For this assignment, you are to choose a topic from your book (approved by me) that you will research on the Internet. It can be on a period of art, a style of art, or a particular work of art, architecture or artist, but it has to be from a chapter we cover in class. Not only is this paper about the topic you choose, but it is also about the experience of using the Internet as a research tool. You are not allowed to cite any source from a book other than your text; the whole point of this assignment is exploring how the Internet can be used as a tool in aiding your knowledge on a given subject.
Please address these items in your paper using a proper format of introduction, body, and conclusion (not in the bullet-point form as they are below):
- Why did you choose this topic? Your introduction is a good place for this.
- Discuss the process you used in obtaining information (i.e. search engines, museum sites, etc.).
- Was it easy to find information about this topic on the internet? If not, how did that hinder your process?
- Do you think the internet is a helpful tool for researching art? Why or why not?
Requirements:
- This paper is to be a minimum of 750 words (no more than 1000 words) written in double-spaced 12 pt. type. Please don’t go over 1000 words, as I will not read anything past that; this will help you to be concise.
- This is more of an exercise in researching than giving me every detail about the topic you choose. Please keep the information you find about your topic to a maximum of 3/4 of a page (2-3 short paragraphs). The rest of the paper should be about your process of finding information on the Internet.
- You will absolutely need to cite your sources. Any time you get information from a particular website, be sure to copy and paste the web address into your document, so I know where you got the information (see the “Plagiarism” PDF for instructions on how to cite your sources, if you don’t already know how to use MLA formatting from ENGL 101). Also, at the end of the paper (on an additional and separate page – not to be part of the 2-3 pages required), compile your sources into a works cited page.
- Grammar and formatting will be graded (100 points total), so be sure to proofread your papers for mistakes before handing them in.
- Papers will neither be accepted late nor via email. You must submit them as a Microsoft Word document or PDF attachment on Canvas. Do not submit a link to Google Docs, it will not work.
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Europe in the 15th Century
• Northern artists focused more on natural elements rather than solely on the idealized human form (i.e. lots of landscape with few figures is common)
• Oil paint was invented and it is generally attributed as Jan van Eyck’s invention; it offered artists the ability to paint layer after layer with a jewel-like crispness and transparency
• Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): primarily fought between France and England, it spilled over to other areas as well like Flanders
• Black Death also wreaked havoc in other parts of Europe as well
• Early stages of capitalism: financial requirements of trade, new credit and exchange systems created an enterprising network of cities; the beginnings of trading firms; this encouraged people to move from rural areas to cities as well
• Invention of moveable type and printing press by Gutenberg
Figure 15-3 MELCHIOR BROEDERLAM, outer wings of the Retable de Champmol. Annunciation and Visitation (above) and Presentation and Flight into Egypt (right), from Chapel of the Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon, France, installed 1399. Panels, each 5’ 5 3/4” x 4’ 1 1/4”. Musée de la Ville, Dijon.
Netherlandish painter, court painter to Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, from 1387. Documents show that he was a busy and versatile artist, but his only surviving works are two wings from an altarpiece representing The Annunciation and Visitation and The Presentation and Flight into Egypt (Musee des Beaux-Arts, Dijon, 1394-99). They are among the first and finest examples of International Gothic, combining lavish decorative display with realistic touches that look forward to the later development of the Netherlandish School. The figure of St Joseph in The Flight into Egypt, for example, is represented as an authentic peasant.
The center part of this painting is missing. The two stories on the left are before the birth of Jesus, the two stories on the right are after the birth of Jesus. What would be the scene at the middle?
Figure 15-4 ROBERT CAMPIN (Master of Flémalle), Mérode Altarpiece (open), The Annunciation (center panel), ca. 1425–1428. Oil on wood, center panel approx. 2’ 1” x 2’ 1”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (The Cloisters Collection, 1956).
This is an example of a triptych that was commissioned for private home use; it is only two feet tall and because of its size, it would be easy for its owner to move it around when necessary; this is also a popular theme set in a contemporary for the time Flemish home; Mary is seen reading her book as the angel Gabriel comes to tell her of the news that she will bear the son of God; there are many symbols like the extinguished candle, lilies, copper basin, towels, fire screen, and bench that represent the Virgin’s purity and her divine mission in various ways; the patrons (the people who paid for the work of art) kneel in the left panel and are permitted to watch this event through an open door; they are in a closed garden which also symbolizes Mary’s purity; in the right panel we see Joseph in his carpentry workshop; he has made a mousetrap (a theological symbol that Christ is the bait set in the trap to catch the Devil).
You will see an emergence of patrons being portrayed in the works of art they commissioned from artists starting in the 15th century. It is a way to humanize the subject as well as to show off their wealth.
This painting is a really wonderful example of the Northern technique which includes the use of oil paint (developed by the next artist you will be learning about, Jan van Eyck), incredible detail – many of these painters were trained as manuscript illuminators (aka book illustrators) and worked on a very small scale, and symbolism.
Triptych: A three-panel painting or altarpiece. Also, a small, portable shrine with hinged wings used for private devotion.
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Figure 15-8 JAN VAN EYCK, Man in a Red Turban, 1433. Oil on wood, approx. 10 1/4″ x 7 1/2″. National Gallery, London.
Jan van Eyck was a Flemish painter who along with Robert Campin was the founder of the Ars Nova (“new art”) of 15th-century Northern late-Gothic painting. This style heralded the Renaissance in northern Europe. This period of Netherlandish art is characterized by a naturalistic style of vivid oil colors, meticulous detail, accurately rendered textures, and the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. This particular piece is thought to be Jan’s self-portrait. It contains a lot of Jan’s proposed personality and the frame is signed and dated containing his personal motto, Als ich chan (“The best I am capable of doing”). This motto illustrates the humanist spirit that an artist accepts himself and is proud to display it. Art historians also look to the flamboyant red turban he wears as artists were wont to wear such headgear at this time.
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Figure 15-5 HUBERT AND JAN VAN EYCK, Ghent Altarpiece (closed), Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium, completed 1432. Oil on wood,
approx. 11’ 6″ x 7’ 6″.
Started by Hubert who died in 1426; Jan van Eyck was Phillip the Good’s court painter; he was trained as a miniaturist; it is the greatest monument in early Flemish painting; it is a triptych and has twenty component parts within the triptych; commissioned by a wealthy donor, a magistrate under Philip the Good, whose portrait is included; at the top of the closed altarpiece we have Zachariah and Micah with sibyls (mythological prophetesses) who foresaw the coming of Christ.
Please watch this SmartHistory video:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/northern-renaissance1/burgundy-netherlands/v/ghent-altarpiece-closed
Figure 15-6 HUBERT AND JAN VAN EYCK, Ghent Altarpiece (open), Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium, completed 1432. Oil on wood, approx. 11’ 6″ x 15’.
Inside, we see Adam and Eve and they are the earliest monumental nudes of Northern panel painting (they are just a little less than life size) and they remind us of our creation in God’s image; at the bottom, there is the community of saints from the four corners of the earth (prophets on the left; apostles and martyrs on the right); an altar with the symbol of Christ, the sacrificial lamb and the fountain of life (much like a baptismal font).
Please watch this SmartHistory video:
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/northern-renaissance1/burgundy-netherlands/v/ghent-altar-open
There’s a great website that lets you zoom into the Ghent Altarpiece. Check it out!
http://closertovaneyck.kikirpa.be/
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Figure 15-7 JAN VAN EYCK, Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, 1434. Oil on wood, approx. 2’ 8″ x 1’ 11 1/2″. National Gallery, London.
Portrait of a financier who worked for the Florentine Medici family and his bride, Giovanna Cenami; they stand on holy ground (no shoes), little dog symbolizes fidelity, the bedpost heralds a tiny statue of Saint Margaret the saint of childbirth (see next slide for detail), whisk broom = domesticity, oranges refer to fertility and the working relationship that Giovanni Arnolfini had with the Medici family in Florence (their family crest is a shield with oranges on it), candle (also part of Flemish marriage custom) and mirror symbolize the all seeing eye of God.
Contrary to many students’ believe, the bride is NOT pregnant. She is wearing many layers of clothing (it is the North – brrrrr!) and she is hoisting them up to illustrate her coming role as mother. Notice she stands next to the interior space with the bed and he stands near the window. Both positions reflect their traditional gender roles as husband and wife.
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JAN VAN EYCK, detail of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, 1434.
The mirror you are looking at is probably no more than 5-6 inches in diameter. If you zoom in closely, you can see little circular scenes in the framework. Those are the scenes called the Passion of Christ and detail his trial and execution via crucifixion. Also, the sculpture of St. Margaret (the patron saint of pregnancy and childbirth) is carved into the post where the dust broom is hung.
Figure 15-9 ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN, Deposition, from Notre-Dame hors-les-murs, Louvain, Belgium, ca. 1435. Oil on wood, approx. 7’ 3″ x 8’ 7″. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
After studying under Robert Campin in his hometown of Tournai, Belgium, Rogier Van der Weyden moved to Brussels where he established his reputation. He worked as the official court painter to the city and the Burgundian court beginning in1436. Rogier’s compositions always focused on the drama and emotion of the scenes involving Christ’s death; this is part of a triptych and is the center panel, commissioned by the Archers’ Guild of Louvain; he honors his patrons by including crossbows in the corners of the panel – they serve as architectural elements; he encloses his figures, not in landscape, but in a very small room; his figures do seem to occupy a three-dimensional space – it is very illusionistic.
Figure 15-9A ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN. Last Judgment Altarpiece (open),
Hôtel-Díeu, Beaune, France, ca. 1444-1448. Panel, 7’ 4 5/8” x 17’ 1”. Musée de l’Hôtel-Díeu, Beaune.
This is the image for SmartHistory HW #2.
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Figure 15-8A ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN, Portrait of a Lady, ca. 1460. Oil on panel, 1’ 1 3/8″ x 10 1/16″. National Gallery, Washington.
Rogier’s expressive and colorful portraits were known for their technical and compositional aptitude. His paintings involved religious themes and conveyed psychological characteristics of the figures, a quality that influenced many future Flemish artists. This painting is an outstanding example of the abstract elegance characteristic of Rogier’s late portraits. Although the identity of the sitter is unknown, her air of self-conscious dignity suggests that she is a member of the nobility. Her costume and severely plucked eyebrows and hairline are typical of those favored by highly placed ladies of the Burgundian court. The stylish costume does not distract attention from the sitter. The dress, with its dark bands of fur, almost merges with the background. The spreading headdress frames and focuses attention upon her face. Light falls with exquisite beauty along the creases of the sheer veiling over her head, and gentle shadows mark her fine bone structure. In contrast to the spareness of execution in most of the painting, the gold filigree of her belt buckle is rendered with meticulous precision. The scarlet belt serves as a foil to set off her delicately clasped hands. Rogier excelled as a portrait painter because he so vividly presented the character of the persons he portrayed. The downcast eyes, the firmly set lips, and the tense fingers reflect this woman’s mental concentration. Rogier juxtaposed the strong sensation of the sitter’s acute mental activity to his rigid control of the composition and the formality of her costume and pose, presenting the viewer with an image of passionate austerity.
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Figure 15-11 DIRK BOUTS, Last Supper (central panel of the Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament), Saint Peter’s, Louvain, Belgium, 1464–1468. Oil on wood, approx. 6’ x 5’.
The Last Supper is the central panel of Altarpiece of the Holy Sacrament, commissioned from Bouts by the Leuven Confraternity of the Holy Sacrament in 1464. A confraternity is a group of church members who celebrate a certain aspect of the Catholic Mass. This particular confraternity celebrated Holy Communion which is a reenactment of the Last Supper. The Last Supper is when Jesus and his disciples gathered to commemorate the Passover, the Jewish holiday of when the angel of death passed over the homes of the Israelites while in bondage in Egypt (the last of the 10 plagues sent by God to punish the pharaoh). It is the last meal he has with his disciples and a traditional telling of it showcases the disciples reacting to Jesus’s announcement that someone among them will betray him.
Scholars have noted that Bouts’s Last Supper was the first Flemish panel painting depicting the events of the Last Supper. However, in this central panel, Bouts did not focus on the biblical narrative itself but instead presented Christ in the role of a priest performing a ritual from the liturgy of the Christian Church – the consecration of the Eucharistic wafer. This contrasts strongly with other Last Supper depictions, which often focused on Judas’s betrayal or on Christ’s comforting of John. Bouts also added to the complexity of this image by including four servants (two in the window and two standing), all dressed in Flemish attire. Although once identified as the artist himself and his two sons, these servants are most likely portraits of the confraternity’s members responsible for commissioning the altarpiece.
All of the central room’s orthogonals (lines imagined to be behind and perpendicular to the picture plane that converge at a vanishing point) lead to a single vanishing point in the center of the mantelpiece above Christ’s head. However the small side room has its own vanishing point, and neither it nor the vanishing point of the main room falls on the horizon of the landscape seen through the windows. The Last Supper is the second dated work to display an understanding of Italian linear perspective (more on that in chapter 16).
Figure 15-12 HUGO VAN DER GOES, Portinari Altarpiece (open), from Sant’Egidio, Florence, Italy,
ca. 1476. Tempera and oil on wood, 8’ 3 1/2″ x 10’ (center panel), 8’ 3 1/2″ x 4’ 7 1/2″ (each wing). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
This is a Visitation scene; shepherds on the right; variation in the scale of figures; dynamic sense of emotion particularly on the shepherds’ faces – gazing at the Christ child in wonderment; the orange lilies represent passion; the iris is Hugo van der Goes’ favorite flower; the columbine represents the sorrows of the Virgin Mary; 15 angels represent the 15 joys of Mary; the wheat is a symbol for Bethlehem; Harp of David represents the ancestor of Christ.
Detail
Figure 15-12 Left Panel
Total
Saints Thomas and Anthony join the male members of the Portinari family as their protectors; in the background we see Mary and Joseph traveling toward the central panel, Bethlehem, where Mary will give birth.
Figure 15-12 Right Panel
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The artist portrays a dragon underneath the feet of St. Margaret (holding the cross); the legend is that when she refused to marry a Roman prefect, she was imprisoned and a devil, in the form of a dragon devoured her. When she made the sign of the cross, the dragon split open and she emerged unscathed, hence her special popularity for pregnant women. Her legend was well known throughout Europe by the fifth century; the other woman is Mary Magdalene along with Mona Portinari and daughter; in the background, the Magi (the three wise men/kings) are traveling and their servant is asking for directions to the manger.
Detail of the dragon. The Northerners had rich imaginations steeped in the pagan and folkloric Medieval traditions they grew up with. Think of fairy tales and the kinds of monsters depicted in those. Most of those fairy tales come from the medieval era of imaginative creatures.
Figure 15-15 LIMBOURG BROTHERS (POL, HERMAN, JEAN), January, from Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, 1413–1416. Ink on vellum, approx. 8 1/2″ x 5 1/2″. Musée Condé, Chantilly.
Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry translates to the Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry. A book of hours is used for reciting prayers. This example is a beautiful illuminated manuscript done for Jean, the duke of Berry, the brother of King Charles V of France. The duke was an avid patron of the arts who loved manuscripts, jewels, and rare artifacts; the Limbourg brothers worked on this manuscript until their deaths; these calendar pages are some of the most famous illustrations in the history of illuminated manuscripts; they represent the 12 months in terms of the associated seasonal tasks, alternating scenes of nobility (seen here) and peasantry (next slide); this is the New Year’s reception at court; also a representation of the Trojan War.
Figure 15-16 LIMBOURG BROTHERS (POL, HERMAN, JEAN), October, from Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, 1413–1416. Ink on vellum, approx. 8 1/2” x 5 1/2”. Musée Condé, Chantilly.
Peasants work in front of the Louvre (the king’s palace at this time); they don’t seem disgruntled as they go about their tasks, but remember this is a book made for the duke who wants to be seen like a compassionate master; there is convincing three-dimensional space here by the way the artist use light and shadow.
Figure 15-18 JEAN FOUQUET, Melun Diptych. Étienne Chevalier and Saint Stephen, (left wing), ca. 1450. Oil on wood, 3’ 1/2” x 2’ 9 1/2”. Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin. Virgin and Child, right wing of Melun Diptych, ca. 1451. Oil on wood, 3’ 1 1/4” x 2’ 9 1/2”. Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp, Belgium.
This was made for private devotional use as well and was painted for the treasurer of France, Étienne Chevalier; his portrait is painted with his patron saint, Stephen; Stephen holds his object of martyrdom, a stone (he was stoned to death); the painting of the Virgin on the right side is actually a portrait of Charles VII’s mistress; highly idealized image of courtly beauty as she is presented as an earthly queen complete with the royal ermine cape (white fur with black spots). The breastfeeding Madonna was a popular trope in art by this time as Mary symbolizes being the mother and nurturer of all.
Figure 15-19 KONRAD WITZ, Miraculous Draught of Fish, from the Altarpiece of Saint Peter, from Chapel of Notre-Dame des Maccabées in the Cathedral of Saint Peter, Geneva, Switzerland, 1444. Oil on wood, approx. 4’ 3” x 5’ 1”. Musée d’art et d’histoire, Geneva.
Witz was known for his interest in water effects. The landscape’s prominence and is recognizable as Lake Geneva and surrounding areas. Witz uses a recognizable landscape, instead of the Sea of Galilee where this miracle took place, in order to humanize the subject and make it more relatable to viewers. This story is detailed in the Gospel book of Luke, chapter 5. Jesus’s disciples went out to fish and had no luck in catching any in their nets. Jesus shows up and tells them to cast their nets one more time. When they do, they catch so much fish that their boat nearly sinks. Jesus also walks on water at this point.
Figure 15-21 TILMAN RIEMENSCHNEIDER, The Assumption of the Virgin, center panel of the Creglingen Altarpiece, parish church, Creglingen, Germany, ca. 1495–1499. Carved lindenwood, 6’ 1″ wide.
This is an intricate carving of the assumption of the Virgin into heaven (when Mary goes to heaven when she dies). Here we can see elements of Gothic decoration on the canopy arches above. The figures move with fluidity; there is psychic strain on the faces of the figures and this heightens he spirituality of the figures.
Germans were well known for their wood carving.
Figure 15-22 MICHEL WOLGEMUT and Shop, Madeburga page from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493. Woodcut. Printed by Anton Koberger.
This is one of the first books printed from the printing press using moveable type. Please watch this brief History Channel video about the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg: http://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/videos/mankind-the-story-of-all-of-us-the-printing-press
The importance of Wolgemut as an artist rests, not only on his own individual works, but also on the fact that he was the head of a large workshop, in which many different branches of the fine arts were carried on by a great number of pupil-assistants, including Albrecht Dürer, who completed an apprenticeship with him between 1486-9.
The Nuremberg Chronicle is one of the best documented early printed books, being printed in 1493. As was common at the time, the book did not have a title page. Latin scholars refer to it as Liber Chronicarum (Book of Chronicles) as this phrase appears in the index introduction of the Latin edition. English speakers have long referred to it as the Nuremberg Chronicle after the city in which it was published. German speakers refer to it as Schedel’s World History in honor of its author.
An estimated 1400-1500 Latin and 700-1000 German copies were published. A document from 1509 records that 539 Latin versions and 60 German versions had not been sold. Approximately 400 Latin and 300 German copies survived into the twenty-first century.
The large workshop of Michael Wolgemut, then Nuremberg’s leading artist in various media, provided the unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations. Albrecht Dürer was an apprentice with Wolgemut from 1486-9, so may well have participated in designing some of the illustrations for the specialist craftsmen (called “formschneiders”) who cut the blocks, onto which the design had been drawn, or a drawing glued. Madeburga is a German town, but this illustration is probably more of generalization of what medieval towns looked like.
Woodcut: A wooden block on the surface of which those parts not intended to print are cut away to a slight depth, leaving the design raised. Also, the printed impression made with such block.
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Figure 15-23 MARTIN SCHONGAUER, Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons, ca. 1480–1490. Engraving, approx. 1’ 1″ x 11”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Rogers Fund, 1920).
An example of the kinds of fantastical images that German artists would incorporate into their works. Schongauer drew his inspiration for a lot of the monsters in this print from the fish markets. It is one of the artist’s earliest and most influential prints. For more information about Saint Anthony, click here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_the_Great
Engraving: The process of incising a design in hard material, often a metal plate (usually copper); also, the print or impression made from such a plate.
A thirteen-year old Michelangelo was so impressed by Schongauer’s work that he painted his own version of it around 1488. This is a real testament to printmaking’s ability to be widely circulated as the artist was from Germany and his print made it all the way to Florence, Italy.
What teenaged kid wouldn’t think Schongauer’s work was totally amazing?!
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Flanders and Holland: Flemish and Dutch artists painted pictures that illuminate the emerging forces of capitalism, technology, and middle class political democracy which revealed the modern sense of individualism Flemish and Dutch artists made portraits, still-lifes, landscapes and genre scenes (scenes of everyday life); these kinds of paintings were sold to individuals on an open market at shops, studios, and fairs Use of the microscope was pioneered by the Dutch – they were the best lens makers of Europe; this kind of minute observation led to the creation of the camera obscura
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Rubens was born in Antwerp in 1577 to Protestant parents, but his father fled to Germany from Spanish persecution (Flanders was controlled by Catholic Spain). When his father died, Rubens was 10, he was raised as a devout Catholic in Flanders. He was trained by local painters, became a master in 1598, then moved to Italy in 1600 where he spent 8 years. He went back to Antwerp and became a Spanish court painter. This commission was his first major altarpiece done after his return from Italy: done in a traditionally Flemish manner paying close attention to natural landscape elements while his figures are muscular and dynamic, something he picked up from Italy. There is a pyramidal structure which draws the viewer into the action.
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Rubens was a favorite among aristocrats, especially Marie de’Medici. She was a widow of Henry IV (and a member of the famous Florentine family), she commissioned Rubens to paint 21 paintings glorifying her career. This shows her arriving from a sea voyage from Italy, she is welcomed by her ladies in waiting and allegorical (an allegory is the physical embodiment of an idea or an ideal) figures including the personification of France and the sky and sea rejoice at her arrival. Please note how the mythological female sea creatures at the bottom of the painting are full figured. They look very different than the elite women pictured above. Rubens used the idealized form for a woman meant to symbolize fertility and fecundity.
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An important pioneer in the field of still-life painting, Clara Peeters is the only Flemish woman known to have specialized in such pictures as early as the first decade of the 17th century. While definite details concerning her life are scarce, records indicate that Peeters was baptized in Antwerp in 1594 and married there in 1639. There is no indication that Peeters ever joined the Antwerp painters’ guild, but the records for many relevant years are missing. Peeters’s earliest dated oil paintings, from 1607 and 1608, are small-scale, detailed images representing food and beverages. The skill with which this 17-year-old artist executed such pictures indicates that she must have been trained by a master painter. Although there is no documentary evidence of her artistic education, scholars believe that Peeters was a student of Osias Beert, a noted still-life painter from Antwerp. By 1612 the 18-year-old artist was producing large numbers of painstakingly rendered still lifes, typically displaying a group of valuable objects (elaborately decorated metal goblets, gold coins, exotic flowers) on a narrow ledge, as seen from a low vantage point, against a dark background.
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Although the artist was tremendously affected by Caravaggio’s painting of the same scene, he gets rid of the tenebrism of Caravaggio and instead uses a palette of soft colors and works much more with light. He also crams his figures into a much smaller space which gives the painting an immediacy to it. Because Caravaggio is known for that kind of immediacy, I usually say that Brugghen out-Caravaggios Caravaggio.
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Honthorst set a precedent for similar scenes done in the 1620s in Utrecht where artists favored the erotic and ascetic side of Baroque art. The artist used multiple hidden light sources to heighten the dramatic contrast of lights and darks. The large dark figure in the foreground makes the other characters behind him recede into space creating depth. This is a scene of upper class individuals. It’s not their clothing, jewelry, instruments, or table full of food that tells us this, but, rather, we know this because oil lamps and candles were expensive. Most people went to bed at sundown, but these people are up late eating and laughing the night away.
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As a leading painter in Haarlem, portraits were his specialty. Hals excelled at group portraits especially. These men were a group of Dutch civic militia groups who claimed credit for liberating the Dutch Republic from Spain. Here they have met for a feast celebrating their patron saint, Hadrian. Since most of these feast could last for days to a week, Hals was able to portray everyone in a variety of manners and poses which makes the painting much more naturalistic and less rigid. Hals was a fan of the looser brushstroke which enlivens the surface of the painting. You may recall that Diego Velázquez also used looser brushwork in Las Meniñas . Some people liked this technique, while others thought it was sloppy.
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My favorite portrait by Hals, but not found in your book. His single portraits gave an individuality to the sitter. Malle Babbe was supposedly half witch (aka healer/, half village idiot, Hals captures the essence of this figure as she yells and laughs at other guests in a tavern. She’s drinking that stein of ale in her hand, not serving it! What I love so much about this portrait is that she would never be able to afford a portrait painted by the esteemed artist. Hals saw something in her that was interesting and decided to paint her. The looseness of the brushwork is genius. You really get a sense of her personality.
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These women are widows (you can tell by the black dresses they wear) who supervise a charitable organization, a home for the aged – they also were supervisors for orphanages, hospitals, and prisons. They are characterized as being stern, composed, and puritanical, living out their lives in the service of the less fortunate. They took their jobs very seriously. These well-educated women were often found populating the work force, but often they dedicated their time to being regents when their finances afforded them to do that. Even though this is a group portrait, you get a sense of their individual personalities. Hals focuses on their faces and hands. Their body language tells us a lot about what kinds of roles they might play in the old men’s home.
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Leyster was a follower of Hals; we can see this in the way she uses a loose brushstroke throughout the painting. Her career was partially cut short because of motherhood as women often couldn’t sustain a career as an artist and be a wife and mother. Like Artemesia Gentileschi, Leyster portrays herself first and foremost as an artist, but unlike Gentileschi’s self-portrait, the artist pauses a moment to look at us while she is painting someone else’s portrait. If you haven’t noticed already, almost all of the self-portraits done by women artists are of them at work. This was so that male artists and patrons would take them seriously. Leyster ran a studio where she taught students. Frans Hals stole one of her students and Leyster sued him for lost income and won. This demonstrates the competitive nature of artists striving to make a living in a Protestant nation. There are no more church patrons since the Protestants believed images were idolatrous. Private patronage or selling works in the open market was how artists made money. Many of them, like Leyster and Hals, also taught to make money, not much different than today.
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This is another work to see Leyster’s skill as a genre painter. The light is really quite stunning and is similar to that of Velázquez and to the next artist, Jan Vermeer.
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A landscape of his native town, Vermeer’s work fuses the objective perspective of the lens (a camera obscura* ) with the creative perspective of the human eye. He only painted 2 or 3 paintings a year and wasn’t interested in selling his work. By the early 1660s he focused on two enduring and personal themes: the portrayal of light and of women in meditatively quiet interiors. Vermeer was Catholic and lived with his wife and many children in a Catholic neighborhood in Delft. Holland was quite religiously tolerant. Because Vermeer painted maybe 40-45 works of art in his entire career, he was forgotten until rediscovered in the 19th century. *The camera obscura aided artists by projecting images through a hole onto a glass plate; the kind used by the 17th century Dutch used a mirror to re-invert the image to the right side up, like a camera without film; it performs two important skills: 1) it reduced the size of an image to a convenient scale and 2) it framed a two-dimensional image on the glass viewing plate making it easy for the artist to study or trace images
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Because Vermeer was Catholic, he often added symbolic references in his work, including the painting of the Last Judgment behind the woman. It’s a painting he painted and used as a prop. The woman seems to be doing an ordinary task, figuring out the value of her jewels. Notice, though, that the balance (or scales) she holds can be symbolic of the scales found in the Last Judgment scene, weight the souls of the saved and the damned. She may be pondering more than just the value of her worldly goods. Vermeer was not highly regarded in his time because the emotion in his works was buried too deeply; it was not surface enough for the Baroque public. Indeed it is very different than the work of Rembrandt or Caravaggio.
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Most likely Vermeer’s daughter, this painting has been the centerpiece for a popular work of fiction that was made into the film of the same name starring Scarlett Johanssen. Optional – please watch the making of The Girl with the Pearl Earring : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OTw_0uuvens
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Rembrandt is generally regarded as one of the greatest painters and printmakers in history (6000 paintings, 300 etchings and 2000 drawings). He had early success, a bumpy mid-life and poor later life. This is Rembrandt’s first group portrait. It is of the physician Nicolaes Tulp and seven surgeons. It is one of a series of group portraits that were made for the board room of the Guild of Surgeons. Dr. Tulp demonstrates how the muscles of the arm are attached. The bodies used for these public autopsies were criminals. The names of the men portrayed in the picture are listed on the piece of paper held by the man in the back. What is remarkable about this painting is the way Rembrandt uses light. The light on the cadaver is odd since we can’t really tell where it’s coming from, it almost seems to be coming from the body itself. Perhaps this is representing the idea of the light of science. During Leonardo’s time, these kind of scientific inquiries were illegal. Now, in the 17th century in a Protestant country, these kinds of activities were a part of everyday society.
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One of his most famous works, it is an untraditional group portrait in which each member of this military group paid to have his portrait painted. Rembrandt plays with chiaroscuro and movement, thus obscuring some of the “sitters” faces. However, the work was not originally this dark, the varnish that Rembrandt used has darkened over time, thus the nickname “the Night Watch” was given to the painting. Please watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/holland/v/rembrandt-nightwatch And for fun: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1ys2UCROU0
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Rembrandt made a very steady income in selling prints. This was such a popular work that Rembrandt had to pay 100 guilders (150 gold pieces) for a copy of his own print. It is a depiction of the Gospel Matthew chapter 19. Christ is preaching to the blind, lame, and young. Peter tries to stop a few women who want to have their children blessed but Jesus gestures that they should come closer: “Suffer the little children, and forbid them not, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” while Jewish Pharisees (symbolizing “the law”, while Jesus symbolizes “the spirit”) on the left are discussing issues among themselves, trying to “trip” Jesus’s theology up. It is dramatically lit and reverent. The young man sitting next to Peter has just been told that unless he gives up his worldly riches to the poor, he will not get into heaven: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of the needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” Quick side note: “the eye of the needle” does not refer to the eye in a sewing needle, but instead refers to the entry gate into a walled city. All cities had fortified walls for protection and the entry gates were nicknamed “the eye of the needle.” If you had a camel with too much stuff on its back, it couldn’t pass through the eye of the needle or the entry gate. Notice the camel in the right part of the print. This entire work is of a Protestant message that it is not through obedience to the law or good works, but by faith that one shall be saved.
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This is the image for SmartHistory HW #7.
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Claesz produced many still life images. They distilled a richness and mystery that captured the light of everyday objects. This also shows the passing of time that became to be known as vanitas : reminders of the transience of temporal or mortal life. It is often symbolized by watches, half eaten food, dying plants, burned down candles, half-empty glasses, skulls, etc.
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Floral painting was a very popular form of still-life art. Ruysch was leading practitioner of this genre. She gained knowledge of flowers and insects from her father who was a professor of botany and anatomy. Her flowers are positioned in a way that they create a diagonal from bottom left to upper right, opposite of the diagonal of the table they rest upon. Ruysch was supported by her parents to pursue a career as an artist. Compositions such as these were completely made up from her imagination as these flowers all bloomed at different times of year. Notice how they are in different stages of bloom and decay. She places bees, butterflies, and shells in the composition to illustrate the passage of time.
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There was a renewed interest in the classical especially after 1640. Poussin was the greatest French painter in the 17th century and the earliest French painter to receive international fame, although he spent most of his career in Rome. He is a precursor to Neo-Classicism of the 18th century, painting in what is called the “Grand Manner.” Figures are derived from Hellenistic sculpture (in the sense of movement especially). Poussin believed in idealizing nature to make it perfect. This image depicts three shepherds and a monumental, statue-like woman grouped around a large stone tomb. The idyllic natural setting, the antique robes and sandals of the figures, and, of course, the painting’s title all situate this in the mythical realm of Arcadia. Arcadia was a real region in Greece: isolated, surrounded by mountains, and sparsely populated by shepherds, already in antiquity the region was romanticized as a kind of terrestrial paradise, a place of unspoiled nature whose inhabitants still lived in the blissful harmony (and ignorance) of the Golden Age. The myth of Arcadia has inspired poets and artists alike through the millennia, notably the Roman poet Virgil, whose Eclogues (a series of poems which take place in Arcadia) were one of the major inspirations for this painting. In the midst of this paradise, however, these shepherds look somewhat concerned. What is it that they are examining with such perplexed intensity? A tomb, with the phrase Et in Arcadia Ego inscribed in the center. This Latin phrase roughly translates into English as “Even in Arcadia I exist,” referring to the contents of the tomb: death. These shepherds are thus discovering their own mortality. Poussin’s painting can be qualified as a memento mori , or reminder of death. The subject of The Arcadian Shepherds as such was rare and esoteric, but at least one important painting preceded Poussin’s masterpiece. These shepherds are no longer happily frolicking in their Golden Age of bliss, but instead gaze at the tomb, broken-hearted, the knowledge of their mortality weighing heavily upon their shoulders.
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There are no morals or dramatic stories to be told here like in Poussin’s work. His painting seems to have been done just to celebrate landscape as it is. Lorrain loved hazy atmosphere and soft and glowing scenes. It is an ideal world where the figures on the right chat away in an animated fashion, the cattle on the left rest or lazily munch grass. The artist studied the changing qualities of light and its affect on atmosphere and landscape.
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Callot was one of the first artists to practice the graphic arts (printmaking) exclusively. His innovative series of prints documenting the horrors of war greatly influenced the socially conscious artist of the 19th and 20th centuries. This print depicts that under King Louis XIII, the Dukedom of Lorraine was invaded and its capital, Nancy was attacked. This was part of the process of securing an absolute monarchy by the King of France, a consolidation of power continued by Louis XIV. The countryside was overrun, pillaged and burned by marauding French soldiers and this work shows the fate of some of those who had tried to defend their land. The inscription beneath it reads: “finally these infamous and abandoned thieves hanging from this tree like wretched fruit show that crime (horrible and black species) is itself the instrument of shame and vengeance and that is the fate of corrupt men to experience the justice of heaven sooner or later.” Callot is commenting on the effects of the invasion and the violence; the soldiers are depicted as either ruthless perpetrators, or themselves victims.
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La Tour’s early training is still a matter for speculation, but in the province of Lorraine he encountered the artist Jean Le Clerc, a follower of the Italian painter Caravaggio. From this source likely came La Tour’s concern with simplicity, realism, and essential detail. La Tour followed in the footsteps of Caravaggio in his lighting, but chooses much quieter, contemplative scenes. Notice like Gerrit Van Honthorst, he uses a hidden light source to add drama. It is intimate and quiet, a moment for the viewer to also adore the newborn Christ.
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Date to remember : Royal Academy in France was founded in 1648. Charles Lebrun, the court painter (Louis XIV’s artistic supervisor) became the director in 1663: he established a rigid curriculum of instruction in practice and theory, based on a system of rules; this set the pattern for all later academies, including today’s art schools. This is a very suitable portrait of the 63-year-old “Sun King” (called this for parallels between him and the Greek god, Apollo). Louis XIV had the longest reign in European history and still holds that record today. Everything about this portrait exudes class and what it means to be royal. Louis is showing off his legs as he felt it was his best feature – he was a ballet dancer as well. Louis XIV was a very eccentric man. He wears the ermine fur cape complete with the symbol of the French aristocracy, the fleur-de-lis, holds a scepter in his hand, crown on the footstool (let’s face it, who would want to give that perfectly coiffed wig hat hair?!), and sword at his side (even though he’d never see battle). The curtain is drawn back to reveal the grand hall beyond. This is definitely my favorite portrait of a monarch.
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About 20 miles from Paris, this is the palace of Louis XIV. Louis was more interested in how the interior would suit his elaborate tastes than how the palace looked from the outside (see next slide). He turned to Lebrun, a painter who became supervisor of all the king’s artistic projects. It was started by Louis Le Vau, but he died within the first year of building, then the project fell under Jules Hardouin-Mansart’s direction. Versailles has the largest formal gardens ever created.
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This illustrates the extravagance of Louis XIV’s style, taste, and wealth. There are 357 mirrors total. This hall faces the gardens so all the natural light bounces off the Venetian mirrors on the other side. On one side of the hallway there is a salon (a sitting or living room) of war, the other side, a salon of peace. The gilding, parquet floors, crystal, painting, marble – all so extravagant! The upkeep and maintenance has been estimated to have cost 6-25% of the total income of France (the GDP [gross domestic product]). The palace itself is worth as little as $2 billion in today’s dollars, possibly $13 billion dollars in today’s money (depends on a discrepancy in the money used during the 17th century). Is there any question as to why the French revolted against the aristocracy?
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Versailles wasn’t the only architectural project being constructed during Louis XIV’s reign. This church is attached to the veteran’s hospital Louis XIV built for the disabled soldiers of his many wars. The exterior of the church is idealized to give significance to the dome. The façade is low and narrow in relation to the vast drum and dome. The overpowering dome is itself expressive of the Italian Baroque love of dramatic magnitude.
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Wren was a Renaissance man of the Baroque/Rococo period as he studied anatomy, physics, mathematics, and astronomy; he was highly regarded by Isaac Newton. There was a great fire in 1666 in London that destroyed the Gothic St. Paul’s and Wren was appointed to the royal commission for rebuilding the city. Up until this point, England had not participated in the architectural styles popular during the Renaissance and the Baroque, instead sticking with a native Tudor style. There are many classical elements, influence of St. Peter’s in Rome (dome, esp.) and the two clock towers really contain Baroque elements in their shape and decoration.
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Northern Europe 1600-1700
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Figure 20-2 PETER PAUL RUBENS, Elevation of the Cross, Antwerp Cathedral, Antwerp, Belgium, 1610. Oil on panel, 15’ 1 7/8” x 11’ 1 1/2” (center panel), 15′ 1 7/8″ x 4′ 11″ (each wing).
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‹#› Figure 20-4 PETER PAUL RUBENS, Arrival of Marie de’ Medici at Marseilles, 1622–1625. Oil on canvas, approx. 5’ 1” x 3’ 9 1/2”. Louvre, Paris.
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Figure 20-6 CLARA PEETERS. Still Life with Flowers, Goblet, Dried Fruit, and Pretzels, 1611. Oil on panel, 1’ 7 3/4” x 2’ 1 1/4”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
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Figure 20-7 HENDRICK TER BRUGGHEN, Calling of Saint Matthew, 1621. Oil on canvas, 3’ 4” x 4’ 6”. Centraal Museum, Utrecht (acquired with the aid of the Rembrandt Society).
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Figure 20-8 GERRIT VAN HONTHORST, Supper Party, 1620. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ x 4’ 8”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
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Figure 20-10 FRANS HALS, Archers of Saint Hadrian, ca. 1633. Oil on canvas, approx. 6’ 9” x 11’. Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem.
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‹#› FRANS HALS, Malle Babbe, ca. 1650
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Figure 20-9 FRANS HALS, The Women Regents of the Old Men’s Home at Haarlem, 1664. Oil on canvas, 5’ 7” x 8’ 2”. Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem.
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Figure 20-11 JUDITH LEYSTER, Self-Portrait, ca. 1630. Oil on canvas, 2’ 5 3/8” x 2’ 1 5/8”. National Gallery of Art, Washington.
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‹#› JUDITH LEYSTER, Boy Playing a Flute, 1630-35
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Figure 20-18B JAN VERMEER, View of Delft, ca.1661
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Camera obscura : Latin, “dark room”. An ancestor of the modern camera in which a tiny pinhole, acting as a lens, projects an image on a screen, the wall of a room, or the ground-glass wall of a box.
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‹#› Figure 20-19 JAN VERMEER, Woman Holding a Balance, ca.1664. Oil on canvas, 1’ 3 5/8” x 1’ 2”. National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
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JAN VERMEER, Girl with the Pearl Earring, ca. 1665
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Figure 20-12 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, 1632. Oil on canvas, 5’ 3 3/4” x 7’ 1 1/4”. Mauritshuis, The Hague.
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Figure 20-13 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (Night Watch), 1642. Oil on canvas, 11’ 11” x 14’ 4”. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
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Figure 20-16 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, Christ with the Sick around Him, Receiving the Children (Hundred Guilder Print), ca. 1649. Etching, approx. 11” x 1’ 3 1/4”. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.
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Etching : A kind of engraving in which the design is incised in a layer of wax or varnish on a metal plate. The parts of the plate left exposed are then etched (slightly eaten away) by the acid in which the plate is immersed after incising.
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‹#› Figure 20-15 REMBRANDT VAN RIJN, Self-Portrait, ca. 1659–1660. Oil on canvas, approx. 3’ 8 3/4” x 3’ 1”. The Iveagh Bequest, Kenwood House, London.
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Figure 20-21 PIETER CLAESZ, Vanitas Still Life, 1630s. Oil on panel, 1’ 2” x 1’ 11 1/2”. Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg.
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Vanitas : Latin, “vanity”. A term describing paintings (particularly 17th century Dutch still lifes) that include a reference to death.
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‹#› Figure 20-23 RACHEL RUYSCH, Flower Still Life, after 1700. Oil on canvas, 2’ 6” x 2’. The Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio.
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Figure 20-31 NICOLAS POUSSIN, Et in Arcadia Ego, ca. 1655. Oil on canvas, approx. 2’ 10” x 4’. Louvre, Paris.
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Figure 20-33 CLAUDE LORRAIN, Landscape with Cattle and Peasants, 1629. Oil on canvas, 3’ 6” x 4’ 10 1/2”. Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia.
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Figure 20-35 JACQUES CALLOT, Hanging Tree, from the Large Miseries of War series, 1633. Etching, 3 3/4” x 7 1/4”. Bibiliothèque Nationale, Paris.
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Figure 20-36 GEORGES DE LA TOUR, Adoration of the Shepherds, 1645-1650. Oil on canvas, 3’6” x 4’ 6”. Louvre, Paris.
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‹#› Figure 20-24 HYACINTHE RIGAUD, Louis XIV, 1701. Oil on canvas, approx. 9’ 2” x 6’ 3”. Louvre, Paris.
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Figure 20-26 Aerial view of palace and gardens, Versailles, France, begun 1669.
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Figure 20-27 JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART and CHARLES LE BRUN, Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, ca. 1680.
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‹#› Figure 20-30 JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART, Église de Dôme, Church of the Invalides, Paris, France, 1676–1706.
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Figure 20-38 SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN, Saint Paul’s Cathedral, London, England, 1675–1710.
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Florence and Venice were two principle cities during the beginning, but Rome became especially prominent during the Hi g h Renaissance largely due to Michelangelo Florence was a city that was ruled by rich merchants, primarily the Medici family; they were responsible for commissioning large amounts of artwork and architecture Artists during the early part of the Renaissance were part of guilds that competed against each other – as we will see, this changes significantly with how the artist views him/herself during the 16th century
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Donatello’s Saint Mark is a marble statue that stands in an exterior niche of the Or San Michele in Florence. Donatello was commissioned by the linen weaver’s guild to complete three pieces for the project. St. Mark was the first of his contributions. Today, a copy of the statue stands in the original’s place, while the real St. Mark is housed inside the church’s museum. The amount of detail in Donatello’s sculpture hints at his ingenious skill. The realism of the sculpture is such that it looks as though the statue itself could come alive and walk the streets of Florence. Even the veins of St. Mark’s left hand are visible as he rests a text upon his hip. The contrapposto pose, or natural pose, is used with Donatello’s St. Mark. The saint has weight on his right leg, his left knee is bent, and his torso is slightly twisted. The style is unique compared to the symmetry and unrealistic nature of art from the dark ages. Also Donatello’s sculpture differs from medieval works in the way that drapery is used, specifically in that St. Mark’s figure is revealed by a realistic draping of linen. Thought was put into the setting in which the statue would be placed, as was the case with other pieces at the time, most notably Michelangelo’s David. According to Vasari’s text The Lives of the Artists, written 140 years after the completion of St. Mark, the linen workers’ guild rejected the sculpture because it appeared unnatural when set at street level. This was due to proportion adjustments made for its final resting place in the niche, well above street level. The head and torso were made larger as they would be further away from the viewer. Donatello promised to make adjustments, so he covered the statue with cloth, set the statue in the niche above the street, and without touching the statue for 15 days, once again revealed it to the guild. With its location above the viewer, the proportions looked perfect and the linen weaver’s guild accepted the statue.
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The powerful expressivity of his art made him the greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance. Masterpieces from the first phases of his career include and his bronze relief of the Feast of Herod. Two of his characteristic formal contributions are encountered in the work for Siena. The relief is organized by a rigorous application of the rules of perspective that makes each figure emerge clearly and logically, even though the scene was modeled at a shallow depth; this is called flattened relief . This depicts the scene of John the Baptist’s head being presented to King Herod; it was requested by Salomé, the king’s stepdaughter who danced for him; she is depicted on the right hand side of the relief. What is most moving about Donatello’s work is that it is full of vitality and emotion. The king and his banqueters recoil in horror; it is an extremely detailed relief sculpture.
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Linear perspective introduced by Filippo Brunelleschi in 1425: His rules of this technique could reproduce the exact look of things to the eye It gave the illusion of three dimensional space on a two dimensional surface Linear perspective replaced the cosmic geometry of the Greeks and the sacred geometry of the Gothic period with an art whose basic realism was justified by human perception itself Perspective focused attention on the subjective individual while emphasizing the objective world of nature Perspective also increased interest in controlling the natural world by individuals as we will see in Leonardo’s work
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Please watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/beginners-renaissance-florence/v/linear-perspective-brunelleschi-s-experiement And watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/sculpture-architecture-florence/v/brunelleschi-dome-of-the-cathedral-of-florence-1420-36
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These images are for SmartHistory HW #3.
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Both Filippo Brunelleschi and Ghiberti competed for the commission of the baptistery doors, but Ghiberti won out; Ghiberti was widely recognized as a celebrity and the top artist in this field. He was showered with commissions, even from the Pope. In 1425 he got a second commission, this time for the East Doors of the baptistery, on which he and his workshop toiled for 27 years (1425-1452), excelling themselves. These had ten panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament, and were in turn installed on the east side. The panels are large rectangles and are no longer embedded in the traditional gothic quatrefoil, as in the previous doors. Ghiberti employed the recently discovered principles of perspective to give depth to his compositions. Each panel depicts more than one episode. The figures are distributed in very low relief in a perspectival space (a technique invented by Donatello and called flattened relief). Ghiberti uses different sculptural techniques, from incised lines to almost free-standing figure sculpture, within the panels, further accentuating the sense of space. The panels are included in a richly decorated gilt framework of foliage and fruit, many statuettes of prophets and 24 busts. The two central busts are portraits of the artist and of his father Bartolomeo Ghiberti. Michelangelo referred to these doors as fit to be the “Gates of Paradise”, and they are still invariably referred to by this name. Giorgio Vasari described them a century later as “undeniably perfect in every way and must rank as the finest masterpiece ever created”. Ghiberti himself said they were “the most singular work that I have ever made”. The “Gates of Paradise” now on the Baptistery are actually gilded bronze reproductions, placed there in 1990 after it was determined that the originals were deteriorating, and could only be saved if they were moved indoors. The originals are housed nearby in the Museo del Opera del Duomo, preserved in containers filled with nitrogen.
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Compare/contrast: Figure 14-20: The sponsors for this ambitious project was the guild of wool importers; they hired Andrea (unrelated to Nicola and Giovanni); each bronze panel was cast separately and 20 of them depict episodes from the life of St. John the Baptist, 8 depict personified Christian virtues; the quatrefoil frames are of the type used earlier for reliefs flanking Gothic cathedrals and suggests that French Gothic sculpture was one source of Andrea’s style; the proportions and flowing robes of the figures, and the general composition also suggest the influence of Giotto.
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Ghiberti uses the same kind of flattened relief as Donatello in this piece. This story of Isaac and his sons is told in continuous narrative. Isaac was Abraham’s son, Isaac marries Rebecca and they, too, have a difficult time conceiving and it isn’t until Rebecca is older that they have twin sons, Esau and Jacob. The main thrust of this story is that it was prophesied that Jacob , even though he was the second born of the twins, must be blessed as the eldest before Isaac died. Isaac sent Esau (the oldest) out to hunt for dinner. While Esau was hunting, Rebecca sent Jacob to kill a goat for dinner, to wear the goat skin on his own flesh so Isaac couldn’t tell it was Jacob (Isaac was quite blind by this time and could tell the difference between his sons by touching them – Esau was hairy while Jacob was smooth-skinned). Jacob fooled his father into blessing him, but Esau returned catching Jacob coming out of the tent. Isaac was shaken and Esau was furious, causing Jacob to have to run for his life. Jacob was God’s chosen one to continue the Abrahamic patriarchy.
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A painter and an engraver as well as a sculptor, he received a Medici commission in the 1470s for a small scale sculpture (18”). It is depicting the two men in violent action. It is the story of Hercules (son of Earth) and Antaeus (a giant) wrestling and it is in the point of the story where Hercules holds Antaeus aloft because every time Antaeus touched the ground, he would become invigorated for more battle. This also reflects the Medici preference for humanistic subject matter. Considering its size and subject matter, where do you think this was placed?
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Donatello received this commission from the Republic of Venice to honor Erasmo da Narni, an army official nicknamed Gattamelata (honeyed cat). This is the first time that a sculptor attempted to rival the grandeur of classical equestrian monuments. The sculpture is removed from its surroundings and is a stand alone sort of work. Donatello did not represent the commander as superhuman and over life-size. It is more about the psychology of who this commander was that gives him a commanding presence.
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This is a Roman example of an equestrian statue. There were very few of these left when Christianity became the state-sponsored religion. Early Christians melted down bronze sculptures as they reminded them of the pagan past. They would repurpose the bronze for things like coins, armor, and weapons. The revival of equestrian statues in the Renaissance is related to this tradition.
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Teacher of Leonardo da Vinci, a gifted painter and sculptor in his own right; crowning achievement in this work of a Venetian army commander; the horse is realistically rendered, Colleoni resembles forceful dominance.
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Inside the chapel there are two layers of frescoes commissioned in 1424 by Felice Brancacci, a wealthy Florentine merchant and statesman. The frescoes illustrate the life of St. Peter, who can be identified by his orange and blue robes.The frescoes were designed by Masolino da Panicale, who began painting them with his pupil Masaccio. This is the overview of the left wall of the chapel. The next slide is the panel at the top.
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Illustrates continuous narration of the story in the book of Matthew: Christ is instructing Peter to catch a fish whose mouth will contain the tribute money for the tax collector: he catches the fish on the left and on the right, he’s giving it to the tax collector; the figures have the same kind of weight and volume as Giotto’s figures, but the drapery functions with the body in a more natural way. Notice the tax collector has his back to us as if he’s part of our space. He also wears clothing that is contemporary to the 15th century. The Brancaccis chose this particular story to illustrate to others that they viewed paying taxes as part of one’s civic duty, for the greater good.
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This displays the human body in motion and the figures convey realistic emotion as Adam and Eve have been kicked out of the Garden of Eden. Notice which parts of their bodies they are covering. Think about how they are feeling.
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One of Andrea del Castagno’s most famous works is the Last Supper he painted below the stories from Christ’s Passion. Until quite recently the Last Supper appeared to be painted in much darker colors than the scenes directly above it; the fact had given rise to many animated debates between scholars concerning the dating of the fresco. But after the latest cleaning (1977-79) the color and tonal contrast between the two levels has disappeared, and the colors of the Last Supper have been restored to their original beauty. All scholars agree in praising the somber architectural structure of the room where the scene of the Last Supper is taking place: a room with the lavish colored marble panels functioning as a backdrop to the heavy and solemn scene of the banquet, very much related to a first century Roman home. Notice also the beauty of some of the minor details, such as the gold highlights in some of the characters’ hair or the haloes depicted in perfect perspective. The other extraordinary element of this fresco is the remarkable balance of gestures and expressions, particularly in the group of figures in the center of the composition, where the emotional swooning of St. John to the left of Jesus is contrasted to the tense, rigid figure of Judas sitting opposite.
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This is a devotional object made for the faithful to reflect upon and prayer; Fra (Italian for brother or monk) Filippo was a master with line; here we have an earthly mother of beauty with her child; this is a reflection of the fact that Fra Filippo used live models for his painting; the landscape in the background have recognizable features of the Arno River Valley. A great example of Early Renaissance humanism . Fra Filippo Lippi was the teacher of Sandro Botticelli, who will be discussed a little later in the lecture.
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Compare and contrast Lippi’s work on the left and Giotto’s work on the right. Notice how much the image of the Virgin Mary has changed since 1310. She is earthly and beautiful
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A theme we have seen before in the last century. Here we have a more rich interior, a palace interior with wood inlay and sculptures. There is a procession of women led by a Tornabuoni family member (one of the wealthiest Florentine families), probably Giovanni’s daughter, Ludovica; the composition is clear with firmly constructed figures; there is a rational order and logical relations among figures and objects.
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An overview of the Tournabouni family chapel in the Santa Maria Novella church in Florence.
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Compare Ghirlandaio’s work with Lorenzetti’s work from the 14th century. What kinds of things do you notice as being similar between the pieces. What are the differences?
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Sandro Botticelli was an Italian painter and draughtsman. During his lifetime he was one of the most acclaimed painters in Italy, being summoned to take part in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel in Rome and earning the patronage of the leading families of Florence, including the Medici. Botticelli chose to center such works on what the Medici family requested, especially the younger generation. This is the most famous work done by this artist. This work is inspired by a poem by Angelo Poliziano about the mythical birth of Venus. The west wind, Zephyrus blows Venus born of the sea foam and carried on a cockle shell to her sacred island of Cyprus. His figures lack three-dimensionality, they are quite flat as he makes use of outlining the figures. Despite its flatness, the nudes are rendered voluptuously.
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This is one of the most famous statues of the goddess of love (Aphrodite in Greek, Venus in Latin). Praxiteles created the first nude female sculpture of Aphrodite and it became a staple in smaller scale Roman garden statuary. Botticelli’s Venus is based on the Praxitelean model.
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An engraving designed to show the artist’s mastery of the nude figure in action. Pollaiuolo used this piece to secure more commissions from wealthy patrons. It’s what we consider a portfolio piece today.
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Probably not Brunelleschi’s original design for this central-plan (based on the square rather than the rectangular basilica plan) chapel, it was designed for Santa Croce Cathedral’s chapter house (meeting place for the monks). It is truly Renaissance in design with rounded arches and Corinthian capitals, complete with a dome.
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The square space of the main area is enlarged laterally so that it becomes a rectangle. The dome is placed above the central square, while the two short lateral arms are barrel vaulted. The white plaster wall surfaces, contrasted with gray sandstone structures, are emphasized to the maximum so that the chapel seems to irradiate light from within. There are three axes in the chapel. One is the center axis from the entrance of the portico to the altar, one is the center axis of the rectangular room and another is the vertical axis of the dome.
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After returning to Italy from being exiled, the Medici family attempted to maintain a lower profile and to wield power from behind the scenes. This building was not only a residence for the family, but the family also conducted its business from here. The heavy rustication (large rough stones) on the ground floor accentuates its strength. The architect uses long, unbroken stringcourses (horizontal bands) which give it coherence. Using dressed masonry and an even smoother surface on the top story make the building appear progressively lighter as the eye moves upward. However, the heavy cornice at the top reverses the lightness of the upper story, defining the building’s proportions.
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One of the first architects to understand Roman architecture in depth. Alberti wrote about his theories in 1450 and argues for a system of ideal proportions and that the central plan was the ideal form for a church. Here he used the Romanesque model in the incorporation of the triangular pediment at the top. The façade is almost a square which allowed Alberti to work within a system of ratios. He emphasized that harmony was essential to designing beautiful buildings.
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The height (to the tip of the pediment) equals the width so that the entire structure could fit into a square; the rest are just a system of ratios 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3 and so on. Mathematics and reason within the humanist philosophy became itself a kind of religion for architects like Alberti and Brunelleschi.
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Nave of Santa Maria Novella. Notice how the patterned stone continues in the interior of the church.
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Watch this SmartHistory video for more: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/giovanni-bellini-saint-francis-in-the-desert-circa-1480
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Look how far we’ve come from the first Bonaventura St. Francis painting we saw!
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This was commissioned by the Pope in Rome for the Sistine Chapel. The supreme authority of the Roman Catholic Church was based on this theme as Jesus hands the keys of heaven to St. Peter. This symbolizes there was no other way to heaven except through the Catholic Church. Here Perugino places his figures of apostles and contemporary Renaissance people in a great piazza. The arches in the background are reminiscent of the Arch of Constantine – this is to tie Constantine with Peter who had the first church built over Saint Peter’s tomb.
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This features a triumphal arch at the center of the façade. More reminiscent of a Roman temple than a church: the triangular pediment, the height of the façade is equal to the width (although you can see that the nave wall is higher than the pediment), and it has three stories reflecting the colossal order (where the pilasters [flat pillars] rise more than one story).
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Watch the SmartHistory video here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/andrea-mantegna-camera-degli-sposi-frescos-in-the-ducal-palace-mantua-1465-74
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Watch the SmartHistory video here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/mantegna-dead-christ-c-1490
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Renaissance Florence
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Figure 16-5 DONATELLO, Saint Mark, Or San Michele, Florence, Italy, 1411–1413. Marble, approx. 7’ 9” high. Modern copy in exterior niche. Original sculpture in museum on second floor of Or San Michele.
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Contrapposto : The disposition of the human figure in which one part is turned in opposition to another part (usually hips and legs one way, shoulders and chest another), creating a counterpositioning of the body. Sometimes called “weight shift” because the weight of the body tends to be thrown to one foot, creating tension on one side and relaxation on the other.
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Figure 16-8 DONATELLO, Feast of Herod, from the baptismal font of Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italy, ca. 1425. Gilded bronze relief, approx. 1’ 11” x 1’ 11”.
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Linear Perspective : A method of presenting an illusion of the three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional surface. All parallel lines or surface edges converge on one, two, or three vanishing points located with reference to the eye level of the viewer (the horizon line of the picture), and associated objects are rendered smaller the farther from the viewer they are intended to seem.
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Figure 16-2 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401-1402 Figure 16-3 LORENZO GHIBERTI, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401-1402
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‹#› Figure 16-10 LORENZO GHIBERTI, east doors (“Gates of Paradise”), baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1425–1452. Gilded bronze relief, approx. 17’ high. Modern copy, ca. 1980. Original panels in Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence.
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Figure 14-20 ANDREA PISANO, south doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, Italy, 1330-1336. Figure 16-10 LORENZO GHIBERTI, east doors (“Gates of Paradise”), baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1425–1452.
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Figure 16-9 LORENZO GHIBERTI, Isaac and His Sons (detail of FIG. 16-4), east doors, baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1425–1452. Gilded bronze relief, approx. 2’ 7 1/2” x 2’ 7 1/2”. Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence.
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Figure 16-13 ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO, Hercules and Antaeus, ca. 1475. Bronze, approx. 1′ 6” high with base. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence.
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‹#› Figure 16-15 DONATELLO, Gattamelata (equestrian statue of Erasmo da Narni), Piazza del Santo, Padua, Italy, ca. 1445–1450. Bronze, approx. 11’ x 13’.
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‹#› Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, approx. 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome.
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‹#› Figure 16-16 ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO, Bartolommeo Colleoni (equestrian statue), Campo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, Italy, ca. 1483–1488. Bronze, approx. 13’ high.
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MASACCIO, Brancacci Chapel (overview for placement purposes), Florence, c. 1427
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Figure 16-18 MASACCIO, Tribute Money, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca. 1427. Fresco, 8’ 1” x 19’ 7”.
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Figure 16-19 MASACCIO, Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca. 1425. Fresco, 7’ x 2’ 11”.
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Figure 16-22 ANDREA DEL CASTAGNO, Last Supper, the Refectory, monastery of Sant’Apollonia, Florence, Italy, 1447. Fresco, approx. 15’ x 32’.
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‹#› Figure 16-24 FRA FILIPPO LIPPI, Madonna and Child with Angels, ca. 1455. Tempera on wood, approx. 3’ x 2’ 1”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
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Figure 16-26 DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO, Birth of the Virgin, Cappella Maggiore, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, 1485–1490. Fresco.
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Figure 16-1 SANDRO BOTTICELLI, Birth of Venus, ca. 1482. Tempera on canvas, approx. 5’ 8” x 9’ 1”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
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Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos, ca. 350-340 BCE
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Figure 16-29 ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO, Battle of the Ten Nudes, ca. 1465. Engraving, approx. 1 3” x 1’ 11”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (bequest of Joseph Pulitzer, 1917).
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‹#› Figure 16-32 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, facade of the Pazzi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, begun ca. 1440.
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‹#› Figure 16-34 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, interior of the Pazzi Chapel (view facing northeast), Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, begun ca. 1440.
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Figure 16-35 MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO, Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, Florence, Italy, begun 1445.
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‹#› Figure 16-36A LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca. 1458–1470.
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LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, diagrams of west facade, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy.
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16-40 GIOVANNI BELLINI, St. Francis in the Desert, ca. 1477-1479. Oil and tempera on wood, 4’1” x 4’ 7 7/8”. Frick Collection, New York (Henry Clay Frick Bequest).
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Figure 16-41 PERUGINO, Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to Saint Peter, Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome, Italy, 1481–1483. Fresco, 11’ 5 1/2” x 18’ 8 1/2”.
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‹#› Figure 16-45 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of Sant’Andrea, Mantua, Italy, designed ca. 1470.
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‹#› Figure 16-49 ANDREA MANTEGNA, ceiling of the Camera Picta (Painted Chamber), Palazzo Ducale,Mantua, Italy, 1474. Fresco, 8’ 9” in diameter.
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Figure 16-50 ANDREA MANTEGNA, Foreshortened Christ (Lamentation over the Dead Christ), ca. 1500. Tempera on canvas, 2’ 2 3/4” x 2’ 7 7/8”. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.
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The Baroque was as used as a derogatory term meaning ornate, extravagant, grandiose, but since has been used in a positive way – it accepts the dramatic exploration of light ( chiaroscuro : extreme light and dark), space, composition and human emotion Humans stayed at the center of 17th and 18th century art; artists created a new sense of artistic space – they made perspective move and take on a dynamic new relationship with the viewer Europe became more divided; the dream of uniting Europe as a single Christian power gave way to the realities of fragmented and separate secular governments Catholic Counter-Reformation was still a prominent part of Christian lives; the belief that imagery was very important in making a connection between God and the believer Scientific boundaries were being crossed and new horizons discovered: Galileo drew a perspective pen and ink drawing of the moon as seen through a telescope in 1610
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Because of earlier architectural success, Maderno was named architect of Saint Peter’s Basilica in 1605 by Pope Paul V, where he completed the nave and constructed the great façade. Maderno began his work on the unfinished façade of St. Peter’s in 1606 as well as the nave extension. The façade is often cited as the least satisfactory part of the design of St. Peter’s. The reasons for this, are that it was not given enough consideration by the Pope and committee because of the desire to get the building completed quickly, coupled with the fact that Maderno was hesitant to deviate from the pattern set by Michelangelo at the other end of the building. Some scholars think the façade as being too broad for its height, too cramped in its details, and too heavy in the attic story. The breadth is caused by modifying the plan to have towers on either side. These towers were never executed above the line of the facade because it was discovered that the ground was not sufficiently stable to bear the weight. One effect of the façade and lengthened nave is to screen the view of the dome, so that the building, from the front, has no vertical feature, except from a distance.
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In this plan, we can see that Maderno has a different idea for the church, rejecting the central plan that was part of Bramante and Michelangelo’s plans. 17th century clergy rejected the central plan as it reminded them of pagan temples such as the Pantheon. Three nave bays were added to elongate the church as well as separate the laity from the clergy in a more symbolic way. Unfortunately, this longer nave makes Michelangelo’s dome almost disappear from close up.
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Bernini designed the wings of the colonnade (a covered walkway supported by columns) to converge toward the viewer, making the front of the church appear closer to the approaching individual. It is often referred to during the Catholic Counter-Reformation as the welcoming arms of the church. The piazza itself contained a couple of structures that Bernini had to incorporate: the obelisk and a fountain designed by Maderno, so instead of a square or circle, the piazza is an oval.
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Bernini was 22 years old when he began this papal commission (Pope Urban VIII, Maffeo Barberini). Bronze was pilfered from the Pantheon and the Barberini family symbols (bees, sun, and laurel) are decorative elements over the columns. This structure sits over the high altar which sits over the tomb of St. Peter.
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Some photos from St. Peter’s. Top left moving clockwise: The front of the church looking up towards the balcony the Pope comes out to greet people in St. Peter’s piazza. This photo is to give you a sense of scale of the church. It is truly enormous! Looking up into an aisle dome. Looking up into Michelangelo’s dome. A close up photo of the top of the baldacchino.
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Bernini depicts movement in a way not previously attempted in stone. The biblical youth is taut and poised to rocket his projectile. The famous Davids sculpted by Bernini’s Florentine predecessors had portrayed the static moment before and after the event. Michelangelo portrayed David prior to his battle with Goliath, to intimate the psychological fortitude necessary for attempting such a gargantuan task. The contemplative intensity of Michelangelo’s “David” or the haughty effeteness of Donatello’s and Verrocchio’s Davids are all, nonetheless, portraying moments of stasis. The twisted torso, furrowed forehead, and granite grimace of Bernini’s David epitomize Baroque fixation with dynamic movement and emotion over High Renaissance stasis and classical severity. Michelangelo expressed David’s psychological fortitude, preparing for battle; Bernini captures the moment when he becomes a hero.
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Differing views of Bernini’s David .
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Detailed views
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This sculpture is inspired by a tale from book I of Ovid’s Metamorphosis, which recounts how one day Apollo (God of Light and Poetry) teased an arrow-wielding Cupid, calling him too young a boy to be fit to handle such dangerous weapons. Out of spite, Cupid then pricked him with one of his amour-inducing arrows, causing the god to fall madly in love with the passing-by river nymph Daphne. However, Daphne was devoted to the goddess Diana, and had resolved never to marry and to remain a virgin for her entire life. When Apollo pursued her, driven by his lust, she ran away in panic, calling to her father the river God to help her. He heeded her prayer by transforming her into a laurel tree. Apollo declared that if she would never be his wife, she would at least be his tree, and it is for this reason that he imbued the tree with eternal youth and adopted the crown of laurel leaves, which subsequently became the symbol of Olympic victories and Roman emperors. Cardinal Scipione Borghese commissioned Apollo and Daphne from Bernini in 1622 to replace the Hades and Persephone that he had given to Cardinal Ludovisi. Although it has since been moved into the center of the room, originally the sculpture was located near the wall, such that the viewer would first approach it from behind. In order to instill the pagan-inspired artwork with a proper Christian morality, the base was engraved with a Latin couplet composed by Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (the soon-to-be Pope Urban VIII), reading: “Those who love to pursue fleeing forms of pleasure, In the end find only leaves and bitter berries in their hands.”
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Details of Apollo and Daphne from the Borghese Gallery in Rome. Bernini was a master of carving in marble. If you look at the upper left photo, you can see how the light of the gallery comes through the marble itself! Bernini was able transform a material that is solid into something ethereal and able to transform light. Students ask me all the time about who my favorite artists are and Bernini is definitely one of them. His work is just spectacular.
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This is not in your textbook, but I wanted to further demonstrate Bernini’s genius as a sculptor. In Greek mythology, Persephone (also known as Proserpina) was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter (goddess of agriculture) and was queen of the Underworld. One day while the young maiden was picking flowers, Hades, god of the underworld, kidnapped Persephone and carried her back to the underworld to be his wife. Demeter begged Zeus to command the release of her daughter, and Persephone was told that she would be released from the underworld, as long as she didn’t consume any food while she was there. But when she thought no one was looking, Persephone went into the garden and ate six pomegranate seeds. She was thus doomed to spend six months of the year with Hades, while for the other six months she could return to Earth to see her mother. The myth holds that the months Persephone spends in the underworld leave the earth cold, dark, and wintry, but when she returns, spring and summer accompany her. Cardinal Scipione Borghese commissioned Hades and Persephone from the 23-year-old Bernini in 1621, giving it to Cardinal Ludovisi in 1622. In 1908, the Italian state purchased the work and relocated it to the Galleria Borghese. Bernini chooses to depict the most dramatic, “pregnant” moment in the story; the scene is filled with heart-rending emotion. Bernini is famous for portraying the most poignant moment in a story and for communicating that event in the most dramatic way possible, by means of exuberant movement, emotive facial expressions, and feats of technical mastery. In Hades and Persephone the figures twist and strain in opposing directions, testifying to a Mannerist influence; their tense struggle is imbued with an explosive dynamism.
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Details
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This is a man who turns stone into almost literal flesh. Just amazing.
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Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family. The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel. They are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies. As in an opera house, the Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint. The viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.
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The artist portrays the story of Theresa of Avila, one of the great saints of the Counter-Reformation who described how an angel pierced her heart with a flaming golden arrow: “The pain was so great that I screamed aloud; but at the same time I felt such infinite sweetness that I wished the pain to last forever. It was not physical but psychic pain, although it affected the body as well to some degree. It was the sweetest caressing of the soul by God.” Bernini makes this story come alive capturing the sensual and sensationalism of the saint’s story.
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This architect is quite the opposite from Bernini in that he disregards the classical tradition we see in St. Peter’s colonnade and piazza; in fact, Borromini was Bernini’s greatest rival in architecture. This was his first major project. The surfaces move in and out, they look elastic. This church established his local and international fame and was said that nothing similar was built like this church in all of Europe.
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The plan looks like a pinched oval, nothing like the traditional cross designs of most churches. The plan is like a cross between a Greek cross (central plan) and an oval. The walls undulate and columns project out into the space.
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An oval dome seems to float above the heads of parishioners below. It is a pristine looking church. It is small and incredibly intimate – my favorite church in Rome. Please watch this video for more information: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/baroque-italy/v/francesco-borromini-san-carlo-1638-1646
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Details, top left clockwise: another view into the dome the altar sculptural detail – very much related to the kinds of sculptural detail of ancient Roman architecture a view of the outside of the dome from the church’s courtyard
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Carracci was from Bologna and studied and emulated the Renaissance masters carefully. He creates an ideal landscape for this story by pictorially representing nature ordered by divine law and human reason. What’s more important here? Story or landscape? Where does this idea originate in Italy during the Renaissance? Roots for this kind of painting are Venetian Renaissance painting. Clear and clean and peaceful, the figures are a part of their landscape rather than separate and apart. This is one style of painting that was popular in Italy at this time.
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Caravaggio was the most famous of Italian Baroque artists during his lifetime – after his death, he was largely forgotten until the 20th century. He had a disdain for classical masters and was often referred to as the Antichrist of painting by some. Not only is his work realistic, but naturalistic as well especially in his dramatic use of chiaroscuro called tenebrism . Trained in Milan under a master who had himself trained under Titian, Caravaggio moved to Rome in his early 20s. Huge new churches and palazzi were being built in Rome in the decades of the late 16th and early 17th Centuries, and paintings were needed to fill them. The Counter-Reformation Church searched for authentic religious art with which to counter the threat of Protestantism, and for this task the artificial conventions of Mannerism, which had ruled art for almost a century, no longer seemed adequate. Caravaggio’s novelty was a radical naturalism, which combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, use of tenebrism , the shift from light to dark with little intermediate value. He burst upon the Rome art scene in 1600 with the success of his first public commissions. Thereafter he never lacked for commissions or patrons, yet he handled his success atrociously. An early published notice on him, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle three years previously, tells how “after a fortnight’s work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him.” In 1606 he killed a young man in a brawl and fled from Rome with a price on his head. In Malta in 1608 he was involved in another brawl, and yet another in Naples in 1609, possibly a deliberate attempt on his life by unidentified enemies. By the next year, after a relatively brief career, he was dead. This painting was done for a private family chapel. It is interesting because Christ is not the center of our attention, Matthew is. Matthew is the figure who is pointing at himself with the black hat. Caravaggio uses lighting to direct our attention to him as well as the sword at the side of the figure whose back is turned towards us. Jesus and St. Peter are on the right hand side of the painting, entering into the room. Look closely at Jesus’s hand: it is a direct copy of the hand of God in Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam . Matthew looks directly at Christ seemingly to ask, “Who? Me?” Matthew was named Levi at that point and was a tax collector. The other figures at the table are his colleagues and they are counting the money they have collected. They are all dressed in 17th century clothing, which is different from the Roman robes Jesus and Peter wear. Why would Caravaggio make that distinction? What purpose does that serve the viewer of the artwork?
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In 1600, soon after he had completed the first two canvases for the Contarelli Chapel, Caravaggio signed a contract to paint two pictures for the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo. The church has a special interest because of the works it contains by four of the finest artists ever to work in Rome: Raphael, Carracci, Caravaggio and Bernini. It is probable that by the time Caravaggio began to paint for one of its chapels, The Assumption by Annibale Carracci was in place above the altar. Caravaggio’s depictions of key events in the lives of the founders of the Roman See have little in common with the brilliant colors and stylized attitudes of Annibale, and Caravaggio seems by far the more modern artist. Of the two pictures in the chapel the more remarkable is the representation of the moment of St. Paul’s conversion. According to the Acts of the Apostles, on the way to Damascus Saul the Pharisee (soon to be Paul the Apostle) fell to the ground when he heard the voice of Christ saying to him, “Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?” and temporarily lost his sight. It was reasonable to assume that Saul had fallen from a horse. Caravaggio is close to the Bible. The horse is there and, to hold him, a groom, but the drama is internalized within the mind of Saul. He lies on the ground stunned, his eyes closed as if dazzled by the brightness of God’s light that streams down the white part of the skewbald horse, but that the light is heavenly is clear only to the believer, for Saul has no halo. In the spirit of Luke, who was at the time considered the author of Acts, Caravaggio makes religious experience look natural.
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In this work Caravaggio uses a below center vanishing point. We are placed below the scene and we watch the awkward attempt to remove the body of Christ for burial. It captures a moment in the story – not a posed kind of picture. He uses ordinary people in ordinary clothing: that decreases the psychological distance between the special space of the painting and the private space of the individual viewer.
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This is a most gruesome look of the demise of Goliath (and my favorite Caravaggio work). It is far removed from the idealism we saw in Donatello’s and Michelangelo’s Davids. David is portrayed as a young, but not weak boy by the proof of the great giant’s head. Caravaggio painted his self-portrait in the head of Goliath. It was one of the last paintings he completed before his death.
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Gentileschi was a daughter of a painter named Orazio Gentileschi. She came into painting naturally and her subjects often depict women in dangerous situations. Here she painted the Old Testament story of Judith beheading an Assyrian general in order to save her people. It is very dramatic as she is in the action of cutting off Holofernes’s head. Please read more here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/baroque-italy/a/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes
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Gentileschi’s work is on the left, Caravaggio’s work is on the right. Note the similarities and differences. Which one looks more real?
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Seems like this company needs an art historian on its staff! What an odd choice for an image on a jar of pasta sauce. The sauce looks like the same color as the blood in Caravaggio’s painting – ha!
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This is the image for SmartHistory HW #6.
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Fra Andrea Pozzo created the ceiling fresco for Sant’ Ignazio Church in Rome: gives the illusion that the church’s architecture continues up into the space of the heavens. The painter transforms an image of infinite space into a personal vision for the viewer. Saint Ignatius was a hero of the Catholic Counter-Reformation who devised a technique of meditation based on visualizing mental pictures of Gospel scenes that ultimately place the individual in the scene with Christ.
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The Baroque in Spain: Spanish empire declines in the 17th century; Thirty Years War, economic strain, tax increases, revolts and civil war plague Spain; however both Philip III and Philip IV were great art patrons; scenes of death and martyrdom were popular to gain believers devotion and piety A martyr who is bearing his torture with fear of death and desperation, Bartholomew was a apostle and preacher who was flayed and murdered by an Armenian king’s brother (Bartholomew converted the king to Christianity). There is no idealization. It is raw with complicated emotion. Ribera was active in Naples, Italy and a follower of Caravaggio. The Italians called him “Lo Spagnoletto” which means the Little Spaniard.
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Zurbarán painted mostly saints and religious subjects. This particular painting was done for the Mercedarian monastery to represent self-sacrifice. The small note displays the saint’s name and the small shield represents the Crusade he was part of. Serapion was a 13th century martyr; he was beaten, tortured and his head was partially severed. The artist depicts a man who sacrificed himself for the greater good and handles it in a very gentle way (not gory).
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Second of the great triumvirate of Spanish painters (El Greco being the first, Francisco Goya [18th-19th century artist] is the third), Velázquez came from a minor noble family. He worked as an apprentice to a Mannerist painter who later became is father-in-law. The artist was inspired by Flemish and Italian realism (like that of Caravaggio). He was 20-years-old when he worked on this piece. There is an incredible sense of light and shadow and direct observation of nature. This kind of work will become known as genre painting for its depiction of everyday life.
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Velázquez became the most popular painter in the royal court of Philip IV. In this portrait, the artist does several things to make the monarch more attractive. As Philip was from the Austrian Hapsburg family, they were known for large lower jaws and terrific underbites, not an attractive trait. The artist uses subtle shading on the jawline and focuses our attention on the intricate silver embroidery of his clothing.
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As a court painter of Spain, he is most interested in painting genre scenes and still life than religious scenes. This is seen in this work of the child princess being attended by her maids. It is not only a group portrait, but is a genre scene and a self-portrait as well. Like the Dutch artist, Jan Vermeer (in chapter 20), he is interested in light and how it moves and its effects on form and color – for Velazquez, light creates the visible world. Please watch this video: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/monarchy-enlightenment/baroque-art1/spain/v/vel-zquez-las-meninas-c-1656
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‹#› Italy and Spain 1600-1700
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Figure 19-3 CARLO MADERNO, facade of Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1606–1612.
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Façade : Usually the front of a building; also, the other sides when they are emphasized architecturally.
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CARLO MADERNO, plan of Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, with adjoining piazza designed by GIANLORENZO BERNINI.
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Figure 19-4 Aerial view of Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy. Piazza designed by GIANLORENZO BERNINI, 1656–1667.
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‹#› Figure 19-5 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, baldacchino, Saint Peter’s, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1624–1633. Gilded bronze, approx. 100’ high.
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Baldacchino : A canopy on columns, frequently built over an altar.
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Figure 19-6 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, David, 1623. Marble, approx. 5’ 7” high. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
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Figure 19-6A GIANLORENZO BERNINI, Apollo and Daphne, 1623-1624. Marble. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
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GIANLORENZO BERNINI, Hades and Persephone, 1621-1622. Marble. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
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Figure 19-7 GIANLORENZO BERNINI. Interior of the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, Itlay, 1645-1652
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‹#› Figure 19-8 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, Italy, 1645–1652. Marble, height of group 11’ 6”.
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Figure 19-9 FRANCESCO BORROMINI, facade of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, Italy, 1665–1676.
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‹#› Figure 19-11 FRANCESCO BORROMINI, plan of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, Italy, 1638–1641.
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Figure 19-11 FRANCESCO BORROMINI. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (view into dome), Rome, Italy, 1638-1641
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Figure 19-15 ANNIBALE CARRACCI, Flight into Egypt, 1603–1604. Oil on canvas, approx. 4’ x 7’ 6”. Galleria Doria Pamphili, Rome.
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Figure 19-18 CARAVAGGIO, Calling of Saint Matthew, Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome, Italy, ca. 1597–1601. Oil on canvas, 11’ 1” x 11’ 5”.
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Chiaroscuro : In drawing and painting, the treatment and use of light and dark, especially the gradations of light that produce the effect of modeling. Tenebrism : Painting in the “shadowy manner,” using violent contrasts of light and dark, as in the work of Caravaggio. The term derives from tenebroso.
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‹#› Figure 19-18A CARAVAGGIO, Conversion of Saint Paul, Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy, ca. 1601. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ 6” x 5’ 9”.
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‹#› Figure 19-18B CARAVAGGIO, Entombment, from the chapel of Pietro Vittrice, Santa Maria in Vallicella, Rome, Italy, ca. 1603. Oil on canvas, 9’ 10 1/8” x 6’ 7 15/16”. Musei Vaticani, Pinacoteca, Rome.
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‹#› CARAVAGGIO, David with the Head of Goliath, 1610
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‹#› Figure 19-19 ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI, Judith Slaying Holofernes, ca. 1614–1620. Oil on canvas, 6’ 6 1/3” x 5’ 4”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
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Compare and contrast
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‹#› Figure 19-20 ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI, Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting, ca. 1638-1639. Oil on canvas, 3’ 2 7/8” x 2’ 5 5/8”. Royal Collection, Kensington Palace, London.
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Figure 19-24 FRA ANDREA POZZO, Glorification of Saint Ignatius, ceiling fresco in the nave of Sant’Ignazio, Rome, Italy, 1691–1694.
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Figure 19-26 JOSÉ DE RIBERA, Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew, ca. 1639. Oil on canvas, approx. 7’ 8” x 7’ 8”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
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‹#› Figure 19-27 FRANCISCO DE ZURBARÁN, Saint Serapion, 1628. Oil on canvas, 3’ 11 1/2” x 3’ 4 3/4”. Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford.
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‹#› Figure 19-29 DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, Water Carrier of Seville, ca. 1619. Oil on canvas, 3’ 5 1/2” x 2’ 7 1/2”. Wellington Museum, London.
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‹#› Figure 19-30A DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, King Philip IV of Spain (Fraga Philip), 1644. Oil on canvas, 4’ 3 1/8” x 3’ 3 1/8”. The Frick Collection, New York.
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‹#› Figure 19-31 DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ, Las Meniñas (The Maids of Honor), 1656. Oil on canvas, approx. 10’ 5” x 9’. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
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Italy Around 1400
Maps give us a way to see where in the world we are discussing. Not only do we see geographical and topographical features, but we are able to see political boundaries and borders. You will notice how these borders shift and change over the next several centuries. Italy was divided into several city states in the 14th century, all governed differently. For this chapter, the Republics of Florence and Siena are of primary importance as the look of art was starting to shift and change.
Please Review “Before 1300”
in your textbook to understand how ancient art and architecture influences the Renaissance.
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Figure 14-5 BONAVENTURA BERLINGHIERI, panel from the Saint Francis Altarpiece, San Francesco, Pescia, Italy, 1235. Tempera on wood, approx. 5’ x 3’ x 6”.
Example of the
Italo-Byzantine style:
Frontal
Linear/geometric details
Gold background
Elongation (indicates holiness)
Hieratic scale
A maniera greca or Greek style work; part of the Italo-Byzantine style. St. Francis wears the belted garb of the order he founded (the Franciscans). He has the stigmata – the wounds Christ received on the cross (which he is receiving in the upper left part). This gives St. Francis the same healing powers as Christ and it’s the miracle that makes Francis of Assisi a saint. There is lack of modeling and the frontality of their poses is taken directly from Byzantine models. Created nine years after the saint’s death, this is probably the earliest signed and dated representation of St. Francis. After rejecting his family’s wealth, St. Francis lived an ascetic (very poor) lifestyle. Four of the six scenes depict miraculous healing connecting St. Francis to Christ.
Tempera: A technique of painting using pigment mixed with egg yolk, glue, or casein.
Virgin (Theotokos) and Child enthroned, apse mosaic, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey, dedicated 867.
Byzantine comparison
True Byzantine work from Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire was still in existence at this point. This work displays all the common characteristics of a Byzantine work of art: frontality, linear/geometric details, elongation, hieratic scale, gold background.
Figure 14-2 NICOLA PISANO, pulpit of Pisa Cathedral baptistery, Pisa, Italy, 1259–1260. Marble, approx. 15’ high.
An interest in classical art and design is evident in this pulpit (a stand from which a priest or minister delivers a message or sermon); influence of the humanistic culture of Sicily under Frederick II; the king was known for his intellectualism and talents; Nicola Pisano may have received his training within this environment; he moved to Pisa for its lucrative commissions.
Relief: In sculpture, figures projecting from a background of which they are part. The degree of relief is designated high, low (bas) or sunken.
Figure 14-3 NICOLA PISANO, The Annunciation and the Nativity, detail of Pisa baptistery pulpit, Pisa, Italy, 1259–1260. Marble relief, approx. 2’ 10” x 3’ 9”.
Two stories are being depicted here: The Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel announces to Mary she has conceived Jesus (upper left corner) and the Nativity, the birth of Jesus. Artists often combined stories together to save space in their compositions. It makes sense to show these two parts of Jesus’s story because they are related. This is called continuous narrative and it is not unique to Western art. It can be found in Asian art as well.
It is in sculpture that we see the beginnings of humanism. The figures no longer are frontal, stiff, or elongated. They have human proportions and emotions. They are engaged in normal activities. Notice how Nicola adds two women bathing (the now beheaded – marble is fragile and things sometimes break off) the infant Jesus. They are not part of any Biblical telling of the the Nativity, but they serve to connect the viewer to the work of art. By engaging in an ordinary activity like helping Mary with the baby, it helps people to relate to the work of art in a different way.
Alternative views of the pulpit meant to show level of relief carving not seen in other image.
Alternative views of the pulpit meant to show level of relief carving not seen in other image.
Figure 14-4 GIOVANNI PISANO, The Annunciation and the Nativity, detail of the pulpit of Sant’Andrea, Pistoia, Italy, 1297–1301. Marble relief, approx. 2’ 10” x 3’ 4”.
Son of Nicola, his same carving of the subject is much more fluid and dynamic as it was finished 40 years after his father’s example; it is still full of activity and figures, but they seem to have a certain grace that the elder artist could not achieve.
Notice how the stories are in the same location as his father’s, but notice how the figures move and are more proportional to one another than in the previous work. The simple interaction of Mary touching the infant Jesus at the center creates a kind of bond in viewers as they relate to how they interact with their own children. Joseph, Mary’s husband, broods in the lower left corner as he awaits the news of the birth of Jesus. This would be typical in 14th century for fathers to wait outside the room while the women did all the work of giving birth attended by other women. It’s another way that the artist humanizes the work.
Humanism: In the Renaissance, an emphasis on education and on expanding knowledge (especially of classical antiquity), the exploration of individual potential and a desire to excel, and a commitment to civic responsibility and moral duty.
Figure 14-6 CIMABUE, Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets, ca. 1280–1290. Tempera on wood, 12’ 7” x 7’ 4”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
From Florence and is believed to be Giotto’s teacher (Giotto will be discussed in a minute); his style is similar to Byzantine paintings in many ways: the gold background symbolizing eternity, flatness and awkwardness of figures, angular faces and drapery folds, but not Byzantine as the work is over 12 feet tall, 7 feet wide, has a gabled shape and the throne seems to echo this shape.
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Figure 14-6 Detail
Principle view
Comparison to the earlier Byzantine work of art.
Figure 14-8 GIOTTO DI BONDONE, Madonna Enthroned, ca. 1310. Tempera on wood, 10’ 8” x 6’ 8”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
SmartHistory HW #1 covers this slide.
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GIOTTO DI BONDONE. Interior of the Arena Chapel (Cappella Scrovegni), Padua, Italy, 1305–1306. Fresco.
Most famous example of Giotto’s work; intended for the Scrovegni family chapel and commissioned as an offering for atonement since the Scrovegnis were usurers (think modern day payday lenders who charge a huge amount of interest for their loans); consecrated in 1305; almost designed just for Giotto so he could have a lot of flat space to paint the lives of the Virgin Mary and Christ; Padua was a republic, connection to antiquity was strong here and humanism is starting to emerge in Giotto’s work.
Notice the color. If gold represents the heavenly, what do you think the blue represents? Remember the discussion of humanism.
Fresco: Painting on lime plaster, either dry (dry fresco or fresco secco) or wet (true or buon fresco). In the latter method, the pigments are mixed with water and become chemically bound to the freshly laid lime plaster.
Figure 14-9 GIOTTO DI BONDONE, Lamentation, Arena Chapel, Padua, Italy, ca. 1305.
Fresco, 6’ 6 3/4” x 6’ 3/4”.
Evokes emotion in the viewer as figures are distraught in the painting; diagonal, dead tree, stooping figures, distressed angels; uses darker and lighter hues of color to give spatial depth to the figures and the background.
Giotto was one of the first artists to create an illusion of depth without using linear perspective. He creates three-dimensionality with light and shadow which give the figures a sense of volume or “bulk”. By making use of the foreground, the space closest to the viewer, he involves viewers to participate in the mourning or lamentation of Jesus.
Figure 14-10 DUCCIO DI BUONINSEGNA, Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints, principal panel of the Maestà altarpiece, from the Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italy, 1308–1311. Tempera on wood, panel 7’ x 13’. Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena.
After the Sienese won victory over Florence in a battle, they pronounced that the Virgin Mary had sponsored it. She became the patron saint of Siena, thus it was important to venerate (or worship) her in important ways. Here we have a painting that was designed to replace a smaller portrait of Mary. This is the central panel that measures 7 x 13’ the rest of the altarpiece has been dismantled over the years and can only be viewed as individual pieces in museums around the world. It was commissioned for the Siena Cathedral in 1308. This is still very Byzantine as the angels all have certain facial types, and is symmetrical and formal as described by that tradition. The figures are much more relaxed in this work and the four saints in the front have individual faces, even the drapery falls in a more natural way (something that Northern European artists had been doing – attests that there was some dialogue between Italy and the North).
As a note, everything outside of Italy is referred to as “the North”. It’s the way art historians distinguish the artistic developments of Italy with the more Gothic traditions of the North.
Figure 14-11A DUCCIO, Christ Entering Jerusalem, from the Maestà Altar, 1308-11
One of the smaller paintings from the reverse side of the Maestà altarpiece. It is depicting Jesus and his disciples (Apostles) entering into Jerusalem on the holiday Christians now celebrate as Palm Sunday, the first day of Holy Week that leads up to Jesus’s Crucifixion on Good Friday and Resurrection on Easter.
Notice the flatness and gold still prevalent in Sienese painting. However, Duccio makes an attempt to display depth by using some light and shadow and by making use of the foreground, middle-ground, and background.
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Figure 14-9A GIOTTO, Christ Entering Jerusalem, from the Arena Chapel, 1305-06
To contrast, this is from Giotto’s Arena Chapel. It’s the same subject and virtually created at the same time as Duccio’s work. Look at the differences.
Compare and contrast the differences between Duccio’s work (L) and Giotto’s work (R). Think about the purpose of both works. Duccio’s work was created for a public cathedral for all of Siena’s citizens to worship it. Giotto’s work was created for a private family chapel for quiet meditation and prayer. Always think about the purpose for which artwork is made because it will often dictate how the subject will be depicted. Both of these works depict the same Biblical event, but differently because of their purposes. This is one of the most important parts of understanding art and why we study it.
Figure 14-14 SIMONE MARTINI AND LIPPO MEMMI(?), Annunciation, 1333 (frame reconstructed in the nineteenth century). Tempera and gold leaf on wood, approx. 10’ 1” x 8’ 8 3/4”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
Martini worked for French kings and the papal court in Avignon (the papacy was located in Southeast France, not in Rome during the 14th century); influential on forming the International Style (a blending of Northern Gothic and Italian styles) which appealed to aristocrats because of its brilliant color, lavish costumes, intricate ornamentation and processional themes; drama turns into a court ritual in this painting; ornate Gothic tracery on the frame; not sure of Lippo’s contributions to the painting; possibly painted the saints, Saint Ansanus (patron saint of Siena) and Saint Margaret (patron saint of pregnancy); medieval and Renaissance workshop practices often make it difficult to tell master from assistant.
Please watch the SmartHistory video found here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/late-gothic-italy/siena-late-gothic/v/martini-annunciation-1333
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Figure 14-15 PIETRO LORENZETTI, The Birth of the Virgin, from Altar of Saint Savinus, Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italy, 1342. Tempera on wood, approx. 6’ 1” x 5’ 11”. Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena.
Lorenzetti was a student of Duccio; also painted for the Siena Cathedral; this has a very real sort of space as the elements that separate each panel look as if they are architectural columns; Saint Anne reclines wearily after giving birth; we get a real intimate look of the interior space of where such a birth could have taken place; it is also done in a way that this is how a contemporary Sienese upper-class home would look.
Please watch the SmartHistory video found here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/late-gothic-italy/siena-late-gothic/v/pietro-lorenzetti-birth-of-the-virgin-c-1342
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Figure 14-16 Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Italy, 1288–1309.
Palazzo Publico or the “public palace” (aka city hall). Siena was a political and commercial rival of Florence; this is the town hall, the secular center of the city; more symmetrical than most buildings constructed during this time that heralds one of the most lofty towers in all Italy; served as a lookout for the city and countryside with a bell to ring signals to the population warning them of many different things – there were many uprisings, not just from outside sources but also from within the rival families and general populace against the governance.
Figure 14-15 Palazzo Pubblico (aerial view), Siena, Italy, 1288–1309.
Additional view. Note the open plaza or piazza on the outside of the Palazzo. It is common for city halls and churches to have large areas for which the public to gather.
Figure 14-19 ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO and others, Florence Cathedral (aerial view), Florence, Italy, begun 1296.
Considered the most beautiful and honorable church in Tuscany; the church can hold 30,000 people; it is ornamented with marble-encrusted geometric designs; also separate from the High Gothic style with its pointed arches and spindly spires, this church is done in a much more Romanesque style inherent to Italy; also much more horizontal than Gothic structures.
Although begun in 1296, the structure would not be completed until the dome was finished in 1436. It was common for these large structures to take over 100 years to be completed.
Diagram of a basilica style church
Basilica: In Roman architecture, a public building for legal and other civic proceedings, rectangular in plan, with an entrance usually on a long side. In Christian architecture, a church somewhat resembling the Roman basilica, usually entered from one end and with an apse at the other.
Figure 14-19 (alternate view) ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO and others, Florence Cathedral (view from the south), Florence, Italy, begun 1296.
Although the cathedral is a very tall, the architects emphasized the church’s horizontality by using repeated solid colors in horizontal bands around the entire exterior of the church. It is one of many ways the church is rejecting a Gothic ornamentation.
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Figure 14-19A Nave of Florence Cathedral (view facing east), Florence, Italy, begun 1296.
The nave of this cathedral is very wide with narrow side aisles; the crossing of the nave with the transept seems to be an afterthought as the dome was not constructed until the 15th century; again the emphasis is on the horizontal and not the vertical as we can see by the immense capitals placed on top of the columns.
FRANCESCO TRAINI or BUONAMICO BUFFALMACCO,
Triumph of Death (total view), 1330s. Fresco, 18’ 6” x 49’ 2”. Camposanto, Pisa.
Painted on the wall of the Camposanto (holy field or cemetery) that enclosed the burial ground adjacent to the Pisa Cathedral; forces viewers to confront their mortality; aristocrats on the left shudder to look inside the three coffins that show bodies at differing stages of decomposition; Saint Macarius unrolls a scroll that speaks of the folly of pleasure and the inevitability of death; hermits in the middle accept their fate peacefully; ladies and gentlemen ignore these realities and occupy their time with music and amusements while all round them angels and demons struggle for the souls of the dead in the foreground; there is a message about the rich not being saved here since they are seen as ignorant and pompous; this fresco was sponsored by the order of the Franciscans who committed their lives to poverty; overall the painting shows naturalism as well as emotion – see next two slides for details.
Figure 14-21 FRANCESCO TRAINI or BUONAMICO BUFFALMACCO,
riders discover three corpses, detail of Triumph of Death, 1330s. Fresco,
18’ 6” x 49’ 2”. Camposanto, Pisa.
Figure 14-22 FRANCESCO TRAINI or BUONAMICO BUFFALMACCO,
angels and demons vie for souls, detail of Triumph of Death, 1330s. Fresco,
18’ 6” x 49’ 2”. Camposanto, Pisa.