Information Paper - Paper Answers

Ruberic_Info_Paper xConcise_Style_Guide1 Example_Info_Paper xInfo_Paper_Essay_Ref xInstructions2 xST_22-2_1Jan20201

ASSESSINGINFORMATION PAPER

Exceptional Satisfactory Unsatisfactory

Faculty Assessment
Student Self-Assessment
↓ Content ↓

Purpose of paper is clear.

Purpose for writing is vague or not clearly stated.

Purpose for writing incorrect or not stated.

/10

All information is accurate. Up to date, reputable sources used.

Some minor inconsistencies, but primarily accurate. Sources, for the most part, were up to date.

Information not accurate or irrelevant. Sources outdated or of questionable origin.

/10

/20

Level of detail and relevance suited to the needs of the paper and target audience.

May occasionally include irrelevant details, omit important details; or targeting wrong audience.

Content is irrelevant, missing, misrepresented, or not focused at appropriate level.

/20

/15

Explanations and descriptions of content are clear, concise, and precise.

Explanations and descriptions are almost always clear, concise, and precise.

Explanations and descriptions are unclear, wordy, and imprecise.

/15

↓ Organization ↓

/15

Points are clear and logically arranged so as to develop the content most productively for the reader.

In general, points establish a logical line of reasoning.

Sequence of points is illogical or inadequate to the needs of the task of audience.

/15

↓ Style ↓

Words are precise, language is concise without wordiness.

Some language is imprecise but generally understandable.

Language is awkward and hard to read.

Primarily active voice, no first person.

Some passive voice – not excessive.

Primarily passive voice or first person.

Student used correct citations and bibliography for academic sources (and good staff officer work).

Student tried to use citations. Student tried to use bibliography.

Student did not use citations properly. No bibliography provided.

↓ Correctness ↓

/10

Used directed information paper format.

Deviated slightly from directed information paper format.

Did not use directed information paper format.

/10

Only one or two errors in grammar, punctuation, or spelling.

Only a few errors in grammar, punctuation or spelling.

Numerous errors in grammar, punctuation or spelling.

Provided 1009w and Self-assessed

Provided 1009w

Did not provide 1009w

Annex A

Concise Style Guide

This guide addresses common errors in citing references, use of quotations, bibliographic entries, and
paraphrasing.

Footnotes or Endnotes

We accept either footnotes or endnotes but not in-text or parenthetical citations. Footnotes and endnotes
are not part of the page-count requirement for the essay. Number footnotes and endnotes sequentially (1,
2, 3, etc.) according to their placement in the essay; do not reuse a footnote or endnote number simply
because it refers to the same source.

Ideas or data forming the core of common knowledge do not require citation. Careful citation of all other
ideas, data, and quotations is especially important when paraphrasing and should protect the writer from
the possibility of plagiarism.

The only acceptable formats of footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographic entries are found in Turabian’s A
Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (eighth edition). We do not accept
parenthetical documentation inserted into the text of an essay. An example of this unacceptable style
would be “(Gabel, 1992, p. 144.).”

Subsequent References to Previously Cited Material in Footnotes or Endnotes

When citing references previously cited in full in earlier footnotes or endnotes:

Use Ibid. (from ibidem, “in the same place”; always takes a period) when referring to the identical
source and page number as in the previous source (footnote or endnote immediately preceding the
current footnote or endnote). For example:

1. James Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 46.

2. Ibid.

Use Ibid. and the page number, if only the page number differs from the immediately preceding
reference. For example:

1. James Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 46.

2. Ibid., 24.

The second, nonconsecutive reference to a work already cited in full requires an abbreviated format:
last name of author, shortened title of book, page number. This makes it easier for the reader to
identify when you are introducing a new source. For example:

2. James Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War,
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 46.

14. Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam, 48.

Direct Quotations

Authors should enclose direct quotations of four lines or fewer in quotation marks inside the main text.
See examples in Turabian. Failure to cite a direct quotation is plagiarism. Set quotations of five or more
lines apart from the text by indenting and single-spacing them without quotation marks. The superscript
footnote or endnote number usually appears at the end of such indented text.

Bibliography

A bibliography is required only if sources other than course materials are used. The bibliography should
follow the endnotes (if used), or the last page of text if footnotes are used. Arrange bibliography
alphabetically (last name first) and group according to type of source (books, Internet, periodicals, etc.).
Use the style in Turabian, Prentice-Hall (also refer to The Gregg Reference Manual), and ST 22-2.

Internet and Electronic Sources

Citation of Internet and electronic sources remains in transition. The principal rule is that the source must
be traceable, so that the reader can locate that source. If you are in doubt as to the site’s stability or
longevity, download and print the file. If you have any questions, consult your instructor for detailed
guidance. Commonly cited information includes the source of the site (generally an organization or
individual), title, date website last revised, web address, and date accessed. (See examples below for
format.) Researchers beware. While information found in books and scholarly journals is routinely
subject to scholarly review, the same level of fact checking and evaluation may be lacking for information
and articles on the Internet. For that reason, please do not use Wikipedia or similar uncontrolled
sources for information.

EXAMPLE BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTE FORMAT

The following examples illustrate the appropriate documentation for works commonly cited by US Army
Command and General Staff Officer Course (CGSOC) students and not addressed specifically in the
above references. These are the accepted formats for such entries. Otherwise, use the examples in
Turabian, Prentice-Hall (also refer to The Gregg Reference Manual), and ST 22-2.

1. Field Manual

Bibliography:
US Department of the Army. FM 25-100, Training the Force. Washington, DC: Government Printing

Office. November 1988.

Note:
1. US Department of the Army, FM 25-100, Training the Force (Washington, DC: Government

Printing Office, November 1988), 121.

2. Book of Readings

Bibliography:
Clausewitz, Carl von. “What is War?” On War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976, 75–

89. Excerpt reprinted in US Army Command and General Staff College, H100 Syllabus and Book
of Readings, 50–61. Fort Leavenworth, KS: USACGSC, July 1992.

Note:
1. Carl von Clausewitz, “What is War?” On War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

1976), 75–89; excerpt reprinted in US Army Command and General Staff College, H100 Syllabus
and Book of Readings (Fort Leavenworth, KS: USACGSC, July 1992), 55.

[List author by first name first in the note and last name first in the alphabetical bibliography.]

Bibliography:
Howard, Michael. “Military Science in an Age of Peace.” RUSI, Journal of the Royal United Services

Institute for Defence Studies 119 (March 1974): 3–9. Reprinted in US Army Command and
General Staff College, H100 Syllabus and Book of Readings, 205–11. Fort Leavenworth, KS:
USACGSC, July 1992.

Note:
1. Michael Howard, “Military Science in an Age of Peace,” RUSI, Journal of the Royal United

Services Institute for Defence Studies 119 (March 1974); reprinted in US Army Command and
General Staff College, H100 Syllabus and Book of Readings (Fort Leavenworth, KS: USACGSC,
July 1992), 210.

3. Books

Research may require the use of individual pages and/or chapters within a book written by different
authors and edited by someone other than the author. The following example is a chapter from a book
used throughout the course:

Bibliography:
Herwig, Holger H. “Innovation Ignored: The Submarine Problem—Germany, Britain, and the United

States, 1919–1939.” In Military Innovation in the Interwar Period, edited by Williamson Murray
and Allan R. Millett, 227–64. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Note:
1. Holger H. Herwig, “Innovation Ignored: The Submarine Problem—Germany, Britain, and the

United States, 1919–1939,” in Military Innovation in the Interwar Period, ed. Williamson Murray
and Allan R. Millett (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 229.

4. Journal Articles

Following is an example using a common source (Military Review) of research topics and
information.

Bibliography:
Karcher, Timothy M. “The Victory Disease.” Military Review 83 (July–August 2003): 9–17.

Note:
2. Timothy M. Karcher, “The Victory Disease,” Military Review 83 (July–August 2003): 11.

5. Leavenworth Papers

Following is an example using a common source from the Leavenworth Papers series of professional
writings.

Bibliography:
Doughty, Robert A. The Evolution of US Army Tactical Doctrine, 1946–76. Leavenworth Papers No.

1. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 1979. (Reprinted 2001)

Note:
3. Robert A. Doughty, The Evolution of US Army Tactical Doctrine, 1946–76, Leavenworth

Papers No. 1 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 1979, reprinted 2001), 28.

6. Electronic and Web-based Sources

Bibliography:
US Department of the Army, Center For Army Lessons Learned. Urban Combat Operations—

References. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned, 2002. CD ROM; available
from CALL.

Note:
4. Department of the Army, Center For Army Lessons Learned. Urban Combat Operations—

References (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned, 2002) [CD ROM]; available
from CALL.

Bibliography:
Royal Air Force. The Battle of Britain History Site. The Battle of Britain—Commanders. Delta Web

International, 2000, accessed [date], http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/thebattleofbritain.cfm.

Note:
5. Royal Air Force. The Battle of Britain History Site. The Battle of Britain— Commanders

(Delta Web International, 2000), accessed [date],
http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/thebattleofbritain.cfm.

Bibliography:
Paret, Peter, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy: from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press, 1986. Kindle edition, 2007.

http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/thebattleofbritain.cfm

H100 Annex A-487

Note:
6. Felix Gilbert, “Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War.” In Makers of Modern

Strategy: from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986, chap.
1. Kindle edition, 2007.

Concise DMH Style Guide

References
Footnotes or Endnotes
Direct Quotations
Bibliography
Internet and Electronic Sources

ATZL-SWE Date

MEMORANDUM FOR XXXXXXXXXXXX

SUBJECT: Information Paper Format

1. Purpose: To provide guidance on the preparation and use of an information paper. Why are you writing the paper? Correctly identifying this goes a long way in helping you focus and develop a good organization.

2. Background: Provide no more than one short paragraph on the background of the JLTV. Remember, the instructions said the CG is well aware of why the JLTV was created. The sources provided for you are old. That is done on purpose. This assessment is also to exercise your ability as a staff officer to go find current, updated information on a topic and then conduct analysis on that information.

3. Discussion: Provide approximately two paragraphs communicating the relevant information you discovered in your research. Keep the information and analysis focused on what is relevant to the DIV’s upcoming fielding.

a. Use subparagraphs as needed. Ensure you cite any information that is not your own thought.[footnoteRef:1] Each subparagraph should develop a thought or point. Do not simply write one sentence in a subparagraph. [1: Insert footnote#1 here [include page number(s) or slide number(s) or time(s) in video as appropriate[Refer to ST 22-2 Appendix A for proper citation format] [endnotes in lieu of footnotes are also acceptable]]

b. Remember, think about briefing the CG. He/she wants to know how what you found out can be applied to the DIV’s fielding to make it run more smoothly.[footnoteRef:2] [2: Insert footnote#2 here [include page number(s) or slide number(s) or time(s) in video as appropriate [Refer to ST 22-2 Appendix A for proper citation format]]

4. Recommendations: An information paper is not a data sheet. You are required to do research and conduct analysis. After analysis, you need to follow through with the “so what.” What are your recommendations or planning assumptions reference the DIV’s upcoming fielding?

a. Endnotes or footnotes are required.[footnoteRef:3] A bibliography is required, as stated in the instructions. Your endnotes or footnotes count towards the page count. The bibliography does not count towards the page count. [3: Insert footnote#1 here [include page number(s) or slide number(s) or time(s) in video as appropriate[Refer to ST 22-2 Appendix A for proper citation format]
]

b. The assignment allows students to develop a better understanding of the topic (joint light tactical vehicle) and practice in synthesizing voluminous factual information. Additionally, information researched here provides background in preparation for your F107 assignment. It is important to be clear, concise, relevant, and accurate.

c. Do not lose easy points by not doing the self-assessment.

d. Stay focused on the topic at hand. You are given very little space to develop topics. This is done on purpose to make the student get to the point in a clear, direct and efficient manner.

Action Officer Name / Phone #

Approved by:

Bibliography

Insert first bibliography entry here [Refer to ST 22-2 Appendix A for proper bibliography format]

Insert second bibliography entry here [Refer to ST 22-2 Appendix A for proper bibliography format]

Insert third bibliography entry here [Refer to ST 22-2 Appendix A for proper bibliography format]

Information Paper and Essay

“Oshkosh Readies to Resume JLTV: GAO Decides in December.” Freedberg, Sydney J. Jr. Breaking Defense. Land. Breaking Media, Inc., 8 September

015. Located at the following URL

http://breakingdefense.com/2015/09/lockheed-protests-jltv-award-to-oshkosh-am-general-doesnt/

“JLTV Could Reorder Vehicle Industry.” Gould, Joe. Defense News, 24 August 2015. Located at the following URL

http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/land/vehicles/2015/08/23/us-army-jltv-award-humvee-replacement/32053897/

“Joint Light Tactical Vehicle.” Wikipedia. Available at the following URL

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Light_Tactical_Vehicle

Note: Wikipedia and other uncontrolled internet sources are not subject to the same level of scholarly review or fact-checking. Wikipedia is NOT reliable for academic research. You may read the Wikipedia article for a basic overview and to find additional sources of information about the topic.

Selected Acquisition Report (SAR) Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) (22Mar2016). US Department of Defense. Joint Program Office, Joint Light Tactical Vehicles. RCS: DD-A&T (Q&A) 823-279. Washington, DC: Joint Program Office (41 pages).

http://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/FOID/Reading%20Room/Selected_Acquisition_Reports/16-F-0402_DOC_43_JLTV_DEC_2015_SAR

Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV): Background and Issues for Congress (09 September 2016). Feikert, Andrew. Congressional Research Service. CRS Report #RS22942, Washington, DC: CRS (14 pages).

https://news.usni.org/2016/09/14/document-report-congress-marine-army-joint-light-tactical-vehicle

“Marines: Amphibious Combat Vehicle Testing Going Well after Delay; On Track to Support June 2018 Downselect.” Eckstein, Megan. US Naval Institute (USNI) News, 06 June 2017.

https://news.usni.org/2017/06/06/marines-acv-testing-going-well-after-delay-on-track-to-support-june-2018-downselect

Joint Light Tactical Vehicle: A Case Study. Canaley, William P. LTC. Civilian Research Project US Army War College (USAWC) Fellow (April 2013). (32 pages)

www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA592751

The Maneuver Center of Excellence (MCoE) documents are available in the Blackboard Master Library (ML). In the ML, click on the link “Maneuver CoE.”

· MCoE Supplemental Manual 3-90, Force Structure Reference Data. Armored Brigade Combat Team. Fort Benning, GA: MCoE, October 2015.

· MCoE Supplemental Manual 3-90, Force Structure Reference Data. Infantry Brigade Combat Team. Fort Benning, GA: MCoE, October 2015.

· MCoE Supplemental Manual 3-90, Force Structure Reference Data. Stryker Brigade Combat Team. Fort Benning, GA: MCoE, October 2015.

Online lessons and readings

The primary Army strategic documents are listed below.

Army Strategic Planning Guidance (ASPG 2014).

http://www.g8.army.mil/pdf/Army_Strategic_Planning_Guidance2014

The Army Vision: Strategic Advantage in a Complex World (2015).

https://www.army.mil/e2/rv5_downloads/info/references/the_army_vision

Army Equipment Modernization Strategy: Equipping the Total Force to Win in a Complex World (AEMS – March 2015).

http://www.g8.army.mil/pdf/AEMS_31MAR15

The US Army Operating Concept: Win in a Complex World 2020-2040 (AOC 2014).

http://www.tradoc.army.mil/tpubs/pams/tp525-3-1

2015-2016 How the Army Runs: A Senior Leader Reference Handbook (HTAR 2015).

http://publications.armywarcollege.edu/pubs/3283

US Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command (US Army RDECOM) Strategic Plan: Enabling Battlefield Dominance through Technology FY 2015 – FY 2040.

https://www.army.mil/e2/c/downloads/358964

Army Equipment Program in support of President’s Budget 2017 (February 2016).

http://www.g8.army.mil/pdf/Army_Equipment_Program2017

Information Paper Instructions

For this assignment, you are a senior staff officer working on a division staff. You are to write an information paper about the joint light tactical vehicle (JLTV) that will go into the “CG briefing book.” The purpose of this paper is to provide an update to the CG as to the current status of the JLTV and the program. The DIV is receiving a JLTV fielding in 9 months. This includes, but is not limited to: changes in PPBE, requirements, fielding and Army guidance/decisions. Remember to make it relevant to the CG and the DIV. How does this information allow the DIV to move forward in preparing to receive their own JLTVs, and understanding of the JLTV’s current capabilities? The CG obviously has a substantial military background and is fully aware of why the JLTV was developed, but requires updated information on the JLTV with the upcoming fielding.

For this assignment, follow the example provided in the “Example Information Paper” and include both proper endnote or footnote citation and a bibliography. Sources are not always cited in an information paper; however, this Division Chief of Staff (CofS) (notional for assignment purposes) is a stickler for having his staff officers provide verified and sourced information. The CofS demands you provide citation and bibliography IAW ST

2-2 (bibliography style).

You are provided a reference sheet (“Information Paper and Essay References”) containing links to articles and information about the JLTV. These resources are provided as a starting point. Sole use of these resources will not provide an updated information paper as directed.

As a staff officer, you are expected to:

1. Get all relevant, important information from subject matter experts.

2. Select the most important parts.

3. Arrange the parts in a clear and concise manner.

4. Provide the information to your audience.

“Cutting and pasting” is not sufficient. Your assignment is evaluated on how effectively you synthesize and present pertinent and relevant information for the CG’s use. You may NOT take all or part of someone else’s information paper (or an organization’s fact sheet) and put your name on it. This is not acceptable.

Information papers are succinct and designed to be fact-based and provide the senior decision maker relevant and pertinent information. DA-level information papers are often 1-page. This assignment will be two (2) typed pages in length to provide all relevant information regarding your topic. You will read/analyze information and develop your information paper per the format provided to you (example in the document called “Example Information Paper.”) Follow the directions on the example for the format and for specific instructions on how to write an information paper. Use Arial 12-point font, single spaced, with one inch margins with formatting per the example provided. Remember to use active voice in academic writing and do not use first person.

*** FINAL CONSIDERATIONS ***

If something is not your original thought, you need to cite your source using either footnotes or endnotes IAW the Turabian style of documentation; do not use parenthetical citations. This includes direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries of the assigned readings, doctrinal references, or outside sources. You may use the F100 online lessons, readings, and references to help you prepare your assignment but be sure to cite them appropriately. Refer to ST 22-2 for guidance about citations and footnotes / endnotes. Both proper citation and a bibliography are required.

22-2

Leader Communication

ST 22-

ST 22-2

To meet these purposes:

Chapter 1 reviews the Army standard for writing, critical thinking, creative thinking,
decision making, and problem solving.

Chapter 2 introduces concepts fundamental to writing including the domains of
evaluation (substance, style, organization and correctness), the writing process, the
fundamentals of argumentation, types of essays, and general writing guidelines.

Chapter 3 discusses academic ethics and the plagiarism policy of the Command and
General Staff School.

Chapter 4 addresses the elements of preparing and delivering military briefings.

Chapter 5 reviews the responsibilities and duties of staff officers and staff coordination
techniques.

ST 22-2

iii

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Paragraph
Communication Skills for Leaders
Army Standard 1-2
Principles of Good Writing 1-3
Critical Thinking 1-13
Creative Thinking 1-14
Decision Making 1-15
Problem Solving 1-16

Chapter 2
Fundamentals of Writing
Substance 2-4
Style 2-6
Organization 2-7
Correctness 2-9
The Writing Process 2-10
Pre-Writing 2-12
Drafting 2-22
Revising 2-25
Editing 2-27
Essay Format 2-29
Naming Convention 2-30
Publishing 2-31
Fundamentals of Argumentation 2-32
Types of Evidence 2-33
Evaluation of Evidence 2-34
Logic 2-35
Fallacies of Logic 2-36
Assessing Writing 2-37
Types of CGSOC Essays 2-38
Argumentative Essay 2-39
Analytical Essay 2-40
Expository Essay 2-41
Compare and Contrast Essay 2-42
General Writing Guidelines 2-43
Resources 2-44
Learning Resource Center (LRC) 2-45

Chapter

Academic Ethics
Documentation 3-2
Key Definitions 3-5
Plagiarism 3-8
Writing Requirements 3-10
Group Work 3-11
Proofreading 3-12
Copyright Laws 3-13

ST 22-2

Professional Standards 3-14
Evaluation Process 3-15
Use of Computer Software 3-16
Reporting Procedures and Responsibilities 3-18
Academic Freedom 3-19
Non-Attribution Policy 3-21

Chapter

Military Briefings
Characteristics 4-2
Steps 4-4
Standards of Effective Communication 4-5
Style and Correctness 4-14
Speaking 4-19
Speaker Anxiety 4-21
Rehearsals 4-23
Visual Aids 4-25

Chapter

The Staff Officer
Staff Officer Characteristics 5-2
The Staff’s Role 5-12
Staff Actions 5-13
Problem Solving 5-17
Staff Coordination 5-18

Appendix A
The Concise Command and General Staff School Style Guide

Appendix B
Editing Symbols

Appendix C
An Argumentative Analysis Checklist

Appendix D
Writing Resources

Appendix E
Index

Appendix F
References

ST 22-2

CHAPTER 1

COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR LEADERS

“The liberty of speaking and writing guards our other liberties.”

Thomas Jefferson

1-1. Mission accomplishment requires skilled leaders able to make the right
decisions. Individuals who transmit their intent and ideas so that others understand the
message and act on it possess one of the primary qualities of leadership, the ability to
communicate effectively. Success as a military leader depends on the ability to think
critically and creatively and to communicate your intention and decision to others. How
you arrive at your decision and communicate it to others is our focus.

The Army Standard for Communication

1-2. AR 25-50, Preparing and Managing Correspondence, states Army writing is
“…clear, concise, and effective. Army correspondence must aid effective
communication and decision-making. The reader must understand the writer’s ideas in
a single rapid reading, and the correspondence must be free of errors in substance,
organization, style and correctness.” Style rules include:

 Put the recommendation, conclusion, or reason for writing–the “bottom line”–in
the first or second paragraph, not at the end

 Use the active voice

 Use short sentences (an average of 15 or fewer words)

 Use short words (three syllables or fewer)

 Write paragraphs that, with few exceptions, are no more than 1 inch deep

 Use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation

 Use “I,” “you” and “we” as subjects of sentences instead of “this office,” “this
headquarters,” “all individuals,” and so forth, for most kinds of writing (note that in
essays assigned by the History Department, in general, avoid use of the first
person)

Structure your writing to begin with the main idea first and transmit a focused message.

 Open with a short, clear purpose sentence

 Put the recommendation, conclusion, or most important information (the main
point) next

 Clearly separate each major section. Use paragraphs, headings, or section titles

 Use a specific format if one is appropriate

ST 22-2

Style–the active voice.

 The active voice is direct, natural, and forceful

 The active voice does more than make sentences clearer–it shortens sentences

 Eliminating the passive voice reduces a piece of writing by up to 20 percent

 Active voice writing emphasizes the doer of the action, shows who does the
action in the sentence, and creates shorter sentences

Principles of Good Writing

1-3. AR 25-50 requires that writers incorporate the following principles into their
communications:

 Understood in a single rapid reading

 Concisely organized, and to the point

 Use subject–verb–object sentence order

 Active voice writing

Short, Sensible Sentences and Paragraphs

1-4. Effective writers employ both long and short sentences. However, the average
sentence should be somewhere around 15 words.* The same holds true for paragraph
length. Some paragraphs are 2 inches in depth while others less than an inch, but the
average paragraph is about 1 inch (about

lines) deep for a single spaced document.

Efficient Phrases, Vocabulary, and Images

1-5. Use commonly accepted words and word pictures. Know your audience. Avoid
the use of jargon, “official-speak,” and acronyms, especially when writing or speaking to
an audience that may not be familiar with them.

Active Voice

1-6. The topic of active or passive voice in writing and speaking seems to create a lot
of confusion. The problem is that many writers confuse voice with tense and conclude
that passive voice always refers to the past while active voice refers to the present or
future. Voice only shows whether the subject is performing the action (active
voice) or receiving the action (passive voice). Active and passive voice never refers
to tense, but to action. Key to determining active voice is to tell who is doing the acting.

1-7. There are cues for the passive voice. There are four telltale signs that indicate
whether or not the sentence is in the passive voice. First, in a passive voice sentence
the subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action. Second, there is always some
form of a “to be” verb (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been). Third, in a passive voice
sentence there is always a transitive verb, which is a verb that transfers action over to
an object. And finally, in a passive voice sentence there is always a past participle (past
participles are verbs that generally end in –ed, –en or –t). Whenever possible, write in

ST 22-2
3

the active voice and let the subject of your sentences do the action. Consider the
following examples.

Passive Voice Active Voice

The M4 was fired by PFC Meadows. PFC Meadows fired the M4.
The HMMWV was wrecked by SGT Fey. SGT Fey wrecked the HMMWV.

1-8. Appropriate use of the passive voice. While there may be occasions when it is
proper and acceptable to use the passive voice, in general you should avoid its use.
The trick is to know what the passive voice really is and when its use is acceptable. The
use of the passive voice, like all other aspects of writing, should be the result of a
conscious decision. Its use should not be random, arbitrary, or accidental nor should it
happen out of ignorance.

1-9. Use passive voice when you do not know who the actor is. For example, you
discover the wrecked HMMWV, but you don’t know who was responsible. In this case
use the passive voice and say “The HMMWV was wrecked.”

1-10. Use the passive voice when the receiver of the action is more important than the
actor. For example, say, “The Buffalo Soldier monument was completed in 1997.”

Packaging That Supports Effective Communication

1-11. What is your bottom line (your position, conclusion, or recommendation)? Put it
at the beginning. Arrange your writing, speech, or briefing so your audience quickly and
easily understands your intent. Make sure you do not mislead your audience.

1-12. The standard also holds true for verbal communications. It means that by the
time you finish presenting information or a course of action, your subordinates, peers,
and superiors should know your intent and understand your recommendation or
decision. Effective writing and communication is based on applying critical thinking,
creative thinking, decision making, and problem solving skills to identify answers for
complex problems.

Critical Thinking

1-13. Organizational leaders must think critically to solve problems effectively. Critical
thinking:

 Follows recognized standards and uses mental models

 Is thorough and involves all elements of reasoning

 Is rigorous in applying high standards to identify and evaluate evidence to
guide decision making

 Requires you to analyze the task, identify your goal(s), and clarify the problem
you need to solve

 Consider the many perspectives influencing the task and recognize that the
data (information, evidence, facts, observations, or experiences) you work with
may be incomplete

ST 22-2
4

 Requires you to examine assumptions (yours and others), along with
inferences, conclusions, implications, and consequences of these assumptions

Creative Thinking

1-14. Successful creative thinking never takes place in a vacuum. It builds on critical
thinking skills. Creative thinking:

 Specific thought processes which improve our creative ability

 Thinking deliberately in ways to improve the likelihood of generating new
thoughts

 Maximizes the ability of the brain to think of new ideas and explore multiple
avenues of actions or thoughts

 Sometimes called divergent thinking because thought patterns and areas of
belief expand

 Asks you to identify those inhibitors that focus your thinking along
predetermined paths

 Inhibitors include perceptions, culture, environment, emotions, intellect, and
“idea killers” (usually expressed in such phrases as “We already tried that,” “It
would take too long,” “The commander would never support it,” “I have enough
information,” etc.)

Decision Making

1-15. Decision making is:

 The process of making choices or reaching conclusions

 Cognitive process of reaching a decision

 Applying critical thinking skills and creative thinking processes to solve
complex problems

 The critical reasoning and thinking standards help you evaluate your
reasoning and thinking for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth,
logic, significance, and fairness

Problem Solving

1-16. Chapter 4 of FM 6-0, Commander and Staff Organization and Operations, notes
that problem solving is a “daily activity for leaders.” Additionally, the manual highlights
the importance of using a systemic approach to solving problems and offers a model for
leaders to employ in organizations to effectively address the myriad of problems that
routinely arise in the normal conduct of operations.

Problem solving is:

 A series of decisions to resolve a situation

 The ability to get answers to questions through a conscious, organized process

 A systematic approach using multiple perspectives to uncover the issues related
to a problem, develop a plan to resolve the problem, and implement the plan

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5

Problems may be structured in one of three ways:

 Well-Structured Problems
–Problem is easy to identify
–Required information is available
–Method to solve is obvious

 Medium Structured Problems
–Problem identification takes more experienced leaders
–Some, but not all, information is available
–Method to solve is based upon MDMP and troop leading procedures

 Ill-Structured Problems
–The problem is not clear and consensus is difficult to reach
–Information on nature of problem is hard to collect
–A broad approach is essential and no single action will solve

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6

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CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING

2-1. All scholarly writing requires time and effort to produce and begins by answering
the fundamental questions of “who is the audience?” and “what is the purpose of the
writing?” Additionally, the writing must adhere to the basic conventions of standard
written English (SWE) and address the issue in question to be effective. For CGSOC
students, there are numerous writing requirements throughout the academic year. The
college places great emphasis on writing and communicating efficiently and effectively
across the curriculum. The skills reinforced in the CGSOC writing requirements pay
great dividends for field grade leaders returning to units throughout the U.S. military
services and U.S. governmental agencies.

2-2. Both writing and thinking have hierarchy. Throughout the academic year at
CGSC, students are challenged to think critically and creatively. Writing assignments
measure the students’ ability to communicate their thoughts relative to specific courses
of instruction. Each block of instruction has specific terminal and enabling learning
objectives that include an associated level of learning. Unlike undergraduate education,
much of the CGSC curriculum orients on the higher levels of cognitive learning, such as
“synthesis” or “evaluation” as a stated goal of the curriculum. Likewise, writing
assignments at CGSC seek to challenge students to perform in four critical areas,
substance, style, organization, and correctness. While students must perform well in
each of the four domains to be successful, it becomes increasingly more challenging as
you move up the writing hierarchy (see figure below).

2-3. For CGSOC students, the writing evaluation uses four domains: substance, style,
organization and correctness. While each assignment and each instructor may amplify
the specific instructions for a particular writing requirement, in general the faculty
evaluate CGSOC students’ written work in these four areas. Below is a description of
each of these domains.

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2-4. Substance consists of the intellectual content of the essay. It is usually the most
important consideration in scholarly and professional writing. In CGSOC, satisfactory
essays display the following in regards to substance:

 A clearly stated thesis in the introductory paragraph of the paper

 All the supporting paragraphs on target in backing up the thesis

 The content is original, critical, and thoughtfully logical

 There is sufficient specific evidence for each supporting point

 The essay’s substance directly addresses and answers the question(s) posed
in the assignment

2-5. Substance also involves an understanding of content and analysis/problem-
solving/conclusions.

 Content means that your thesis is clear and concise. The content is fully
compliant with the assigned requirement and the needs of the reader. Everything
is accurate and the level of detail is suited to the needs of the assigned
requirement and reader. Explanations and descriptions of content are clear and
precise. Quantitative information is relevant and accurate, expressed with
appropriate examples, and well integrated into the text. Evidence is fully
explained and developed throughout the essay.

 Analysis/problem-solving/conclusions are an essential element of substance.
Satisfactory work attains the highest cognitive level that is appropriate to the
assignment. Your essay contains insightful, original analysis, and your
conclusions are supported by evidence clearly explained. You consider ethical
and legal issues when relevant, alternative points of view, and address potential
counter-arguments.

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2-6. Style, as an area of evaluation, plays a significant role in the effectiveness of
any writing. An author’s distinctive voice is heard because of the writing style he or
she uses. Style in writing addresses important aspects such as sentence types,
coordination and subordination, verb tense use and consistency, and transitional
expressions. A good writing style complements the other domains of substance,
organization and correctness to facilitate effective communication. The domain of
style speaks to the following principles:

 Words are precise

 Language is concise without wordiness

 The writer’s tone is appropriate to the audience and purpose

 The essay’s tone, diction, and syntax complement the intended effect

 Sentences track clearly even to the rapid reader

 Sentence types are varied and chosen with conscious thought

 Transitions lead smoothly from one idea to the next

 Active voice predominates

 Sources are appropriately cited

2-7. Readers expect scholarly and professional writing that is clear and organized.
Organization ensures that the points of your paper are clear and logically arranged to
develop the content and analysis most productively for the audience. Moreover, a well-
organized essay effectively communicates the substance of the writing. It provides the

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skeletal structure of the essay and helps the readers see the relationships between your
ideas. Organization begins early in the writing process and is refined throughout the
remaining stages. Given the importance of a well-organized essay, it is obvious that the
main idea must be articulated plainly and directly so that readers see the roadmap of
the writing. It requires effort to craft a strong thesis/controlling idea and corresponding
topic sentences. Without these essential elements, your writing lacks organization and
clarity.

2-8. Effective essays have a clear method of organization include an introduction, a
main body, and a conclusion. Later sections of this handbook illustrate effective
organizational approaches for the most common type of essays required in CGSOC.

2-9. Correctness is defined as adherence to the conventions of standard written
English (SWE). It is difficult to pass CGSOC or operate effectively in organizations if you
do not, among other things, spell correctly, avoid comma splices and sentence
fragments, use proper verb tenses, and make subjects and verbs agree. Hence, there
must be few, if any, departures from the published standard for grammar, punctuation,
and usage. Correctness errors distract from a smooth reading and inhibit effective
communication.

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2-10. The writing process serves as a method or system of approach to writing that
involves organization and construction. The writing process is logical, sequential,
predictable, and repetitive. Like any other process, you can master the writing process.
Ultimately, writing effectively requires discipline and determination. By viewing and
approaching writing in a systematic, logical, and orderly manner, most people can more
effectively communicate their ideas and produce high-quality products that withstand
the scrutiny of academic examination.

2-11. For ease of understanding, it is helpful to view the writing process as consisting
of the following five steps; pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing the final
product. While these steps appear linear and sequential, the real strength of the writing
process lies in the understanding of the writer to know where he or she is within the
process and to negotiate the steps as necessary. At times, you may need to go back or
forward in the process. The creative fluidity of the writing process allows for such
movements, but the final step reminds writers that the end state is a finished product
that meets the standards in all four writing evaluation domains. Below is a brief
discussion on each of the five steps of the writing process.

2-12. Step One: Prewriting. This step includes all the things writers do prior to actually
producing a draft of the essay. Prewriting likely involves research on the assigned topic.
Organized and focused research provides a wealth of material that improves the quality
of a product. The tasking may come from a job requirement, professional development,
or a college class. Most of your CGSC writing begins with research of a given topic and
includes; finding information, making notes, expounding on the notes, and documenting
the sources.

2-13. During research you should systematically gather information to find the answer
to a specific question or to develop the solution to a given problem. The process has
several distinct steps:

 Begin with a research question that you cannot answer with a yes or no

 Clearly state the purpose

 Divide the primary problem into sub-problems

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 Make educated guesses (hypotheses) to answer the question based on
specific assumptions

 Develop a specific plan of action

 Consider your audience and conduct research according to their needs

 Consolidate and categorize your evidence such as examples, statistics, and
authoritative testimony

2-14. Research consists of asking questions and finding answers. Whenever you
attempt to answer a question that requires more than a yes or no answer, you have a
problem requiring research. Some questions used to identify the problem, establish
purpose, analyze data, and draw valid conclusions include:

 What is the real problem?

 What is your purpose in answering the problem?

 What are the subordinate questions you must answer to solve the problem?

 What are your educated guesses (hypotheses) that suggest solutions to the
problem?

 What are the assumptions behind your educated guesses?

 What is your research plan?

 What type of information do you need?

 What is your plan to analyze the information (data)?

 Why does your information support your hypothesis? Why not?

 What conclusions can you draw from the data analyzed?

2-15. State the purpose. The mere statement of a research question only gives you
direction for research. Compiling information without a purpose is merely collecting
facts, opinions, and ideas on a given topic that only has value to the individual. You
must identify why you need to answer the research problem. “Why” provides purpose
for your efforts. Purpose provides you with direction, while helping you and your
audience understand what you want to accomplish.

2-16. Divide the primary problem into sub-problems. There are several sub-problems
that you need to answer before you can fulfill the purpose behind your tasking. Each
sub-problem directly affects your purpose. It is imperative that you take the time to
identify the sub-problems that directly affect your purpose.

2-17. Develop a specific plan of action. Military operations begin with a clearly stated
purpose, the mission statement. Implementation requires a specific plan of action–the
operations order. Research requires the same. You identify your purpose and then
develop a plan to discover the information needed to answer the question. It then
becomes important to consider where you find your research data. Just as important is
to consider how you are going to analyze the data to ensure you recognize and
understand its significance for your research.

2-18. Accept information, evidence, facts, observations, and experiences (data)
relevant to the problem. Every problem has many factors. Some are relevant, while
others may have nothing to do with the solution. Determine what data is relevant and
then collect it. What you collect becomes significant when you extract meaning from it.

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Data demands interpretation; it cannot stand alone. It must pass from your notes
through your mind for processing and interpretation. Data that passes from the raw
stage to the final product without interpretation is merely the regurgitation of
meaningless ideas.

2-19. Clarify the requirement and confirm your purpose. Identify any existing
assumptions and know exactly who you are writing for. Organize your data and get
ready to write. Getting started is one of the greatest challenges that skilled and unskilled
writers and researchers face. Knowing the type of writing that meets the requirement is
critical.

2-20. Thesis statement. The problem you are investigating is at the very heart of any
report, paper, or research. This is the most important element of your writing. It is here
that you clarify the problem. This is the point where many writers fail. They are not able
to tell their audience why the topic merits serious consideration. The thesis statement
tells the audience why the topic demands attention. You do this by clearly stating your
topic and your purpose, assertion, or question. A good thesis statement clearly and
succinctly gives the “what” and the “why” of the author’s essay and provides a roadmap
for the remainder of the essay.

2-21. Prewriting techniques. Once you understand the requirement and decide which
type of writing meets the requirement, it is time to organize the data from your research.
There are several helpful prewriting techniques available. Prewriting, as the first and
foremost element of the writing process, helps you to generate material from which your
essay develops. It is more important to get quantity out of your prewriting than quality.
At this early stage, you want to simply capture as many thoughts about the topic on
paper as you’re able. Refining and focusing these disjointed thoughts into a coherent
essay comes later in the writing process. Writers should experiment with each of these
techniques and adopt the technique or combination of techniques that works best for
them. That is, they should determine and employ that technique or combination of
techniques that produce the most raw material in the shortest amount of time. Here is a
short description of the most popular techniques:

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Brainstorming: In brainstorming, you generate ideas and details by asking as
many questions as you can think of about your subject. Such questions include: what,
when, why, where, who, and how.

Freewriting: In freewriting you write without stopping for a set time. You don’t
worry about grammar, spelling, and/or punctuation during freewriting. Instead, you
simply jot down, in a stream of consciousness style, all you can during the time period.
Many times, merely moving your pen across the page generates ideas.

Diagramming: Diagramming, also known as mind-mapping or clustering,
graphically portrays general thoughts by using arrows, lines, boxes, and circles to show
relationships between ideas and details as they come to you. This technique is a good
tool for people who like to do their thinking in a more visual way. Also, diagramming
lends itself to effective essay organization better than some of the other prewriting
techniques.

Making a list: In this technique you list as many different items as you can think
of concerning your topic. Again, don’t worry about the punctuation, etc… Try to write
down everything you can think of about your subject. Your aim is to generate as much
raw material as you can.

Preparing a scratch outline: Similar to making a list, preparing a scratch outline
for use by itself or in combination with other techniques is very helpful. It is the single
most helpful technique of all prewriting because you think and write about the exact
point you are making and how you support that point. The scratch outline is a blueprint
for an organized, unified, and well-supported essay.

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2-22. Step Two: Drafting. The purpose of drafting is to transform the raw material of
your prewriting into a rough draft of your essay. Focus on the substance and
organization of your document, not on what the final product may look like. This is your
first draft, not your final product. However, when finished it should contain the substance
you need to communicate. Two techniques help you write the first draft, take the
strongest elements/ideas of your prewriting and outline the “skeleton” of your essay, or
focus on the relationship between your rough ideas to begin structuring your essay.

2-23. The skeletal outline keeps you focused on both the substance and organization
of your paper. Print out your outline or minimize it and place it where you can see it
clearly. Place any quotations, references, and supporting documents in the order they
occur in the outline. Now begin writing. Follow your outline and insert supporting
material (evidence) as needed.

2-24. Focus on the relationship between the ideas you have captured and try to
“connect-the-dots” between those ideas. Write quickly as the thoughts come to mind.
Don’t worry about the perfect word or the just-right sentence. The purpose is to capture
the ideas that race through your mind. It is very easy to lose an important idea
whenever you pause to capture the right word or sentence. Write as rapidly as you can
and capture those ideas that grab your attention.

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2-25. Step Three: Revising. During this step of the writing process you evaluate the
substance of the essay and examine the intellectual content for coherence, clarity, unity,
and development. Good writers are invariably good revisers. They can set aside “pride
of authorship” and critically review what they wrote. Writers may not revise well for three
reasons: (1) they don’t know how; (2) they find it difficult and avoid it, or (3) they don’t
schedule enough time. Effective writers set aside sufficient time just for revising. At the
appointed time, confident writers sit down and begin the revision process, following
established criteria to review and revise their writing.

2-26. Steps for revising essays. When you have plenty of time to revise, use the time
to work on your paper and to take breaks from writing. If you can forget about your draft
for a day or two, you may return to it with a fresh outlook. During the revising process
put your writing aside at least twice-once during the first part of the process, when you
are reorganizing your work, and once during the second part, when you are polishing
and paying attention to details.

Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts. Use your responses to revise your
papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, adding needed
information, eliminating irrelevant information, and clarifying sections or sentences.

Find your main point. What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words,
try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence used to support that point.
Try to imagine that this paper belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear
thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?

Identify your audience and your purpose. What are you trying to do in the

paper? In other words, are you trying to simply summarize an argument, to analyze an
argument, critique an argument, or to accomplish another goal? Your audience must
clearly see and understand your purpose.

Evaluate your evidence. Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do

you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you use quotations from the text as
evidence, did you cite them properly?

Save only the good pieces. Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is

there anything that doesn’t seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to
reflect the idea or cut the idea.

Tighten and clean up your language. Do all of the ideas in the paper make

sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud
and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and
misused words.

Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage. Do you see any problems with

grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is wrong, you should make a
note of it, even if you don’t know how to fix it. You can always consult a grammar expert
about how to correct errors.

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Switch from writer-centered to reader-centered. Try to detach yourself from
what you’ve written; pretend that you are reviewing someone else’s work. What would
you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How can you make this part
even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How
could you improve this part?

2-27. Step Four: Editing. This phase of the writing process addresses the necessary
step of editing the draft to ensure adherence to the conventions of standard written
English (SWE). Typically, editing examines grammatical correctness, formatting, and
citations, with an eye to correcting any surface-level mistake that may distract from a
smooth reading.

2-28. Editing or proofreading is effective when you approach it systematically. One
helpful technique follows three steps; reread the paper, do a spell check, and check the
grammar. First, read your paper backwards beginning at the end and proceeding to the
beginning. We call this “proofing from the bottom to the top.” Look for correctly spelled
words that are not the right words.

For example, you may use “sight” rather than “site” when referring to a location.
Second, use the spell check function of your computer to review the document. Finally,
perform a grammar check of your paper. Look for incomplete sentences, passive voice,
verb tense agreement, and subject agreement with verbs and pronouns. The computer
assists you in this task, but it is not perfect. You must remember, the computer is only a
tool that suggests what you can do. You, as the author, must still make the final
decision on how to compose each sentence. Once you finish proofreading your paper,
you have the final product.

2-29. Essay format. In general, the format standard for essays and other writing
requirements (unless otherwise dictated) is:

 Pages with one-inch borders on all sides

 Font is Arial size 12 (note that essays assigned by the History Department
normally specifies the use of Times-New Roman as the required font)

 Double-space lines and paragraphs

 Cover pages are not numbered

 Page one of a paper is the first page

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 Pages are numbered on the bottom and centered

 Short papers (4-5 pages or less) use endnotes or parenthetical citations

 New paragraphs are indented five spaces

 Turabian is the standard for citation formats based on the source of the
reference

 Endnote and bibliographic pages are separate

2-30. Naming Convention. CGSOC essays should follow the naming convention as
outlined below. The naming convention allows for ease of identification and facilitates
uniformity in the submission of essays digitally.

Last Name_First Name_Block/Module/Course_Assignment.File Extension

Last Name: The last name of the author of the assignment
First Name: The first name of the author of the assignment
Block/Module/Course: The block, module or course alpha numeric identifier associated
with the assignment
Assignment: The common name used to identify the assignment

Examples:

Smith_John_H100_Outline x
Smith_John_H100_Essay x
Smith_John_L100_Exam x
Smith_John_F100_Written_Product x
Smith_John_C300_Test2 x

2-31. Step Five: Publishing. The final step in the writing process is “publishing,” which
means to submit the essay to the faculty as directed. In the case of essays or articles
not part of the CGSOC curriculum, it means to submit for publication in a selected
journal or periodical. As military leaders, we are familiar with tactical planning, where we
start with actions on the objective and work backwards to the beginning of the plan. In a
similar way, writers must examine the end state of the process–that is the suspense or
deadline to have the product finished–and allocate the necessary time and resources to
accomplish the writing task. In doing so, this step is simply the culmination of a long and
arduous process that results in the best possible product being completed in the time
allowed.

Fundamentals of Argumentation

2-32. Fundamentals of argumentation. One of the major modes of discourse,
argumentation applies to virtually all assignments involving critical reasoning, no matter
the subject or discipline. It involves a higher level of reasoning than associated with
descriptive, narrative, or expository writing. It is crucial for CGSC students to
understand and master these principles, indeed these concepts drive the critical
thinking skills associated with argumentative writing. The argument consists of an
introduction, body, and conclusion and is built around a major premise or position
(ideally offered in thesis statement). Additionally, there is a definite pattern of
organization used in developing the argument.

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In general, the term argument refers to “a reasoned attempt to convince the audience to
accept a particular point of view about a debatable topic.” Looking more closely at this
definition, we observe that the argument is not irrational and does not depend strictly on
passion or emotion. Rather, argumentation represents a “reasoned attempt,” that is, an
effort based on careful thinking and planning where the appeal is to the mind, the
intellect of the audience at hand. Thus, the writer strives to “convince the audience to
accept a particular point of view.”

The key concept here is “to convince the audience.” You must make them believe your
position, accept your logic, and persuade them that the position you advocate is the
best possible of several alternatives. Hence, as the argument maker, you must offer
enough evidence to convince a reasonable, rational, fair-minded person that your
position is the one that he/she should adopt. Not unlike a court case when lawyers
attempt to persuade a judge and jury based on the evidence they present, you too must
convince your readers through the skillful and judicious use of evidence. While other
elements of your writing have importance, ultimately in an argumentative essay, the
final persuasiveness depends almost exclusively on the quantity and quality of the
evidence. Not only do you want them to accept the evidence, but you want the audience
to accept “a particular point of view”–yours. It is your position, your proposition.
Understand that all too often the audience is intrigued by the evidence presented, but
that intrigue alone is not enough to convince them of the validity or authority of your
position in the matter.

Finally, there must be “a debatable topic” present for a true argument to develop.
What is debatable? One cannot, for example, debate that Clausewitz was born in 1780
in Prussia, and entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve as a lance-
corporal, eventually attaining the rank of major general. Nor can one debate that
Clausewitz served in the Rhine Campaigns, including the Siege of Mainz when the
Prussian army invaded France during the French Revolution, and served in the
Napoleonic Wars from 1806 to 1815. Those are indisputable facts.

One can debate, however, whether Clausewitz or Jomini played a more influential role
in the development of U.S. military doctrine. One can certainly debate whether or not
the U.S. Army brigade combat teams have enough resources to function effectively in a
particular operational environment. Again, the key principle here is that the topic must
have at least two sides, pro (those in favor of the position under discussion) and con
(those who are against the position as stated). Often, there is a variety of possible
positions and a good argument offers convincing evidence for the best possible
position.

2-33. Types of evidence. A writer’s selection of the type and amount of evidence
included in an essay largely determines the persuasiveness of the overall argument.
Often, there are word and/or page constraints that limit the amount of evidence
included. You must make conscious decisions about what evidence to include and what
evidence to leave out! Writing is ultimately about making decisions and one of the most
important decisions centers on the topic of evidence, specifically which evidence is the
most compelling out of all that is available. Normally, a good blend of the types and

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amount of evidence makes for the most convincing argument. The three types of
evidence routinely used are examples, statistics, and authoritative testimony.
Examples: In arguments, three sorts of examples are especially common; real events,
invented instances (artificial or hypothetical cases), and analogies. Real events are
historically accurate occurrences cited as evidence and are indisputable as factual
information.

Invented instances are another type of example and are cited to help illustrate a
particular point in an argument. A purely hypothetical example provokes reconsideration
of a generalization, but it cannot substitute for actual events as evidence supporting an
inductive inference.

The third type of example is an analogy. Strictly speaking, an analogy is an extended
comparison in which unlike things are shown to be similar in several ways.

Analogies develop our thoughts and are convincing, especially because they make
complex issues simple (“Don’t change horses in midstream” of course is not a
statement about riding horses across a river, but about choosing leaders in critical
times). Still, in the end, analogies prove nothing.

Statistics. Statistical information is marshaled and presented in many forms, but it tends
to fall into two main types, the graphic and the numerical. The inclusion of graphic
statistics is powerful and compelling when effectively explained. Likewise, numerical
statistics offers readers a strong and logical element of evidence. However, an astute
reader regards statistical evidence (like all other evidence) cautiously and will not
necessarily accept it at face value without thinking about these questions:

–Was it compiled by a disinterested source?
–Is it based on an adequate sample?
–Is the statistical evidence recent enough to be relevant?

–How many of the factors likely relevant were identified and measured?
−Are the figures open to a different and equally plausible interpretation?

Authoritative testimony: Another form of evidence is testimony, the citation or
quotation of authorities. There are several important things to remember regarding the
inclusion of authorities as evidence:

–Be sure that the authority, however notable, is an authority on the topic in
question
–Be sure the authority is not biased
–Beware of nameless authorities: “a thousand doctors,” “leading educators,”
“researchers at a major medical school”
–Be careful in using authorities who indeed were great authorities in their day but
who now may be out of date (Clausewitz on the art of war, Pasteur on medicine)
–Cite authorities whose opinions your readers value

2-34. Evaluation of evidence. For arguments to be persuasive, they must have a
sufficient amount of evidence that a reasonable, rational, fair-minded person would
accept as proof. When such a person examines the evidence in an argument, it is not

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unlike a jury member in a court case seeking to determine the truth, basing his/her
decision on the guilt or innocence of the accused on the validity and veracity of the
evidence offered by the attorneys. To help ascertain the persuasiveness of the
argument, we must examine the argument in greater detail. To do that, we use an
analysis checklist that aids us in our examination and ensures that we do not
unconsciously forget to evaluate a critical component of the writer’s argument. Using
such a checklist takes much of the guesswork out of the analysis and makes our
evaluation of the evidence more impartial and objective, rather than arbitrary and
subjective. Often, the results of that analysis is articulated in the form of an analytical
essay. We discuss the analytical essay in greater detail later in the chapter. Below is a
sample analysis checklist frequently used throughout the college.

2-35. Logic. In the development of arguments, one must employ logic to ensure that
the reasoning is sound and justifiable. In general, logic is the study of inferences, the
links that constitute the chains of reasoning in arguments. Readers should comfortably
follow the flow of an author’s argument and understand the connections that the writer
made in advancement of the argument.

Typically, logic falls into one of two approaches, inductive or deductive. Inductive logic
begins with a specific idea or premise and over the course of the argument moves
toward a general or universal application. Deductive logic begins with a general idea or
premise and over the course of the argument moves to a very specific application. It is
common when employing deductive logic to use a syllogism to present the case. Under
the rules of rhetoric, in a syllogism, if the premise (or premises) is (are) true and valid,
the conclusion must be true and valid. However, if the major premise and/or minor
premise(s) is (are) not true and not valid, then the conclusion may be not true and not
valid. For example:

Example 1

Major premise: Everyone who joins the Army goes to basic training (true and valid).

Minor premise: Matthew joined the Army (true and valid).

ST 22-2

Conclusion: Matthew is headed to basic training (true and valid).

Example 2
Major premise: Everyone who joins the Army is violent (not true and not valid).

Minor premise: Matthew joined the Army (true and valid).
Conclusion: Matthew is violent (may be true and valid or may be not true and not valid).

Essentially, the logic of an argument should be readily apparent and should withstand
the scrutiny of the careful reader. Flaws in the rationale or logic significantly distract
from the overall persuasiveness of the argument and writers must diligently strive to
ensure they are not guilty of manipulating their readers through skewed or fallacious
logic.

2-36. Fallacies of logic. Fallacies of logic are common errors in reasoning that
undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies are either illegitimate arguments or
irrelevant points and often identified because they lack evidence that supports their
claim. Writers must diligently avoid these fallacies and astute thinkers watch for them in
the arguments of others.

Some of the most common fallacies of logic include:

 Hasty generalization. A conclusion formed without, or with weak, evidence,
often the product of an emotional reaction.

 False analogy. Use of analogies that are so weak that the argument is too
weak for the purpose to which it is put.

 Either/or, false dichotomy. Arbitrarily reducing a set of many possibilities to
only two.

 Transfer. What is true of the part must be true of the whole.

 Argument to the man (argumentum ad hominem). An ad hominem argument
is any that attempts to counter another’s claims or conclusions by attacking the
person rather than addressing the argument itself.

 Ad ignorantiam. The argument from ignorance basically states that a specific
belief is true because we don’t know that it isn’t true.

ST 22-2

 Argument from authority. The basic structure of such arguments is as follows:
professor X believes A, professor X speaks from authority, therefore A is true.
Often this argument is implied by emphasizing the many years of experience or
formal degrees held by the individual making a specific claim.

 Non sequitur. In Latin this term translates to “doesn’t follow.” This refers to an
argument in which the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises.
In other words, a logical connection is implied where none exists.

 Red herring. A deliberate attempt to divert a process of inquiry by changing
the subject.

 Post-hoc ergo propter hoc. This fallacy follows the basic format of A preceded
B, therefore A caused B, and therefore assumes cause and effect for two events
just because they are temporally related (Latin “after this, therefore because of
this”).

 Inconsistency. Applying criteria or rules to one belief, claim, argument, or
position-but not to others.

 Begging the question. An argument which assumes a premise which is not
explicitly stated. The writer, instead of applying evidence simply restates the point
in other language, or the second half of a writer’s argument simply restates the
first half. Also called “circular reasoning.”

 Bandwagon (argumentum ad populum). Concludes a proposition to be true
because many or all people believe it.

 Strawman. Arguing against a position which you create specifically to be easy
to argue against, rather than the position actually held by those who oppose your
point of view.

 Slippery slope. A relatively small first step inevitably leads to a chain of
related events culminating in some significant, usually catastrophic, impact.

2-37. Assessing writing. The standard tool CGSC faculty uses to evaluate student
writing is the CGSC Form 1009W (see below). While specific assignments may call for
an alternative assessment instrument, the 1009W is a common rubric used across
departments and offers concrete feedback to the student on the results of his/her
performance on a particular writing assignment. It is structured around the domains of
substance, style, organization, and correctness, and provides ample space for
additional comments by the instructor to the student. Normally, all writing assignments
and accompanying feedback is placed in the student’s individual academic portfolio for
historical and counseling purposes. This assessment tool for writing is also located in
the Blackboard Master Library.

ST 22-2

2-38. Throughout CGSOC, students write various types of essays. Regardless of the
particular assignment, it is essential that the student pay attention to each of the four
domains of writing and construct the essay in such a manner as to directly answer the
question or problem posed. The following is a brief description of several of the most
common types of essays in the CGSC curriculum.

Argumentative Essay

2-39. Argumentative writing requires the writer to agree or disagree with a statement,
take a stand, or defend a point of view. The main purpose of the argumentative essay is
to persuade an audience to agree with the writer’s position. The primary concern is the
quality and quantity of the evidence offered. Another way to understand the
argumentative essay is that the writer proposes an idea or proposition and then
proceeds through the paper to present evidence and analysis that supports the
argument.

An argumentative essay seeks to prove and illustrate an idea or theory. Most officers
attending the Command and General Staff School (CGSS) have experience in
presenting briefings, but probably not in publishing essays. Obviously, briefings
continue to be important, but key positions require one to relate information to a larger,
and in some cases, more sophisticated audience.

ST 22-2

Begin with a clearly stated thesis (the point you want to prove) in your introduction and
use the body of your paper to construct your argument. Rationally build your case,
leading to the conclusion, which should be consistent with your thesis. Avoid using
information or comments not directly supporting your thesis.

In general, devote one paragraph to one idea or concept. Arrange your sentences in
logical order. Do your best, however, to connect your paragraphs with transition
sentences. It is usually best to start each paragraph with a strong topic sentence
informing the reader what the paragraph contains so that it contributes to the thesis. For
additional information and guidance, consult this text as well as The Elements of Style
by William Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White.

Stringing together direct quotations is usually ineffective and distracts from the paper’s
purpose. A more effective technique is summarizing ideas and information within a
paragraph and then inserting a footnote/endnote to direct the reader to the source.

Analytical Essay

2-40. The analytical essay is a composition wherein the writer analyzes an argument
and evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the argument, as well as the overall
persuasiveness of the argument. Composition pedagogy and best practices within the
writing discipline clearly demonstrate the value of and benefit of having students
analyze an argument prior to their attempts to construct their own arguments.

Given that the argumentative essay is perhaps the most difficult of all types of essays to
write, it is enormously helpful and developmental for students to first hone their critical
thinking and analysis skills by critiquing another author’s argument and then articulating
the results of that analysis. When they do this, students are invariably much more
attuned to the essential elements of a convincing argument and are much more likely to
avoid mistakes that some argument makers typically commit. Their evaluation of an
existing argument reinforces the critical rhetorical skills required to produce a
compelling argument and cements the rules of argumentation to their understanding,
namely that the argument’s evidence be of sufficient quantity and quality to be
convincing.

Within the college, we employ an argument analysis checklist to facilitate the students’
analysis of arguments and their subsequent composition of an analytical essay. A
sample argument analysis checklist is shown in paragraph 2-33 and appendix C to this
student text.

Expository Essay

2-41. Taking information from several sources and synthesizing it into a single
explanation creates expository writing. The main purpose of this type of writing is to
explain something. An example of expository writing is a news article covering a
campaign appearance of a political candidate.

ST 22-2

The article includes factual information about what the candidate said and did, gives
observations on the crowd’s reactions, and discusses what the political pundits or
commentators said about the event, all drawn and blended together into an expository
article.

Writers must carefully consider what key elements of information they include in an
expository essay since a good explanation requires clear and insightful prose. In the
expository essay, how the writer “exposes” the audience to the pertinent information
becomes an overarching concern that factors largely into the effectiveness of the essay.

Compare and Contrast Essay

2-42. When tasked to discuss similarities and differences of an idea, item, or event,
you are writing a compare and contrast type of essay. Comparing requires the writer to
look at similarities between the ideas, items, or events the writer is writing about. When
a writer contrasts ideas, items, or events, they look at their differences. Comparing and
contrasting requires the writer to analyze the ideas, items, or events by taking things
apart and addressing those key components that can be compared or contrasted.

Blocking or chunking is also a technique. In this technique, the writer elaborates on the
characteristics of the first item then examining the same characteristics of the second
item.

Sequencing. In this technique, the writer details the characteristics of both items
together before moving on to the second characteristic (see illustration below).

In both techniques, the writer must determine the unique points of comparison/contrast
for the approach to be effective.

General Writing Guidelines

2-43. CGSS recommends these tips when writing your essay:

A good historical essay argues a point. The author asserts a position (thesis), offers
evidence in support, accounts for opposing facts and opinions, and ends with a
conclusion that restates the thesis. Use the writing “tips” below to start. For more in-
depth reference, refer to The Elements of Style by William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White.

ST 22-2

Use verbs in simple past tense in active mode (he went, she thought, etc.). Passive
voice fulfills a need sometimes. Yet, as a rule, writers should use active verbs for
greater clarity and precision. To write, “Napoleon was surprised at the Battle of
Waterloo” is factually correct. However, an active verb expresses a more complete
thought: “The arrival of the Prussian Army surprised Napoleon.”

Avoid jargon and slang. Do not use unofficial abbreviations, such as “WWI” for World
War I.

Use quotations judiciously, particularly in short papers. It is possible to write your paper
without any quotations.

Quotations five lines and longer should be single-spaced and indented, without
quotation marks. Refer to Kate L. Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Research Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations for examples and formats.

Introduce a person into the text by name and title or position the first time you mention
him or her.

Extensive stringing together of loosely paraphrased sentences is unacceptable. Citing
references protects you from a charge of plagiarism but not from an assessment of
failing to analyze the material. Demonstrate your writing and analytical skills, not those
of another author. Use direct quotations or your own words to articulate someone else’s
position.

Keep papers within length guidelines. Succinct writing is effective.

Normally use Arial, 12-pitch font for formal paper submissions, although the History
Department typically requires Times New Roman Font.

Double-space all papers unless told otherwise.

Italicize, and if necessary, define foreign words, ship names, book titles, journal titles,
etc. Enclose chapters within a book or articles within a journal with quotation marks.
Refer to Elements of Style for further explanation.

Rewriting creates clarity. Proofread carefully. Spell check and grammar check programs
do not identify correctly spelled words used incorrectly. Let time pass before re-reading
your work. Read your essay aloud. If a word, phrase, or sentence appears awkward,
revise. If you are pressed for time, ask someone else to read it aloud to you. Reduce
wordiness.

You can write an “A” paper based on mandatory course readings. While some essay
requirements direct you to only use the assigned lesson materials, other essay
requirements permit the use of outside research sources. If outside sources are
included, they must be credible and of appropriate academic standing. Be especially
careful about the use of internet sources. Some internet sources are of dubious

ST 22-2

academic rigor and should be avoided. If ever in doubt about the use of a particular
source, ask your instructor.

On the title page include your name, staff group, date, and course title. Word count
does not include the title page, footnotes (endnotes), or the mandatory bibliography.

Use either chronological or topical organization. Usually a chronological discussion
works better. Outlines help to enhance logical presentation.

Clear transitions between topics signal change. Avoid the overuse of subheadings.

Topic sentences are important. If a sentence does not relate to the first sentence of a
particular paragraph, change the topic sentence or move the statement to another
paragraph.

Avoid overuse of a word or phrase. Consult a dictionary or thesaurus for appropriate
synonyms. There are two exceptions; when the exact word is necessary for clarity or no
other word conveys the same idea, and when an author repeats the same word or
phrase for dramatic emphasis.

A paragraph consists of at least three sentences. Vary sentence structure and length.

Follow subject-verb agreement. A singular subject takes a singular verb. A plural
subject takes a plural verb.

Use connections such as “however,” “yet,” “unfortunately,” “rather,” “on the contrary,”
etc., to signal a change in the direction of your argument and/or contrasting ideas.
Identify speakers, authors, actors, and new terms in the narrative. When introducing a
new actor, the first reference should include first and last name, as well as job position.
Any subsequent reference should give last name only. When introducing a specific term
or abbreviation, define clearly or spell out fully. Subsequent references consist of the
term itself or the abbreviated form.

Examples:

First reference: Second reference:
Historian John Keegan Keegan
Operation ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF) OEF

Avoid first person and qualified statements.

Commonly noted problems in essays:

–No thesis or introduction
–Failure to follow essay format
–Disregard for rules of style and grammar
–Lack of authority (use of first person or unnecessarily qualified statements)
–Flaw in organization (logical development)
–No bottom line up front (BLUF) or weak topic sentences

ST 22-2

–Weak conclusions (no restatement of thesis, summary of evidence, and/or lack
of significance)

Resources

2-44. Field grade leaders, as practitioners in the profession of arms, need to have
ready access to a variety of writing resources. Just like a good mechanic has a toolbox
with the instruments of his trade, the best writers also have a library of writing resources
to facilitate their efforts. Military professionals should purchase, check out from the
library, and/or research references on-line. Regardless of how you acquire these writing
resources, make sure that they are available to you as you go through the writing
process. Many of these references are also available on the master library within the
CGSC Blackboard suite. Appendix D to this text provides a brief list of some of the most
helpful writing resources. These tools are invaluable during CGSOC and your
professional career.

2-45. Additionally, CGSC has created a Learning Resource Center (LRC) to facilitate
student success in the critical thinking and communications skills. The LRC is located
within the Ike Skelton Combined Arms Research Library and provides a variety of
services oriented on improving student performance. Staffed with professionals
experienced and skilled in the communications disciplines, the LRC offers an entire
suite of capabilities especially designed to enhance student learning through practice
and performance.

In addition to reviewing written assignments, the LRC offers workshops, one-on-one
coaching, and access to resources that address a variety of academic skills:

 Writing Skills
 Communication Skills
 Reading Strategies
 Critical Thinking
 Study Skills
 Time Management

The LRC website is accessed through Blackboard.

Summary

2-46. Writing is hard work. It requires significant effort and skill, and is often frustrating,
tedious, and time-consuming. However, in order to be successful as a field-grade leader
you must communicate effectively, especially in the written form. During the academic
school year at CGSC, the writing requirements are challenging and continuous. In order
to meet these requirements and to succeed in the curriculum, you have to approach
your writing in a systematic and methodical manner. The advice and techniques
mentioned in this chapter can greatly facilitate your ability to achieve the standards
required in the writing assignments. Discipline yourself to become a better writer and
use the available tools in your professional development. While it is not an easy task,
you can succeed if you work at it.

ST 22-2

CHAPTER 3

ACADEMIC ETHICS

3-1. Professional and academic ethics are of paramount importance to the college.
Work presented by students, staff, and faculty as their own must be their own. To do
otherwise results in unfair advantage and is inconsistent with professional ethics and
integrity. Academic ethics, as it relates to staff, faculty, and students and their duties at
the CGSC, is defined as the application of ethical principles in an academic
environment to include giving and receiving authorized assistance, the conduct of
legitimate research, and properly attributing credit to sources of information used in
written submissions.

This statement and the following amplifications of it assist the vast majority who want to
do the right thing, and thereby have a more productive learning experience. This policy
is not intended as a vehicle to incriminate those who might be inclined to violate
professional standards. Officers may be technically guilty of plagiarism, and subject to
the full penalties for it if they don’t document the sources of their information properly.
Ignorance is not a defense. Plagiarism, in any form, is strictly prohibited!

3-2. Documentation. Whenever you use other sources in your document, you may
quote the source directly, paraphrase, or summarize. When you reference sources use
the CGSC approved standard, which is Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term
Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.

3-3. Turabian explains how to document sources using either footnotes/endnotes and
bibliography, or parenthetical notes and reference list. However, the primary method for
essays at CGSC is to employ footnotes and a bibliography, Students should always
ensure they know the requirements of the specific essay assignment. When in doubt –
ask the instructor!

3-4. The Command and General Staff School (CGSS) provides The Concise
Command and General Staff School Style Guide (appendix A). This appendix is based
on Turabian and addresses common citation rules, use of quotations, bibliographic
entries, and paraphrasing.

Key Definitions

3-5. Key Definitions concerning academic violations of college policy are found in
CGSC Bulletin No. 920, Command and General Staff College Academic Ethics Policy.

3-6. Cheating. To act dishonestly, to violate rules, to practice fraud. The acts of
stealing, lying, and plagiarizing are considered cheating for purposes of Bulletin No.
920. Examples of cheating include, but are not limited to; copying answers from another
student during tests, copying examination answers from another mode of the course,
removing test booklets from the examination room after completion of the test unless
approved by the examination proctor, failing to turn in test booklets at the end of the
test, or using notes or unauthorized materials when taking examinations.

ST 22-2

3-7. Unauthorized collaboration. Working jointly with others on a project or written
assignment if that project or paper is assigned as an individual project, for the sole
purpose of acting dishonestly or practicing fraud. This may include, but is not limited to;
cooperating or allowing another student to copy one’s answers during an examination,
openly passing notes or discussing examination answers/solutions during the
examination, discussing the examination with a student who hasn’t yet taken the
examination, or receiving unauthorized assistance in preparing out-of-class
assignments.

3-8. Plagiarism. To present someone else’s ideas, words, data, or work as one’s own.
This includes both published and unpublished work.

Plagiarism, in any form, is strictly prohibited. Plagiarism includes, but is not limited to:

 Presenting as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing
source

 Presenting another’s writing as one’s own

 Copying words from a source without identifying those words with quotation
marks and/or endnotes

 Copying the words of another student

 Borrowing another student’s paper, handing in a paper purchased from an
individual or agency, or submitting papers from study groups or organizational
files

 Providing or asking for unauthorized assistance on exams, individual projects,
or group projects
 The direct lifting or transfer in whole or in part of computer based text
from websites, computer disks, and databases without placing that text in
quotes and properly footnoting the source

3-9. Unauthorized assistance. Unauthorized assistance is defined as any type
of assistance with assigned work product by any source not specifically allowed
by instructors or indicated in the course syllabus. Unauthorized assistance does
not include receiving proof-reading assistance or format assistance from
spouses, fellow students, or faculty. When you turn in your assignment, indicate
such formatting or proof reading assistance. Examples of unauthorized
assistance include the following:

 Possession or use of copies of solutions to practical exercises, examinations,
lessons, or any other controlled issue material used in any CGSC resident or
nonresident courses not issued by the faculty conducting the course or courses
in question, including materials used in prior years and in previous versions of
the courses taught within CGSC

 The transfer of any of the material listed in the above paragraph to anyone
unless specifically authorized to do so

 Assisting or receiving assistance from any person in completing practical
exercises, examinations, or the graded course requirements unless such
assistance is expressly authorized by the instructor

 Using information from previous examinations, to include information
contained in students’ notes or information obtained from students in section/staff

ST 22-2

groups who have already completed the core curriculum lesson or elective
course in question

3-10. Writing requirements. Students write in accordance with ST 22-2 unless
specifically instructed otherwise by the course or lesson instructor. Instructors
must state specifically what type of help a student may receive from faculty,
spouse, or other students for that course or lesson.

3-11. Group work. When an instructor assigns group work, the concept of team work
applies. This means that brainstorming, sharing of ideas, joint authorship, and critiquing
of each other’s work is important and critical to a successful project. Each member of
the group does his or her fair share of the effort. Groups will not delegate all or most of
the work on a project to one or two individuals. All group members participate equally in
the completion of the project.

When an instructor assigns similar projects to several groups, each group produces its
own solution or work product. Collaboration between groups to produce a common
solution is prohibited unless specifically permitted by the instructor. If an instructor
approves collaboration with other groups, the instructor will specify, in writing, the nature
and limits of the collaboration allowed. A group solution or project based in whole or in
part on help or collaboration with another group must indicate all such assistance
received by another group or individual. For example: “Our solution is based, in part, on
a decision matrix developed by Major Smith’s Group.”

3-12. Proofreading. Part of the learning process is talking with fellow students and
working on improving known weaknesses. As part of this learning process, CGSOC
students may ask their spouse or another individual to proofread papers for simple
punctuation, spelling errors, and clarity of expression. However, this assistance must be
noted on the paper. This type of assistance may not include any comment or correction
on the paper or project content or help with research.

3-13. Copyright laws. Copyright laws are specific and demanding. All papers submitted
by students and faculty will abide by all copyright laws. Students will not photocopy,
duplicate tape, or use other technologies in violation of these copyright laws. A violation
of copyright laws may subject an individual to civilian and/or criminal penalties. For
specific information on the use of copyrighted materials see CGSC Bulletin No.18,
Copyright Policies and General Guidelines, or contact the copyright coordinator at 913-
758-3018.

3-14. Professional standards. All members of the resident and nonresident college
community, to include staff, faculty, and students, must maintain the highest
professional standards and uphold the Army values. Authors are expected to do honest
research and, when they publish for personal recognition, to attribute credit to those
from whose work they borrow.

3-15. Evaluation process. To preclude compromising the evaluation process, students
will refrain from discussing or otherwise exchanging information on examinations or
quizzes within the hearing of those students who have not yet taken the examination or
quiz. The student evaluation process is designed to determine the assimilation and

ST 22-2

comprehension of each student for each course and to provide information for
curriculum design and improvement. Deliberate or unintentional disclosure of
examination or quiz content not only invalidates the evaluation process but could result
in punitive action being taken against the person who disclosed the information.

3-16. Use of computer language-analysis software. Departments and instructors allow
and encourage the use of spelling, grammar, and style checkers by students while
working on their written assignments. Language analysis software is a powerful tool for
learning and a quality control for writing. This software, unlike the dictionary or
composition text, “proofreads” writings and recommends changes based on “rules” set
up for that program. It flags potential problems and offers recommendations; the writer
makes the decisions. A writer may passively accept these recommendations, but a
good writer recognizes the program’s limitations as an analytic tool and bases decisions
on personal knowledge.

Because the final decision for accepting or rejecting the suggested change rests with
the writer, CGSC does not require students to acknowledge the use of these programs
in their written assignments.

Students are authorized to use college computers located in the classrooms, Hoge
Barracks, and ISCARL for written work. They may also bring a computer from home;
however, personal computers may not be connected to the college LAN.

Students are not authorized to use a personal computer belonging to another student
under any conditions. This prevents students from placing themselves accidentally in
harm’s way by unwittingly accessing another student’s work.

3-17. CGSC Circular 350-1, United States Army Command and General Staff College
Catalog states: Any student who is suspected of violating U.S. Army CGSC Academic
Ethics policy is subject to an Army Regulation (AR) 15-6 investigation that may result in
appropriate disciplinary action. See CGSC Bulletin No. 912, Command and General
Staff College (CGSC) Academic Misconduct Investigations and Student
Dismissal/Release Procedures, and CGSC Bulletin No. 920, Command and General
Staff College Academic Ethics Policy.

Reporting Procedures and Responsibilities

3-18. We expect all faculty and students to comply with the above academic ethical
standards regarding individual and group work done at the college. The following
reporting procedures are used when a violation is suspected:

Resident course. Students and faculty will report suspected violations to the class
SGA, section leader, or course instructor. During the initial investigation process, all
parties involved will ensure the rights of the suspected violator are protected. Prior to
speaking to or requesting a written statement from an individual suspected of violating
the provisions of CGSC academic ethics, the individual doing the questioning will inform
the suspect of his or her rights under either Article 31, Uniform Code of Military Justice
or the civilian equivalent.

ST 22-2

The SGA or course instructor will then investigate the allegation to the point he or she
believes, based on the information gathered, that a violation has occurred. They then
notify their department director, committee chief, or team leader who informs the college
chain of command. Legal advice will be obtained from the CGSC legal advisor as
necessary. If a school or department director reasonably believes that an ethics
violation has occurred, he or she forwards a memorandum to the Dean of Academics
recommending that an AR 15-6 investigation be initiated in accordance with CGSC
Bulletin No. 912, Command and General Staff College (CGSC) Academic Misconduct
Investigations and Student Dismissal/Release Procedures.

After receiving the information of the alleged violation, the Dean of Academics
determines if an investigation will be initiated. School and department directors notify
the senior representative of the AFELM, NAVELM, or MCELM of any suspected
violation by an officer of their respective service.

Non-Resident Courses

Distance Learning (DL). Adjunct faculty and CGSC students enrolled in DL reports
suspected violations of academic ethics to the Director, DDE. During the investigation
process, all parties involved in the investigation ensures compliance with CGSC policy,
applicable regulations, and the recognition of the rights of the suspected violators. The
Chief, Student Services, DDE conducts a preliminary investigation into the allegation in
accordance with local procedures and CGSC Bulletin No. 912 and forwards findings
and recommendations to the Director, DDE. The director, in conjunction with the
directorates whose coursework has been the subject of the alleged violation does the
following:

 Determine if an Academic Review Board is warranted in accordance with
CGSC policy

 If warranted, forward a memorandum to the dean of academics
recommending that an Academic Review Board be initiated

 Conduct investigations concerning adjunct faculty members and forward
findings to the appropriate division director

 As with the resident course, all parties involved in the investigation ensures
the rights of the suspected violator are protected

Professional Development Education (PDE) Brigades. TASS CGSOC Battalion and
PDE Brigade students who suspect an academic ethics violation report it to instructors
or section leaders, who then report all suspected violations to battalion commanders.

The battalion commander then establishes procedures for conducting a preliminary
inquiry to determine whether there is sufficient evidence to warrant an investigation.
This preliminary inquiry can be a simple as comparing the student’s paper and the
document that he or she is alleged to have plagiarized. If not, the preliminary inquiry
commander follows the procedures outlined in CGSC Bulletin No. 912.

ST 22-2

Academic Freedom

3-19. CGSC is an institution accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges
and Schools (NCACS), and subscribes to the American Association of University
Professors 1940 Statement on Academic Freedom. CGSC depends on the free flow of
ideas for its intellectual vitality. Indeed, the principles of adult education practiced by the
college are based on the importance of free thought in an academic environment. But,
this freedom also imposes certain obligations.

In the classroom, the college encourages aggressive examination of all academic
subjects. However, the debate naturally arising among professionals in such an
environment should be kept free from controversial matter having no relation to the
scheduled instruction.

Students, staff, and faculty are entitled to full freedom in research and publication of
results, consistent with the academic responsibilities of the CGSC. Nonetheless, these
efforts are subject to regulatory and statutory limitations, current public affairs policies,
copyright laws, security considerations, and the CGSC non-attribution policy.

When CGSC students, staff, and faculty speak or write on matters outside the purview
of the college, they are free from academic censorship or discipline. However, they
must remember that the public may judge their profession and the CGSC by what they
say. They should be accurate, exercise appropriate restraint, show respect for the
opinions of others, and make every effort to indicate that the views they express are
theirs and not necessarily those of the CGSC or Department of the Army (DA).

Statement on Academic Freedom and Responsibility

3-20. The U.S. Army CGSC believes academic freedom for its faculty and students is
fundamental and essential to the health of the academic institution. Without academic
freedom, the uninhibited search for insight and knowledge is impossible. At the same
time, certain individual responsibilities are inherent in the time-honored tradition of free
speech. Academic integrity requires that each of us pursues factual accuracy and
safeguard classified information. The combination of individual responsibility and
academic freedom contributes to the institutional integrity of the CGSC and includes the
following principal elements:

 Freedom to discuss, in a non-attribution manner within a classroom, any
material or ideas relevant to the subject matter supporting course objectives

 Freedom to teach, conduct research, and publish research findings

 Freedom to seek changes in academic and institutional policies

 Responsibility to ensure specified institutional learning objectives are
achieved

 Responsibility to pursue excellence, intellectual honesty, and objectivity in
teaching

 Responsibility to encourage faculty, students, and colleagues to engage in
free discussion and inquiry

 Responsibility to encourage and nurture innovative, critical reasoning and
creative thinking, discussion, and writing in all areas supportive of the curriculum

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 Responsibility that information is presented objectively; a particular point of
view may be advanced, as long as the right to further inquiry and consideration
remains unabridged

 Responsibility to assess the claims of others with respect and objectively

 Responsibility to uphold scholarly standards for research and publication

Non-Attribution Policy

3-21. Full freedom of expression is encouraged during all academic endeavors at the
college. CGSC wants students, faculty, and guest speakers to speak freely and openly
about the many important subjects and studies presented at the college. Guest
speakers are encouraged to speak openly to CGSC staff, faculty, and students without
invoking the college’s non-attribution policy so that their comments may be used by the
students and instructors throughout the course. However, when a guest speaker does
invoke the college’s non-attribution policy during their presentation, nothing the speaker
says during the presentation may be attributed to them by name, position, or title to any
outside source to include news media, public forums, or published writings. Because
many guest speaker presentations are videotaped for later use throughout the college,
when a guest speaker requests application of the non-attribution policy, they will also
indicate how long they want the policy to apply to their comments. If journalists or media
representatives are present during the guest speaker’s presentation, the non-attribution
policy does not apply.

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Chapter 4

MILITARY BRIEFINGS

“There are two types of speakers, those that are nervous and those that are liars.”

Mark Twain

4-1. Importance of briefings. What you say and how you say it is leadership. Effective
communication and the ability to present logical, meaningful, and relevant information in
a briefing is a critical staff skill. The commanders we work for have many decisions to
make and very little time to analyze the issues impacting these decisions. They depend
greatly on their staffs to conduct this analysis and make sound and logical
recommendations. In order to instill the confidence necessary to go with your
recommendation, you must effectively communicate or brief the recommendation and
supporting logic. Your ability to seize the opportunity, command the audience, and
control the briefing directly influences the outcome of your briefing. Hours of analysis
could be wasted if the briefer cannot accomplish this task.

4-2. Characteristics of good briefings.

4-3. Types of military briefings. Your primary source for the types and formats of
military briefings is FM 6-0, Commander and Staff Organization and Operations, chapter
7. Each type of briefing has a specific purpose and format that impacts how you
approach planning and preparing for the briefing.

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4-4. Steps of military briefings. You will normally follow four steps when preparing an
effective briefing: plan, prepare, execute, and assess. During the planning step, you will
analyze the situation and prepare a briefing outline. Who is the audience? What is the
purpose (to inform; to get a decision)? What is the subject? Why is it important? What
are the critical points? What resources are needed? How much time is available? With
this analysis complete, you will then prepare a briefing outline and timeline to ensure the
briefing meets the needs of the audience and is in the proper format.

Regardless of the type of briefing, the information presented must be effectively
communicated to the audience. The use of a standard format is critical. Decision
makers have little time and they rely on formats so they know where to look for the
critical information. Once the briefing is constructed and rehearsed you will deliver the
briefing. During the preparation step, you will refine the briefing, prepare visual aids, and
complete your rehearsals. During the execution phase, good briefers exude confidence
and clearly communicate the material. While delivering the briefing, you or an assistant
must take notes to capture the communication occurring between participants and the
audience. During the assessment step, after completing the briefing, you must address
all issues that arose during the briefing and follow-up on each. These may be
addressed through further coordination, fact sheets, or decision papers.

4-5. Standards of effective communication. The standard for effective communication
(written, verbal, and briefing) during CGSOC includes the elements of substance, style,
organization, and correctness. Substance and organization breaks down into three
areas; introduction, body, and closing.

4-6. Introduction. Refer to FM 6-0 when preparing your briefing to ensure you include
all of the required elements for the particular type of briefing you are preparing. The
introduction includes the greeting, type and classification of the briefing, purpose,
references, and outline. You should greet or address the key person(s) in the audience
with the appropriate greeting of the day. You should announce the purpose of the
briefing and answer the question, “Why are we briefing this?” This is the bottom line up
front (BLUF). Last, you should provide a “roadmap” or outline to orient the audience as
to the direction of the briefing.

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4-7. Body. As in a written essay, the body of a briefing is where the substance of
thought and the main content of information is communicated. You establish credibility
as the subject matter expert on the topic by using appropriate supporting information
and describing the significance of that information. Is the information relevant to the
topic? Is it relevant to the audience? Is the information supported by appropriate
evidence?

Note: The type of briefing dictates the type and sequence of information provided
in the body.

Next is sequence. Does the briefing follow a logical flow? Is the briefing easy to follow?
The last area is transitions. These are the linkages from slide to slide/idea to idea.
These help the brief flow smoothly and aid in maintaining the audience’s attention.

Note: Staff officers must always prepare for formal presentation settings based
on the audience.

4-8. Themes. One theme–one message. Within the body of the briefing it is critical to
have one theme or message. The theme may have several subtopics to further define
or explain the topic. As part of the “analyze the situation” step, you must analyze the
time available to brief the audience. Time is the main factor in determining the number
of subtopics used in the briefing. You should provide examples to demonstrate the
significance of each topic (evidence). It is also important to nest outlines or summaries
to keep the audience on track when using multiple subtopics.

4-9. Transitions. Transitions assist the audience in following the logic of the
information in the briefing.

Note: Transitions are especially important if you have more than one person
presenting information during the briefing.

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4-10. Common mistakes. Some of the common mistakes briefers make with transitions
are listed here. Transitions generally do not come naturally, they must be rehearsed. It
is often helpful to place sticky notes or other reminders on your notes to help you
develop the use of transitions.

4-11. Closing. The closing includes the questions, summary, and conclusion. These
are generally self-explanatory. You should entertain as many questions as time allows,
then provide a summary and conclusion.

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4-12. Handling questions. Giving the audience an opportunity to ask questions is an
important part of the briefing. It provides the briefing officer the opportunity to clarify
information, demonstrate knowledge of the material, and to reiterate the importance of
the information relative to a problem or issue.

4-13. Summary and conclusion. Don’t confuse the summary with the conclusion.
Information briefings have both and they serve different purposes. The summary is a
recap of the main points of your briefing, it should look very close to your outline. This is
your opportunity to drive home any important ideas you have covered in the briefing. Be
sure not to introduce any new material during the summary. The conclusion is your
chance to give the “so what” of the briefing and make any lasting impressions on your
audience. Explain, succinctly, why the material is important, how it relates to the
audience or organization and sets the stage for future work etc.

4-14. Style and correctness. Style and correctness focus primarily on the skills of the
briefer and correctness or relevance of the briefing aids.

4-15. Style. The first area, style, is divided into four areas; physical behavior, speaking
voice, vocabulary, and enthusiasm/confidence. Physical behavior pertains to how you
handle yourself under the pressure of the briefing. Do you present yourself as the
confident subject matter expert or do you cower behind the lectern and just suffer
through the process?

You may be the subject matter expert, but if you can’t convince the audience that you
know what you are talking about, you have just wasted everyone’s time.

4-16. Eye contact. One of the most critical elements of the physical dimension is eye
contact. Eye contact communicates confidence and trust. It also helps you read your
audience’s body language. In order to maintain effective eye contact you have to know
your material inside and out. Rehearse, rehearse, and rehearse! While briefing, you
have to establish a bond with the audience. Pick a person and talk directly to him for 5
to 10 seconds, then shift to someone else. This keeps the audience alert and involved
and helps calm your nervousness. Watch the body language of the group to see if they
are bored, interested, confused, etc.

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4-17. Movement. Depending on your audience and how formal the briefing is, you may
have the option to move around during the presentation. Movement serves both you
and your audience. It allows you to get rid of nervous energy and emphasize the points
you want to make. For your audience, it gives them a moving target to focus on. This
helps maintain their attention throughout the briefing. Like most aspects of oral
presentations, it’s important to maintain a comfortable demeanor. This varies from
person to person. Keep in mind that you want to engage the audience, keep them
interested in what you have to say and avoid distracting them with annoying or
obnoxious movements.

4-18. Gestures. Use gestures to help emphasize key points and reinforce the
importance of critical portions of your briefing. Gestures also help to keep the
audience’s attention and stimulate their ability to remember the key points made by the
briefer. Don’t over-do gestures, rehearse them and ensure they are natural and
convincing.

Some common annoying and distracting gestures and movements you should avoid
include: putting your hands in your pockets or on your hips, turning your back to the
audience, rocking back and forth, pacing, excessive moving around, marching, and the
jittery pointer (sword or wand).

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4-19. Speaking. Be aware of the volume and pace of your delivery. The briefer must
speak loud enough for all in the room to hear clearly, and slow enough to be understood
(without putting the audience to sleep). Many people tend to speak faster during a
briefing than in normal conversation. Several techniques can help you develop an
appropriate rate of speech: time yourself when you rehearse, have someone listen to
you when you rehearse, consciously slow your delivery pace, and learn to pause and
take a breath.

Another consideration is your tone, you should strive to speak in a conversational
manner. This means varying the pitch of your voice and injecting interest in your
subject. The audience should sense a degree of ownership as you brief.

Finally, work on reducing filler words. For some people filler words are a normal habit of
speech and hard to recognize without help. This again is where it is very helpful to have
someone listen to your rehearsal and ask them for feedback.

4-20. Vocabulary. Vocabulary concerns the word selection used in the briefing. You
should use words that clearly communicate the theme of the brief. Pronounce these
words correctly and enunciate them clearly. If you use acronyms, define the acronym
the first time to ensure the audience has a common understanding. Enthusiasm and
confidence speak to the briefer’s ability to take ownership of the briefing. You should be
energetic and demonstrate confidence in the delivery of the briefing.

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4-21. Speaker anxiety. For some people speaker anxiety and nervousness is a
significant problem and can really hurt their presentation skills. Most people are always
at least a little nervous when speaking in public, this is only natural and can actually be
a positive thing. However, if you dread speaking publically and it renders your
presentations ineffective, then you need to take positive steps to overcome this
problem.

Preparation is essential, it helps you learn the material, figure out where your
vulnerabilities are and helps you overcome your nerves. Some of the other techniques
in this chapter also help you with anxiety. If you are overly nervous about public
speaking don’t try to present your entire briefing from memory. Learn the material as
well as possible, and focus on presenting the content in a conversational manner with
some well-prepared notes to help que your memory as needed.

Practice is always the best technique to improve your briefing skills. For nervous
briefers, the natural tendency is to avoid public speaking all together. This is the wrong
approach and ultimately exposes your weakness and potentially hurts your reputation.
As a professional, public speaking is an increasingly prominent requirement in future
assignments. Learn what works for you and seek opportunities to get the practice and
feedback you need to hone your speaking skills.

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4-22. Enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is contagious. If you are excited about your topic, you
generally present a better briefing. Remember, your commander and audience are
thinking, “If you don’t think it is important, then why are you briefing this to me?”

4-23. Rehearsals. Practice and rehearsals matter. Rehearse initially in your office. At
some point you have to rehearse in the actual location. How do you operate the devices
(this is part of your technical rehearsal)? Where is the pointer? Do you have handouts?
Are they in the right order? Do you want to plant questions in the audience? As you see,
it covers much more than just reading your slides and notes. The rule of thumb is 10
practice runs. You may need more, or you may get by with less, depending on your
level of experience. Bottom line, if you fail to prepare, you are preparing for failure.

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4-24. Correctness. For briefings, correctness focuses on the use and format of your
visual aids, slides, and graphics. Your visual aids should complement your briefing.

Note: What you are briefing and how you communicate with the audience is the
most important aspect of effective communication.

Your visual aids should be neat, simple, legible, and illustrate key points.

4-25. Visual aids. Above all other considerations, visual aids must be readable to the
audience. Consider the aspects of the visual aid that directly contributes to or detracts
from its readability. Ensure you use conventional capitalization and correct spelling. Use
bullet comments and don’t crowd the slide. Often the message is lost because the slide
is too busy. Be consistent and use the same font sizes throughout as much as possible.
You should use Arial or similar font and font sizes of 18 point and above. When you use
a slide like a mission statement, it is helpful to use contrasting font colors to highlight the
key points of the slide. Ensure your graphics and animation are relative to the topic and
not just “bells and whistles.” Bottom line is that all your visual aids should focus the
audience on the message.

4-26. Assessment. The assessment tool for speaking is CGSS Form 1009S and is
located in the Blackboard Master Library in the Communication Skills Resources Folder.

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CHAPTER 5

THE STAFF OFFICER

5-1. Most officers spend more than 80% of their career in staff positions, serving on
different staffs and levels of command. The primary responsibility of the staff is
threefold:

 Support the commander

 Assist subordinate commanders, staffs, and units

 Inform units and organizations outside the headquarters

Although staff officers help each commander accomplish the mission differently, the
characteristics are the same among successful staff officers. Staffs support and advise
the commander within their area of expertise. Staffs help subordinate headquarters
understand the larger context of operations. Staffs keep units well informed. Effective
knowledge management helps staffs identify the information the commander and each
staff element need, and its relative importance.

5-2. Staff officer characteristics.

5-3. Competence. As a staff officer, you are expected to be an expert in your
particular field and position. you must be well versed in doctrine and able to coordinate
actions both horizontally and vertically.

5-4. Initiative. You must have the initiative to anticipate requirements. Don’t wait for
your boss to give specific guidance on when and where to act. Anticipate what the
commander needs and any unanswered questions in order to make an informed
decision.

5-5. Critical and creative thinking. Staffs create and preserve options for commanders
to make decisions. You must strive to determine the truth in any matter in order to
facilitate the needs of the operations process. You will use creative researching
solutions to solve difficult, unique, and complex situations. Creative thinking and critical
reasoning are skills that aid you in developing and analyzing courses of action.

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You must seek ways to support subordinate units and don’t say no to a subordinate unit
commander unless you have cleared it with the commander.

5-6. Adaptive. Commanders frequently change their mind or direction after receiving
additional information or a new requirement from their commander. Remain flexible and
adjust to the needs and desires of the commander. You must rapidly adjust and
continually assess plans, tactics, techniques, and procedures.

5-7. Flexible. Understand that all staff work serves the commander, even if he rejects
your recommendation. Do not become overwhelmed and frustrated by the changes
required by the commander and mission objectives. Staff officers must remain flexible
and understand that changes happen, often times with no apparent reason. Never
forget that your work is essential to the mission and your unit’s success regardless of
the commander’s decisions.

5-8. Discipline and self-confidence. As a staff officer, discipline requires a certain
sense of selflessness. Remember your purpose and always conduct your work in a way
that supports the commander and ultimately the Soldiers in the organization. You must
give a full effort even if you believe the commander will disagree with your
recommendations. Quality staff work always helps inform decision-making and the
operations process.

5-9. Team player. Effective staff officers must work with people in a constructive
manner. Successful staff work is a collaborative effort, requiring interaction and effective
coordination within your organization and with higher and lower commanders and staffs.

5-10. Reflective. Staff officers need to assess their actions and adjust as necessary to
ensure future success. Upon completion of actions, they analyze and assess events to
implement measures that maximize efficiencies in the future.

5-11. Clear communicator. Effective communications encompass competence in
writing, speaking, and listening. These competencies ensure the success of the staff
officer. You will routinely write concise papers, brief senior officers and accurately
interpret guidance. Another part of being an effective communicator is being proficient
with current computer technology. You will have requirements to produce visual briefing
products such as charts, graphs, slides, or other multimedia briefing products.

5-12. The staff’s role. The commander is responsible for all that his or her organization
does or fails to do, and always retains the ultimate responsibility to make the final
decision. The staff officer’s job is to assist the commander in making that final decision.
Staffs must provide the commander with the necessary, timely, and correct information
to make the right decisions. As a staff officer, your job is to accomplish the
commander’s intent by operating within your assigned authority to perform the duties in
your area of expertise. Your efforts relieve the commander of routine and detailed work.

5-13. Staff actions. The staff officer assists the commander, helps communicate intent,
and acts as an extension of the commander. Staff actions contribute to mission
accomplishment and the procedures employed must be the means to accomplish the
mission and the commander’s intent. Some examples of typical staff actions are:

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 Advise and provide information

 Produce staff estimates

 Course of action development

 Plan and execute conferences

 Conduct inspections

 Produce staff writings and briefings

 Conduct research

Any activity conducted by a staff officer at the direction of the commander is considered
a “staff action.”

5-14. Advise and provide information. The staff must continuously feed the commander
information. One piece of information alone is not significant, but added to others it may
be the information that allows the commander to formulate the big picture and to make a
decision. You must remember that you will work multiple issues at the same time.
Information must be presented in the proper context and be relevant to prevent wasting
yours and the commander’s time.

5-15. Produce staff estimates. Estimates assist the commander in decision-making.
Estimates consist of significant facts, events, conclusions, and recommendations on
how to best use available resources while identifying additional resources you require.
Commanders use recommendations to select feasible courses of action for further
analysis. Adequate plans hinge on early and continuing estimates. The staff’s failure to
make or update these estimates could lead to errors or omissions in the development of
a course of action. (e.g. staff officer maintaining a current estimate of the situation in
their areas of interest, in coordination with other staffs.)

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5-16. Conduct staff writing. You are expected to be an effective writer. You must
articulate the commander’s intent and guidance through operation orders, plans, staff
studies, staff summaries, and reports. You should prepare the product as if you were
going to sign it or brief it yourself. To adequately assist the commander, you must have
the ability to transform the commander’s intent and guidance into written policy.

5-17. Problem solving. Staff officers cannot just be data collectors and transmitters.
You must be able to analyze and clearly articulate information. The staff collects,
collates, analyzes, processes, and disseminates information that flows continuously into
the headquarters. The staff rapidly processes and provides critical elements of this
information to the commander and other members of the staff.

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5-18. Staff coordination. Staff coordination is essential for several reasons. It ensures a
thorough understanding of the commander’s intent. It serves as the integrating function
in management and is vital to any planned activity. Coordination ensures complete and
coherent staff actions. It enables the staff officer to avoid conflict and duplication by
adjusting plans or policies before their implementation to ensure all factors are
considered. It is a systematic way of communicating with organizations and staffs at all
levels.

5-19. Keys to coordination. Coordination is necessary to ensure a smooth running
operation. Listed are some keys to success that many inexperienced officers often
overlook.

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5-20. Coordination “must do’s.” While learning to coordinate isn’t hard, it requires
initiative and perception. As soon as you report to your new job, you must:

 Observe what’s going on around you

 Find out who’s making things happen

 Get a copy of the organization or installation staff officer’s guide

To find out what’s going on review these documents:

 Mission statement: this helps you determine the mission, goals, and priorities

 Organization and functions manual: this document can help you identify
functions, positions, and responsibilities and locate where you fit in

 Office and computer files: review these for background and precedents on
actions for which you are responsible

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APPENDIX A

THE CONCISE COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF SCHOOL STYLE GUIDE

This guide addresses common citing rules as described in the Kate Turabian’s A
Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (Ninth edition).

Citation Styles

Turabian describes the two most common citation styles: notes-bibliography style or
simply bibliography, and author-date style. Bibliography style features footnotes or end
notes; and the author-date style uses parenthetical citations. The Turabian manual
provides detailed guidance on the correct formats to site sources using these two styles.
Citation styles lend themselves to different academic writing requirements. CGSC does
not dictate citation styles. Lesson authors determine the appropriate citation style for
their specific writing requirements (essays, manuscripts, exams, etc.).

Ideas or data forming the core of common knowledge do not require citation. Careful
citation of all other ideas, data, and quotations is especially important when
paraphrasing and should protect the writer from the possibility of plagiarism.

Subsequent References to Previously Cited Material in Footnotes or Endnotes

When citing references previously cited in full in earlier footnotes or endnotes:

Use Ibid. (from ibidem, “in the same place”; always takes a period) when referring to
the identical source and page number as in the previous source (footnote or endnote
immediately preceding the current footnote or endnote). For example:

1 James Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost
Its War (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 46.
2 Ibid.
Use Ibid. and the page number, if only the page number differs from the immediately
preceding reference. For example:

1 James Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost
Its War (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 46.
2 Ibid., 24.

The second, nonconsecutive reference to a work already cited in full requires an
abbreviated format: last name of author, shortened title of book, page number. This
makes it easier for the reader to identify when you are introducing a new source. For
example:

2 James Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost
Its War, (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 46.
14 Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam, 48.

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Direct Quotations

Authors should enclose direct quotations of four or less lines in quotation marks inside
the main text. Failure to cite a direct quotation is plagiarism. Set quotations of five or
more lines apart from the text by indenting and single-spacing them without quotation
marks. The superscript endnote or footnote number usually appears at the end of such
indented text.

Bibliography

A bibliography is required only if sources other than course materials are used. The
bibliography should follow the endnotes (if used), or the last page of text if footnotes are
used. Arrange bibliography alphabetically (last name first) and group according to type
of source (books, Internet, periodicals, etc.). Refer to style rules in Turabian for
complete details.

Internet and Electronic Sources

Citation of Internet and electronic sources remains in transition. The principal rule is that
the source must be traceable, so that the reader can locate the source. If you are in
doubt as to the site’s stability or longevity, download and print the file. If you have any
questions, consult your instructor for detailed guidance. Commonly cited information
includes the source of the site (generally an organization or individual), title, date
website last revised, web address, and date accessed. (See examples below for
format.) Researchers beware. While information found in books and scholarly journals is
routinely subject to scholarly review, the same level of fact checking and evaluation may
be lacking for information and articles on the Internet. For that reason, do not use
Wikipedia or similar uncontrolled sources for information.

EXAMPLE BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTE FORMAT

The following examples illustrate the appropriate documentation for works commonly
cited by CGSC students and not addressed specifically in the above references. These
are the accepted formats for such entries. Otherwise, use the examples in Turabian.

1. Field Manual

Bibliography:
US, Department of the Army. FM 25-100, Training the Force. Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office, November 1988.

Note:
1 Department of the Army, FM 25-100, Training the Force (Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office, November 1988), 121.

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2. Book of Readings

Bibliography:
Clausewitz, Carl von. “What is War?” On War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1976, 75–89. Excerpt reprinted in US Army Command and General Staff
College, H100 Book of Readings, 50–61. Fort Leavenworth, KS: USACGSC, July
1992.

Note:
1 Carl von Clausewitz, “What is War?” On War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1976), 75–89; excerpt reprinted in US Army Command and General Staff
College, H100 Book of Readings (Fort Leavenworth, KS: USACGSC, July 1992), 55.

[List author by first name first in the note and last name first in the
alphabetical bibliography.]

Bibliography:
Howard, Michael. “Military Science in an Age of Peace.” RUSI, Journal of the Royal
United Services Institute for Defence Studies 119 (March 1974): 3–9. Reprinted in
US Army Command and General Staff College, H100 Book of Readings, 205–11.
Fort Leavenworth, KS: USACGSC, July 1992.

Note:
1 Michael Howard, “Military Science in an Age of Peace,” RUSI, Journal of the Royal
United Services Institute for Defence Studies 119 (March 1974); reprinted in US
Army Command and General Staff College, H100 Book of Readings (Fort
Leavenworth: USACGSC, July 1992), 210.

3. Books

Your research may require the use of individual pages and/or chapters within a book
written by different authors and edited by someone other than the author. The
following example is a chapter from a book used throughout the course:

Bibliography:
Herwig, Holger H. “Innovation Ignored: The Submarine Problem—Germany, Britain,
and the United States, 1919–1939.” In Military Innovation in the Interwar Period,
Edited by Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett, 227–264. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Note:
1 Holger H. Herwig, “Innovation Ignored: The Submarine Problem—Germany,
Britain, and the United States, 1919–1939,” in Military Innovation in the Interwar
Period, ed. Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 1996), 229.

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4. Journal Articles

Following is an example using a common source (Military Review) of research topics
and information.

Bibliography:
Karcher, Timothy M. “The Victory Disease.” Military Review 83, no 1. (July–August
2003): 9–17.

Note:
2 Timothy M. Karcher, “The Victory Disease,” Military Review 83, no 1. (July–August
2003): 11.

5. Leavenworth Papers

Following is an example using a common source from the Leavenworth Papers
series of professional writings.

Bibliography:
Doughty, Robert A. The Evolution of US Army Tactical Doctrine, 1946–76.
Leavenworth Papers No. 1. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 1979.
(Reprinted 2001)

Note:
3 Robert A. Doughty, The Evolution of US Army Tactical Doctrine, 1946–76,
Leavenworth Papers No. 1 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 1979,
reprinted 2001), 28.

6. Electronic and Web-based Sources

Bibliography:
US Department of the Army, Center For Army Lessons Learned. Urban Combat
Operations—References. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned,
2002. CD ROM; available from CALL.

Note:
4 Department of the Army, Center For Army Lessons Learned. Urban Combat
Operations—References (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Center for Army Lessons Learned,
2002) [CD ROM]; available from CALL.

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Bibliography:
Royal Air Force. The Battle of Britain History Site. The Battle of Britain—
Commanders. Delta Web International, 2000. Access date.
http://www.raf.mod.uk/bob1940/bob.

Note:
5 Royal Air Force. The Battle of Britain History Site. The Battle of Britain—
Commanders Delta Web International, 2000, Access date.
http://www.raf.mod.uk/bob1940/bob.

Bibliography:
Paret, Peter, ed. Makers of Modern Strategy: from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. Kindle edition, 2007.

Note:
6 Felix Gilbert, “Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War.” In Makers of
Modern Strategy: from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1986, chap. 1. Kindle edition, 2007.

7. Computer Based Instruction (CBI) in Blackboard

Bibliography:
Department of the Army, CGSC, Blackboard, “H101,” Military Revolution/Revolution
in Military Affairs, (31-03) accessed May 15, 2017,
https://cgsc.blackboard.com/bbcswebdav/pid-969229-dt-content-rid-
13726751_1/institution/CGSC/AY18-
19/ADL_PH2/Student/H100s/H101/interface/interface.html?unlock

Note:
4 Department of the Army, CGSC, Blackboard, “H101,” Military
Revolution/Revolution in Military Affairs, (31-03) accessed May 15, 2017,
https://cgsc.blackboard.com/bbcswebdav/pid-969229-dt-content-rid-
13726751_1/institution/CGSC/AY18-
19/ADL_PH2/Student/H100s/H101/interface/interface.html?unlock

https://cgsc.blackboard.com/bbcswebdav/pid-969229-dt-content-rid-13726751_1/institution/CGSC/AY18-19/ADL_PH2/Student/H100s/H101/interface/interface.html?unlock

ST 22-2

APPENDIX B

EDITING SYMBOLS

Faculty may use these symbols as shorthand to identify errors or questions arising in
assessment of written products. To the right of each symbol is a brief explanation.
Some of these symbols are original, and unique to CGSC; others (including some with
modifications) come from a variety of sources, including the Prentice Hall Handbook for
Writers (currently out of print) and The Gregg Reference Manual, tribute edition.
Symbols sometimes combine for a fuller, more definitive identification of a problem.
When interpreting the editing symbols see the left-hand column to find the symbol, and
then look to the right for an explanation.

Symbol Explanation

ab Inappropriate or incorrect abbreviation.

ad Improper use of an adjective or adverb.

agr Agreement error: subject-verb, pronoun-antecedent, or adjective-noun.

awk This is awkward–there’s a better way to say this.

BF BOLD font.

bluf State the thesis statement (bottom line) up front.

coh These words or sentences aren’t well connected.

coord Faulty coordination.

cs Comma splice.

cw or wc Choice of word–there’s a better word than this.

dglm Dangling modifier.

doc Document your sources.

emp? The emphasis in this sentence is not where it should be.

frag Sentence fragment, incomplete sentence.

GIB Gibberish. This sentence does not make sense.

gr Grammar error.

ital italics.

lc Make this letter or WORD lowercase.

log This seems illogical. These statements don’t agree.

log (p __) This isn’t consistent with your statement on page__.

mm Misplaced modifier.

p Punctuation error.

pas or PV Inappropriate use of the passive voice.

poss Possessive error.

RED redundant.

ST 22-2

ref Unclear pronoun reference.

ROS Run-on sentence.

RTQ/ATQ Read the question / answer the question.

seq Bad sequencing. Change the order.

sh Inappropriate shift in tense, person, number, or tone.

sp Spelling error.

SO Spell out.

spt Support–you need to explain or prove this.

ss This sentence does not make sense.

sub Faulty subordination.

SVM Subject-Verb mismatch (singular/plural or plural/singular).

sum Summarize your important parts (for an introduction or transition).

tone Inappropriate tone.

ts I think this is your controlling idea, (thesis).

ts? I can’t find your thesis statement.

ts:v Your thesis statement is vague or unfocused.

ts (p__) I think your thesis statement is on page ____.

UL Underline.

v Vague or ambiguous–what do you mean here?

var You need more variety in structure or word choice.

VT Verb tense error or disagreement.

w Wordy–you can say this in less space.

wc or cw Word choice (wrong word for this meaning or context).

≡ Capitalize a lowercase letter or word.

Weak or no connection (coherence) between these.

Delete the items marked.

Start a new paragraph here.

no Don’t start a paragraph here.

??? Is this right? Did you mean to say this?

Faulty parallelism.

˄ or ˅ Insert a word or punctuation. May be combined with other symbols for
clarity.

Close up–make these two one word.

# Insert space.

ST 22-2

~ or tr Transpose; change sequence as indicated.

ss[ Single space.

ds[ Double space.

↓ Subscript.

↑ Superscript.

┤n Indent (number of spaces).

There is a problem here (probably combined with a proofreading symbol).

ST 22-2

APPENDIX C

AN ARGUMENTATIVE ANALYSIS CHECKLIST

Examine the elements of an argument using the criteria below.

Thesis
-What is the writer’s thesis? Is it clear and concise? Does it plainly state a
position and the reasons for that position?
-What claims are being asserted? Do those claims support the thesis?
-What assumptions are being made–are they acceptable?
-Are important terms defined? Are terms used that are broad, vague or
ambiguous?

Supporting Evidence
-What support is offered on behalf of the argument?
-Are statistics (if there are any) relevant, accurate, and complete?
-Is there authoritative testimony used as evidence and if authorities are cited, are
they indeed expert on this topic, and can they be regarded as impartial?

Other Considerations
-Is the logic apparent? What type is used-deductive and inductive? Is it valid?
-Are there any obvious fallacies of logic in the argument?
-Is there an emotional appeal in the argument? Is its use excessive?
-Does the writer seem to be fair?
-Are counterarguments adequately considered?
-Is there any obvious dishonesty or unscrupulous attempt to manipulate the
reader?

IS THE ARGUMENT PERSUASIVE? WHY OR WHY NOT?

ST 22-2

APPENDIX D

WRITING RESOURCES

Books

The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing, Brief Edition (8th Edition), Ramage et. al., 2018

The Bedford Handbook / 11th Edition, Diana Hacker and Nancy Sommers. 2019

The Little, Brown Handbook, 14th Edition, H. Ramsey Fowler et. al,, 2018

The McGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage, 2nd Edition, Lester and
Beason, 2013

Prentice Hall Handbook for Writers, 12th Edition, Kramer et. al., 1995

The St. Martin’s Guide to Writing, 12th Edition, Alexrod and Cooper,
2019

The St. Martin’s Handbook, 8th Edition, Andrea A. Lunsford, 2015

A Writer’s Reference, 9th Edition, Diana Hacker and Nancy Sommers, 2017

A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, Ninth Edition,
Turabian et. al., 2018

The Chicago Manual of Style, Seventeenth Edition, Univ. Chicago Press Editorial Staff,
2017

Online Websites

Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) https://owl.english.purdue.edu/

The Writing Center at UNC- Chapel Hill http://writingcenter.unc.edu/

Liberty University Online Writing Center http://www.liberty.edu/index.cfm?PID=17176

Utah State University Department of English Writing Center http://writing.usu.edu/

George Mason University Writing Center http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/

The University of Iowa Writing Center http://writingcenter.uiowa.edu/

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/

Home

http://www.liberty.edu/index.cfm?PID=17176

http://writing.usu.edu/

http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/

http://writingcenter.uiowa.edu/

ST 22-2

APPENDIX E

INDEX

A
Army standard for communication, 1-2
Academic ethics, 3-1
Academic freedom, 3-19
Active voice, 1-2, 1-6
Analytical essay, 2-40
Argumentative essay, 2-39
Assessing writing, 2-37

B
Briefing types, 4-3
Briefing steps, 4-4
Briefing standards, 4-5
Briefing style and correctness, 4-14
Briefing rehearsals, 4-23
Briefing transitions, 4-9

C
Clarify the requirement, 2-19
Creative thinking, 1-14
Critical thinking, 1-13
Compare and contrast essay, 2-42
Copyright laws, 3-13
Correctness, 2-9

D
Decision making, 1-15
Drafting, 2-22

E
Editing, 2-27
Essay format, 2-29
Essay types, 2-38
Evaluation process, 3-12
Evidence, 2-33
Expository essay, 2-41

F
Fallacies, 2-36
Fundamentals of argumentation, 2-32

G
General Writing Guidelines, 2-43
Gestures, 4-18
Group work, 3-11

ST 22-2

H
Handling questions, 4-12

K
Key definitions of academic ethics, 3-5

L
Logic, 2-35

M
Military briefings, 4-1
Military briefings types, 4-3
Mind mapping, 2-21

N
Naming Convention, 2-30
Non-attribution policy, 3-21

O
Organization, 2-7
Outline, 2-21

P
Packaging, 1-11
Paragraphs, 1-4
Passive voice, 1-2, 1-7–1-10
Plagiarism, 3-8
Prewriting, 2-12
Principles of good writing, 1-3
Problem solving, 1-16
Proofreading, 2-28, 3-9
Publishing, 2-31

R
Research, 2-13, 5-13
Resources, 2-44
Revising, 2-25

S
Short sentences, 1-4
Speaker anxiety, 4-21
Staff officer characteristics, 5-2
Staff coordination, 5-18
Staff’s role, 5-12
Substance, 2-4
Style, 2-6

T
Thesis statement, 2-20

ST 22-2

V
Visual aids, 4-25

W
Writing process, 2-10
Writing standards, 2-3

ST 22-2

APPENDIX F

REFERENCES

Army Regulation 25-50, Preparing and Managing Correspondence. Washington,
DC, 17 May 2013.

Army Doctrine Publication No. 6-22, Army Leadership and the Profession.
Washington, DC, 31 July 2019.

Field Manual 6-0, w/ C1, Commander and Staff Organization and Operations.
Washington, DC, 11 May 2015.

TRADOC PAM 525-8-2, The U.S. Army Learning Concept for Training and
Education 2020-2040. Ft. Eustis, VA, 13 April 2017.

Sabin, William A. The Gregg Reference Manual: A Manual of Style, Grammar,
Usage, and Formatting (Tribute ed., 11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill College,
2010.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations (Ninth Edition). Rev. by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M.
Williams, Joseph Bizup, William T. Fitzgerald, and the University of Chicago Press
Editorial Staff. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2018.

ST 22-2

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