMWGs were unable to
determine whether they were meeting their goals. Equally troublesome was the relationship with
engineering. Engineers were used to coming into an area and telling the employees what was wrong and
how to �ix it. The new system required them to work with the SMWG to determine both the problem and
the solution. Engineers saw this process as a waste of their time as they already knew what to do. As a
consequence, engineers frequently would not show up at team meetings and would implement changes
without consulting with the SMWG that was affected by the changes. Because the engineers did not
report to the area manager, he had little control over how the engineers interacted with the SMWGs.
These problems could have been prevented if organizational systems had been addressed as a part of
the steering committee’s change management plan. The plant manager needed to be a part of the
steering committee as he was the only one with the authority to make systemwide changes.
Training and OD
Using OD’s principles-of-change management will increase the probability that your organization’s strategic
plans will be effectively implemented. But training also focuses on change, so change principles also apply to
training efforts. By including an analysis of organizational issues as an integral part of the training needs
analysis, the organization ends up not only with programs that address the KSA needs of employees, but also
with an increased awareness of what other problems (the nontraining needs) have to be solved by other means.
Trainers also use organizational information to better design programs so that problems related to applying the
training are addressed in the training rather than becoming surprises after training ends.
Despite the seemingly obvious advantages of collaboration between OD and training professionals, a gulf
sometimes seems to separate the two. Consider the following examples:
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_019)
An executive complains that his training and OD people cannot seem to work together.
Training staff complain at length about a manager they consider unreasonable and attribute her faults
to her background in OD.
A training staff member objects strongly when told that training needs analysis data could be used to
identify performance problem solutions other than training.
Table 2-2 provides some insight as to why con�lict such as in the preceding examples exists. OD practitioners are
typically strategic, and executives are usually their clients. Trainers are typically tactical, and their clients are
lower in the hierarchy (see Figure 2-1 for differences between strategy and tactics). It is the nature of the OD
practice to challenge assumptions underlying organizational practices. Trainers typically take organizational
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procedures and practices as givens, trying to make people more effective within those practices. For example,
suppose that the needs analysis data show that the problems in a work unit are a result of its manager acting
inconsistently and arbitrarily. OD professionals more than training professionals would be willing to be guided
by the data and confront the manager. Training professionals might be willing to say that no employee training
needs were identi�ied, but they are less likely to tell the manager that his or her behavior needs to change. OD
professionals, however, are much more likely to get tagged with the “analysis paralysis” label than are trainers,
who are seen as “doers.” Yet as Table 2-2 suggests, each would bene�it by working closely with the other
because one’s apparent weakness is the other’s strength.
Table 2-2 Differences Between OD Practitioners and Trainers
Issue OD Practitioner Trainer
Role Strategic Tactical
Client Top management Middle-to-lower-level
management
Response to problems with organizational politics,
structure, etc.
Challenge and
Confront
Work around or within the
system
Organizational perception Overly analytical Gets things done
Why Trainers Need OD Competencies
Trainers can bene�it from using OD, if only because its planning procedures help clarify what is needed in a
given organizational situation. We believe that training programs will also bene�it from the application of many
other OD concepts and principles. The emphasis OD places on participative approaches to problem solving
suggests that training is better when trainees take an active role in selecting their training opportunities and in
the training itself. When trainees are involved in the planning stages, they are less likely to demonstrate
resistance. This learner-focused orientation opens communication channels and results in higher levels of
motivation during the training program. A participative orientation also ties line managers directly to the
training process by involving them in assessing their employees’ needs, developing the training, and developing
support systems for applying the training back on the job.
In Chapters 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) and 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) , we emphasize an open
systems approach. Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) focuses on understanding
training needs in the context of organizational systems. Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) emphasizes connections
between the training program and other organizational systems. These connections help ensure transfer of the
training to the job. Many trainers have told us of their frustrations when trainees were excited about what they
learned, but at the conclusion of training, nothing had changed. The design chapter describes why this can
happen and how to avoid this type of training disaster.
Force-�ield analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_024) is one among a
multitude of OD techniques but can serve as an example of how these techniques can be of substantial bene�it
to trainers. The underlying concept is that any situation can be explained by the sets of counterbalancing forces
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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_020) Force refers
not only to physical forces but also to psychological forces that in�luence individual behavior. For example, if
you wanted to understand why a work group is not following the new company procedures, you might examine
the forces acting within and outside the group that in�luence the members’ behavior. Tradition, reward systems,
and group norms are forces that often exert strong pressure on group members, preventing them from trying
new ways of doing things. Other forces that can in�luence group behavior are economic factors; individual KSAs;
stereotypes of race, gender, and religion; and group con�lict.
To understand a particular situation, �irst you must identify all the factors that exert in�luence on that
situation. Then you must determine whether each factor is exerting force toward change (drivers) or against
change (restrainers). All the steps for using the force-�ield analysis are listed in Figure 2-5. The arrows show
forces that are driving and restraining change. In this �igure, the restraining forces are more numerous and
larger than the driving forces, a combination that would create resistance to change in the people operating
within the force �ield. The line of interaction, where these forces meet, symbolizes the current state: This line
re�lects the array of forces on either side, which have created the current situation you are trying to change.
Thus, for change to occur, actions must be developed to shift the force �ields so that the forces for change are
larger than the restraining forces.
Figure 2-5 Force Field Assessment
This model helps trainers understand the actions needed to overcome resistance to change. As we detail in
Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i32#ch03) , training is
often met with resistance, as it is one of the most personal types of change. Research indicates that change
occurs more smoothly and quickly if the forces that are restraining change are reduced before or at the same
time as driving forces are increased. Simply increasing the driving forces (putting on more pressure) often
results in escalated con�lict. This con�lict then becomes another force for resisting change as individuals become
more defensive and positions harden.
Why OD Professionals Need Training Competencies
Although generally successful, OD has experienced some glaring failures, many of which could have been
avoided with more attention to training principles.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_021) Earlier, we
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identi�ied the types of training required as a prerequisite or supplement to various OD techniques. OD
interventions nearly always involve groups of employees in structured activities such as planning, problem
solving, and intergroup con�lict management. It is naive to assume that one can bring people together to solve
new problems, in new relationships, in new situations, with new processes, and without prior training. These
employees need to
have a common KSA base in these areas,
understand group dynamics and be skilled at working in groups, and
understand and be skilled at using a common problem-solving model.
If OD practitioners are not skilled in designing and implementing training programs, they must develop
collaborative relationships with trainers who are. Such collaboration provides an excellent opportunity for
involving internal training resources in change efforts. It is especially helpful when an OD consultant, familiar
with good training practices, is retained from outside the organization. When HRD and OD work together in a
collaborative fashion, they will go a long way toward defusing any con�lict between external consultants and the
HR function.
If OD is to be a long-term effort, the change must be institutionalized into the way the company does
business. In one study, only about one-third of the OD efforts examined lasted more than �ive years.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_022) This �inding
indicates that training is a critical component to institutionalizing the change. Three situations are identi�ied as
key times for training:
1. When the OD process is started, training is needed to provide education about the change process and
to provide the necessary KSAs.
2. After the process has been in place for a while, some retraining or upgrading of KSAs is required to
sustain the process.
3. As new employees enter the organization, they need an understanding of the process and the KSAs.
Although most organizations provide the initial training, few conduct follow-up training or modify their new-
employee training to include the new process and the related KSAs.
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2.5 Putting It All Together
Recall from Figure 2-1 that it is not enough for the organization to develop competitive strategies—these
strategies must be followed with action. The strategies are implemented through a tactical action plan consisting
of the actions required and the unit(s) responsible for those actions. The process begins with assigning
objectives to the different work units of the organization. The units must then develop strategies and
implementation tactics to achieve the objectives. Eventually, they are translated into individual employee
objectives. The objectives for the HRD unit, as for all functional areas, must be tied directly to organizational
strategies. Of course, for HRD, these will be �iltered through the strategies the HR unit developed to achieve its
objectives.
HRDs Relationship with Other HR Functions
The HRD function is intractably tied to the other HR functions. Recruitment and selection require an orientation
and often some job training for new hires. As advancements are made in these areas, recruiters and hiring
authorities will need training in the use of the new methods. Anytime a performance appraisal system is
modi�ied, an organization will need to train those who will be using and administering the system. For example,
pay for performance systems require the setting of objectives jointly between managers and subordinates and
then evaluating the achievement of those objectives later on. These processes require managers to have
interviewing and feedback skills prior to the implementation of the system. Furthermore, any good
performance appraisal system should also have a developmental component. Training needs to be available for
those wishing to improve.
If there is any form of incentive pay, training in its proper use will be necessary. The health and safety unit
requires HRD to supply necessary training for assuring a safe work environment. If the OD unit uses surveys to
assess employee attitudes, then managers will need to be competent in feeding back results to their employees
in an effective manner.
A great deal of training is often required for �irst-line supervisors in the most effective methods of
supervision to assure a positive labor relations climate. In a unionized environment, they also may require
training in effective interactions with union of�icials, as well as having a good understanding of the union
contract and the grievance procedure. Some non-union companies also have grievance resolution systems in
place. Competency in working these systems is needed.
So as you can see, training is a key aspect of most of the other HR activities. Without an effective HRD unit,
much of what HR does would not be very effective.
Developing an HRD Strategy
Without a strategic plan, training is likely to be managed in a haphazard manner, its resources underutilized,
and its full strategic value not realized. At the most basic level, the training function must make strategic
decisions about where it will focus its resources and energies. It also depends in part on the environment in
which training operates, the resources available (�inancial, material, and personnel), and the core competencies
contained within the training function. Analysis of these areas leads to strategic decisions about the technology
that should be used to develop necessary employee competencies. The organization and its HR unit form the
bulk of HRD’s environment. Thus, in developing an HRD strategy, these areas must be analyzed. How to conduct
this analysis, and sources from which data can be obtained, are detailed in Chapter 4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i48#ch04) . For now, we will provide
some examples of how HR and HRD strategy might be developed based on the competitive strategy of the
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Organizational and HR Strategy
The market leader strategy depends on innovation; therefore, employee knowledge and skills are critically
important. Highly skilled and knowledgeable people must be hired and developed. They need to work under a
structure that allows them latitude in how they go about their work. Reward and feedback systems must focus
on long-term rather than short-term performance. Some amount of failure must be expected as employees try
out new ideas. The failure of an experiment can be positive if it brings the organization closer to realizing its
objectives through the learning that occurs. If failure is punished, employees will be reluctant to attempt new
things. Hewlett-Packard, Raytheon, and PepsiCo illustrate this philosophy by selecting highly trained and skilled
employees, being committed to their long-term development, and developing systems that evaluate and reward
employees for their contributions to the company’s objectives.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_023) HRD in the
market leader organization must adopt a strategy that builds on the already high level of competency brought
into the organization.
Cost leader organizations, in contrast, emphasize tight �iscal and management controls. Because their
leadership position is dependent on their ability to produce high volumes at low cost, ef�iciency and
productivity are critical. Strategies for reducing costs include reducing the number of employees, reducing
wages and salaries, using part-time and contract labor, and improving work methods. Conforming to
standardized procedures is emphasized in these organizations, and training helps ensure conformance. On-the-
job training (OJT) techniques are used more frequently for line employees. Typically, in these organizations it is
only at the middle-management levels and higher that more autonomous decision making occurs and that
higher-level competencies are emphasized. In these organizations, training is more likely to be focused on
management due to the high structure imposed on job tasks at lower levels.
Integrating HRD and OD Activities
Most organizations’ competitive strategy calls for some type of performance improvement, both for the
organization as a whole and for individuals. Perhaps the most effective way to ensure the seamless
implementation of performance improvement plans is to integrate HRD and OD. Trainers and OD professionals
have legitimate differences in the nature of the change they are responsible for, but their interests are intimately
connected. Each can provide valuable service to the other. Nonetheless, as we noted, they are often at odds with
each other. One reason for the division between them is that companies typically organize around their different
functional activities, and OD and HRD departments are often separated.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_024) This
separation increases the differences in perspective, role, value of service, clients, and so on. An obvious solution
is to house them together in something like a performance improvement department within HR. This would be
an example of a structural change to align the organization’s internal structure with its strategic direction.
Of course, this type of organizational change effort will require attention to critical change management
issues. For example, such a department would need different measures of success than either currently uses.
Success could be measured by contribution to business results, rather than by the number of bodies passing
through training courses or the number of teams built and facilitated by OD staff. This overarching goal would
require trainers to identify system de�iciencies that are likely to interfere with training, and OD staff to identify
KSA de�iciencies that are likely to interfere with system changes.
Companies such as Universal Card Service made these changes and improved their business operations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_025) They found
that integrating OD and training activities requires sponsorship from the top HR and other executives. One way
toward full-scale integration of these activities is to develop pilot collaborations focusing on a particular
business problem. This approach allows staff from each discipline to learn more about how the other operates
and where the synergy exists. In addition, the HR executive needs to encourage people in both disciplines to
learn as much as possible about the other. Another process that should lead to better integration of training
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and OD activities is having the staff in both areas work together to identify both barriers to collaboration and
ways to remove those barriers. This activity not only creates familiarity but also uses the OD principle of
involving those affected by the change in the change process. By integrating the two activities, the organization
also has the potential bene�it of cross-functional training, increasing the KSAs of both groups. At Domtar, Claude
Belley is the senior vice president of human resources and organizational development. Do you think he
understands the importance of this type of integration? Might this have contributed to Domtar’s success?
Some Strategic Training Alternatives
The number of possible strategic choices an HRD unit might make is far too large to cover them all. We will look
at one key strategic decision: whether to outsource training, keep it in-house, or some of both. This example will
show you how HRD strategy is tied to both the HR and competitive strategies of the business.
Internal Provider Strategy
Large organizations in a stable environment, where training needs do not change rapidly, often choose to do
most of the training themselves. The “in-house” strategy directs all, or nearly all, training to be developed and
provided by the internal HRD unit. The types of training needs that will be addressed, the development of
programs to address those needs, and the evaluation of those programs are typically determined by a
centralized HRD function in consultation with the HR executive. Because it is most effective in a stable
environment where training needs do not change rapidly, it is most appropriate for cost leader companies. The
principal advantages of this strategy are the control over the training content, consistency in delivery across the
organization, and reduced training costs. In this strategy, a single program is developed to meet a particular
training need across many groups of employees. As a result, the content and delivery can be controlled for
consistency across the organization. Because in-house specialists develop the content and design of the
program, it is tailored to the company’s needs. Because the cost of development can be spread across a large
number of employees, the cost per employee is reduced.
This strategy requires a fairly large centralized training staff. Core competencies for HRD departments using
this strategy include all those necessary to identify training needs; design, develop, and conduct training
programs; evaluate the programs; and manage the training processes and systems. Because of the resource
requirements, typically only larger companies adopt it. This is not to say that all large companies adopt this
strategy, only that they are more capable of adopting it.
A way to reduce centralization but maintain a low cost is to have training developed by the corporate HRD
staff but delivered by other employees or electronically. This system places a higher reliance on train-the-trainer
and self-learning methods (e.g., videos and computer-based training). In this approach, after the training
programs are developed and handed off to the various business units, the training is completed by the trainee
alone or facilitated by a business unit representative (e.g., supervisor or in-house technical expert). Those
programs with face-to-face components will need to have facilitators go through a train-the-trainer course to
familiarize themselves with the content and methods.
Suppose Hershey identi�ied “listening skills” as a problem area for the sales force in dealing with customers.
In response, HRD developed a listening skills training program and decentralized the training so it was
conducted by team managers within the division. This type of training includes many experiential exercises and
some behavior modeling. These managers would, therefore, need to demonstrate effective listening skills, be
familiar with the exercises and skilled at facilitating them, and be skilled at providing constructive feedback.
Because there are differences in managers’ training capabilities, different locations would receive different
levels of training. For this reason, evaluation would become especially important. Often the strategic KSAs that
training is intended to provide are subverted through modi�ications in the training content and design at the
work unit level. One solution to this problem is to provide extensive training and develop reward systems that
motivate the work unit trainer to be consistent in presenting the material and applying the methods built into
the training. However, this level of monitoring can substantially reduce the cost advantage.
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Outsourcing Strategy
This strategy employs outside training vendors for all, or almost all, training activities. The HRD unit’s role is to
select and manage training suppliers. Suppliers may be training �irms, consultants, professional seminars,
college/university courses, and the like. A full commitment to this strategy would use outside vendors to
conduct all aspects of the training process from the training needs analysis through evaluation.
The outsource strategy is appropriate for larger organizations whose training needs vary dramatically over
short periods of time and for small businesses and organizations with a small or nonexistent training function.
Large market leader �irms, for example, will �ind many advantages in this strategy. Small businesses adopt
outsourcing primarily for budgetary reasons. This strategy provides a �lexible way of meeting changing and
diverse training needs with professionally developed and administered programs. It also �its well with a
decentralized HRD structure. A small central HRD staff is involved in the budgeting process, monitoring of
training-related policies, and providing consultation and support to the various units. For example, compilation
of lists of approved vendors, payment of vendors, and mandated training are decisions that might be made by
the central HRD group. In a decentralized organization, the different operating units of the organization
(business units, divisions, geographical units, and the like) are then free to select from the list of approved
vendors and programs those best suited to their needs and within their training budget. In a more centralized
structure, the HRD unit would select and manage the vendors for each location. Program selection would derive
from mutual agreement between the central HRD unit and the operating unit.
The core competencies required of the HRD unit in this strategy include a thorough understanding of the
training process, skills in evaluation and selection of appropriate training providers, and general management
KSAs. As a large number of �irms and individuals offer training services, the manager must carefully screen
potential providers. Obviously, cost is one factor to consider. Typically, the low-cost providers are those who
recently entered the �ield. However, the fact that a provider is more expensive or experienced does not mean
that its quality is higher. Within your budgetary limits, the primary criterion should be the ability to provide the
desired KSAs to your employees. Some key questions for making this determination are listed in Table 2-3. Of
course, this list is not suf�icient to evaluate the provider fully, but it provides a good start for making
comparisons. These issues will be discussed more completely in Chapter 8
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i113#ch08) .
Managing the training providers requires typical management competencies. The provider must be given
clear direction—that is, the goals and expectations must be clearly spelled out. The various training providers
and their programs need to be organized in a logical �low with minimal disruption to the activities of the
company. The providers’ activities need to be monitored to ensure that they are acting to plan and that goals are
met. An open communication system must be established between the training function and the training
providers so that both parties can access the needed information.
Even though �lexibility is a key advantage, the outsourcing strategy can also reduce costs. It can translate into
substantial savings on HRD staff salaries, bene�its, and taxes. The cost per training session is usually higher
because the cost for training vendors is almost always higher than the comparable cost of internal training staff
(even including bene�its and taxes). However, the vendor is paid only for the contract period. With this strategy,
no layoffs or staff relocations are required when the need for training slacks off. Also, because vendors can
spread program development costs across clients, the company typically pays less for program development.
Table 2-3 Questions to Assess Training Provider Capabilities
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What is the trainer’s background (education, experience, etc.)?
Has the trainer ever provided these particular training programs or services before?
Has the training been evaluated? If so, what levels of outcomes were evaluated, and what have
been the results?
Can the trainer give you the names of people in these companies who could speak knowledgeably
about the trainer’s products and services?
Can the trainer give you names of and permission to contact the following people?
Trainees who received the training
The person who was the trainer’s primary contact in the client organization
The person who monitored or coordinated the training
How does the trainer go about developing a program, delivering training, or providing a training service?
Can the trainer provide examples or an outline of his approach or process? Will this �it your organization’s
culture and budget?
If the training is already developed, can the trainer show you materials, such as handouts,
exercises, and videos?
If these materials are not speci�ic to your organization, how will the trainer alter them to make
them appropriate for your situation?
To reduce costs further, a train-the-trainer approach can be used with the outsourcing strategy. In this case, a
training vendor (rather than HRD staff ) trains one or more employees to use the vendor-developed program.
For example, it might be too costly and disruptive for a small business (of, say, 15 employees) to send all its
employees to a customer service seminar and workshop. Instead, the company might send the general manager
to the workshop and then to a train-the-trainer session conducted by the workshop provider. When the general
manager returns to the company, she can train the rest of the employees as time allows and for little additional
cost (such as paying a fee for using the materials, etc.). The general manager can also modify the training,
customizing it for the speci�ic needs of the organization.
The Mixed Strategy
Most �irms use some combination of the two preceding strategies, providing some training internally and
contracting some to external providers. Decision making is centralized for some training activities and
decentralized for others. Different philosophies suggest where centralization should take place and what
training should be developed or conducted internally. One approach is to conduct ongoing training internally
and contract to external providers all new training. New training is usually required when some aspect of the
environment changes. This strategy allows the �irm to be adaptable to changing aspects of the environment
while focusing its internal efforts on ongoing training. If uncertainty surrounds the training that is required or
how quickly the need will change, this strategy puts the company in a more �lexible position to respond. In
addition, less of the development costs of new training are borne by the company. A negative aspect, however, is
that training developed by outside vendors can be less directly relevant to the employees, and additional
resources might have to be allocated to tailor the training to the organization. Also, if the training need becomes
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ongoing, plans should be developed to provide it internally, an action that will require agreement from the
external provider. Another approach is to develop all new training internally and contract out ongoing training.
The mixed strategy reduces the size of the organization’s training staff somewhat. Typically, trainers are
individual consultants who are willing to work as contract employees for the �irm. This strategy ensures the �it
between the training and the training needs, but the organization must shoulder all the development costs.
These costs may be offset by the reduced staf�ing needs. A careful break-even analysis would determine
whether reduced staf�ing would adequately compensate for increased development costs. Many companies �ind
they do, as the use of vendors for training has been increasing. For example, General Motors doesn’t provide
“Mr. Goodwrench” training, an outside vendor does. Firms such as Avaya, Cisco, Nokia, and Hewlett-Packard all
have outsourced signi�icant amounts of their training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_026)
The mixed strategy might be appropriate for organizations with training needs that are extremely diverse
from one sector of the organization to another. MASCO Corp., a home improvement and building products
company, is a good example. MASCO consists of an assortment of divisions producing different products and
services. The corporation has adopted elements of both the market leader and cost leader strategies. The
training needs of the different divisions are unique for the most part. It would be expensive for MASCO to hire a
centralized HRD staff to handle all the training needs for its divisions. It makes more sense for the HRD function
to be decentralized to the divisions. On the other hand, when MASCO was in the process of rede�ining its culture
after a period of strong growth, the company instituted an executive development program that was centralized
in its corporate headquarters. This centralized program, in which key executives and high-potential managers
are given the opportunity to earn an MBA, is provided by an outside vendor (Eastern Michigan University
[EMU]). The company’s HR executives and training staff worked closely with EMU to ensure that course
materials met MASCO’s strategic KSA needs while re�lecting the breadth and rigor of a traditional MBA program.
Materials were customized to re�lect problems and issues MASCO faced. It wasn’t the only training that the
company centralized. As part of its strategy to realize synergies among its divisions, it instituted a training
program in logistics in which the content was customized by a different outside vendor (Michigan State
University) to meet MASCO’s strategic needs. Again, sets of employees from all divisions take part in the
program. Thus, MASCO’s mixed training strategy takes advantage of centralized programming for some of its
strategic training while decentralizing the rest.
We have looked at just one of the myriad HR and HRD strategy implications. The most important point is for
you to understand that the organization’s competitive strategy and the supporting HR strategies determine
HRD’s strategic direction.
One �inal note. The role of HR should not end with the selection of an outside vendor. Someone should be
assigned to work closely with the vendor for the following reasons. Someone inside the organization has a
thorough understanding of the organizational culture and how things work. This person can be a valuable asset
to the outside vendor through their knowledge of the inner workings of the organization; thus providing
direction, cutting through red tape, and generally providing the vendor with insight into how best to get things
done. She would be able to provide important insights into the employees to be trained and how the customized
training should look. She would also be able to provide information as to the value of performance reviews in
needs assessment, as well as assist in the design of such an assessment. Assisting in the development of the
training objectives would assure that the training was on track. In the development of any role-plays or cases
for use in the training, the HR person would be able to provide guidance to assure these exercises are relevant
to the trainees. Finally, by having someone working closely with the vendor throughout the process, two
outcomes are likely. First, the �inal product will be what was expected; no surprises. Second, working closely
with the vendor at all levels of the training (needs assessment, design, development, etc.) will require a great
deal of communication between the HR person and the vendor. Evidence suggests that those organizations that
are communicating on an ongoing basis with their vendor typically enjoyed better results than those that do
not. These organizations reported better training designs and higher overall satisfaction with their vendors than
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those that did not communicate in that manner.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_027)
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2.6 Focus on Small Business
Is it necessary for small businesses to get involved in strategic planning to be successful? The answer is yes.
There is evidence that those that do not do strategic planning have a higher incidence of failure than those that
do. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_028)
Furthermore, strategic planning is positively related to small business performance.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_028) In spite of this
bene�it, many small business owners and managers do not engage in strategic planning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_030) Some of the
reasons are outlined in Table 2-4.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_031)
Table 2-4 Small Business Owners’ Reasons for Not Planning Strategically
Not enough
time
Too busy with day-to-day operations and concern about tomorrow are the excuses for not
planning for next year.
Unfamiliarity Lack of awareness of strategic planning or failure to see its value. See it as limiting �lexibility.
Lack of skills Do not have the skills or time to learn them. Do not wish to spend money to bring in
consultants.
Lack of trust Want to keep key information con�idential. Do not wish to share this information with other
employees or outsiders.
What can be done to encourage small businesses to become more involved in such planning? First, education
about the advantages of such efforts would be useful. Even large organizations use the excuse that they are too
busy �ighting �ires to �ind time for planning. However, if they spent time planning, they might see fewer �ires.
Bringing small business owners and managers in touch with those who use strategic planning successfully in
their small businesses is a good start for this education.
The skills issue can be addressed by using a less formal and rigorous process. Evidence indicates that small
businesses that use a more informal strategic planning process can be more effective than those using more
formal processes.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_032) Additional
evidence suggests that, at the very least, a formalized process produces no better results.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_033) The emphasis
on structured written plans in strategic planning might be dysfunctional for the small business. A less formal
way to approach strategic planning for the small business is provided in Table 2-5. By researching and
answering these questions, the small business owner will be well on the way to a strategic plan.
Table 2-5 Strategy Questions for Small Business
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1. Why are we in business?
2. What are the key things we are trying to achieve?
3. Who is our competition, and how can we beat them?
4. What sort of ground rules should we be following to get the job done right?
5. How should we organize ourselves to reach our goals and beat the competition?
6. How much detail do we need to provide so that everyone knows what to do? How do we make sure
that everyone gets the information?
7. What are the few key things that will determine whether we make it? How do we address and keep
track of them?
What about the issue of lack of trust? Research suggests that when faced with threats, small �irms bene�it by
going outside the organization for help. Unlike large organizations, they are unlikely to have the necessary
internal resources to address these threats.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_034) Without a
source that they trust, they simply will not obtain the necessary information or assistance. Small businesses
need to seek out possible resources and establish appropriate relationships in “good times” so that they can be
drawn on for help in “bad times.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_035) The small
business owner can evaluate the relationship during times when threats are not creating a crisis.
Will an increase in strategic planning result in a corresponding increase in the attention that small businesses
give to training? Perhaps not, but we believe that it will focus attention on the “right” training. Training is often
ignored as a strategic initiative because owners and managers do not have a clear model for making decisions
about whether training activities will lead to a competitive advantage.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_036) Involvement in
strategic planning will provide such direction. As we discussed earlier, when the need for training emerges from
the strategic planning process, it is clearly tied to the mission and objectives of the small business. For example,
in companies that include International Organization for Standardization (ISO) certi�ication in their strategy,
training is clearly value added because certi�ication will not be granted without it.
One �inal point should be made about small businesses. Because they are small, communicating a strategic
direction and implementing the plan should be considerably easier than with a large �irm. The evidence
indicates that in implementing strategic plans, small companies needed to anticipate and prevent fewer
problems than larger �irms.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_037) Some
problems still do exist, however. For example, the small business that seeks to become a preferred supplier to a
company doing business must receive ISO certi�ication. Metro Tool & Die, a small manufacturer in Ontario, for
example, became ISO certi�ied in 1999, in order to be able to supply parts to the auto industry.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_038) Many small
companies used the strategic planning process to determine whether becoming certi�ied is worthwhile. The
planning process allows them to see how certi�ication �its their overall competitive strategy. Training in Action 2-
3 shows how different companies used the strategic planning process to make the decision.
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2-3 Training in Action Stories Along the Road to ISO
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch02biblio_039)
Rivait Machine Tools, which provides electrical discharge machining of steel, employs 14 people. The
president, James Rivait, made an important strategic decision to diversify into the aerospace industry. To
even be considered as a supplier in this industry, a company must be ISO 9000 certi�ied. Eighteen months
later and $100,000 poorer, Rivait achieved certi�ication.
Early in 1993, Grace Specialty Polymers set out in a new strategic direction that required ISO 9000
certi�ication. The strategic plan set a target of achieving certi�ication for four separate locations by the
end of 1994. To accomplish this goal, an executive steering committee was assembled, consisting of the
general manager and employees who reported directly to him. The committee was to provide the
direction, commitment, and resources needed. Next, an ISO implementation team was set up. Department
managers made up most of this cross-functional team. Although successful, the members of the team
indicated the process was not easy. Their assessment was that a company must be committed to getting it
done. You can’t have less than a full effort.
Reelcraft Industries embarked on an ISO certi�ication program to improve processes. It took the
company two years to achieve certi�ication, and the paperwork it produced was awesome. The main
difference is that Reelcraft now “builds quality in rather than inspects errors out.” Among the chief
bene�its are increased knowledge, skills, and communication.
Cavalier Tool & Manufacturing examined the ISO process and determined that it did not make strategic
sense for them at that time. Sometimes a customer faces a short-run emergency and needs a “down and
dirty mold.” “If we were ISO 9000 certi�ied, we would not be allowed to take on that business. All your
work must follow the ISO process, and so I would have to turn down this customer. I am not ready to do
that,” President Rick Jannisse said. Furthermore, he is not disposed toward the discipline required to be
ISO certi�ied. Examining the external environment, he realizes that he may be forced to become certi�ied
eventually, but not now. At least he is aware of the implications of the decision he is making.
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Summary
Training activities need to be aligned with the organization’s strategy to be effective. Part of the alignment
process is the development of training unit strategies in support of the organizational strategies. So it is
important for training professionals to understand the basics of the strategic planning process. Two examples
of competitive strategy—market leader and cost leader—were presented to illustrate how differences in
strategy in�luence the internal operations and lead to different training needs. The organization’s strategic
choice will depend, in part, on key factors in the external environment and on the general level of
environmental uncertainty. The organization’s core technology in�luences not only external strategy, but also the
alignment of internal operations with those strategies. Organizations must develop internal strategies to align
their operations with the external strategies. For example, whether a company adopts a market or a cost leader
strategy will have different implications for how HR and HRD go about their business. The HR department
needs to be involved in the strategic planning process to provide information about workforce readiness to
implement various alternative strategies being considered. HR also provides input in relation to managing
change arising from new strategic directions. From this and other information, a sound strategic choice can be
made.
The choice of strategic direction will also help determine the way HRD is structured. Cost leader
organizations operate in a stable environment, and more training can be centralized. Market leaders, conversely,
operate in an uncertain environment, and the HRD department needs to be more decentralized. Competitive
strategy will also in�luence the degree to which HRD will outsource training.
OD focuses on improving the effectiveness of the organization through planned change. Strategic planning
and training can bene�it from the concepts, principles, and techniques used in OD. While training is focused on
improving employee capabilities, OD is focused on managing performance. Improved capabilities do not
translate into improved performance unless the performance management system is aligned to support those
capabilities. Conversely, no matter how good the performance management system, employees will not perform
if they don’t have the capabilities. For this reason alone, the HRD and OD units need to work closely together.
While there are differences in the focus of these two units that often create friction, their ultimate objectives are
the same.
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Key Terms
Competitive strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term01)
Core technology
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term02)
Cost leader
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term03)
Decision autonomy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term04)
Division of labor
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term05)
Environmental complexity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term06)
Environmental stability
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term07)
Environmental uncertainty
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term08)
Force-�ield analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i24#ch02term09)
HR strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term10)
HRD strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term11)
Internal strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term12)
Market leader
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term13)
Mechanistic design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term14)
Nonroutine technology
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term15)
Organic design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term16)
Organizational design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term17)
Organizational development (OD)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i24#ch02term18)
Organizational mission
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i29#ch02term19)
Organizational strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term20)
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term01
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term02
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https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term04
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term05
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term06
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term07
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term08
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i24#ch02term09
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term10
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term11
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term12
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term13
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term14
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term15
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term16
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term17
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i24#ch02term18
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i29#ch02term19
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term20
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Organizational structure
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term21)
Proactive strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term22)
Reactive strategy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term23)
Routine technology
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term24)
Strategic planning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term25)
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term21
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term22
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term23
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term24
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i23#ch02term25
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Case Analysis CASE: Strategic Planning at Multistate Health
Corporation
As you read this case, think about the relationship among competitive strategy and both the HR and HRD
functions at Multistate Health Corporation (MHC). The case was written in 1994 and is real, but the corporation
asked that its name not be used. The federal and insurance environment for health care has changed
substantially since that time; however, the strategic planning issues faced by MHC remain relevant today. The
information provided here re�lects the organization in 1993 as it was completing its strategic planning process.
The Organization
MHC is a health care provider owned and operated by a religious order. MHC owns 30 hospitals and four
subsidiary corporations employing more than 10,000 people. Its headquarters are in Michigan, with hospitals
located in 17 states across the country. The overall organizational structure and the corporate HR structure are
depicted in Exhibits 2-1 and 2-2.
Exhibit 2-1 MHC Organization
*Each hospital has a CEO reporting to the regional executive vice president (EVP). Hospital are referred to as divisions within MHC
and have a CEO as well as a functional staff (including HR) for conducting divisional operations.
Corporate HR is included as part of corporate staff, as desicribed in Exhibit 2-2.
Exhibit 2-2 MHC’s HR Organization
Competitive Strategy
In line with its mission, which is rooted in the tenets of the order’s religion, MHC focused on providing care to
the indigent and less able members of the community. It was reasonably successful until 1989, when the health
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care industry began to experience considerable change in governmental regulations and insurance procedures.
At the time of their strategic planning, hospitals were reimbursed on the basis of a preset, standardized price
for treatment rather than the “cost-plus” method used previously. The federal and state governments were
putting increasing pressure on health care institutions to reduce costs. In addition, new medical technologies
and procedures being developed were expensive to acquire and implement. MHC recently acquired subsidiary
corporations to develop or acquire new procedures and technologies. The subsidiaries were to work in
partnership with the regions to implement new procedures and technologies.
MHC has lost money every year since 1987. Currently, it is experiencing an oversupply of bed space in most
of the communities with MHC hospitals. Projections indicate that the need for inpatient services will decline
while the need for outpatient services will increase. Nontraditional health-related services are also projected to
increase (e.g., services in which patients and their relatives are trained in self-care or care of relatives). In short,
the market is becoming much more competitive while products and services are rapidly changing.
MHC just �inished its corporate strategic planning process and planned to develop a two-pronged market
strategy to deal with its changing business environment. One major area of focus is technology. The strategic
planners departed from the previous strategy, opting to become a leader in the development of new health care
technologies and procedures. They felt that the new developments would allow quicker recovery times, thus
reducing the hospitals’ costs. In addition, the technology could be marketed to other health care providers,
generating more revenue. The drawback was that new technologies and procedures were expensive to develop
and were often subject to long waiting periods before being approved by the insurers and government
agencies.
The second prong of the strategy was directed toward the hospitals and was focused on improving
ef�iciencies in basic health care and outpatient services. This would allow them to continue to provide for the
basic health care needs of the less fortunate. The substantial governmental fees, grants, and other revenues tied
to this population would provide a pro�it only if ef�iciencies could be developed throughout the corporation.
Implementation Issues
Carrie Brown, hired six months earlier as corporate vice president of human resources, listened to several days
of strategy discussion, without participating much. She now felt that it was time to address the HR implications
of these strategies.
“While I agree that these are good strategies,” Carrie said, “I don’t know if we have the right people in the
right places to carry them out. A few of our regional and divisional executives are already doing some of the
things you’re talking about, but most of them have grown up in the old system and don’t know how to go about
cost cutting in a way that doesn’t diminish the quality of our service. Many of our divisions are in rural areas
and haven’t kept up with technology. We do have some middle- to upper-level managers who are up to date in
cost cutting and technology implementation, but they are scattered throughout the organization.”
Mitchell Fields, president and chief executive of�icer (CEO), suggested, “Why don’t we just move those people
who can implement our strategies into positions where they have the power to make it happen?”
“Unfortunately,” Carrie said, “we have no accurate data about which of our people have the capabilities. It
would be a mistake to move forward unless we’re sure that we have the knowledge and skills on board to be
successful. What I’ve discovered in the short time I’ve been here is that we have grown too large for our human
resource information system (HRIS). We’re still doing most of the data collection on paper, and the forms used
are different in each of the divisions, so we can’t consolidate information across divisions, and even if we could
it would take forever to do it by hand. We have different pay scales in different divisions, and you can’t get a VP
in Boston to take a CEO position in Iowa because he’d have to take a cut in pay. Basically, what I’m saying is that
we don’t have a coherent HR system in place to give us the information we need to put the right people in the
right places.
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“Another issue is that our current structure isn’t conducive to setting up partnerships between the subsidiary
corporations and the regions. The corporations developing the technology are seen as pretty distant from the
regions and divisions. While the subsidiary corporations will bear the developmental or acquisition costs, they
are going to want to pass those along to the regions and divisions. The divisions will then have to bear the costs
of implementing the new technology and working out the bugs. Once all the kinks are worked out, the
subsidiaries will be selling the technology to our competitors at lower prices (due to volume) than they charged
the divisions. The corporation and subsidiaries are likely to pro�it from this arrangement, but the divisions are
likely to show losses. As you know, our compensation of division executives is based on pro�itability. They are
likely to resist cooperation with the subsidiaries. Our current systems don’t let all of our businesses come out
winners.”
“I understand what you’re saying,” Mitchell said. “Our competitive strategy is for the big picture and the long
term. If these HR issues are going to be a problem, we have to �ix them right away. We are going to have to work
out some way for both the subsidiaries and the divisions to come out winners in moving new medical
technology forward. Assuming we are able to put our HR house in order . . . get the right systems and people in
place. . . . Are there any other concerns about adopting our strategies?” Hearing no additional objections, he
said, “Okay, then, let’s get to work on putting an implementation plan together, and �irst on the list is our HR
system.”
HR Follow-Up to Strategic Planning at MHC
MHC determined that it needed to address the HR implications of the new climate in health care and that some
type of planning system was in order, so it hired an outside consulting �irm. The consultants agreed that some
type of system would likely be appropriate, but they were not ready to stipulate what that system would look
like. They conducted some initial diagnostic interviews, lasting one to two hours, with all of the divisional CEOs,
the regional executive vice presidents (EVPs), the corporate CEO, and the corporate VPs, including the VP of HR
and the VP of OD. The interview format is shown in Exhibit 2-3. The following information was obtained from
the interviews.
Exhibit 2-3 Agenda and Clari�ication of Issues for
Human Resource Planning System
1. What is the purpose of this meeting?
To enhance and develop the objectives of the
human resource planning system (HRPS).
2. What is HRPS?
HRPS is a business planning system designed to
provide quality data to enhance individual and
organizational decision making in all aspects of
human resource management.
3. Why was I asked to participate in this meeting?
Because you are a key decision maker, we want to
ensure that HRPS �its the needs of your
organization.
4. What speci�ic information should I provide?
We want your input regarding the following:
A. Should administrative access to the data in HRPS
be local, regional, or only at the corporate level?
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B. Who in your organization would use and bene�it
most from this system?
C. What, if any, problems are there with current
information used in human resource management
decisions (i.e., recruiting, training, appraising, etc.)?
For example, do you lack information as to which
people are capable successors for certain jobs,
and do you know what recruiting sources produce
the best employees?
D. What values of the corporation should be
incorporated into HRPS? How might these values
be incorporated?
E. As you see it, ideally, what job responsibilities will
change in your organization as a result of HRPS?
The current HR activities conducted at the corporate level are as follows:
1. To collect and store résumé-type information for all employees. This information includes demographic
data, employment history, and performance evaluations.
2. To select divisional CEOs, regional EVPs, corporate of�icers, and staff professionals, and to assist at the
regional and divisional levels in the selection of management-level employees, primarily through
posting the position and through word-of-mouth about who is competent and available.
3. To sponsor occasional management development programs at the corporate level, although no system
is in place to determine whether these are perceived as valuable or necessary. Most management
development is done externally with tuition reimbursement, and some is done by individual divisions.
The interviewees expressed varying degrees of dissatisfaction with the following:
1. No system for comparing internal candidates for positions. Performance evaluation is decentralized.
2. No system for making known the criteria for positions. People do not respond to posted openings
because rejection is a block to future promotion. Recommendation from a higher-up is known to be
necessary. A related complaint was that many CEOs will not recommend their best people either
because the CEOs rely on them heavily or because the bright young people might eventually be
competition.
3. No system for evaluating the KSA required of a CEO in one part of the corporation compared with that
of another. For example, the CEO in Grand Rapids has different responsibilities compared with a CEO in
Detroit, but no one at the corporate level knows what the differences are.
4. No corporate HR philosophy or strategy guides the organization in its HR activities.
Individuals at the corporate, regional, and divisional levels reported slightly different perceptions of the
priority of needs for an HRPS. See Exhibit 2-4.
Exhibit 2-4 Rank Order of Top HRPS Objectives by
Organizational Level
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Organizational
Level
Improve
Selection/
Search
Process
Develop a
Succession
Plan
Forecast
Critical
Hr Skills
Develop
Critical
Hr
Skills
Create and
Utilize
Career
Development
Corporate 2 4 3 5 1
Regional 1 3 4 5 2
Divisional 1 5 4 3 2
Although monitoring equal employment and af�irmative action is in the company’s mission statement, it was
considered important by only one respondent. The various levels disagreed on what job classi�ications should
be in the HRPS: Corporate and regional personnel preferred to include only executive-level personnel, and
divisional personnel wanted to include data down to the �irst-level supervisor. As an interviewee stated, “The
MHC value statement says that we respect the dignity of all individuals. To exclude people below the executive
level tells them they are worth less.” On the issue of control and administration of the HRPS, corporate and
regional executives preferred corporate- or regional-level administration, while divisional executives had a
strong preference for direct access. Some expressed concern that corporate administration would reduce
divisional autonomy in human resource decision making. The degree of centralization had been a sore point for
several years. The divisions previously operated individually as pro�it centers, but corporate headquarters was
discussing the need for a more integrated approach.
After reviewing the consultants’ report and meeting with the consultants, the executive committee
(representing the three levels of management) arrived at a consensus on the following HRPS objectives:
1. Improve the selection/search process for �illing vacant positions.
2. Develop a succession plan.
3. Forecast critical skill/knowledge and ability needs.
4. Identify critical skill/knowledge and ability de�iciencies.
5. Identify equal employment and af�irmative action concerns.
6. Create a career development system that re�lects the organizational mission
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch02_025) .
The following HR philosophy was developed and approved by the MHC board of directors:
As an employer committed to the value of human life and the dignity of each individual, we seek to foster
justice, understanding, and a unity of purpose created by people and organizations working together to achieve
a common goal. Therefore, we commit ourselves to the following beliefs:
1. People are our most important resource.
2. The human resource needs of the organization are best met through the development of employees to
their maximum potential.
3. Justice in the workplace is embodied in honest, fair, and equitable employment and personnel practices
with priority given to the correction of past social injustices.
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Case Questions
1. Describe MHC’s strategy in terms of market position. Also, identify the type of external environment
MHC is operating in and the degree to which the strategy matches the environment.
2. Identify the type of structure MHC currently uses in its primary businesses. Describe the �it between the
structure and the competitive strategy. Describe any structural adjustments MHC should make to
maximize the effectiveness of the strategy.
3. Identify any areas where current management KSAs are not aligned with effective implementation of
the competitive strategy.
4. Describe how MHC should go about addressing the KSA de�iciencies you have identi�ied in the previous
question. Your answer should be consistent with the mission and values of MHC.
5. Assume that you are the HRD manager and the competitive strategy was given to you prior to its
adoption. Using principles and concepts from the chapter, what recommendations would you give to the
strategic planning team?
6. Given the strategy, what tactical activities can the HR unit in general, and HRD speci�ically, develop to
support the strategy (be sure to include the implementation of the HRIS)? Identify sources of support
and sources of resistance to these tactical activities and point out any areas in which collaborating with
the OD unit would be advisable.
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Exercises
1. Conduct an analysis of HRD’s environment at the company you work for (if you’re going to school and
don’t work, use the school’s environment). What are the opportunities and threats to HRD in that
environment? What demands does the environment make on the HRD department?
2. Form groups of three to �ive people, one of them having been provided with training by their employer
within the last two years. Have this person explain the company’s mission to the rest of the group. Then
have the person describe the type of training that was received. The group’s task is to determine the
linkage between the training and the mission.
3. Identify two organizations with different environments and core technologies. Describe these
differences. Indicate how the HRD strategies of these companies might be similar or different. Provide a
rationale for your conclusions using relevant concepts from the chapter.
4. Examine the mission at the institution you are attending. Examine the one for your area of study (if it
has one). Do the two relate? On the basis of the mission and objectives, do a SWOT analysis through
interviews with administration or using your own expertise. What major changes are indicated? How
will they affect the way courses will be taught? What training might be necessary to meet these
changes?
5. Identify (through personal knowledge or research) an organization that uses HRD as a part of its
competitive strategy. What role does HRD play in that strategy, and how is HRD involved in
implementing the strategy?
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Questions for Review
1. What factors might inhibit HRD managers from developing a strategic planning approach to training?
How might these factors be overcome?
2. Think of possible strategic training alternatives other than those described in the text. Under what
conditions would these be important in developing a training strategy?
3. Why do training professionals need OD competencies, and why do OD professionals need trainer
competencies?
4. What is the relationship between competitive strategy, external environment, and internal strategies?
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Three Learning, Motivation, and Performance
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the value and importance of understanding theory.
Identify the major factors that determine human performance and their relevance to training.
Describe how motivation and self-ef�icacy relate to the effectiveness of training.
Describe the cognitive and behavioral approaches to learning and their contradictory implications for
instructional practices.
Describe how social learning theory integrates cognitive and behaviorist perspectives.
Describe how the processes and components of social learning theory relate to training.
Describe the causes of resistance to learning.
Explain the effect of group dynamics on learning and the transfer of training.
Explain why different people need different training methods to learn the same things.
Identify the characteristics of training design that motivate learning and accommodate trainee
differences.
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3.1 Case: The Wilderness Training Lab
Claudia, a successful 33-year-old corporate marketing executive, found herself in the mountains preparing to
climb a rope ladder attached to a tree. When she reached the top of the ladder, she would fall off backward. It
wouldn’t be an accident. No, she wasn’t suicidal or deranged. She was participating in an executive development
program called Wilderness Training Lab.
Back at the corporate of�ice she was known as an independent, smart, and tenacious businesswoman. She
quickly moved up the corporate ladder from product research assistant to brand manager. Claudia had a
reputation for micromanaging her subordinates and for being a loner. When asked about these issues, Claudia
replied, “When I was in college, I had a lot of group projects. At �irst I went along with group decisions and
trusted others to do a good job. Even though I felt anxious about putting my grade in the hands of someone
else, it seemed to be a good way to get along in the group. Those projects received mediocre grades, and I’m
only satis�ied with being the best. Then I started to take over the leadership of every group I was in. I developed
the plan, decided who would do what, determined the timelines, and always took on the most dif�icult and
complex parts myself, all the time making sure the others were doing what they were assigned. From then on
my group projects always got an ‘A.’ I carried those lessons with me into the workplace and I’ve had good
success here, too. Maybe it rubs some people the wrong way, but it works for me. The only trouble I’m having is
keeping up with all my projects. Some of the other brand managers want to work with me on joint projects, but I
do not have time. Besides, they probably just want me to do their work for them or steal my ideas. The VP of
marketing will be retiring soon and only one of the seven brand managers will get that job. What’s in it for me if
I collaborate with them? Let each of us sink or swim on our own merits.”
A few months ago, the VP of marketing, Sandy Cines, discussed career plans with Claudia. Sandy had always
praised and encouraged Claudia’s work, but this time he was a little reserved. He suggested, in rather strong
terms, that she attend an executive development “wilderness” program. Claudia hesitated because of her
workload and upcoming deadlines. Sandy said, “Well, I’ll leave the decision up to you. The director of training
and I have looked at your strengths and what you’ll need for the next level as an executive. Technically you’re
very strong, but more important at the next level is building good interpersonal relationships. The training
director recommended this program for you, but, as I said, I’ll leave the decision up to you.” Claudia wondered
what he thought was wrong with her interpersonal relationships. She had great relationships with customers
and outside vendors, and in her personal life. Relationships with her subordinates and peers needed to be
different. She needed to be �irmer and less �lexible with them, did she not? She did not think she had bad
relationships with her subordinates or peers. They never complained to her. However, Claudia decided it was
pretty clear that Sandy wanted her to attend the wilderness program.
She found a diverse group of men and women executives from all over North America when she arrived for
the training. Many con�ided that their organizations had sent them to “learn how to be more effective in groups.”
Most of them indicated they were interested and eager but a little nervous about what was expected of them.
They soon found out. They were divided into groups of 10 and taken out on the “course.”
The �irst training exercise was climbing the “trust ladder.” Doug, the program director, explained that the
group members would have to rely on each other quite a bit during the coming week. To demonstrate that the
group could be trusted, each person was to climb to the top of the ladder and fall backward into the group,
which would catch the person in the proper manner. Doug showed them how. After everyone had completed
the exercise, they discussed risk taking, building and trusting one’s support systems, being part of a support
system, and communicating one’s needs. Then came more challenging exercises, such as building and using
rope bridges to cross a stream, white-water rafting, and—the most physically challenging of all—scaling a four-
meter wall. The front of the wall was sheer and smooth. A platform was on the other side, on which two people
could stand at about waist level with the top of the wall and from which extended a ladder to the ground.
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Everyone had to scale the wall, and no one could stand on the platform until he or she had scaled the wall. It
was a timed event, and the groups were in competition with one another. The �irst thing a group had to do was
develop a plan. Strong and tall people were needed to boost the others to a point where they could pull
themselves over. Some stood on the platform and helped those who were not strong enough to pull themselves
over. It was clear that the �irst people over also had to be strong. Another problem was the last person over.
Everyone, except the last pair, would have “spotters” in case of a fall. Also, the last person could not be boosted
to the top. Someone would have to act as a human rope, hanging down from the top so that the last person
could climb up the person and over the wall. Therefore, the last person would have to be strong enough to
boost the second-to-last person up, but light enough to climb over the human rope. To determine the order, the
group members needed to share with one another their strengths and weaknesses. Claudia wanted to be the
last person so that she could make sure everyone was doing what they were supposed to, and also because, as
the last person over the wall, she would represent the group’s successful completion of this exercise. Two of the
strongest men in the group confessed to having injuries that would hamper their performance. Claudia realized
that her tennis elbow would be a great liability. When it came to her turn to discuss her strengths and
weaknesses, she was honest about her injury and indicated that she would �it best somewhere in the middle
where many people could help her.
When Claudia’s turn to climb came, she called out to those on top what to expect—where she couldn’t put
much strain and how she would indicate that someone was pulling too hard. Then she was being pushed up
with spotters all around her, and the next thing she knew she was over the wall.
Later, when the members discussed the event, Claudia asked what impact her limitations had caused in the
group. Those who had been pullers replied, “None.” They said they knew what to do because she had told them
about her problem ahead of time.
While packing to go home, Claudia thought about how much she had learned about herself and her
relationship to other people, especially at work. She recognized that she generally failed to trust others to do
their part and so she was not as effective as she would like to be. Her success came at a high price because of
the extra workload she imposed on herself. In addition, she wondered, “What is the price my subordinates pay?
How have my actions affected their attitudes and performance? Do I need to be so competitive with my peers?
Is that really in the company’s best interest? Is it in my best interest?” She knew she would have a lot to think
about on the trip home.
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3.2 A Few Words about Theory
Theories are speculative road maps for how things work. In fact, most of us develop our own theories to
explain how the world around us works. The child yells, “I want an ice cream cone.” He is told, “No, not until you
ask properly.” After several such incidents, the child begins to see that when he says “please,” he is more
successful than when he says “gimme” or “I want.” The child develops a theory of how to get things he wants; he
must always say “please.” “Good” theories assemble a number of facts, show the relationship among those facts,
and develop a logical rationale for what is likely to be true, given those facts. From theory, predictions or
hypotheses can be generated and tested. If the tests show that the predictions are correct, the theory is
supported. If the new facts are inconsistent with the predictions, the theory is revised or discarded. Suppose the
child in the previous situation takes his theory to the extreme. When he says “please” but is denied his request,
he continues to badger the person, saying “pleeeease, pleeease.” If he soon �inds that this approach does not
work, he might revise the theory. The new theory says: “Please” works more often than not, but if you have to
say it over and over, it does not work. In fact, it makes the person annoyed. This process of developing, testing,
and reformulating a theory is the basis of science. It is how new knowledge is created. A good theory is also
practical because it
explains facts as simply as possible,
predicts future events, and
provides information on what can be done to prevent undesirable things from happening.
A theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_001) is
an abstraction that allows us to make sense out of a large number of facts related to an issue. Effective training
practices are developed from theories and theoretical constructs that describe how learning occurs and what
motivates people. This chapter is about theory, so it is necessarily somewhat abstract. Unfortunately, some
people may see little value in wading through the complex logic and rationale of theories. It is easier to follow a
set of instructions like a recipe. But, in training, as in business, a single recipe will not work. Recipes require
standardized ingredients—businesses do not have standardized ingredients. Each organization is unique, with
different missions, strategies, environments, technologies, and people. The interaction of these elements creates
a different “chemistry” in each organization, thus making a “one best way for everyone” approach ineffective.
Theories provide the guidelines, principles, and predictions that allow organizations to create the right recipe
for their situation. Successful people in business pay attention to theory.
Firms in all industries from manufacturing to telecommunications, from energy production to health care
(e.g., Ford, 3M, Microsoft, Motorola, Toshiba, Toyota, and Xerox), jumped ahead of the competition because they
understood and applied theories. Some of these theories concern the product; others concern how the product
is made, and still others how the �irm is managed. Rather than copying others, these companies understood the
underlying theories related to what they were trying to do and applied those theories to meeting their goals. As
the quality guru W. E. Deming indicated, experience teaches nothing without theory.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_001) He warned
that unless you understand the theory behind someone’s success, copying can lead to chaos.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_002) A survey of
Fortune 1000 companies engaged in programs to improve quality (e.g., total quality management, ISO 9000) and
involve employees in decision making supports this view. The companies that applied the underlying models
and theories correctly were getting the best results; those that simply put programs into place were getting the
worst results.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_003)
Consider pay systems. Suppose a company pays its employees on the basis of how much they produce (i.e., a
piece-rate system). The company is successful and the employees make a high wage. You decide to institute the
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piece-rate system in your company. Will it work? It might, but it might not. Its success will depend on the total
reward system, what the company is trying to accomplish, and what the employees value. For example,
employees might turn out a high volume of the product but at the cost of many problems with quality. They
might produce more than can be sold. Piece-rate systems can create a “norm” in the work group that prohibits
them from producing more than a speci�ied amount (to avoid increases in the product/ money ratio or to
protect slower workers). In other words, the differences in the people and work environments affect the
success of the piece-rate system.
As a manager, your understanding of motivational theory allows you to improve employee performance
levels by applying the principles of motivation to your �irm’s unique circumstances. The same is true with
training. Whether one company’s training program will work in another’s will depend on the needs of each
company, its employees, and the training system used. Copying without understanding is like taking someone
else’s prescription drugs. Even though they might have made someone else better, they could kill you.
What theories are important to the success of the training enterprise? If trainees do not learn, then training
has failed, so theories of learning are certainly important. If trainees learn but do not try to transfer the
learning to the job, then training has failed. Add theories of motivation to the list. If the trainees learn and try to
transfer the learning to the job site, but obstacles in their work environment prevent them from making the
transfer, then again training has failed. It failed because the changes in the work environment that needed to
support the desired behavior were not considered. Thus, to design and implement effective training programs,
you need to understand how people learn, what motivates learning and performance, and how the learning and
work environment affect motivation and performance. This chapter focuses on these topics. The theories,
models, and concepts discussed here serve as a foundation for the rest of the book. We will refer to these
theories and their implications for training throughout the text because they are related to each phase of the
training process.
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3.3 Understanding Motivation and Performance
Your job performance and your behavior in general are a function of what you know, what you are able to do,
and what you believe (knowledge, skills, and attitudes [KSAs]). If you do not have the requisite KSAs, you cannot
perform. However, additional factors are important in determining your performance. Figure 3-1 depicts a
general performance model
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_002) . This model
indicates that a person’s performance (P) depends on the interaction of motivation (M), KSAs, and environment
(E). Motivation arises from your needs and beliefs about how best to satisfy those needs. Both motivation and
KSAs are part of your memory and thinking systems (i.e., cognitive structure
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_003) ). Environment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_004) refers to the
physical surroundings in which performance must occur, including barriers and aids to performance.
Environment also includes the objects and events (cues) that you might see as indicating that your performance
will be rewarded or punished.
Figure 3-1 Factors Determining Human Performance
Think back to the wilderness training case. Which of Claudia’s KSAs allowed her to reach her current
position? Recall that her boss felt that she lacked the interpersonal skills necessary for developing good
relationships. Did she lack these skills or was she not motivated to use them? Apparently, she had the skills,
because she was able to develop good relationships with others with whom she was not directly working. The
training director probably understood this, because he suggested the wilderness training rather than an
interpersonal skill-building workshop. The wilderness training did not teach people how to develop good
interpersonal relationships as much as it broke down barriers that prevented those relationships from
developing. The program worked on the motivation and attitudes of the trainees. What barriers in Claudia’s
work environment might keep her from developing these relationships? How about the upcoming retirement of
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the VP and that open position? What criteria could be used to evaluate managers that would encourage them to
develop positive relationships with peers and subordinates?
Each of the factors M, KSA, and E in Figure 3-1 can in�luence performance, but the combination of these
factors determines the person’s performance. The weakest factor, then, limits the likelihood of engaging in any
activity. For instance, no matter how knowledgeable or skilled you are, if you are not motivated to perform the
activity—or worse, are motivated to not perform it—then you will not. If the environment does not support the
activity or blocks it, then it does not matter how motivated or knowledgeable you are, you will not do it. For
example, if necessary tools are not working or equipment is missing, you won’t attempt the activity. Likewise, if
the environment is sending signals that your performance will be punished, you won’t perform. In Claudia’s
case, she seemed to want to stay at work and not attend the training. However, her boss gave strong indications
that staying would be viewed negatively. Her environment changed, signaling that old ways of performing would
not be rewarded and new ways would.
The model in Figure 3-1 is important for determining employee training needs. It helps us understand
whether poor job performance is a result of KSAs or other factors. It is also important in the design of training.
When putting together the learning modules and training methods, the trainer must consider how they will
affect the trainees’ motivation to learn. Similarly, when selecting the training facility and materials, we must
consider how they will interact with trainee motivation. When we ask trainees to use their new knowledge and
skills back on the job, we must make sure that the environment is supportive of this new way of performing. A
deeper understanding of these three determinants of performance will increase your ability to design and
implement effective training programs. First, we look at motivation, presenting the most prominent theories and
clarifying their relationship to the training enterprise.
Motivation: Why Do They Act Like That?
Motivation is part of a person’s cognitive structure and is not directly observable. Thus, it is typically de�ined in
terms of its effects on behavior, which are observable. Most of the scienti�ic literature de�ines motivation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_028) as the
direction, persistence, and amount of effort expended by an individual to achieve a speci�ied outcome. In other
words, the following factors re�lect a person’s motivation:
What need(s) the person is trying to satisfy
What types of activities the person engages in to satisfy the need
How long the person engages in the activity
How hard the person works at the activity
Go back to Claudia’s situation. What need is she trying to satisfy: the growth need or the need to achieve and
get ahead in the company? To answer this, look at the types of activities she is involved in. She takes on extra
projects, volunteers to work on task forces, works late, and so forth. How long has she been doing it? For about
two years. How hard does she work at it? Well, it seems pretty hard: She works 12-hour days and often goes in
on Saturday.
Motivation is goal-directed and derived from both personal needs and the decision processes used to satisfy
those needs. Separate theories evolved to explain the relationship between needs and motivation, and between
decision processes and motivation. Needs theories attempt to describe the types of needs people have, their
relative importance, and how they are related to one another. Process theories attempt to describe and explain
how a person’s needs are translated into actions to satisfy the needs.
Needs Theory
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Our needs are the basis of our motivation and the reason for almost all of our activity. Understanding a person’s
needs helps you understand his behavior. From Maslow’s early work,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_004) Clayton
Alderfer developed a needs theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_006) of motivation
called ERG theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_007) .
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_005) The initials
ERG represent the three basic needs of the theory: existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_008) correspond to
Maslow’s lower-order physiological and security needs. They are the immediate needs required to sustain life—
needs for food, shelter, and the like—and the need for some security in the future for a safe and healthy life.
Relatedness needs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_009) re�lect people’s
need to be valued and accepted by others. Interpersonal relationships and group membership (work, family,
friends, etc.) act to satisfy these needs. Growth needs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_010) include feelings
of self-worth and competency and achieving our potential. Recognition, accomplishment, challenging
opportunities, and a feeling of ful�illment are outcomes that can satisfy these needs. Even though some
disagreement exists in the scienti�ic community about the relationships among these needs and their relative
importance at any given point in life, few dispute the idea that these needs exist for everyone.
People work to satisfy their needs. Understanding the types and strengths of employee needs is important to
the training process. It can help identify some of the causes of poor performance and therefore determine
training needs. Consider the employee who has strong relatedness needs but whose job is structured so that he
must work alone most of the time. He might be unable to complete the required quality and quantity of work
because he spends too much time socializing with others in the workplace. Additional technical KSAs will do
little to improve his job performance. Performance improvement would more likely result from some other type
of training (perhaps time management) or some nontraining intervention (such as job redesign or counseling).
Understanding needs is also important in designing training programs and facilities. Trainers need to make
sure that the environment and training methods—that is, how the training is conducted and where it takes place
—meet the trainee’s physical, relationship, and growth needs. We discuss these issues in depth in the chapters
covering training design, development, and implementation. Think back to the wilderness training case to get a
sense of how training methods, materials, and environment in�luence trainee motivation.
Although she was motivated to attend the training because of her boss’s pressure, was Claudia motivated to
learn when she �irst arrived, or was she skeptical about the value of the training? What if she had attended a
series of lectures on the importance of developing strong interpersonal relationships instead of the outdoor
group experiences? Would she have been as motivated to absorb the lessons and apply them to her work? How
strong do you think Claudia’s relatedness needs were? How effective would the training be if it focused on
showing her how changing her behavior would result in increased acceptance by her peers? It seems apparent
that Claudia did have high growth needs. The outdoor training presented her with a series of physical and
psychological challenges, �itting in with her growth needs and motivating her to become an involved participant
in the training.
The few empirical studies conducted on this topic tend to support Alderfer’s notion that people can
experience needs in all three areas simultaneously.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_006) The relative
satisfaction level in each area determines the importance of the needs. Unsatis�ied needs motivate us, and
motivation decreases as needs in an area are satis�ied. However, needs in these three basic areas tend to renew
themselves; they can also expand. Although you might have a good job that provides you with food, shelter, and
security, you might start to feel the need for better food, a larger and more comfortable home, a larger savings
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account, or an investment portfolio. Similarly, even though your relationships with family, friends, and
coworkers may at �irst satisfy your relatedness needs, you might begin to feel that you would like the
relationships to be better or closer, or that you want to develop additional relationships.
Sometimes our needs con�lict with one another, or one type of need might become more important than the
others. Then we feel we must choose one over the other, which is what happened with Claudia. We cannot be
sure how strong her relatedness needs are, but we do know that she saw them as con�licting with her ability to
satisfy her growth needs at work. The wilderness training was designed to satisfy the trainees’ needs for growth
and relationships at the same time. Step by step, the training demonstrated how building strong interpersonal
relationships could not only satisfy relationship needs, but also make greater accomplishments possible.
This example illustrates a central point about motivating trainees to learn. The best training incorporates
opportunities to satisfy all three categories of needs. The training facility and accommodations address, in part,
existence needs. How much trainees learn is affected by the trainees’ physical comfort, level of hunger, and so
on. Demonstrating how the training will improve the trainee’s competencies and, in turn, increase job security
and ful�ill existence needs will also motivate the trainee. Building a network of positive relationships among
trainees and between trainees and the trainer will address relatedness needs. Using methods that provide
challenging experiences that lead to the attainment of the target KSAs will address growth needs. By having
training address all three types of needs in some way, you can be assured that all trainees will �ind at least one
need that can be satis�ied. This will go a long way toward motivating all trainees, because you offer something
for everyone. Needs theory leads to implications for the training process even after completion of the training.
Trainers must make sure that trainees can see how learning ful�ills their needs. In Claudia’s case, her boss
provided some of that linkage when he told her how important relationship building is to her current and
future job success (i.e., security needs). What could the trainers at the Wilderness Training Lab do to create
these links? We discuss this issue more in the next section, because these links are the focus of the process
theories.
Process Theories
Needs are only one part of the motivation equation. Deciding how to go about satisfying those needs is the
other part. Process theories
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_011) of motivation
describe how a person’s needs translate into action. Although many types of process theories exist, we will
focus on the three with the most direct implications for training: classical conditioning, reinforcement theory,
and expectancy theory.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_012) is the
association of a generalized response to some signal in the environment. It typically involves learning to emit a
nonvoluntary response to some signal that in the past did not produce that response. For example, when an
optometrist examines your eyes, she may put you in front of a machine that blows a puff of air into your eyes.
This puff of air causes you to blink your eyes. If a red light came on just before the puff of air, you would
probably learn to associate the puff of air with the red light and begin blinking whenever the red light comes on.
At that point, you would have learned to blink (generalized response) in response to the red light (signal).
The most widely known example of this type of learning involves Pavlov’s dogs.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_007) Pavlov was not
studying learning; he was examining the physiology of digestion by measuring the amount of salivation
produced by various substances placed on the tongues of dogs. As the story goes, Pavlov observed that the
dogs began to salivate on his entering the laboratory, thus playing havoc with his desire to determine the
amount of saliva produced by various substances. He speculated that over time his entrance was followed so
often by substances placed on the dogs’ tongues that the dogs learned to salivate on his entrance.
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Table 3-1 shows how the classical conditioning process works. Step 1 re�lects the state of affairs before
conditioning takes place. Certain factors in the environment (unconditioned stimuli) produce automatic
responses (unconditioned responses) in animals and people. If we place an unconditioned stimulus such as
meat powder on a dog’s tongue, an unconditioned response would be the dog’s salivation. That is, the dog need
not be trained (conditioned) to salivate when meat powder is put on its tongue. However, this salivation
response does not occur with every stimulus that might be in the dog’s environment, such as a buzzer. If,
however, you sounded that buzzer just before putting meat powder on the dog’s tongue, over a number of trials
the buzzer would become a conditioned stimulus. The dog is learning (being conditioned) to associate the
buzzer with the meat powder. However, you are still putting meat powder on the dog’s tongue, so the salivation
is really a response to the meat powder and remains an unconditioned response. This situation is re�lected in
step 2 of Table 3-1. In step 3, you stop putting meat powder on the dog’s tongue after sounding the buzzer. If
the dog salivates at the buzzer, you have created a conditioned response (salivation) to a conditioned stimulus
(the buzzer). Continually sounding the buzzer without offering the meat powder will extinguish (remove) this
response. Over time, the conditioned response gradually disappears. Through conditioning, a response to one
stimulus can be transferred to another, unrelated stimulus.
Table 3-1 Classical Conditioning Process
Step
1
Unconditioned stimulus (Meat powder)
→ Unconditioned
response
(Salivation)
Step
2
Conditioned stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus (Buzzer
followed closely in time, over many trials, by meat powder)
→ Unconditioned
response
(Salivation)
Step
3
Conditioned stimulus (Buzzer alone) → Conditioned
response
(Salivation)
Classical conditioning occurs frequently in the workplace, though it typically receives little attention. The
noon whistle blows at the factory, and the worker’s digestive juices begin to �low. Sparks �ly from the welding
machine and your eyes blink, even though you are wearing goggles. As you will see later, this type of learning
can affect the learning environment.
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_013) is relatively
simple on the surface but can be dif�icult to apply. It does not provide all the answers for how needs are
translated into action, but its major points are essential for understanding human behavior. The foundation for
reinforcement theory comes from the work of E. L. Thorndike.
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states that behavior followed by satisfying experiences tends to be repeated, and behavior followed by
annoyance or dissatisfaction tends to be avoided. B. F. Skinner used this principle in developing the operant
conditioning model and reinforcement theory.
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The basic components of learning in operant conditioning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_015) are illustrated
in Figure 3-2. A person is faced with an object or event in the environment (stimulus) and behaves in a certain
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way (response). That behavior results in an outcome (consequence) to the individual that is positive or negative.
In the illustration, the man has seen a book of great interest (environmental stimulus) while on the way to work.
He purchases the book and reads it (response) while continuing to walk to work. You can imagine the
consequence. The environment provides stimuli that elicit behaviors and consequences that reinforce or punish
them.
Figure 3-2 Behaviorist Model of Learning
In similar situations, the consequences of past behavior affect future behavior. How will the man in Figure 3-
2 respond to books while walking in the near future? Operant learning theory says that due to the negative
consequence of falling into the hole, the man will learn to avoid reading and walking at the same time. A
person’s motivation (i.e., direction, magnitude, and persistence of behavior), then, is a function of her
reinforcement history. Unfortunately, reinforcement theory provides no explanation of the processes involved
in storing, retrieving, or using the lessons of past reinforcement. The model leaves us wondering how future
behavior becomes in�luenced by previous reinforcement history. Nevertheless, the theory does convincingly
predict the various effects on future behavior caused by the consequences of past behavior.
Skinner identi�ied four types of consequences that can result from behavior:
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment
4. Extinction
When behavior results in either positive or negative reinforcement, the likelihood that the behavior will
occur in similar future circumstances is increased. Positive reinforcement
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_016) occurs when
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psychological (such as feeling pleasure), or some combination of the two. Negative reinforcement
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_017) occurs when
your behavior results in removing something you �ind annoying, frustrating, or unpleasant. This “good”
outcome increases your likelihood of repeating the behavior. For example, if you have a headache, take an
aspirin, and the headache goes away, the “aspirin-taking response” is negatively reinforced. Nothing is
inherently desirable about taking the aspirin; its reinforcing power comes from its ability to remove the pain.
Either the environment or the person can provide reinforcement. For example, when a person receives his pay,
the environment provides positive reinforcement (pay). When a person feels a sense of pride and
accomplishment after completing a task, the person is positively reinforcing himself.
Your behavior is punished when it results in something undesirable happening to you. Punishment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_018) decreases the
likelihood of the response occurring in the future. Like reinforcement, punishment can be tangible,
psychological, or both and can come from the environment or be self-administered. In Figure 3-2, the
environment provides the punishment. However, when we do things that violate our personal values and
beliefs, and therefore experience negative feelings, we are self-punishing that behavior. Punishment exists when
you receive something unpleasant or when you lose something desirable. The latter form of punishment is
called extinction
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_019) . For example,
you might buy books by a certain author because of the positive feelings you experience as you read them.
However, while reading the last two books by this author, you did not experience those positive feelings.
Therefore you stop buying this author’s books. When a person’s behavior (like buying and reading the books)
no longer produces the desired outcomes, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future. Figure 3-3 depicts
the various types of behavioral consequences.
Figure 3-3 Types of Consequences That May Follow
Behavior
A few examples here should clear up any misunderstandings or confusion created by these de�initions. First,
think back to the Wilderness Training Lab case. What kind of reinforcement history did Claudia experience from
working in groups? Her �irst group experiences in college resulted in the negative outcomes (for her) of
mediocre grades. Because her cooperative behavior in groups was punished, she stopped it. When she changed
her behavior to become more directive—monitoring and doing more of the important work—two
consequences resulted: (1) she was positively reinforced by good grades and (2) she avoided the negative
feelings of anxiety about the other group members not doing their assignments well and the resulting mediocre
grades. Her new group behavior was both positively and negatively reinforced over a number of years. It is no
wonder, then, that she continued to work this way in groups. Is it possible that Claudia avoided working in
groups with her peers because she couldn’t control those groups in the same way she could her subordinates?
The training she received provided her with new group situations in which she was positively reinforced (e.g.,
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recognition, accomplishment) for using a new set of group behaviors. This new set of outcomes seems to have
changed her beliefs and attitudes about how to work effectively in groups.
In another example, after working for a few hours, Jon, a machinist, suddenly hears a loud unpleasant
screeching noise coming from the exhaust fans near his work area. He �inds the electrical switch and turns the
fans off; he later switches them on again, and they work for the rest of the day. The same thing happens over
the next two days. On the fourth day, when he takes his break, he turns the fans off before the noise begins.
When he returns from his break, he turns them on, and they operate normally for the rest of the day. This
behavior becomes a daily habit with Jon. Jon does not know that plant maintenance repaired the fan the evening
before he began his “turning it off at the break” behavior. Jon maintained his behavior because it was negatively
reinforcing. By “giving the fans a rest,” he avoided the loud, unpleasant noise. As this worked every time, it was
self-reinforcing. This is how superstitious behaviors develop.
Reinforcement versus Punishment
Punishment can eliminate undesirable behavior in the workplace. However, several problems make it
undesirable as a management or training tool.
It does not motivate people to do things, only not to do things. It does not indicate what the desired
behavior is, only what is not desired.
If the undesired behavior is punished only sometimes, people will learn the situations in which they can
get away with it. The saying “While the cat’s away, the mice will play” neatly captures one problem with
this technique; punishment requires constant vigilance on the part of a supervisor and encourages
employee efforts to “beat the system.”
If a person’s undesired behavior is rewarding, the punishment must be severe enough to offset the
behavior’s reinforcing properties. Escalating negative outcomes to employees can raise ethical, moral,
and commonsense objections.
Someone must do the punishing. This person becomes someone to be avoided. Supervisors avoided by
subordinates experience leadership problems.
Positive and negative reinforcement are better tools for motivating and especially for training employees.
Negative reinforcement can cause the desired behavior to become self-reinforcing, like Jon’s turning off the
fans. When the person continually performs the desired behavior, negative outcomes are avoided. If the desired
behavior is then also positively reinforced, the person not only avoids the negative outcome but also receives a
positive outcome. As with Claudia in the opening case, the result is a strong maintenance of the behavior.
With reinforcement, the person doing the reinforcing does not always need to be present for the desired
behavior to occur. The employee actively seeks to make the reinforcing agent (e.g., supervisor or trainer) aware
of her behavior. When punishment is used as the motivational or learning mechanism, the employee attempts to
hide behavior so as to avoid the consequences. Obviously, a trainer or supervisor’s job is much easier when
employees are attempting to communicate what they are doing rather than hiding it.
Thus, either positive or negative reinforcement is preferred over punishment as a strategy for motivating
learning and behavior change. Used in combination, positive and negative reinforcement appear more effective
than either used alone.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_010) For those
interested in �inding out more about how to implement positive, humanistic, and effective work environments,
we would encourage you to read Dick Grote’s Discipline Without Punishment.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_011)
Reinforcement theory suggests that any training must be concerned not only with teaching the KSAs but also
with the consequences that are attached to the following:
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the learning process,
the old way of doing the job, and
the new way of doing the job.
These factors play a key role in determining how much is learned and how much is actually used back on the
job.
As noted earlier, many unanswered questions arise when using reinforcement theory to describe the
motivational process. Expectancy theory, however, provides some additional explanation and leads to many
more implications for training.
Expectancy Theory
In 1964, Victor Vroom published a theory of work motivation called expectancy theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_020) .
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_012) This theory
describes the cognitive processes involved in deciding the best course of action for achieving our goals (i.e.,
satisfying our needs). A cognitive process
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_021) is a mental
activity such as information storage, retrieval, or use. Thinking and decision making are cognitive processes. In
its most basic form, expectancy theory proposes that a person’s motivation can be explained by the relationship
among three conceptually distinct elements:
1. The level of success expected by the individual (e.g., how well she will be able to do what she sets out to
do), which is termed Expectancy 1.
2. The individual’s beliefs about what the outcomes will be if she is successful. The expected outcomes and
their likelihood of occurrence make up Expectancy 2.
3. The individual’s feelings about the various outcomes’ positive or negative value. An outcome’s
subjective value is referred to as its valence
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_022) .
In combination, these elements determine the individual’s motivation (i.e., effort) to engage in a particular
course of action. When situations allow different courses of action, as most do, the one with the highest
motivation level is chosen. The motivation level for a particular course of action can be calculated
mathematically with the following formula:
Although this formula is useful for those conducting research on motivation, it is not particularly useful in the
day-to-day activities of most people. It does, however, present some important implications for training and
learning, which we discuss shortly.
To gain a better understanding of the expectancy theory framework, let’s go back to Claudia at the point at
which she was trying to decide whether to attend the executive development seminar as suggested by her boss.
Today is the last day she can register for the seminar, which starts in two weeks. She postponed the decision as
long as possible and now must decide. She feels con�ident about her ability to complete this training
successfully, but she holds some doubts about whether it will teach her anything useful about running her
marketing operation or working more effectively in a group. She knows that during her week of training, the
marketing strategies for �ive important accounts will arrive on her desk, and she will need to review and �inalize
them before forwarding them to top management. They are due on the Wednesday following training. In
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addition, her normal work will continue to pile up. Claudia faces the choice between incompatible courses of
action. Her cognitive processes, in expectancy theory terms, are illustrated in Figure 3-4.
Figure 3-4 Illustration of Expectancy Theory
Examining Claudia’s situation in terms of expectancy theory, we see that her expectations of success
(Expectancy 1) are high for both behaviors. The expectancy of 1.0 means that she is 100 percent sure that she
would successfully be able to complete either course of action. The Expectancy 2 links re�lect the outcomes that
Claudia anticipates if she successfully completes the seminar or stays at the of�ice and completes her workload.
If she turns down the training and stays on the job, she believes that there is a 50 percent chance her boss will
see her skills as inadequate. It would be higher, but she believes that if she can do a superior job on these
strategies, he will not think that those relationship skills are so important. She believes that it’s 90 percent likely
that she will have feelings of pride and accomplishment for getting all her work completed on time. However, if
she turns down the training, she believes that there is only a 30 percent chance that her boss will recommend
her for promotion.
Conversely, if she goes to the training, she believes that the likelihood is 60 percent that her boss will evaluate
her as having a more complete set of managerial skills. However, she will fall behind in her work, and it is a
certainty (1.0) that she will feel harried, overloaded, and depressed. Yet she sees the chances of being
recommended for a promotion increasing to 60 percent if she goes to training. As the valences in Figure 3-4
show, she values her boss’s recommendation for promotion the most. She views having her boss evaluate her
skills as being inadequate and the feelings associated with being behind in her work as the least desirable of the
outcomes.
How would you use the formula to calculate Claudia’s motivation to stay on the job rather than go to
training? By multiplying each Expectancy 2 by its respective outcome valence and summing the values, you
would get 9.8.
Then you would multiply that total by Expectancy 1, which is 1.0, and you would arrive at a force of 9.8 for
nonattendance at the seminar.
Using the same procedure for the alternative goal—attending the seminar—you would arrive at a force of
11.2. Thus, for Claudia, the motivation to stay at work is less than the motivation to attend the seminar.
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Even though the actual values of expectancies and valences are interesting from a scienti�ic perspective, from
a practical standpoint it is the relationships among the elements of the model that are useful. This example
illustrates the cognitive processes that link a person’s goals, possible courses of action, and likely outcomes.
These connections determine the person’s motivation and are what is missing from the reinforcement theory. Of
course, we simpli�ied the situation considerably from what Claudia would actually face in the real work setting.
She had many other alternatives. She could delegate someone to cover most of the normal work coming across
her desk (though she was not especially comfortable with delegating). She could arrange for the marketing
strategies to be sent to her at the training facility and work on them at night, after training, and over the
weekend. Each of these alternatives would present its own expected outcomes and associated valences.
Faced with the situation Claudia faced, what would you do? It is unlikely that you would place the same value
(valence) on the outcomes or give them the same likelihood of occurring. You might identify more or fewer
outcomes. One of the things that make this theory so useful is that it takes into account the fact that people view
the world differently and are motivated by different things. The lesson from expectancy theory is that you need
to know what the person expects and what they value in order to understand their motivation.
Few people would consciously go through the formal math or mapping of expectancy theory, but it is
interesting to note that most training programs that teach decision making use a model similar to this one. More
typically, we go through these processes unconsciously and in a less systematic fashion. We choose a particular
way of behaving because of our expectations about the costs and bene�its of that action. Relationships between
our past behavior and its consequences are combined with current information to make inferences about the
consequences of our future behavior. Some implications for training become rather obvious here.
First, to be willing to try, a person must expect that there is a reasonable chance of success. Expectancy 1
exerts the most in�luence on our behavior because we do not waste our time trying to do things we believe we
cannot do. Sometimes this belief makes people reluctant to go to training, so trainers must demonstrate that
success is likely for the participants. Second, and related to needs and reinforcement theory, trainers must make
sure that the right outcomes are attached to the successful completion of training. Trainees should be able to
see clear connections between the content of training and important organizational and personal outcomes.
Third, the training outcomes must be made as desirable as possible for the trainees rather than just for the
organization, the supervisor, or the trainer.
Self-Ef�icacy and Motivation
Feelings about our own competency are re�lected in the concept of self-ef�icacy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_023) , which is one
of the better-researched constructs related to motivation. High self-ef�icacy is associated with a belief that we
can and will perform successfully. Individuals with low self-ef�icacy are preoccupied with concerns about
failure. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_013)
Research supports the belief that the higher the self-ef�icacy, the better the performance.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_014) Not only is
performance better, but in dif�icult situations, those with high self-ef�icacy also try harder, while those with low
self-ef�icacy tend to reduce effort or give up.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_015) In a training
context, research shows that those with high self-ef�icacy beliefs are more motivated to learn and are more
likely to transfer that learning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_016)
There are four main factors that combine to provide employees with an estimate of their ability to be
successful:
1. Prior experience: The person’s past successes and failures and their consequences
2. Behavioral models: Successes and failures of others observed attempting the behavior
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3. Others’ feedback: The encouragement or discouragement provided by others
4. Physical and emotional state: The physical or emotional conditions the person believes will affect
their ability to perform
Self-ef�icacy, therefore, is the primary factor in the person’s Expectancy 1 evaluation. The employee’s feelings of
self-ef�icacy are translated into behavior. If success is expected, the employee works harder, longer, and more
creatively, anticipating the positive consequences of a successful effort. If failure is expected, the employee acts
to minimize the negative consequences of failure. For example, withdrawing from the activity (refusing to try)
moves the person away from proven failure to simply “I did not try.” It also allows the person to say, “At least I
did not put a lot of energy into it,” or make some other rationalization. The point is that the employee’s self-
ef�icacy sets up the person’s behavior to ful�ill the self-ef�icacy beliefs. In expectancy theory terms, if I do not
believe that I can successfully do something, I won’t exert the effort to do it; instead, I’ll do something else.
What can be done speci�ically to improve an individual’s self-ef�icacy? The supervisor can provide the
employee with con�idence through persuasion. Convincing her that she is quite capable of succeeding in the
training will help. Also, seeing others who are similar to the employee succeed will improve the employee’s self-
ef�icacy.
Training can improve self-ef�icacy either directly or indirectly, as a by-product.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_017) If the
employee experiences low self-ef�icacy regarding her abilities to perform the job, but evidence indicates that
she possesses the requisite KSAs, a program of improving self-concept and con�idence is needed. When low
self-ef�icacy results from a true lack of required KSAs, attaining competency in these KSAs should increase the
employee’s self-ef�icacy if the training allows the trainee to demonstrate mastery on a continuous basis. In this
case, the training needs to be designed so that the trainee begins with easily mastered tasks and moves to more
complicated tasks after the easier components have been mastered. Trainers can also emphasize what the
objectives are and the success of similar sets of trainees in the past.
Self-ef�icacy is very powerful in terms of facilitating trainee success. It seems to be a good predictor of both
learning in the training environment and transfer of the behavior to the job.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_018) So
determining a trainee’s self-ef�icacy before training and, if low, providing means to improve the trainee’s self-
ef�icacy would seem to be a worthwhile endeavor.
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3.4 Understanding Learning
Theories of learning are important in the development of training. We examine the essential elements of
learning theories and identify their relationship to training. Speci�ic applications of the theories are provided in
subsequent chapters.
What Is Learning?
To understand the differences among learning theories, it helps to understand the dif�iculties of simply de�ining
the concept of learning. Learning is not directly observable, but it is something that almost everyone says they
experience. People “feel” that they have learned. It is clear from physiological evidence that learning is related to
changes in the physical, neuronal structure of the brain and its related electrochemical functioning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_019) However, how
or why these electrochemical changes take place is still unknown. Learning is closely tied to memory; whatever
is learned must be retained if it is to be useful. Electrochemical changes created during learning apparently
create a relatively permanent change in neural functioning that becomes what is commonly termed memory.
Again, relatively few de�initive answers exist about how or where learning is stored in the central nervous
system.
Two De�initions of Learning
Because we cannot observe learning, we must infer that it occurs by looking at its observable effects. What
things, in�luenced by learning, can we observe? The answer is: the learner’s behavior. For instance, in school,
tests are given to determine what has been learned. The way questions are answered is the observable
behavior. In the workplace, your supervisor might look for ways you perform your job differently after training.
Because learning is measured in terms of relatively permanent changes in behavior, this becomes the
operational de�inition of learning for many theorists. Behaviorists in particular adopt this de�inition.
Cognitive theorists, however, insist that even though learning can be inferred from behavior, it is separate
from the behavior itself. By examining the ways in which people respond to information and the ways in which
different types of behavior are grouped or separated, cognitive theorists developed theories of how
information is learned. For cognitive theorists, learning represents a change in the content, organization, and
storage of information (see the section, Example of Cognitive Theory). The term used to refer to the mental
processing of information is cognition
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_024) . For cognitive
theorists, learning is de�ined as a relatively permanent change in cognition occurring as a result of experience.
These theorists discuss learning in terms of mental infrastructures or schema rather than in terms of behavior.
Learning is seen as the building and reorganization of schema to make sense of new information. Bruner,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_020) Gagné,
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_021) and Piaget
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_022) are among the
cognitive theorists.
Implications of Behaviorist versus Cognitive Approaches
At �irst, the differences in the de�inition of learning might not seem important. It might seem to be a simple
difference of whether learning is synonymous with behavior or of how information is processed, organized, and
stored. However, these differences create widely different approaches to how education and training are
conducted.
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One obvious and important difference is where control of learning is believed to occur. The behaviorist
approach suggests that the environment controls learning. Certain external stimuli are present, the person
responds to them, and certain consequences result. It is the model of learning implied in Figure 3-2 and
discussed earlier as part of reinforcement theory. In the behaviorist approach, the trainer controls learning by
controlling the stimuli and consequences that the learner experiences. The learner depends on the trainer to
elicit the correct associations between stimulus and response. Note that this model does not include the brain
or any mental activity. Skinner’s explanation of learning perhaps clari�ies why he was sometimes referred to as
a radical behaviorist. He de�ined learning as “a relatively permanent change in behavior in response to a
particular stimulus or set of stimuli.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_023) In other
words, we perceive things a certain way because of the consequences of perceiving them that way. Learning
occurs when new consequences are experienced.
In contrast, the cognitive approach suggests that the learner controls learning. Prospective learners come to
training with their own set of goals and priorities. They possess a set of cognitive structures for understanding
their environment and how it works. They even develop their own set of strategies about how to learn. The
learners decide what is important to learn and go about learning by applying the strategies they developed and
with which they feel comfortable. For cognitive theorists, the learner controls both what is learned and how it is
learned. The trainer and the learning environment facilitate that process to a greater or lesser degree. Adoption
of one approach or the other leads to implications for how training is conducted and the resulting atmosphere
of the training environment. Table 3-2 lists some of the instructional implications of these two positions. For
some learning situations, a behaviorist approach is better, and for others a cognitive approach works better.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_024) We discuss
this issue again later in the chapter.
Table 3-2 Some Training Implications of Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning Theories
Issue Cognitive Approach Behaviorist Approach
Learner’s role Active, self-directed, self-evaluating Passive, dependent
Instructor’s role Facilitator, coordinator, and presenter Director, monitor, and evaluator
Training
content
Problem or task oriented Subject oriented
Learner
motivation
More internally motivated More externally motivated
Training climate Relaxed, mutually trustful, respectful, and
collaborative
Formal, authority oriented, judgmental,
and competitive
Instructional
goals
Collaboratively developed Developed by instructor
Instructional
activities
Interactive, group, project oriented, and
experiential
Directive, individual, and subject oriented
Example of Cognitive Theory
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Piaget identi�ied two cognitive processes critical for learning: accommodation and assimilation.
Accommodation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_025) is the process
of changing our construction (“cognitive map”) of the world to correspond with our experience in it. Piaget
indicated that accommodation occurs through the creation of new categories, or schemata, to accommodate
experience that does not �it into existing categories. Assimilation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_026) is the
incorporation of new experience into existing categories. In cognitive map terms, accommodation changes the
map, whereas assimilation �ills in the detail. These two processes are most clearly evident in young children but
exist in adults as well. Suppose Mike (age eight) is in the rear seat of the car with his younger brother Brandon
(almost two and learning to talk) as Dad drives through some farmland. As they pass a pasture where horses
are grazing, Mike points and says, “Look Brandon, horses.” Brandon responds hesitantly, “Horsies?” Mike
excitedly replies, “Yes, that’s right, horsies!” Dad glances back and says, “Good work, Brandon, you now know a
new word!” Brandon is pleased and repeats the word several times to himself. As they continue driving, they
pass another pasture with cows grazing. Brandon yells, “Look Mike, horsies!” Mike or Dad is now faced with
teaching Brandon the difference between horses and cows.
What is the learning process that took place? Brandon started out with no understanding of horse or cow.
When presented with a new perceptual experience and a label, Brandon created a new cognitive category that
might include the following parameters: large, four-legged, brown, moving thing with a tail. So, when Brandon
saw the cows, they �it enough of the parameters that he attempted to assimilate this new experience into the
category “horsies.” If Mike and Dad do a good job of teaching Brandon the differences between horses and
cows, he will learn to discriminate between these two and create a separate category for cows
(accommodation). What he does not know yet is that later in life he will be taught to create new categories such
as mammals and species and that both horses and cows are included in some categories but not in others.
The processes of assimilation and accommodation re�lect the way we organize our experience and the
meanings we attach to the world as we encounter it. Our behavior depends on how we accommodated or
assimilated previous stimuli.
Integration of Cognitive and Behavioral Approaches
We believe that the cognitive and behavioral approaches must be integrated to provide a full de�inition of
learning. Learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch01_018) , as we use the
term throughout this text, is de�ined as a relatively permanent change in cognition resulting from experience
and directly in�luencing behavior. A fairly obvious implication of this de�inition is that changes in cognition and
related behavior that result from things other than experience (e.g., effects of drugs, fatigue, and the like) would
not be considered learning. The de�inition also implies that changes in cognition and behavior that are short-
lived have not been learned. For example, memorizing a phone number long enough to walk from the telephone
directory to the phone and dial the number would not �it into our de�inition of learning. However, learning
mnemonic techniques that allow you to do that would be learning, if they were retained over a relatively long
period of time.
Learning, as de�ined here, is not dependent on behavior. Relatively permanent cognitive changes (new KSAs)
can occur in the absence of observable behavior. However, only the learner would know whether the learning
took place. For example, think of courses you took in which the material was presented in a lecture or
audiovisual form. If it was effective, you changed your way of thinking about the topic or came to a deeper
understanding of the material—even though you did nothing other than pay attention and think about what
was presented. However, until you engage in some activity related to the topic, no one other than you would
know that learning had taken place. This phenomenon could also happen with skills. Suppose you are a chef
and you attend a seminar on preparing a dish. You observe the presenter enhancing the �lavor of a dish using a
technique of which you had no previous knowledge. You go back to your kitchen, try the technique, and are
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successful on the �irst try. You acquired the “�lavoring” skill through observation rather than behavior. However,
you might not be sure you had acquired the skill until after you engaged in the behavior. Additionally, the more
you use the technique, the more permanent (i.e., resistant to forgetting) it would become. Thus, behavior is both
an important measure and means of learning.
Each of these two approaches produces valuable insights about learning. Learning theories that integrate the
substantiated aspects of both approaches explain learning more completely than either one alone. We discuss
such a theory next.
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3.5 Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_025) (also known
as observational or vicarious learning), includes behaviorist principles, but has an important principle that
differentiates it from the purely behavioral approach. This principle, that learning can occur without any overt
behavior by the learner, has been substantiated by considerable research. So, from the Social Learning Theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_028) perspective,
events and consequences in the learning situation are cognitively processed and can in�luence behavior even if
the learner does nothing but observe. As in reinforcement theory, the consequences of behavior (reinforcement
or punishment) in�luence the likelihood of that behavior in the future, but they do so as a result of how they are
perceived, interpreted, and stored in memory. Thus, a person can learn by observing the behavior of other
people and the resulting consequences to those other people. This process is called observational learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_029) (or sometimes
referred to as vicarious learning). This theory contradicts the strict behaviorists, who claim that learning can
occur only as a result of a person’s own behavior and its consequences. The cognitive processes that are a part
of social learning theory are motivation, attention, retention, and to some extent behavioral reproduction.
Figure 3-5 illustrates the relationships among these cognitive processes. The discussion that follows covers each
aspect of the model.
Figure 3-5 Cognitive Processes Involved in Social
Learning
Motivation
Although motivation was discussed at length earlier in this chapter, it is useful to see how it �its in with social
learning theory. As the model indicates, motivation both in�luences and is in�luenced by the other processes.
The learner’s needs determine what things receive attention and are processed for retention. As shown in the
model, social learning theory incorporates the reinforcement theory concept that the consequences of behavior
affect the likelihood of future behavior. By observing someone else’s behavior, the observer can learn
something about how to perform the behavior and also something about the consequences of the behavior.
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Thus, the learner’s future behavior is in�luenced by the how other people behave and the reinforcement or
punishment that follows their behavior.
However, the model of learning processes illustrated in Figure 3-5 is more than just observational learning. It
combines concepts from various learning theories into a comprehensive set of integrated learning processes.
By examining these processes we are able to derive principles for effective training. After discussing each of the
processes, we will show how they align with nine instructional principles that lead to effective training.
Attention
Before we can learn, we need to focus our attention
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_030) on what is to
be learned. For most of our waking hours we are in an environment that bombards us with a multitude of
sights, sounds, smells and so on. However, we only notice some of all that is around us and pay attention to only
part of that. The things we pay attention to are those that stand out for some reason (loud, bright, unusual, etc.)
and which we believe have important consequences for us.
The chapter on training design addresses in great depth the issues related to capturing and maintaining
trainee attention. However, let’s examine a few methods here to illustrate how managing trainee attention can
increase the effectiveness of training. One way to garner attention is to let participants know the purpose of the
training and why it has important consequences for them (the bene�its of learning and the costs of not
learning). You can also get trainee attention by making key learning points stand out so that the trainees will
focus attention on them. Eliminating distractions, such as electronic communication devices, keeps trainees’
attention focused on the training. Making learning exercises fun and interesting keeps attention focused on the
learning topic. However, exercises that are fun but not related to the learning objectives focuses attention away
from what trainees are expected to learn. Getting trainees to pay attention is just the �irst step in facilitating
learning. Once you have their attention you need to help them retain the information.
Retention
Once attention is focused on an object or event, the incoming information is processed for possible retention
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_031) . Some of the
information will be retained, and some will be lost. The more you design your training to facilitate the retention
processes, the more your trainees will learn. As Figure 3-5 shows, there are three key retention processes;
symbolic coding, cognitive organization, and symbolic rehearsal. The retention process begins with symbolic
coding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_032) , which
is the translation of the external world into internal symbols that are used to understand and retain the
information. These symbols are then organized into the person’s existing cognitive structure by linking up with
previously stored information. This “linking up” process is called cognitive organization
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_033) . It is what we
previously discussed as assimilation and accommodation (putting information into already existing categories
or creating brand new categories for the information). It can be facilitated in training by asking the trainees to
provide examples of how the new information relates to what they already know and how it differs from what
they already know. Doing this serves two purposes: It allows the trainee to code and store the information more
easily, and it allows the trainer to see whether the desired associations are being made. Our earlier discussion
of Brandon learning the concept “horsie” and the difference between cows and horses is a simple example of
how this process works. First Brandon learned the new concept “horse” which he symbolically coded into his
memory as a large animal with four legs. He created a new category (cognitive organization) which he label1ed
“horsies.” Later he sees a cow which he calls a “horsie”. Let’s say dad and brother Mike tell him “No, that’s a
cow.” Brandon isn’t likely to be able to understand the difference. If, when they get home, dad shows Brandon
pictures of cows and horses and explains how they are different he will have facilitated Brandon’s learning. To
see if Brandon really knows what distinguishes a cow from a horse dad should ask him to pick out the picture
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of the cow and show him what makes it different than the horse. It is through this question and answer cycle
that dad will be able tell if Brandon really has learned to distinguish between the two. There are additional ways
to facilitate retention beyond questioning and these are discussed in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) .
To anchor the learning and increase its retention, the learner can “practice” the learned material through
visualizing or imagining how the knowledge or skill will be used. This is called symbolic rehearsal
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_034) . If the focus is
on skill building, the trainee imagines using the skills in different situations. This is usually fairly easy to do
because a skill is generally associated with particular situations in which it is used. When the focus of learning is
knowledge, it is sometimes more dif�icult to imagine how it can or will be used. For example, think back to when
you were learning the multiplication tables. Most of us memorized these through constant repetition over many
months, and to help us remember them we were given multiplication problems to solve. Each year, as we
advanced to the next grade, we were given more multiplication problems to solve. This repetitive use of the
multiplication rules allowed us to retain them. In contrast, storing information without any personal use—in
other words, just memorizing—typically results in only short-term retention. Students who have ever crammed
for an examination are probably familiar with this phenomenon. In the case of cramming for an exam, little time
is spent trying to understand how the information can be used in the “real world” while a great deal of time is
spent developing systems for memorizing the words. Once the exam is over, there is no perceived need to retain
the information and it is lost. However, associating the information with its uses enhances the storage and
retrieval processes, increasing long term retention. The symbolic rehearsal process is one kind of mental
practice. Observing others use the knowledge or skill provides additional opportunities for symbolic rehearsal
because as you watch them, you can put yourself in their place. Symbolic rehearsal also increases the ability to
generalize learning to novel situations. As with the other retention processes, Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) discusses many additional
ways to enhance retention through symbolic rehearsal.
Behavioral Reproduction
Behavioral reproduction (�ilegloss01.xhtml#glossch03_035) is repeated practice. The more a person
practices using new information, the more it is learned and retained. The effectiveness of practice depends on
how the practice is designed and reinforced. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) . Figure 3-5 shows the
behavioral reproduction process as being both a part of the learner’s internal cognitive processes and the
external environment. This is done to show that the person’s internal processes initiate the behavior (retrieving
the knowledge/skill from memory and directing the body to perform) while the behavior actually occurs in, and
becomes part of, the external environment.
We already spent considerable time discussing the importance of behavioral consequences. One additional
point is worth making, however. If consequences are to affect behavior, the individuals must be aware of the
consequences and their connection to behavior. For example, assume that a supervisor has not yet told an
employee that he has recommended him for a bonus because of superior performance. Obviously, the
recommendation will not in�luence the employee’s behavior until the supervisor informs him. Even when aware
of a consequence, the person may misinterpret its connection to performance. The supervisor may tell the
employee “I’ve recommended you for a bonus.” However, the employee may think “Well I guess my getting him
coffee every morning has paid off.” Thus, for consequences to have the desired effect the person must know the
outcomes and correctly connect them to the behavior that produced them. Effective training programs need to
provide learners with the opportunity to practice new behaviors, but in addition need to call attention to the
desirable consequences of learning and of using the learning back on the job.
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3.6 Aligning Training Design with Learning Process
We have discussed various processes involved in how individuals learn and some things effective training
programs should do to enhance learning. From these learning processes Gagné and his associates
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_026) have
developed a sequencing of instructional events that should be designed into any training program so as to
facilitate the trainee’s learning process. Table 3-3 lists these and what the effect of the event is on the trainee.
Table 3-3 Gagné–Briggs Nine Events of Instruction
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_027)
Instructional Event This Event Causes the Trainee
Gaining attention To focus on trainer and/or training materials
Informing the trainee of goal
(objective)
To begin to focus on the goal
Stimulating recall of prior
knowledge (learning)
To retrieve prior learning to working memory
Presenting the material To selectively perceive important parts of training
Providing learning guidance To consider how the new material �its into the trainee’s overall schema and
clarify where it belongs for ease of retrieval
Eliciting the performance To do it
Providing feedback To perform more effectively by reinforcing correct responses and assisting
when incorrect
Assessing performance To demonstrate what has been learned by completing some predetermined
activity
Enhancing retention and
transfer
To use the concept in more complex and varied ways accompanied by
feedback
This Micro Theory of Instructional Design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_036) provides nine
steps (sets of events) to follow in developing training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_028) Gagné and his
associates say:
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“These events of instruction do not invariably occur in this exact order, though this is the most
probable order . . . by no means are all of these events provided for every lesson. . . . Their role
is to stimulate internal information processes . . . sometimes an event will be obvious to the
learner and not needed . . . or provided by the learner themselves. . . . In using the checklist the
designer asks, “Do these learners need support at this stage for learning this task?”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_029)
So, one should not interpret the nine steps as applying to an entire training program that consists of multiple
modules. Rather, these steps apply to each module in a training program. For example, if a training program has
four modules and each module has its own learning objective, then the nine steps would apply to each module.
But, perhaps not in the same order or even all of them in each module. We provide an example of how to apply
the nine steps to a training module in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) . Our purpose here is just
to familiarize you with how the theory of learning is translated into practical steps for the design of training.
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3.7 Motivation to Learn
We have now discussed both motivation and learning theory. Here we discuss how these integrate into a model
of trainees’ motivation to learn as they enter and progress through a training program. In addition to designing
training to align with learning processes, the design must also address the trainee’s motivation to learn.
Motivation to learn is de�ined as the intensity and the persistence of the trainee’s learning-directed activities in
relation to the training program.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_030) There is a
signi�icant amount of research evidence to show that motivation to learn in�luences the outcomes of training
(knowledge and skill acquisition, transfer of KSAs to the job and resulting job performance).
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_031) Thus, training
professionals need to understand the factors affecting motivation to learn and how to address these in the
design of training. In this chapter, we focus primarily on understanding the factors and only brie�ly touch on
training design implications. We will cover the design issues more fully in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) .
Figure 3-6 shows how various individual and organizational factors affect motivation to learn. The
relationships shown in the �igure have been supported by numerous research studies. While the relationships
among all the variables are much more complex than depicted, we have taken a few liberties in the interest of
clarity to show how individual characteristics and the organizational context interact to in�luence the trainee’s
motivation to learn. As Figure 3-6
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_032) shows, the
trainee’s motivation will be determined by individual factors (self-ef�icacy, valence, anxiety, and cognitive ability)
and environmental factors (climate for learning and transfer and supervisor/peer support). These are the
shaded areas in the �igure. We will discuss the environmental factors �irst.
Figure 3-6 Factors Affecting Motivation to Learn and
Transfer of Training
Environmental Factors and Resistance
Resistance to learning occurs when the trainee’s motivation to learn is not high enough to overcome other
forces acting on the trainee that discourage learning. Learning, like eating, is one of the most fundamental
processes of survival, so why do trainees resist it? Trainers and managers continually complain about trainees
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who do not pay attention, are disruptive, and demonstrate a general resistance to learning new material. If
learning is a basic human process, why are so many complaints of this type made?
Viewing learning as a performance outcome is the �irst step to understanding resistance to learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_037) . Most learning
is not something that happens automatically or unconsciously. It is an activity we decide to do or not do. From
the performance model discussed earlier (see Figure 3-1), we know that learning is determined by a person’s
motivation, KSAs, and learning environment. If the trainee doesn’t have the prerequisite KSAs or the
environment doesn’t allow learning to occur, then resistance occurs. If trainees are not motivated to learn the
material, they will also demonstrate various forms of resistance.
There are many organizational-environment factors that in�luence how employees enter training. We will
focus on three key factors: peer support, supervisor support, and the climate for learning and transfer back to
the job. These have substantial research support and are factors that can be addressed by the training design.
Peer Support
Peer support is the encouragement and assistance that trainees receive from their coworkers. The effects of
group dynamics
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_038) in the work
unit on individual group member behavior and motivation is signi�icant and is one reason trainees might resist
new learning. The power and control of the group over its members was �irst noted in the Hawthorne studies of
the 1920s and 1930s.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_033) Even though
members of the group were paid a piece rate, the output from members of the group was always within a
certain number of units. Examination of this study revealed that the group set a standard, rewarded those who
remained within the standard, and punished those who did much more or much less. Thus, the group norm of a
certain number of units was generally followed.
The power of the group comes from rewards the group gives to members who follow group norms or the
punishment for those who do not. These rewards or punishments can be as simple as talking to (reward) or
shunning (punishment) a group member. Punishment can also be severe, such as slashing tires or physically
threatening those who do not comply. Consider the following scenario. Sarah arrives at the training center early,
excited to be attending a workshop on how to communicate with customers more effectively. Fellow trainees are
talking among themselves, making fun of the training. One of them says, “They are going to tell us how to do our
job; I bet the trainer has never even done our job, so how could he know?” Another responds, “Yeah, these
workshops are put together by those who never worked in a real job, but at least we can enjoy this as a day off
work.” Then one turns to Sarah and says, “Hey, I see you managed to con your boss into sending you here for a
rest too—good work.” To be part of the “in group,” Sarah will have to agree and, as a result, will be much less
active in the training than she would really like. This will affect the amount she learns.
Let’s say that in spite of her (and everyone else’s) lack of participation in the workshop, Sarah did learn a
few skills. Now she goes back to her workplace. There she hears coworkers (peers) comment, “Well, did you
enjoy your day off ? Wasn’t that training the stupidest stuff you have ever seen?” and “Can you imagine using
that ’active listening’ stuff on a real customer?” With such comments, what is the likelihood that Sarah will want
to try some of these new skills? Group dynamics is a powerful force that can drastically inhibit both learning
and transfer of skills.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_034)
Group dynamics can also be used to support high performance. The pajama factory experiments of the late
1940s compared employees in two groups where change was necessary in how the jobs were done.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_035) In one group
employees were told about the changes, and in the other the members provided input into the changes. The no-
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participation group showed a drop in productivity from the baseline, and the participation group showed an
increase in productivity from the baseline. The most important factor in the difference was group norms that
developed either to restrict output (no-participation group) or increase it (participation group). More recent
research indicates that peer support for training is a strong predictor of the likelihood that trainees will transfer
what they learned to the job.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_036) The control
the work group exerts over the individual member is a double-edged sword. It is a good thing if the norms are
developed in line with the organizational goals, bad if they are not. One way of developing positive norms is to
allow input from the work group on decisions that will affect them. The movement toward more teams and
teamwork in organizations provides such opportunities, but to ensure that the right norms are developed, these
work groups need to be nurtured and made to feel that they are a valuable part of the organization.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_037)
Supervisor Support
Supervisor support is also a key factor in�luencing motivation to learn and resistance to training.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_038) Supervisors
are the of�icial source of rewards in most organizations. If your supervisor doesn’t think that training is
worthwhile and communicates this to you, what will your reaction be? Probably you will also think that the
training is not worthwhile, and your attitude walking into the training will be negative. With this predisposition,
you are likely to demonstrate one or more signs of resisting the training. For this reason, we advocate engaging
the trainees’ supervisor(s) early in the training design process. This allows the supervisor(s) to have input into
the training and to see how the training will be of value to the work unit.
Climate for Learning and Transfer
For training to be successful, both learning and the use of that learning back on the job need to be supported. If
the employee doesn’t feel that learning the new material is valued by those that matter she will make little or no
effort to learn. Evidence that the organization supports learning is shown in the way it creates learning
opportunities and the way it rewards learning. This “learning” climate combines with the climate for “transfer”
to in�luence the employee’s motivation to learn and apply that learning to the job. While a positive climate for
learning and transfer includes supervisor and peer support, it includes many other things as well. It requires
aligning organizational systems and procedures to support the new job behaviors and the training process in
addition to removing barriers. What sorts of systems and procedures need to be aligned? We will talk more in
depth about this in the next chapter on the needs analysis phase of the training model. For now, it’s suf�icient to
know that organizational reward systems, job materials and equipment, and job procedures are on the list.
Individual Factors and Resistance
Differences in personality and other individual characteristics are related to trainees’ motivation and ability to
learn and thus are also factors in resistance to learning. We have already discussed in some depth how a
person’s self-ef�icacy and the way she values the outcomes of training (“valence” in expectancy theory terms)
will in�luence her motivation. The number of personality traits that in�luence a person’s motivation to learn is
far greater than can be discussed here. For the most part, an understanding of these personality traits provides
little practical value for training design and implementation. This is true for several reasons. In most
organizations, employee personality traits are not measured, as it is too costly and impractical. Even if these
traits were measured, designing a training program that addresses all the individual differences among the
trainees would be too complex and costly to be practical. The same is true for developing separate training
programs for sets of trainees with unique combinations of traits. However, there are some individual
characteristics that are fairly easily observed and which training can be designed to address.
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Cognitive Ability
refers to individual differences in information-processing capacity and the level of cognitive resources that a
person can bring to bear on a problem. This is often referred to as general intelligence. It is clear that individual
differences in cognitive ability relate to differences in learning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_039) Trainees with
differences in cognitive ability will respond differently to goals set for training.
Goal Setting
Some interesting �indings came from studies regarding the learning process for low- and high-ability
individuals. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_040)
Goal setting as a motivational incentive does not always operate with the same magnitude for these two groups.
When those with low ability are starting to learn a moderately dif�icult task, providing goals to them will inhibit,
rather than enhance, learning. Although the same is true for high-ability individuals, it is not nearly as severe.
High-ability individuals, it seems, have the additional cognitive capacity to focus on goals in addition to the new
learning in the early learning stage. This difference disappears as the task is learned, and then goal setting
enhances the performance of both low- and high-ability individuals. Even though a difference separates the two
groups, results from this research suggest that generally, it is wise to design training so that dif�icult tasks are
broken down into a set of simpler tasks that are more easily mastered. If this is not possible, then it is best not
to introduce goal setting as a motivational device early in the training process.
KSA Base
Trainees with higher levels of cognitive ability not only process information more quickly but also typically have
a larger store of knowledge. Although we indicate that it is desirable to consider diversity among trainees as an
opportunity, this is true only up to a point. Substantial differences in the trainees’ KSAs related to the training
can create signi�icant challenges for the design of training. Those with less knowledge will need to have more
training material available to them than the others. It is not only differences in KSAs that can create problems in
a training group. The speed at which trainees can process the training information can also make a big
difference. Those with less cognitive ability might not be able to keep up with the material, or if the material is
presented at a slower pace, the more knowledgeable trainees are bored to tears.
The logic of using different approaches for trainees with signi�icant differences in cognitive ability and KSA
base makes some sense here. One approach would be to design separate training programs for the two groups.
Another approach would be to develop two phases for the training. The �irst phase would be for those with
lower cognitive abilities. This phase would develop the KSA base and other prerequisite knowledge for the
second phase. The idea here is to reduce the differences in ability to keep up with the material in the second
phase. The second phase would include all trainees. Another approach would be to use electronic, self-paced
training methods, allowing each trainee to move through the material at a pace consistent with their cognitive
abilities.
Valences
If training is perceived as leading to attractive outcomes such as better performance and better pay, there is a
higher probability that the learning will take place, and transfer to the job will occur.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_041) This was
demonstrated in a recent study showing that trainees who believed that the training was relevant to their job
were more likely to learn and transfer that learning to the job.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_042)
However, it is important to note that even when trainees acknowledge the value of the training, they might
believe that the effort required to master the learning is just not worthwhile. In Piaget’s terms, the
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accommodation process (developing new cognitive categories) is the most dif�icult, whereas assimilation
(adding new things to existing categories) is relatively easy. Accommodation requires a learner to create new
categories that then need to be linked to other related categories. The more categories that exist and the more
developed they are, the more dif�icult the learning. When assimilating, the learner simply adds new elements
and rearranges associations among elements within a single category. When accommodating, not only must
learners create a new category and place elements into that category, but they must also associate this category
with other categories. The elements within those categories must be modi�ied to create the network of
associations that appropriately incorporates the new information.
This type of situation occurs whenever a company changes the paradigms it uses for conducting its business.
For example, think about what supervisors face when companies move from a traditional, centralized,
hierarchical, autocratic decision-making system to a �lexible, team-based, more consensus-based, employee-
involvement system. From their experience and training in the traditional system, the supervisors developed a
cognitive structure for getting things done. They learned how to make all the decisions for their subordinates
and developed a system for communicating those decisions and ensuring that they were carried out effectively.
These strategies were probably reinforced over many years. A new piece of equipment or a change in the work
process brings new procedures that are learned and assimilated into the supervisor’s decision-making
structure relatively easily. Under the new team-based decision-making structure, however, the whole process of
making decisions must be relearned because the underlying organizational assumptions have changed. For the
supervisor, the focus is no longer on the quality of decisions but on the supervisor’s ability to facilitate quality
decisions by the team. Although some aspects of the supervisor’s old decision-making process might still be
useful, his cognitive structure must be changed to incorporate the new concepts, and the useful aspects of the
old concepts must be reorganized and integrated with the new. For this reason, learning the new system will be
more dif�icult for supervisors with a lot of experience than for a newly hired supervisor with little experience in
the traditional system.
Anxiety
Anxiety is a heightened state of arousal related to feelings of apprehension or fear. High levels of anxiety
interfere with other cognitive processes and cause the trainee to withdraw from or actively resist the learning
process. Many trainees feel anxious as they enter training. Most trainees arrive at training with an elaborate and
highly integrated cognitive structure. They already know a lot about themselves, their work, their company, and
many other things.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_043) The objective
of training is to change some part of that cognitive structure so that the trainee’s performance will be improved.
Change creates anxiety, however, for the following reasons:
Fear of the unknown “Right now I know how things work, but I do not know how this training will
affect things.”
Fear of incompetence “I do not know whether I’ll be able to learn this stuff.”
Fear of losing
rewards
“What will happen to my pay, status, and perks, among other things?”
Fear of lost in�luence “Will this training make me more or less valuable?”
Fear or lost
investments
“I’ve spent a lot of time and energy learning to do it this way. Why change?”
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These concerns deal with the trainees’ needs, their current competencies, and how training will change their
current outcomes. Pretraining counseling, the setup of the training facility, and the way in which training is
introduced can all reduce the level of anxiety trainees feel. Expectancy theory addresses these factors, and the
trainees’ motivation to learn will depend on the answers to these questions. To the degree that the answers
indicate that learning is worth the effort, the individual will be motivated to learn.
The “fear of incompetence” issue deserves more discussion. In general, the more experienced employee has
a more developed, integrated, and complex cognitive structure. A great deal of effort has gone into creating that
cognitive structure. Now he is being told that his KSAs are not good enough and he has to go to training.
Trainees also might feel that they are being told that the trainer knows more about how to do their job than
they do. Both of these situations can contribute to the trainee feeling that his competence is under attack,
leading to defensive behaviors. This is especially true if the training is mandatory. These defensive behaviors can
take the form of trying to show the trainer, and the other trainees, that the training is inadequate or irrelevant
and that their current KSAs are better than what training has to offer. They also might try to show that the
trainer is incompetent. By degrading the training or the trainer, the trainee feels that he is protecting himself.
This generalization is not to say that more experienced people always resist learning new things or
discarding old beliefs. They frequently do not. As adults mature, they appear to go through periodic episodes of
cognitive reorganization in which long standing concepts or principles are reevaluated.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_044) During these
cognitive reorganizations, knowledge that is of little functional value is discarded, and new KSAs are discovered
and integrated into their cognitive structure, especially in times of transition such as job or career changes. For
adults, the key factor in discarding old learning and acquiring new learning is its practical usefulness. Training
that seems abstract, theoretical, or otherwise unrelated to doing the job will likely be ignored or resisted.
Training that can demonstrate its value and practical utility will �ind trainees eager to learn. This needs to be
built into the training design.
Goal Orientation
Goal orientation is a relatively new construct in the adult training literature and is not as well researched as
factors contained in Figure 3-6. Nevertheless, it does seem to have a signi�icant impact on motivation to learn.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_045) Goal
orientation is the degree to which an individual is predisposed toward either a “learning orientation” or a
“performance orientation.”
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_046) Those with a
learning goal orientation focus on the learning process. They seek challenging tasks to increase their
competence, see negative feedback as important information to help them master the task, and see failure as a
learning experience. One result of this learning goal orientation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_039) is persistence
when having problems doing a complex task; they are more motivated to continue to try and solve the problem.
Those with a performance goal orientation differ because they focus on the end result. They wish to be seen
as competent and therefore desire favorable, not negative, feedback. They prefer easier tasks where they are
able to demonstrate their competence rather than learning something new. A result of having this performance
goal orientation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i177#glossch03_040) is avoidance of
complex tasks for fear of failure, limited persistence, and a tendency to be easily distracted.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_047)
In an organizational setting, those with a performance goal orientation have a strong desire to impress
others and focus on the outcome of their performance. Those with a learning goal orientation focus on mastery
of the task to develop their competence, acquire new skills, and learn from their experience.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_048) The research
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using goal orientation in an organizational/training setting has only been going on for a few years, but much of
it concludes that it is better to have a learning goal orientation than a performance goal orientation in a training
setting. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_049) In
other words, the focus should be on the process of learning new things rather than on some end product
performance goal. The good news is that although there is evidence that goal orientation is a trait, the trait can
be in�luenced by the situation. In fact, it seems that as long as there are situational cues suggesting a focus on
learning rather than performance, the situational cues will override the goal orientation trait.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_050) Furthermore,
these �indings tend to be supported when the task is complex and requires new knowledge and strategies.
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3.8 Training that Motivates Adults to Learn
Learning occurs quite frequently in adults when it appears to offer practical application immediately or in the
near future. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_052)
For example, a study showed that IBM sales representatives averaged more than 1,100 hours a year in “new
learning episodes.” (A new learning episode was de�ined as a deliberate attempt to gain and retain some
signi�icant knowledge or skill for problem solving or personal change.) Professors, by contrast, averaged slightly
more time (1,745 hours) on fewer episodes. Clearly, adults are not resistant to learning, but they are sometimes
resistant to training offered by their companies. Why?
Training Relevance, Value, and Readiness to Learn
Some of the most often mentioned reasons for adults engaging in new learning are problems on the job,
job/occupational changes, home and personal responsibilities, and competency at some hobby or recreational
activity. In the study mentioned previously, about two-thirds of the learning episodes were job-related. The need
to know and the readiness to learn are critical aspects in the success of adult learning programs.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_053) The need to
know refers to the value of the knowledge to the learner. Adults most often seek to learn when the learning is
life-, task-, or problem-centered.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_054) Readiness to
learn refers to the amount of prerequisite knowledge (KSAs) the trainees possess and the trainees’ belief that
they can learn the material. This aspect is consistent with the principles of self-ef�icacy and expectancy theory.
People’s motivation to learn a particular knowledge or skill set is directly in�luenced by their belief that if they
put forth the effort, they will be successful in their learning (Expectancy 1). Beyond this expectation, they must
feel that the bene�its of learning the KSAs outweigh the bene�its of not learning them (Expectancy 2).
The challenge is to provide instruction in a context that overcomes the natural resistance of adult learners to
changing their cognitive structures. Making the relevance and value of the learning clear as it relates to the
trainee and organizational goals addresses one source of resistance to learning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_055) Ensuring that
the trainee believes she can successfully master the training content is another important motivator. Over time,
adults might develop feelings of low self-ef�icacy in certain areas and feelings of high self-ef�icacy in others. For
those with a low self-ef�icacy for learning in general or for the speci�ic content area of the training, the trainer
needs to change the self-ef�icacy beliefs so that trainees are more willing to attempt new learning. Doing so
requires a careful match between the trainee’s characteristics (e.g., KSA level, learning-style preferences) and
the design of the training. Trainers can overcome a signi�icant type of resistance to learning by demonstrating
that learning in the subject area can be as easy as in areas in which trainees have high self-ef�icacy.
Allowing Trainees Control Over Their Learning
As we pointed out, trainees walk into training with well-developed cognitive maps that re�lect their experiences.
Since these experiences differ from person to person, any given training group is likely to differ considerably in
the KSAs they possess and in their learning strategies. Trainees often view these differences as hindrances to
their learning and resist training with others who are dissimilar. However, these differences can be viewed as a
learning resource if the trainees are willing to share their experiences and strategies and if the training
environment supports such an exchange. In fact, adult learners prefer sharing their learning experiences with
others if the environment is supportive. Even though adults prefer to plan their own learning projects and to
adopt a self-directed approach to learning, this preference does not imply a desire to learn in isolation. Rather, it
re�lects a desire to set their own pace, establish their own structure for learning, and employ �lexibility in the
learning methods. More often than not, adults seek learning assistance from others. In short, they do not mind
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learning from others but they want to maintain some control over the learning experience. These characteristics
suggest that training that incorporates individualized components and also makes use of shared, relevant
experiences will be most effective at overcoming resistance to learning.
Although it is true that many adults are able to learn new competencies even when they are not told the
signi�icance or usefulness of the training, they are much less likely to be able to apply these new competencies
to their job. Research suggests that trainees receiving instruction on how to perform a set of skills show
improved performance at the end of training but fail to use the skills on their own or to generalize the skill
usage to similar situations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_056) Training that
provides instruction on the “how to” and includes the “why and when” results in improved performance and
continued use of the skill across appropriate situations.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_057)
Involving Trainees in the Process
Training, then, should take into account the motivational and cognitive processes that in�luence the trainee’s
readiness and willingness to learn. Many writers emphasize the importance of participation, choice, personal
experiences, critical re�lection, and critical thinking as key characteristics of adult learning.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i176#ch03biblio_058) Involving the
trainees in the learning process from needs assessment to design and evaluation addresses many of these
issues.
Involvement is a key part of overcoming resistance to change. You might remember from the discussion of
OD principles in Chapter 2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i19#ch02)
that involving those who are affected by change in planning and implementing the change creates a sense of
ownership. The result is increased commitment to the change and better implementation of the change.
Supervisors and trainees should be involved in determining the training needs because both are affected by the
change. Supervisors have a clearer understanding of why new KSAs are necessary, how they �it in with the
overall plans for the work unit, and the consequences of their employees learning or not learning the new KSAs.
The trainees, in turn, see what KSAs they need to improve and understand why those KSAs will be of value.
Involving trainees in needs analysis and other parts of the training process will be discussed in more depth in
the relevant chapters.
Training design issues are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i68#ch05) . However, training
professionals should consider the following nine principles in developing training programs for their
employees:
1. Identify, where possible, the trainees’ strengths and challenges relating to motivation to learn and
design the training to address as many of these as is practical.
2. Align learning objectives to organizational goals and show how learning is important to trainee and
organizational success.
3. Describe program goals and objectives clearly at the start of training.
4. Engage the trainee early, thus maximizing attention, expectations, and memory.
5. Use a systematic, logically connected sequencing of learning activities so that trainees master lower
levels of learning before moving to higher levels.
6. Use a variety of training methods.
7. Use realistic job- or life-relevant training material.
8. Allow trainees to work together and share experiences.
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9. Provide constant feedback and reinforcement while encouraging self-assessment.
The trainer can address the diversity of characteristics trainees bring to training within the context of a group-
learning environment by applying these principles to training programs.
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Summary
An employee’s performance is a function of motivation, KSAs, and environment. This is true of performance in
training as well as job performance. Learning the content of a training program will depend on the motivation
and KSAs the trainee brings to the training program and to the training environment. Examination of theoretical
frameworks in the �ields of motivation and learning provides us with practical insights for the design of training
programs. Theories of motivation fall into two categories: needs theories and process theories. Needs theories,
such as ERG, explain what it is that motivates an individual. Process theories, such as expectancy theory, explain
how an individual’s needs lead to goal-directed behavior. Self-ef�icacy, a person’s belief in her performance
capabilities, plays a signi�icant factor in motivation.
Two historical approaches to understanding learning are the behaviorist perspective (Skinner) and the
cognitive perspective (Piaget). The behavioral approach (reinforcement theory) focuses on the importance of
the environment, and the cognitive approach (accommodation/assimilation) emphasizes the processes that lead
to learning. Together, the two theoretical perspectives provide a more complete picture of the learning process
than either can do alone. Bandura’s social learning theory provides a more integrated approach through which
we can more fully understand learning. The process of learning provides the foundation for designing effective
training. Gagné and colleagues provide this foundation with their theory of instructional design (nine events of
instruction).
A model (Figure 3-6) was presented showing individual and organizational factors in�luencing motivation to
learn and the in�luence of motivation to learn on training outcomes. The factors in�luencing motivation to learn
(self-ef�icacy, cognitive ability, anxiety, valence of outcomes, climate for transfer, and supervisor and peer
support) were also discussed in terms of their relationship to resistance to learning. A number of reasons
explain why trainees are hesitant to learn new material, such as fear of the unknown or of not being successful
at learning the new material. The concept of learning goal orientation was introduced, and how it differed from
a performance goal orientation was discussed, including the rami�ications of each orientation to training.
Training design implications from the Motivation to Learn section were provided. To motivate trainees, the
training needs to be relevant and valuable. Trainees need to feel con�ident of being successful in learning the
training content. Goal setting will increase motivation in the later parts of the training program but will interfere
with learning in the early stages for those lower in cognitive ability. Finally, trainee involvement with each phase
of the training process will facilitate trainee interest and motivation in the training. The design of training will
also need to consider differences in trainee traits and other characteristics within the context of what is
practical. In some cases, separate training programs will be best; in other cases, counseling or prerequisite KSA
training may be desirable.
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Key Terms
Accommodation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term01)
Assimilation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term02)
Attention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term03)
Behavioral reproduction
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term04)
Classical conditioning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term05)
Cognition (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term06)
Cognitive organization
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term07)
Cognitive process
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term08)
Cognitive structure
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term09)
Environment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term10)
ERG theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term11)
Existence needs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term12)
Expectancy theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term13)
Extinction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term14)
Group dynamics
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term15)
Growth needs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term16)
Law of effect
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term17)
Learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term18)
Learning goal orientation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term19)
Performance goal orientation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term20)
Micro Theory of Instructional Design
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i39#ch03term21)
Motivation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term22)
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term01
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term02
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term03
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term04
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term05
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term06
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term07
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term08
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term09
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term10
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term11
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term12
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term13
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term14
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term15
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term16
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term17
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i37#ch03term18
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term19
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term20
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i39#ch03term21
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term22
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Needs theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term23)
Negative reinforcement
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term24)
Observational learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term25)
Operant conditioning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term26)
Performance model
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term27)
Positive reinforcement
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term28)
Process theories
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term29)
Punishment
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term30)
Reinforcement theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term31)
Relatedness needs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term32)
Resistance to learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term33)
Retention (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term34)
Self-ef�icacy
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term35)
Social learning theory
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term36)
Symbolic coding
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term37)
Symbolic rehearsal
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term38)
Theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i35#ch03term39)
Valence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term40)
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term23
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term24
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term25
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term26
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term27
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term28
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term29
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term30
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term31
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term32
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i40#ch03term33
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term34
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term35
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term36
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term37
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i38#ch03term38
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i35#ch03term39
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS680.16.1/sections/i36#ch03term40
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Questions for Review
1. Explain the behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning. Which is most relevant to training? Explain
your answer.
2. You are a trainer explaining expectancy theory to a group of managers so they can better understand
and deal with employee motivation problems. One of the managers says, “I do not have time for this
theory stuff. I want real-world training that helps me in my job.” How would you respond to the trainee?
What is your rationale for your response?
3. List the nine events of instruction as outlined by Gagné and Briggs and indicate how you would use
them in a training situation.
4. Explain why different people need different training methods.
5. How does a work group exert control over the performance of a worker? Provide a rationale for why
this “power” is a positive or negative thing.
6. How can training be designed to motivate learning and accommodate trainee differences?
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Exercises
1. The following steps provide practice in implementing a social learning strategy:
A. Consult with a friend, coworker, or fellow student to identify a target behavior that the person
does not currently have but would like to have.
B. Develop a social learning strategy for the person to acquire that behavior.
C. Implement the strategy.
D. In small groups or with the whole class, describe what you tried to do and what happened.
2. In groups of four to six people, discuss the differences among you that would affect the kind of training
you would prefer. Use Figure 3-6 on page 77 to start your discussion, but do not limit it to only those
characteristics. What accounts for the differences and similarities among your group members?
3. Observe an introductory course in computer programming. Then observe an introductory course in art
or music. Which course uses a more behavioral and which a more cognitive approach to learning? If
possible, interview the instructors to �ind out why that is their approach. Describe the match between
the instructional approach and the subject matter.
4. Use the following to see how expectancy theory explains differences in student motivation.
A. In a small group, discuss the most important outcome that you want to achieve in this class (it
may or may not be a letter grade). Have each person indicate how valuable that outcome is by
using a scale from 1 = “not at all desirable” to 10 = “extremely desirable.”
B. Ask a group member to describe the most important outcome; then ask that person to describe
how strong that motivation is compared with the other goals for this term (use a scale of 1 =
“not at all motivated” to 10 = “extremely motivated”).
C. Ask that same person to describe the things that must be done (performance level) to achieve
that outcome.
D. Ask the person to indicate the Expectancy 1 level (the belief that she will reach the performance
level). Then ask the person to describe Expectancy 2 (the likelihood that successful
performance will result in the outcome). Use probabilities (e.g., 1 = “very unlikely,” .5 = “50%
chance of happening,” and .9 = “very likely”) to re�lect expectancies.
E. Now examine the expectancy linkages to see how well they conform to the person’s level of
motivation. Discuss any discrepancies and why they exist.
5. This exercise is for those who are working together on a project. Without conversation among
members of your group, write a list of the group’s norms for performance on the project. When you
are done, indicate whether you follow each of the norms and why. Once everyone has �inished the tasks
above, collect all the responses and mix them up. Hand them out. Allow each person to read the
responses they received and compile the responses on a �lip chart. Once all responses have been read,
discuss the implications of your group’s perception of performance norms.
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Web Research
There are more theories of learning and motivation than have been described in this chapter. Do a search for a
learning or a motivation theory that is not in the text. When you �ind one, write a summary of the theory and
suggest how it could be used in training.
Conduct a search for how a business has applied one of the theories in this chapter. Write a summary of how
the theory was applied and the results of the application, if this is available.
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Case Analysis: Rick’s New Job
Rick recently received an MBA. In university, he was known as smart, hardworking, and friendly. His good
grades landed him an internship with Peterson Paper Products (PPP) to head their sales department. Near the
end of the internship, Val Peterson, the president and founder of the company, asked Rick to meet him after
work to discuss the future.
Peterson Paper Products
Val Peterson founded PPP 17 years ago. It purchases raw paper of varying grades and produces paper stock for
business, personal stationery, and greeting cards. Its annual sales topped $15 million, and it employs 80 to 90
people, depending on demand. Sales gradually declined over the last two years after steady and sometimes
spectacular growth during the previous seven years. Competition increased markedly over the last three years,
and pro�it margins dwindled. Although PPP is known for the high quality of its products, consumers are shifting
from premium-priced, high-quality products to products with higher overall value. Through all of these changes,
PPP maintained a close-knit family culture. At least half of the employees have been with the company since the
beginning or are friends or relatives of the Petersons or Mr. Ball, Val’s partner.
Val Peterson, 53, holds the majority of stock in this privately held company that he founded. He began
working summers in a paper company during high school. He supervised a shift at a paper plant while he went
to college at night. After graduation, he worked at increasingly higher management levels, occasionally switching
employers for a promotion. Eighteen years ago, he quit his vice presidency with a major paper product
manufacturer to start his own company. Employees see him as charismatic, even-tempered, and reasonable. He
spends most of his time and energy on company business, putting in 12-hour days.
Rosie Peterson, 50, is Val’s wife and the controller for the company. She holds 5 percent of the company
stock. Rosie never went to college, and her accounting methods are rather primitive (all paper and pencil).
Nonetheless, she is always on top of the �inancial picture and puts in nearly as many hours as Val. She exerts a
great deal of in�luence on the operations and direction of PPP.
Walter Ball, 61, is both Mr. Peterson’s friend and business partner. He owns 25 percent of the stock and has
known Val since before the start of PPP. He is VP of operations, which means that he oversees the computer
information systems that run the paper production process and handles the technical side of the business. He is
not current on the latest computer or manufacturing technology, but he loves the paper business. He says he
will probably retire at 65, but most say they will believe it when they see it.
Diane Able, 41, is the customer service manager and is married to Steve Able, the chief engineer. Diane
worked her way up in the company over the last 10 years. She is often asked to assist Mr. Peterson with projects
because of her common sense, and he trusts her to keep information to herself.
Rick’s Offer
When Rick met Mr. Peterson to “discuss the future,” he was nervous. He knew that Mr. Peterson liked his work
so far, but did not know if it was enough to extend his internship another six months. So far, he had worked with
Mr. Peterson only on special projects and did not know the rest of the management group well. He was
�labbergasted when Mr. Peterson said, “I was thinking that you might like to work here at PPP full-time and help
us out with our sales department.”
The two of them discussed the problems in the sales area and talked about what could be done to boost
sales. Rick agreed to start the next Monday. During this conversation, Rosie walked in and suggested that they
all go out to dinner. At dinner, Rosie emphasized to Rick that PPP was a family operation, down-to-earth and
informal. “You probably shouldn’t try to change things too quickly,” she warned. “People need time to get used
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to you. You have to remember, you’re an outsider here and everyone else is an insider.” Then Val moved the
conversation back to what the future could be like at PPP.
Rick’s Awakening
During the �irst few days at work, Rick spent time getting to know the plant and operations, meeting all the
employees, and familiarizing himself with the problems in sales. He met with Val each morning and afternoon.
He also met with the key managers, not only to introduce himself but also to convey his desire to work
collaboratively with them in addressing the problems in sales. He was conscious not to �launt his university
education and to convey that he recognized he was a newcomer and had a lot to learn. In the middle of his
second week, Val told him that his reception by the other employees was going very well: “Your enthusiasm and
motivation seem to be contagious. Having you join us shows them that things need to change if we’re going to
reach our goals.”
Rick noticed, however, that the managers always went out in groups, and he had not been invited along. Also,
he was not included in the informal discussion groups that formed periodically during the day. In fact, the
conversation usually stopped when he approached. Everyone was friendly, he thought; maybe it would just take
a little more time.
By his third week, Rick identi�ied some of the problems in the sales department. Among the four salespeople,
morale and productivity were moderate to low. He could not �ind any sales strategy, mission, or objectives. The
records showed that Val was by far the leading salesperson. The others indicated that Mr. Peterson “always
works with us very closely to make sure we do things right. If he senses there might be a problem, he steps in
right away.” After formulating a plan, Rick discussed it with Mr. Peterson. “First, I would like to institute weekly
sales meetings so we keep everyone up to date. I also want to create a centralized sales database,” he told him.
Mr. Peterson smiled and agreed. Rick felt he was �inally a manager. He did feel that he should have mentioned
his idea for creating a sales department mission and strategy, but recalled Rosie’s caution about not moving too
fast.
Rick discussed with Mr. Ball the possibility of using the centralized computer system to run word processing
and spreadsheet software on terminals. Mr. Ball was concerned that outsiders could access the data in the
spreadsheets. Anyway, he did not think the system could handle that task because its primary function was
production. Puzzled, Rick asked if a PC could be allocated to him. Mr. Ball said that no one in the company had
one.
“Well,” Rick thought, “I’ll just have to bring mine from home.” The next Monday Rick walked through the of�ice
carrying his computer. Several of the other managers looked at him quizzically. Making light of it he said, “I’m
not smart enough to keep everything in my head and I do not have enough time to write it all down on paper.”
As he was setting up the computer, he got a call from Val: “Rick, that computer you brought in has caused a heck
of a ruckus. Can you lie low with it until I get back late this afternoon?” Rick thought Val sounded strained but
chalked it up to overwork. Rick agreed and left the computer on his desk, partly assembled. Five minutes later,
Rosie walked into his of�ice.
“Do you think it’s funny bringing that thing in here? What are you trying to prove—how backward we all are?
How much better you are with your big initials behind your name? You’re still an outsider here, buster, and do
not forget it.”
Rick tried to explain how much more productive the sales department would be with a computer and that he
had tried to use the company’s computer system. However, Rosie was not listening: “Did you think about
checking with me before bringing that in? With Val or even Walter? Don’t you think we have a right to know
what you’re bringing in here?” Rick knew argument would do no good, so he apologized for not checking with
everyone �irst. He said he had a meeting with Val later to talk about it. Rosie said, “Good, talk to Val, but don’t
think he calls all the shots here.”
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At the meeting with Val, Val agreed that the computer would certainly help solve the problems in sales: “But,
you have to be sensitive to the feelings of Rosie and the other managers. It would be best if you did not use the
computer for a while until things calm down.”
The next day Walter walked into Rick’s of�ice. He told Rick that he had moved far too fast with the computer:
“That’s not how it’s done here, son. Maybe you’re spending too much time listening to what Val says. He isn’t
really the one to talk to about these kinds of issues. Next time you just ask old Uncle Walter.”
Rick spent the next few weeks building the database by hand and conducting sales meetings with his staff. He
tried to set up meetings with Mr. Peterson, but Val was usually too busy. One day, Rick asked Diane Able about
not being able to see Mr. Peterson and she said, “You know, you monopolized a lot of his time early on. Those of
us who worked closely with him before you came were pushed aside so he could spend time with you. Now it’s
your turn to wait.”
“Are you the one who’s been spending all the time with him?” Rick asked.
“Well, it’s been me and some of the other managers. We’ve really been taking a beating in sales, so we need
to �igure out how to reduce our costs,” Ms. Able answered.
A few weeks later, Rick was called in to Val’s of�ice. Val began, “Rick, you know we’ve been going through
some bad times. We’re reducing head count and I’m afraid you’re one of the people we’re going to let go. It has
nothing to do with your work. You haven’t really been here long enough to have either succeeded or failed. It’s
just that we had unrealistic expectations about how quickly things in sales would turn around. I feel terrible
having to do this and I’ll do everything I can to help you �ind another job.”
After packing his things and loading up the car, Rick sat in his car and stared out of the window. “Welcome to
the real world,” he thought to himself.
Case Questions
1. Why do you think Rick was let go? How does reinforcement theory apply to the main characters in this
situation? How does expectancy theory apply?
2. Explain Rosie’s and Walter’s reactions to Rick’s computer in terms of resistance to change. How might
Rick have used the concepts in this chapter to approach the computer situation so as to gain
acceptance?
3. Explain Rick’s inability to “�it in,” using social learning theory. Where did the breakdowns in his
processing occur?
4. If Val hired you to develop a management training program for the senior managers at PPP, what are
the key concepts from this chapter that you would use in designing the program? Provide appropriate
theoretical rationale to support your position.
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