Discussion 250 words. Make sure you provide 2 references and utilize APA style.. . Discussion Rubric

Review chapter 2 of your text book and describe when healthcare informatics was created and the historical evolution of its application in current healthcare?

OBJECTIVES
1. Reflect on the progression from data to information to knowledge.
2. Describe the term information .
3. Assess how information is acquired.
4. Explore the characteristics of quality information.
5. Describe an information system.
6. Explore data acquisition or input and processing or retrieval, analysis, and synthesis

of data.
7. Assess output or reports, documents, summaries, alerts, and outcomes.
8. Describe information dissemination and feedback.
9. Define information science.

10. Assess how information is processed.
11. Explore how knowledge is generated in information science.

Introduction
This chapter explores information, information systems (IS), and information
science. The key word here, of course, is information . Health care profession-
als are knowledge workers , and they deal with information on a daily basis.
Many concerns and issues arise with health care information, such as ownership,
access, disclosure, exchange, security, privacy, disposal, and dissemination. With

Key Terms

Acquisition
Alert
Analysis
Chief information officer
Chief technical officer
Chief technology officer
Cloud computing
Cognitive science
Communication science
Computer-based

information system
Computer science
Consolidated Health

Informatics
Data
Dissemination
Document
Electronic health record

(continues)

Introduction to
Information, Information
Science, and Information
Systems
Dee McGonigle, Kathleen Mastrian , and Craig McGonigle

2
c h a p t e r

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the gauntlet of developing electronic health records (EHR) having been laid
down, public and private sector stakeholders have been collaborating on a wide-
ranging variety of health care information solutions. These initiatives include
Health Level 7 (HL7), the eGov initiative of Consolidated Health Informatics’
(CHI’s), the National Health Information Infrastructure (NHII), the Nation-
wide Health Information Network (NHIN), Next-Generation Internet (NGI),
Internet2, and iHealth record. There are also health information exchange
(HIE) systems, such as Connecting for Health, the eHealth initiative, the Fed-
eral Health Information Exchange (FHIE), the Indiana Health Information
Exchange (IHIE), the Massachusetts Health Data Consortium (MHDC),
the New England Health EDI Network (NEHEN), the State of New Mexico
Rapid Syndromic Validation Project (RSVP), the Southeast Michigan e-Pre-
scribing Initiative, and the Tennessee Volunteer eHealth Initiative (Goldstein,
Groen, Ponkshe, & Wine, 2007). The most recent federal government initiative,
the HITECH Act, set 2014 as the deadline for implementing electronic health
records, yet clinics, private practices, and hospitals continue to struggle with the
implementation and/or use of their electronic health records (for an overview of
HIPAA and HITECH legislation, see Chapter 5).

It is evident from the previous brief listing that there is a need to remedy
health care information technology concerns, challenges, and issues faced
today. One of the main issues deals with how health care information is man-
aged to make it meaningful. It is important to understand how people obtain,
manipulate, use, share, and dispose of this information. This chapter deals with
the information piece of this complex puzzle.

Information
Suppose someone states the number 99.5. What does that mean? It could be a
radio station or a score on a test. Now suppose someone says that Ms. Howsunny’s
temperature is 99.5°F—what does that convey? It is then known that 99.5 is a
person’s temperature. The data (99.5) were processed to the information that
99.5° is a specific person’s temperature. Data are raw facts. Information is pro-
cessed data that have meaning. Health care professionals constantly process data
and information to provide the best possible care for their patients.

Many types of data exist, such as alphabetic, numeric, audio, image, and video
data. Alphabetic data refer to letters, numeric data refer to numbers, and alpha-
numeric data combine both letters and numbers. This includes all text and the
numeric outputs of digital monitors. Some of the alphanumeric data encoun-
tered by health care professionals are in the form of patients’ names, identifica-
tion numbers, or medical record numbers. Audio data refer to sounds, noises, or
tones, such as monitor alerts or alarms, taped or recorded messages, and other
sounds. Image data include graphics and pictures, such as graphic monitor dis-
plays or recorded electrocardiograms, radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging

Federal Health

Information
Exchange

Feedback
Health information

exchange
Health Level 7
Indiana Health

Information
Exchange

Information
Information science
Information system
Information technology
Input
Interface
Internet2
Knowledge
Knowledge worker
Library science
Massachusetts Health

Data Consortium
National Health

Information
Infrastructure

Nationwide Health
Information Network

New England Health EDI
Network

Next-Generation Internet
Outcome
Output
Processing
Rapid Syndromic

Validation Project
Report
Social sciences
Stakeholder
Summaries
Synthesis
Telecommunications

Key Terms (continued)

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outputs, and computed tomography (CT) scans. Video data refer to animations, mov-
ing pictures, or moving graphics, such as a physical therapist’s video of a patient. Using
these data, one may review the ultrasound of a pregnant patient, examine a patient’s
echocardiogram, watch an animated video for professional development, or learn how
to operate a new technology tool, such as a pump or a monitoring system. The data
we gather, such as heart and lung sounds or X-rays, help us produce information. For
example, if a patient’s X-rays show a fracture, it is interpreted into information, such as
spiral, compound, or hairline. This information is then processed into knowledge, and
a treatment plan is formulated based on the health care professional’s wisdom.

The integrity and quality of the data rather than the form are what matter. Integrity
refers to whole, complete, correct, and consistent data. Data integrity can be compro-
mised through human error; viruses, worms, or other computer bugs; hardware failures
or crashes; transmission errors; or hackers entering the system. Information technolo-
gies help to decrease these errors by putting into place safeguards, such as backing up
files on a routine basis, error detection for transmissions, and user interfaces that help
people enter the data correctly. High-quality data are relevant and accurately represent
their corresponding concepts. Data are dirty when a database contains errors, such
as duplicate, incomplete, or outdated records. One author (D.M.) found 50 cases of
tongue cancer in a database she examined for data quality. When the records were
tracked down and analyzed and the dirty data removed, only one case of tongue cancer
remained. In this situation, the data for the same person had been entered erroneously
49 times. The major problem was with the patient’s identification number and name:
The number was changed, or his name was misspelled repeatedly. If researchers had
just taken the number of cases in that defined population as 50, they would have con-
cluded that tongue cancer was an epidemic, resulting in flawed information that is not
meaningful. As this example demonstrates, it is imperative that data be clean if the goal
is quality information. The data that are processed into information must be of high
quality and integrity to create meaning to inform our practice.

To be valuable and meaningful, information must be of good quality. Its value relates
directly to how the information informs decision making. Characteristics of valuable, qual-
ity information include accessibility, security, timeliness, accuracy, relevancy, complete-
ness, flexibility, reliability, objectivity, utility, transparency, verifiability, and reproducibility.

Accessibility is a must; the right user must be able to obtain the right information
at the right time and in the right format to meet his or her needs. Getting meaningful
information to the right user at the right time is as vital as generating the information
in the first place. The right user refers to an authorized user who has the right to obtain
the data and information he or she is seeking. Security is a major challenge because
unauthorized users must be blocked while the authorized user is provided with open,
easy access (see Chapter 9).

Timely information means that the information is available when it is needed for the
right purpose and at the right time. Knowing who won the lottery last week does not
help one to know if the person won it today. Accurate information means that there are
no errors in the data and information. Relevant information is a subjective descriptor

Information 23

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in that the user must have information that is relevant or applicable to his or her needs.
If a health care provider is trying to decide whether a patient needs insulin and only the
patient’s CT scan information is available, this information is not relevant for that current
need. However, if one needs information about the CT scan, the information is relevant.

Complete information contains all of the necessary essential data. If the health care
provider needs to contact the only relative listed for the patient and his or her contact
information is listed but the approval for that person to be a contact is missing, this
information is considered incomplete. Flexible information means that the information
can be used for a variety of purposes. Information concerning the inventory of supplies
in a clinic, for example, can be used by health care personnel who need to know if an
item is available for use. The manager of the clinic accesses this information to help
decide which supplies need to be ordered, to determine which items are used most
frequently, and to do an economic assessment of any waste.

Reliable information comes from reliable or clean data gathered by authoritative and
credible sources. Objective information is as close to the truth as one can get; it is not
subjective or biased but rather is factual and impartial. If someone states something, it
must be determined whether that person is reliable and whether what he or she is stat-
ing is objective or tainted by his or her own perspective.

Utility refers to the ability to provide the right information at the right time to the
right person for the right purpose. Transparency allows users to apply their intellect to
accomplish their tasks while the tools housing the information disappear. Verifiable
information means that one can check to verify or prove that the information is correct.
Reproducibility refers to the ability to produce the same information again.

Information is acquired either by actively looking for it or by having it conveyed by
the environment. All of the senses (vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste) are used
to gather input from the surrounding world, and as technologies mature, more and
more input will be obtained through the senses. Currently, people receive information
from computers (output) through vision, hearing, or touch (input), and the response
(output) to the computer (input) is the interface with technology. Gesture recognition
is increasing, and interfaces that incorporate it will change the way people become
informed. Many people access the Internet on a daily basis seeking information or
imparting information. Individuals are constantly becoming informed, discovering,
or learning; becoming re-informed, rediscovering, or relearning; and purging what
has been acquired. The information acquired through these processes is added to the
knowledge base. Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of a set of information
and ways that information can be made useful to support a specific task or arrive at a
decision. This knowledge building is an ongoing process engaged in while a person is
conscious and going about his or her normal daily activities.

Information Science
Information science has evolved over the last 50 some years as a field of scientific
inquiry and professional practice. It can be thought of as the science of information,
studying the application and usage of information and knowledge in organizations

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and the interface or interaction between people, organizations, and IS. This extensive,
interdisciplinary science integrates features from cognitive science, communication
science, computer science, library science, and the social sciences. Information sci-
ence is concerned primarily with the input, processing, output, and feedback of data
and information through technology integration with a focus on comprehending the
perspective of the stakeholders involved and then applying information technology
as needed. It is systemically based, dealing with the big picture rather than individual
pieces of technology.

Information science can also be related to determinism. Specifically, it is a response
to technologic determinism—the belief that technology develops by its own laws, that
it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available, and must
therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately permeating
all other subsystems of society (Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems, 2007,
para. 1).

This approach sets the tone for the study of information as it applies to itself, the
people, the technology, and the varied sciences that are contextually related depending
on the needs of the setting or organization; what is important is the interface between
the stakeholders and their systems and the ways they generate, use, and locate informa-
tion. According to Cornell University (2010), “Information Science brings together
faculty, students and researchers who share an interest in combining computer science
with the social sciences of how people and society interact with information” (para.
1). Information science is an interdisciplinary, people-oriented field that explores and
enhances the interchange of information to transform society, communication science,
computer science, cognitive science, library science, and the social sciences. Society
is dominated by the need for information, and knowledge and information science
focuses on systems and individual users by fostering user-centered approaches that
enhance society’s information capabilities, effectively and efficiently linking people,
information, and technology. This impacts the configuration and mix of organizations
and influences the nature of work—namely, how knowledge workers interact with and
produce meaningful information and knowledge.

Information Processing
Information science enables the processing of information. This processing links peo-
ple and technology. Humans are organic information systems, constantly acquiring,
processing, and generating information or knowledge in their professional and personal
lives. This high degree of knowledge, in fact, characterizes humans as extremely intel-
ligent organic machines. The premise of this text revolves around this concept, and the
text is organized on the basis of the Foundation of Knowledge model: knowledge acqui-
sition, knowledge processing, knowledge generation, and knowledge dissemination.

Information is data that are processed using knowledge. For information to be valu-
able or meaningful, it must be accessible, accurate, timely, complete, cost effective, flex-
ible, reliable, relevant, simple, verifiable, and secure. Knowledge is the awareness and
understanding of an information set and ways that information can be made useful to

Information Processing 25

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support a specific task or arrive at a decision. As an example, if an architect were going
to design a building, part of the knowledge necessary for developing a new building
would be understanding how the building will be used, what size of building is needed
compared to the available building space, and how many people will have or need access
to this building. Therefore, the work of choosing or rejecting facts based on their sig-
nificance or relevance to a particular task, such as designing a building, is also based on
a type of knowledge used in the process of converting data into information.

Information can then be considered data made functional through the application
of knowledge. The knowledge used to develop and glean knowledge from valuable
information is generative (having the ability to originate and produce or generate)
in nature. Knowledge must also be viable. Knowledge viability refers to applications
that offer easily accessible, accurate, and timely information obtained from a variety
of resources and methods and presented in a manner so as to provide the necessary
elements to generate knowledge.

Information science and computational tools are extremely important in enabling the
processing of data, information, and knowledge in health care. In this environment, the
hardware, software, networking, algorithms, and human organic ISs work together to
create meaningful information and generate knowledge. The links between informa-
tion processing and scientific discovery are paramount. However, without the ability to
generate practical results that can be disseminated, the processing of data, information,
and knowledge is for naught. It is the ability of machines (inorganic ISs) to support and
facilitate the functioning of people (human organic ISs) that refines, enhances, and
evolves practice by generating knowledge. This knowledge represents five rights: the
right information, accessible by the right people in the right settings, applied the right
way at the right time.

An important and ongoing process is the struggle to integrate new knowledge and
old knowledge so as to enhance wisdom. Wisdom is the ability to act appropriately; it
assumes actions directed by one’s own wisdom. Wisdom uses knowledge and experi-
ence to heighten common sense and insight to exercise sound judgment in practical
matters. It is developed through knowledge, experience, insight, and reflection. Wisdom
is sometimes thought of as the highest form of common sense, resulting from accumu-
lated knowledge or erudition (deep, thorough learning) or enlightenment (education
that results in understanding and the dissemination of knowledge). It is the ability to
apply valuable and viable knowledge, experience, understanding, and insight while being
prudent and sensible. Knowledge and wisdom are not synonymous because knowledge
abounds with others’ thoughts and information, whereas wisdom is focused on one’s own
mind and the synthesis of one’s own experience, insight, understanding, and knowledge.

If clinicians are inundated with data without the ability to process it, the situation
results in too much data and too little wisdom. Consequently, it is crucial that clini-
cians have viable ISs at their fingertips to facilitate the acquisition, sharing, and use of
knowledge while maturing wisdom; this process leads to empowerment.

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Information Science and the Foundation
of Knowledge
Information science is a multidisciplinary science that encompasses aspects of com-
puter science, cognitive science, social science, communication science, and library
science to deal with obtaining, gathering, organizing, manipulating, managing, stor-
ing, retrieving, recapturing, disposing of, distributing, and broadcasting information.
Information science studies everything that deals with information and can be defined
as the study of ISs. This science originated as a subdiscipline of computer science as
practitioners sought to understand and rationalize the management of technology
within organizations. It has since matured into a major field of management and is
now an important area of research in management studies. Moreover, information sci-
ence has expanded its scope to examine the human–computer interaction, interfacing,
and interaction of people, ISs, and corporations. It is taught at all major universities and
business schools worldwide.

Modern-day organizations have become intensely aware of the fact that information
and knowledge are potent resources that must be cultivated and honed to meet their
needs. Thus, information science or the study of ISs—that is, the application and usage
of knowledge—focuses on why and how technology can be put to best use to serve the
information flow within an organization.

Information science impacts information interfaces, influencing how people inter-
act with information and subsequently develop and use knowledge. The information a
person acquires is added to his or her knowledge base. Knowledge is the awareness and
understanding of an information set and ways that information can be made useful to
support a specific task or arrive at a decision.

Health care organizations are affected by and rely on the evolution of information
science to enhance the recording and processing of routine and intimate information
while facilitating human-to-human and human-to-systems communications, delivery
of health care products, dissemination of information, and enhancement of the organi-
zation’s business transactions. Unfortunately, the benefits and enhancements of informa-
tion science technologies have also brought to light new risks, such as glitches and loss
of information and hackers who can steal identities and information. Solid leadership,
guidance, and vision are vital to the maintenance of cost-effective business performance
and cutting-edge, safe information technologies for the organization. This field studies
all facets of the building and use of information. The emergence of information sci-
ence and its impact on information have also influenced how people acquire and use
knowledge.

Information science has already had a tremendous impact on society and will
undoubtedly expand its sphere of influence further as it continues to evolve and inno-
vate human activities at all levels. What visionaries only dreamed of is now possible and
part of reality. The future has yet to fully unfold in this important arena.

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Introduction to Information Systems
Consider the following scenario: You have just been hired by a large health care facility.
You enter the personnel office and are told that you must learn a new language to work
on the unit where you have been assigned. This language is used just on this unit. If you
had been assigned to a different unit, you would have to learn another language that is
specific to that unit and so on. Because of the differences in various units’ languages,
interdepartmental sharing and information exchange (known as interoperability) are
severely hindered.

This scenario might seem far-fetched, but it is actually how workers once oper-
ated in health care—in silos. There was a system for the laboratory, one for finance,
one for clinical departments, and so on. As health care organizations have come to
appreciate the importance of communication, tracking, and research, however, they
have developed integrated information systems that can handle the needs of the entire
organization.

Information and information technology have become major resources for all types
of organizations, and health care is no exception (see Box 2-1). Information technolo-
gies help to shape a health care organization, in conjunction with personnel, money,
materials, and equipment. Many health care facilities have hired chief information
officers (CIOs) or chief technical officers (CTOs), also known as chief technology
officers. The CIO is involved with the information technology infrastructure, and this
role is sometimes expanded to include the position of chief knowledge officer. The CTO
is focused on organizationally based scientific and technical issues and is responsible
for technological research and development as part of the organization’s products and
services. The CTO and CIO must be visionary leaders for the organization because so
much of the business of health care relies on solid infrastructures that generate potent
and timely information and knowledge. The CTO and CIO are sometimes interchange-
able positions, but in some organizations the CTO reports to the CIO. These positions
will become critical roles as companies continue to shift from being product oriented
to knowledge oriented and as they begin emphasizing the production process itself
rather than the product. In health care, ISs must be able to handle the volume of data
and information necessary to generate the needed information and knowledge for best
practices because the goal is to provide the highest quality of patient care.

Information Systems
Information systems can be manually based, but for the purposes of this text, the term
refers to computer-based information systems (CBISs). According to Jessup and
Valacich (2008), computer-based ISs “are combinations of hardware, software and tele-
communications networks that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute
useful data, typically in organizational settings” (p. 10). Along the same lines, ISs are also
defined as a collection of interconnected elements that gather, process, store and dis-
tribute data and information while providing a feedback structure to meet an objective

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(Stair & Reynolds, 2016). ISs are designed for specific purposes within organizations.
They are only as functional as the decision-making capabilities, problem-solving skills,
and programming potency built in and the quality of the data and information input
into them (see Chapter 6). The capability of the IS to disseminate, provide feedback, and
adjust the data and information based on these dynamic processes is what sets them
apart. The IS should be a user-friendly entity that provides the right information at the
right time and in the right place.

Information Systems 29

BOX 2-1 EXAMPLES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

An IS acquires data or inputs; processes data through the retrieval, analysis, or synthesis of those data; dissemi-
nates or outputs information in the form of reports, documents, summaries, alerts, prompts, or outcomes; and
provides for responses or feedback. Input or data acquisition is the activity of collecting and acquiring raw data.
Input devices include combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications, including keyboards, light
pens, touchscreens, mice or other pointing devices, automatic scanners, and machines that can read magnetic ink
characters or lettering. To watch a pay-per-view movie, for example, the viewer must first input the chosen movie,
verify the purchase, and have a payment method approved by the vendor. The IS must acquire this information
before the viewer can receive the movie.

Processing—the retrieval, analysis, or synthesis of data—refers to the alteration and transformation of the data
into helpful or useful information and outputs. The processing of data includes storing it for future use; compar-
ing the data, making calculations, or applying formulas; and taking selective actions. Processing devices consist
of combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications and include processing chips where the central
processing unit and main memory are housed. Some of these chips are quite ingenious. According to Schupak
(2005), the bunny chip could save the pharmaceutical industry money while sparing “millions of furry creatures,
with a chip that mimics a living organism” (para. 1). The HμREL Corporation has developed environments or bio-
logic ISs that reside on chips and actually mimic the functioning of the human body. Researchers can use these
environments to test for both the harmful and beneficial effects of drugs, including those that are considered
experimental and that could be harmful if used in human and animal testing. Such chips also allow researchers to
monitor a drug’s toxicity in the liver and other organs.

One patented HμREL microfluidic “biochip” comprises an arrangement of separate but fluidically intercon-
nected “organ” or “tissue” compartments. Each compartment contains a culture of living cells drawn from or
engineered to mimic the primary functions of the respective organ or tissue of a living animal. Microfluidic chan-
nels permit a culture medium that serves as a “blood surrogate” to recirculate just as in a living system, driven by a
microfluidic pump. The geometry and fluidics of the device are fashioned to simulate the values of certain related
physiologic parameters found in the living creature. Drug candidates or other substrates of interest are added
to the culture medium and allowed to recirculate through the device. The effects of drug compounds and their
metabolites on the cells within each respective organ compartment are then detected by measuring or monitoring
key physiologic events. The cell types used may be derived from either standard cell culture lines or primary tissues
(HμREL Corporation, 2010, paras. 2–3). As new technologies such as the HμREL chips continue to evolve, more and
more robust ISs that can handle a variety of biological and clinical applications will be seen.

Returning to the movie rental example, the IS must verify the data entered by the viewer and then process the
request by following the steps necessary to provide access to the movie that was ordered. This processing must

(continues)

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30 CHAPTER 2: Introduction to Information, Information Science, and Information Systems

be instantaneous in today’s world, where everyone wants everything now. After the data are processed, they are
stored. In this case, the rental must also be processed so that the vendor receives payment for the movie, whether
electronically, via a credit card or checking account withdrawal, or by generating a bill for payment.

Output or dissemination produces helpful or useful information that can be in the form of reports, docu-
ments, summaries, alerts, or outcomes. Reports are designed to inform and are generally tailored to the context
of a given situation or user or user group. Reports may include charts, figures, tables, graphics, pictures, hyperlinks,
references, or other documentation necessary to meet the needs of the user. Documents represent information
that can be printed, saved, e-mailed or otherwise shared, or displayed. Summaries are condensed versions of the
original designed to highlight the major points. Alerts are warnings, feedback, or additional information neces-
sary to assist the user in interacting with the system. Outcomes are the expected results of input and processing.
Output devices are combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications and include sound and speech
synthesis outputs, printers, and monitors.

Continuing with the movie rental example, the IS must be able to provide the consumer with the movie
ordered when it is wanted and somehow notify the purchaser that he or she has, indeed, purchased the movie and
is granted access. The IS must also be able to generate payment either electronically or by generating a bill while
storing the transactional record for future use.

Feedback or responses are reactions to the inputting, processing, and outputs. In ISs, feedback refers to infor-
mation from the system that is used to make modifications in the input, processing actions, or outputs. In the
movie rental example, what if the consumer accidentally entered the same movie order three times but really
wanted to order the movie only once? The IS would determine that more than one movie order is out of range
for the same movie order at the same time and provide feedback. Such feedback is used to verify and correct the
input. If undetected, the viewer’s error would result in an erroneous bill and decreased customer satisfaction while
creating more work for the vendor, which would have to engage in additional transactions with the customer to
resolve this problem. The Nursing Informatics Practice Applications: Care Delivery section of this text provides
detailed descriptions of clinical ISs that operate on these same principles to support health care delivery.

BOX 2-1 EXAMPLES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS (continued)

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Summary
Information systems deal with the development, use, and management of an organiza-
tion’s information technology infrastructure. An IS acquires data or inputs; processes
data through the retrieval, analysis, or synthesis of those data; disseminates or outputs
in the form of reports, documents, summaries, alerts, or outcomes; and provides for
responses or feedback. Quality decision-making and problem-solving skills are vital
to the development of effective, valuable ISs. Today’s organizations now recognize that
their most precious asset is their information, as represented by their employees, expe-
rience, competence or know-how, and innovative or novel approaches, all of which are
dependent on a robust information network that encompasses the information tech-
nology infrastructure.

In an ideal world, all ISs would be fluid in their ability to adapt to any and all users’
needs. They would be Internet oriented and global, where resources are available to
everyone. Think of cloud computing —it is just the beginning point from which ISs
will expand and grow in their ability to provide meaningful information to their users.
As technologies advance, so will the skills and capabilities to comprehend and realize
what ISs can become.

It is important to continue to develop and refine functional, robust, visionary ISs
that meet the current meaningful information needs while evolving systems that are
even better prepared to handle future information and knowledge needs of the health
care industry.

Thought-Provoking Questions
1. How do you acquire information? Choose 2 hours out of your busy day and try to notice

all of the information that you receive from your environment. Keep diaries indicating
where the information came from and how you knew it was information and not data.

2. Reflect on an IS with which you are familiar, such as the automatic banking machine.
How does this IS function? What are the advantages of using this
system (i.e., why not use a bank teller instead)? What are the disadvantages?
Are there enhancements that you would add to this system?

3. In health care, think about a typical day of practice and describe the setting. How many
times do you interact with ISs? What are the ISs that you interact with, and how do you
access them? Are they at the patient’s side, handheld, or station based? How does their
location and ease of access impact patient care?

4. Briefly describe an organization and discuss how our need for information and knowl-
edge impacts the configuration and interaction of that organization with other organiza-
tions. Also discuss how the need for information and knowledge influences the nature of

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work or how knowledge workers interact with and produce information and knowledge
in this organization.

5. If you could meet only four of the rights discussed in this chapter, which one would you
omit and why? Also, provide your rationale for each right you chose to meet.

Apply Your Knowledge
Consider the following example of the relationship between data, information knowl-
edge, and wisdom provided by Bellinger, Castro, and Mills (2004, para. 6).
Data represent a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.
Example: It is raining.
Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause
and effect.
Example: The temperature dropped 15 degrees, and then it started raining.
Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and generally provides a high level of
predictability as to what is described or what will happen next.
Example: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially, the
atmosphere is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.
Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of fundamental principles embodied
within the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what it is.
Wisdom is essentially systemic.
Example: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the
interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gra-
dients, changes, and raining.
Select an example of data from your profession, and follow it through the DIKW
paradigm as above.

References
Bellinger, G., Castro, D., & Mills, A. (2004). Data, information, knowledge, and wisdom. http://

www.systems-thinking.org/dikw/dikw.htm
Cornell University. (2010). Information science. http://www.infosci.cornell.edu
Goldstein, D., Groen, P., Ponkshe, S., & Wine, M. (2007). Medical informatics 20/20. Sudbury,

MA: Jones and Bartlett.
HμREL Corporation. (2010). Human-relevant: HμREL. Technology overview. http://www

.hurelcorp.com/overview.php
Jessup, L., & Valacich, J. (2008). Information systems today (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson Prentice Hall.
Schupak, A. (2005). Technology: The bunny chip. http://members.forbes.com/forbes/2005

/0815/053.html
Stair, R., & Reynolds, G. (2016). Principles of information systems (12th ed.). Boston: Cengage

Learning.
Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems. (2007). Technological determinism. http://pespmc1

.vub.ac.be/ASC/TECHNO_DETER.html

32 CHAPTER 2: Introduction to Information, Information Science, and Information Systems

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