APA Format
Appendix
Header
Title Page
Citation Page
Numbered Pages
30 Page Minimum
Appendices
In general, an appendix is appropriate for materials that are relatively brief and easily presented in print format. Some examples of material suitable for an appendix are (a) lists of stimulus materials (e.g., those used in psycholinguistic research); (b) instructions to participants; (c) tests, scales, or inventories developed for the study being reported; (d) detailed descriptions of complex equipment; (e) detailed demographic descriptions of subpopulations in the study; and (f) other detailed or complex reporting items.
Format. Begin each appendix on a separate page after any references, footnotes, tables, and figures. Give each appendix a label and a title. If a paper has one appendix, label it “Appendix”; if a paper has more than one appendix, label each appendix with a capital letter (e.g., “Appendix A,” “Appendix B”) in the order in which it is mentioned in the text. Each appendix should be mentioned (called out) at least once in the text by its label (e.g., “see Appendix A”). The appendix title should describe its contents. Place the appendix label and title in bold and centered on separate lines at the top of the page on which the appendix begins.
Excerpt from current edition of the APA Manual
Parenthetical and Narrative Citations
In-text citations have two formats: parenthetical and narrative. In parenthetical citations, the author name and publication date (or equivalent information; see Section 9.12) appear in parentheses. In narrative citations, this information is incorporated into the text as part of the sentence.
Parenthetical Citation. Both the author and the date, separated by a comma, appear in parentheses for a parenthetical citation. A parenthetical citation can appear within or at the end of a sentence. When a parenthetical citation is at the end of a sentence, put the period or other end punctuation after the closing parenthesis.
Falsely balanced news coverage can distort the public’s perception of expert consensus on an issue (Koehler, 2016).
If other text appears with the parenthetical citation, use commas around the year.
(see Koehler, 2016, for more detail)
When text and a citation appear together in parentheses, use a semicolon to separate the citation from the text; do not use parentheses within parentheses.
(e.g., falsely balanced news coverage; Koehler, 2016)
Narrative Citation. The author appears in running text and the date appears in parentheses immediately after the author name for a narrative citation.
Koehler (2016) noted the dangers of falsely balanced news coverage.
In rare cases, the author and date might both appear in the narrative. In this case, do not use parentheses.
In 2016, Koehler noted the dangers of falsely balanced news coverage. (Association, 20191001, pp. 262-263)
It is best to paraphrase sources (see Sections 8.23–8.24) rather than directly quoting them because paraphrasing allows you to fit material to the context of your paper and writing style. (Association, 20191001, p. 270)
Short Quotations (Fewer Than 40 Words) (Association, 20191001, p. 271)
When quoting directly, always provide the author, year, and page number of the quotation in the in-text citation in either parenthetical or narrative format (see Section 8.11). (Association, 20191001, p. 270)
Block Quotations (40 Words or More) (Association, 20191001, p. 272)
Do not use quotation marks to enclose a block quotation. Start a block quotation on a new line and indent the whole block 0.5 in. from the left margin. If there are additional paragraphs within the quotation, indent the first line of each subsequent paragraph an additional 0.5 in. Double-space the entire block quotation; do not add extra space before or after it. Either (a) cite the source in parentheses after the quotation’s final punctuation or (b) cite the author and year in the narrative before the quotation and place only the page number in parentheses after the quotation’s final punctuation. Do not add a period after the closing parenthesis in either case. (Association, 20191001, p. 272)
Block quotation with parenthetical citation:
Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:
Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches have combined to shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)
Block quotation with narrative citation:
Flores et al. (2018) described how they addressed potential researcher bias when working with an intersectional community of transgender people of color:
Everyone on the research team belonged to a stigmatized group but also held privileged identities. Throughout the research process, we attended to the ways in which our privileged and oppressed identities may have influenced the research process, findings, and presentation of results. (p. 311)
Block quotation consisting of two paragraphs:
Regarding implications for chronic biases in expectation formation,
in order to accurately estimate whether people are likely to form positive or negative expectations on any given occasion, it is necessary to go beyond simply considering chronic individual differences and identify the factors that make people more likely to form expectations in line with one bias or the other.
The present research sheds light on this issue by identifying a crucial distinction in the operation of these two trait biases in expectation formation. Specifically, people’s valence weighting biases and self-beliefs about the future appear to shape expectations via qualitatively distinct processes. (Niese et al., 2019, p. 210) (Association, 20191001, pp. 272-273)
Citing Multiple Works
When citing multiple works parenthetically, place the citations in alphabetical order, separating them with semicolons. Listing both parenthetical in-text citations and reference list entries in alphabetical order helps readers locate and retrieve works because they are listed in the same order in both places.
(Adams et al., 2019; Shumway & Shulman, 2015; Westinghouse, 2017) (Association, 20191001, p. 263)
Number of Authors to Include in In-Text Citations
The format of the author element of the in-text citation changes depending on the number of authors and is abbreviated in some cases. See Table 8.1 for examples of the basic in-text citation styles.
For a work with one or two authors, include the author name(s) in every citation.
For a work with three or more authors, include the name of only the first author plus “et al.” in every citation, including the first citation, unless doing so would create ambiguity (see Section 8.18). (Association, 20191001, p. 266)
APA Title Page Requirements for Students
Running Head is included on the Title Page
The running head is an abbreviated version of the paper title that appears at the top of every page to identify it for readers. The running head should contain a maximum of 50 characters, counting letters, punctuation, and spaces between words as characters. If the title is already 50 characters or fewer, the full title can be used as the running head. Avoid using abbreviations in the running head; however, the ampersand symbol (&) may be used rather than “and” if desired. (Association, 20191001, p. 37)
Write the running head in the page header, flush left, in all-capital letters, across from the right-aligned page number. Use the same running head on every page, including the title page; do not include the label “Running head” to identify the running head on any page (Association, 20191001, p. 37)
page number (also included on all pages; see Section 2.18). Flush Right on the same line as the Running Head
Title of the paper (see Section 2.4);
The title should summarize the main idea of the paper simply and, if possible, in a way that is engaging for readers. For research papers, it should be a concise statement of the main topic of the research and should identify the variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. Although there is no prescribed limit for title length in APA Style, authors are encouraged to keep their titles focused and succinct. Avoid words that serve no purpose; they increase the title length and can mislead indexers. For example, the words “method” and “results” do not normally appear in a title, nor should such phrases as “a study of” or “an experimental investigation of.” (Association, 20191001, p. 32)
Name of each author of the paper (the byline; see Section 1.22 for determining the order of authorship and Section 2.5 for formatting the byline);
Affiliation for each author, typically the university attended (including the name of any department or division; see Section 2.6);
Rather than course number and name, indicate that “This thesis proposal is in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology;”
Instructor name);
Date, written in the month, date, and year format used in your country (usually November 4, 2020, or 4 November 2020; we recommend spelling out the month.
(Association, 20191001, p. 30)
Association, A. P. (20191001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th Edition. [[VitalSource Bookshelf version]]. Retrieved from vbk://9781433832185
Dissertations or theses are typically required of graduate students, but undergraduate students completing advanced research projects may write similar types of papers. Academic institutions or departments have detailed guidelines for how to format and write dissertations and theses, and the requirements and acceptable format vary by discipline. Some dissertations and theses are hundreds of pages long and contain thorough literature reviews and exhaustive reference lists, whereas others follow a multiple-article format consisting of several shorter, related papers that are intended for individual publication. See Section 12.1 for guidance on adapting a dissertation or thesis into a journal article.
As mentioned in the introduction to this manual, most of the guidelines in the Publication Manual can be applied to student papers. However, because the scope of what constitutes a student paper is broad and flexible, and because students submit papers to their academic institutions rather than to an APA journal, we do not designate formal requirements for the nature or contents of an APA Style student paper. Thus, questions about paper length, required sections, and so forth are best answered by the instructor or institution setting the assignment. Students should follow the guidelines and requirements developed by their instructors, departments, and/or academic institutions when writing papers, including dissertations and theses; these guidelines and requirements may entail adaptations of or additions to the APA Style guidelines described in this manual. We encourage writers, instructors, departments, and academic institutions using APA Style outside of the journal publication context to adapt APA Style to fit their needs. (Association, 20191001, p. 10)
Association, A. P. (20191001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th Edition. [[VitalSource Bookshelf version]]. Retrieved from vbk://9781433832185
10.16 Webpagesand Websites
Use the webpages and websites category if there is no other reference category that fits and the work has no parent or overarching publication (e.g., journal, blog, conference proceedings) other than the website itself (see Section 9.2). If you cite multiple webpages from a website, create a reference for each. To mention a website in general, do not create a reference list entry or an in-text citation. Instead, include the name of the website in the text and provide the
URL
in parentheses (see Section 8.22 for an example).
For help in determining the author of a webpage or website reference, including how the author can be inferred from context or found on an “about us” or acknowledgments page, see Example 113 as well as Section 9.7. Provide the most specific date possible (see Section 9.15 for information on how to handle updated dates or reviewed dates)—for example, a year, month, and day; year and month; or year only. When the author name and the site name are the same, omit the site name from the source element. Include a retrieval date only when the content is designed to change over time and the page is not archived (see Section 9.16).
Use the template shown next to construct references for webpages or websites.
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Author |
Date |
Title |
Source |
|
|
Website name |
URL | |||
|
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. Name of Group. |
(2020). (2020, August). (2020, September 28). (n.d.). |
Title of work |
Site Name |
https://xxxxxx Retrieved December 22, 2020, from https://xxxxx |
110. Webpage on a news website
Avramova, N. (2019, January 3). The secret to a long, happy, healthy life? Think age-positive. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/03/health/respect-toward-elderly-leads-to-long-life-intl/index.html
Bologna, C. (2018, June 27). What happens to your mind and body when you feel homesick? HuffPost.https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/what-happens-mind-body-homesick_us_5b201ebde4b09d7a3d77eee1
Parenthetical citations: (Avramova, 2019; Bologna, 2018)
Narrative citations: Avramova (2019) and Bologna (2018)
Use this format for articles published in online news sources (e.g., BBC News, Bloomberg, CNN, HuffPost, MSNBC, Reuters, Salon, Vox). To cite articles from online magazines or newspapers, see Examples 15 and 16.
111. Webpage on a website with a group author
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, January 23). People at high risk of developing flu-related complications. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/high_risk.htm
World Health Organization. (2018, March). Questions and answers on immunization and vaccine safety. https://www.who.int/features/qa/84/en/
Parenthetical citations: (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018; World Health Organization, 2018)
Narrative citations: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018) and World Health Organization (2018)
When the author and site name are the same, omit the site name from the source element.
112. Webpage on a website with an individual author
Martin Lillie, C. M. (2016, December 29). Be kind to yourself: How self-compassion can improve your resiliency. Mayo Clinic. http://www.ethicsguidebook.ac.uk/EthicsPrinciples
Parenthetical citation: (Martin Lillie, 2016)
Narrative citation: Martin Lillie (2016)
113. Webpage on a website with no date
Boddy, J., Neumann, T., Jennings, S., Morrow, V., Alderson, P., Rees, R., & Gibson, W. (n.d.). Ethics principles. The Research Ethics Guidebook: A Resource for Social Scientists. http://www.ethicsguidebook.ac.uk/EthicsPrinciples
National Nurses United. (n.d.). What employers should do to protect nurses from Zika. https://www.nationalnursesunited.org/pages/what-employers-should-do-to-protect-rns-from-zika
Parenthetical citations: (Boddy et al., n.d.; National Nurses United, n.d.)
Narrative citations: Boddy et al. (n.d.) and National Nurses United (n.d.)
· In the Boddy et al. example, the authors are listed on the acknowledgments page of the site (see Section 9.7 for more on determining the author).
· When the author and site name are the same, omit the site name from the source element.
114. Webpage on a website with a retrieval date
U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). U.S. and world population clock. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved July 3, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/popclock/
Parenthetical citation: (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.)
Narrative citation: U.S. Census Bureau (n.d.)
· When the author and site name are the same, omit the site name from the source element.
· Include a retrieval date because the contents of the page are designed to change over time and the page itself is not archived (see Section 9.16). (Association, 20191001, pp. 350-352)
Association, A. P. (20191001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th Edition. [[VitalSource Bookshelf version]]. Retrieved from vbk://9781433832185 Always check citation for accuracy before use.
Deciding on Which Statistical Test to Use
1) What type of quantitative research strategy was used?
A) Experimental or Quasi-Experimental
B) Nonexperimental, Ex post Facto, Correlational
2) How many independent variables, if experimental, are in your investigation?
3) If experimental, is your design a between groups, within groups, or mixed/match group design?
4) How many predictor variables, if nonexperimental etc., do you have in your investigation?
5) What is the measurement scale (Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, or Ratio) of your operational definitions?
· In SPSS interval and ratio data are combined and noted as continuous
· Likert Scales are interval level data
Experiments or Quasi-Experimental
One Independent Variable where there is simply one experimental condition and one control condition or where there are two levels of experimental conditions. And, The scale of measurement for the dependent variable is either interval or ratio. Then, you could use the T-Test for independent groups
Example
: You hypothesize that participants exposed to Intervention A (Experimental Condition) will report significantly less anxiety than those exposed to a placebo control condition.
a) There are two groups where the participants were randomly assigned to Intervention A or Placebo and the measure you use for the dependent variable is either interval or ratio
The T-Test for independent groups could be used.
· T-Test for Dependent Groups is used if matching is used for assigning participants to groups
· Wilcoxon Paired-Sample Test is used when the DV is ordinal (rank data)
b) Instead of simply having a placebo control group, your are interested in finding out which of two experimental conditions result in significant change in the dependent variable but also want to use a placebo to rule out psychological accommodations as a potentially confounding factor.
Example
: You hypothesize that Intervention A will result in a statistically significant decrease in anxiety in comparison to Intervention B and Placebo (or no intervention group). This is a Single Factor-Multiple Conditions design where there are actually three conditions (levels of the IV).
a) Three conditions eliminates the T-Test as the statistic of choice. T-Tests are only appropriate for comparing two groups. Trying to use multiple T-Tests would actually raise the alpha level from .05 to.15 because you would conduct three separate analyses of the data and doing so is unacceptable.
b) Instead, you would use One-Way ANOVA, where one-way indicates that there is one IV If the One-Way ANOVA indicates there is a statistically significant difference in the DV between the three groups, you must then find out where that difference is. To do so, you would run a post-hoc statistical test. You could select one of from the list of post-hoc tests found on this website. (
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-definitions/post-hoc/
) The decision then becomes which one to use. Scheffe’s Method, Tukey’s Test and Dunnett’s Correction have been used the most by our students in the past. The post-hoc test is found in SPSS and you would simply indicate by checking the appropriate box that you would want that test to be run along with the ANOVA
Note: Both the T-Test and ANOVA require that the IV be nominal/categorical. Keep this in mind because sometimes interval or ratio level data are divided at the median (the median split) when the research strategy was nonexperimental and scores on some measure (For instance a depression scale) are split in half or thirds in order to run a T-Test or ANOVA. The DV is some other measured factor (for example, the number of cigarettes smoked in a month or the amount of money spent online)
The problem with using the median split or dividing the distribution of IV scores into thirds is that doing so does not truly differentiate between high, low, and medium levels of depression. Statistically, if you desired to differentiate between high and low levels of depression, you would calculate the standard deviation and select participants who scored two standard deviations above and below. Only those persons who exceeded two standard deviations above and those who fell below two standard deviations from the mean would comprise the two groups needed for comparison using the T-Test. This would require a large pool of potential participants having completed the screening measure of the IV in order for there to be adequate numbers of persons falling below and above two standards deviations from the mean.
Factorial Designs
– When an experiment investigates two or more independent variables, then one is using a factorial design. Such designs are identified like so:
· 2 X 2 Factorial design (Indicates that there are two independent variables and that there are two levels(conditions) that have been established(manipulated) by the experimenter for each of the variables.
· 3 X 3 X 4 Factorial design ( indicates three IVs, the first and second IV have three levels each and the third IV has 4 levels)
· The more IVs in an experiment that uses a between subjects design will require an increasing number of participants. For example, if each cell of the between subjects design needs to have 25 participants, then a 2 x 2 factorial design would require 100 participants to have been randomly assigned to the four conditions. If, you use a 3 x 3 x 4 factorial – between subjects design, then there are 36 conditions that would require 900 participants.
· Using a mixed/match factorial design where the first IV is a subject variable such as religion (Protestant, Catholic, Muslim) that is used to select and match participants relative to the remaining conditions, then fewer than 900 participants would be required. Mixed designs require fewer participants, as do Within Subjects Designs, in comparison to Between Subjects Designs.
Statistical Analysis of Factorial Designs
ANOVA (F-Test) or Multifactor Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) is used. ANOVA is used when there is one DV and MANOVA can be used when there are multiple DVs
· One-Way ANOVA there are two or more levels of one IV, but when we have a factorial design there are more than one IV and the number of IVs are reflected in which ANOVA is indicated as having been used for analyzing the data. Two-Way ANOVA is sues when there are two IVs, Three-Way ANOVA is used when there are four IVs and so forth. MANOVA is specified similarly.
· If the research design is a within subjects research design, then either T-Test for repeated measures (sometimes referred to as T-Test for gain scores) or the ANOVA for repeated measures is what can be used.
Statistical Analysis of Matched/Mixed Factorial Designs (Designs that incorporate both between and within comparisons)
· Data that is interval or ratio and there are two factors would require a two-way, mixed design ANOVA (same as a two-factor, mixed design analysis of variance)
Nominal and Ordinal Level data
most often require the use of nonparametric statistics that are similar to the parametric statistics. (If there are just two categories (i.e., male and female, or African American and European American then one can still use parametric statistics. If there are more than two categories, then the categories can be converted to dummy variables in order to use parametric statistics (i.e., African American, Hispanic American, European American could be converted into three groups of African American compared to Hispanic American combined with European American, Hispanic American compared to African American combined with European American, and European American compared to African American combined with Hispanic American)
Chi Square can be used for two group comparisons when the DV is categorical. This statistic indicates the likelihood of a statistically significant larger number (or lessor number) of participants falling into one of the two categories/conditions/levels.
Two-Variable Chi-Square Test of Independence is used when there are two IVs with each IV having two or more levels and the DV is a frequency count
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test is another nonparametric statistic that can be used when two levels of the IV are measured by an instrument that is ordinal (rank ordered). (example: a study where two treatments are being compared and interest is in whether participants show improvement or decline, the sign test can determine whether the changes are consistently in one direction or the other to a statistically significant degree.
Statistical Analysis of Correlational Investigations
Studies where only two factors being compared
:
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) is used when the variables are normally distributed and are measured on an interval or ratio scale.
Point Biserial Correlation Coefficient (rpb) is used when one variable is continuous (interval or ratio) and the other variable is binary (two categories).
Spearman Rho Correlation Coefficient (p) is used when data is ordinal. Is interpreted the same way as Pearson r.
The Phi Coefficient is used when both variables are genuine dichotomies but the Pearson Correlation Coefficient can also be used
Eta Correlation is used when the relationship between two variables is curvilinear
Multivariate Correlational Studies
:
Multiple Regression
is used when you have two or more predictor variables and a single criterion variable (In SPSS the terms independent and dependent variables are used when setting up your database. However, in writing your findings out in a report, thesis, or dissertation, you should identify factors that are the predictor factors and indicate what the criterion variable is.)
Additional Multivariate Analyses taught in Graduate school
· Factor Analysis
· Canonical Correlation
· Discriminant Analysis
· Path Analysis
· Structural Equation Modeling
Analysis of Qualitative Data
Interviews and Focus Groups can be audio or video recorded. Written notes taken during the recording can be compared with the verbatim transcripts one must make. The written notes can capture pertinent information that may be missed on the recordings but aid in substantiating noticeable characteristics and behaviors associated with certain respondents that come to the attention of the facilitator. These notes aid in describing the context of the data gathering session. The verbatim transcripts are subjected to thematic analysis. Thematic Analysis is the identification of themes or major ideas expressed. This type of analysis can also be used for analyzing written documents, one’s own and others’ field notes, technical papers, and newspaper articles. Sometimes it is useful to train assistants as to extrapolating themes and gauging the reliability of themes identified by the assistants.
Grading Rubric for the Completed Proposals
Student’s Name: ________ ________ _____
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Required Content |
Absent Insufficient 1 |
Slightly Provided /Correct 2 |
Somewhat Provided/Correct 3 |
Mostly Adequate 4 |
Sufficiently Provided 5 |
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APA Style Title Page |
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Running Head & Page Numbers |
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Importance of Investigating |
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APA Style Citations in Text |
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Flow of Content |
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Subject-Verb Agreement |
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Punctuation & Paragraphs |
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Correct word use & jargon Free |
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Accuracy of Statements |
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Theory/Model Identified |
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Research Question |
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Major Variables Identified |
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Major Hypotheses |
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APA Style Reference List |
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Appendices in APA style |
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Total Score |
RequiredSections of the Research Proposal for Senior Seminar
The required sections of the research proposal pertains only to the major sections. There are to be no deviations from what is required! There are four required sections for your proposal:
1)
The title page
– The title of your research must conform to APA style just as the remainder of the paper must be.
2)
The Introduction
– Do not provide the heading “Introduction.” The introduction page has the Running Head (the abbreviated title that appears on each page of your document) The full title of your proposal is the heading used before you begin writing your introduction. For your proposal, the introduction must be a page-and-a-half or two pages maximum.
The introduction must communicate the importance of undertaking the proposed investigation. Providing statistics relative to the impact that the phenomena has had (e.g.,., homicide statistics, rates of spousal abuse, suicide rates,…); or evidence that researchers remain confounded about what factors are operative in given situations (e.g., Researchers continue to dispute the factors involved in the decisions police officers make in cases of unarmed police shootings); or there remains debate between which of several theories may account for a given phenomenon (e.g., Racial discord has been theorized to result from polemics about race associated with social learning or as a consequence of competition for limited resources). How you express importance is contingent upon what you plan to focus your research upon. Each of the examples would require citations in text to support the respective assertions.
The introduction must include the theory or model that you intend to use, along with a succinct statement of the research question and main hypothesis. The research question is broader in scope than the hypothesis. The hypothesis is specific to the main variables that are to be studied. One only states the directional or non-directional hypothesis, not the null hypothesis for the main factors of the investigation (e.g., It is hypothesized that attitudes toward social justice are significantly related to intentions to vote and that personality and familial factors will significantly moderate the relationship between attitudes toward social justice and intentions to vote.). In the example, the variables identified had to have been discussed within the introduction. If the introduction had only referred to attitudes toward social justice and intentions to vote, that would be fine but the hypothesis involving personality and familial factors could not be made in the introduction. The main hypothesis may be expounded upon or expanded to include other factors after having written the literature review. So, if the literature review provides justification for the inclusion of personality and familial factors as possible significant moderators, than that hypothesis can be identified later in the proposal.
The introduction must include a statement of the research method that is to be used (e.g., a mixed method approach shall be used to determine the relationship between…).
3)
Literature Review
is the next major heading that should be centered. The literature review is best written with subheadings that aid in organizing the literature you have read and wish to write about. The manner in which you write the entire proposal and each section is in an inverted triangle manner. You begin broadly and bring your writing into focus upon the actual investigation you are proposing to conduct. Attention to transitioning from paragraph to paragraph and subsection to subsection must be made so that your writing flows smoothly. The literature review serves multiple purposes:
a) It is a justification or rationale for the factors you will use;
b) It is a justification for the method you propose; it is a justification for the operational definitions you propose to employ;
c) It communicates the degree to which you understand the phenomenon you intend to investigate;
d) And, it conveys that you have developed some expertise in the topic of concern.
The search for articles that you deem useful takes time, patience, critical thought and documentation. Not every article you look at that appears to have the same topic will be useful. Some articles may depart significantly from what you intend to investigate. For example, you may be interested in looking at the self-regulation that students exercise in college. Self-regulation has been studies by other researchers relative to academic decision-making and delay of gratification. Yet, your interest may be in relation to the self-regulation of emotional responses and actions. Therefore, the literature that investigates self-regulation academically or in regard to delay of gratification will be of little or no use to you.
The actual writing of the literature review is quite similar to comparing and contrasting the work undertaken by multiple researchers. Some of the selected articles will be expounded upon with respect to the theory/theories that drove their investigation. Some of your citations may necessitate your going in depth with respect to the method section. For example, if you intend to use college age students and have review several studies that differ with respect to the ages of the participants, you would want to include that bit of information. If several studies employed methods or operational definitions of variables such that internal validity of the study may be more or less questionable for one (or some) in comparison to another (or others). You would write a paragraph or so about how their methods and findings either compliment or challenge each other. You must decide upon what and how much to write relative to the articles you have read. The decision of writing must be done with the intent to justify or provide adequate reasoning for what you intend to do. The goal is to communicate clearly what the literature has informed you about the phenomenon. The audience you are communicating that to are seasoned researchers. So you are to communicate what is necessary.
DO NOT PLAGARIZE and DO NOT QUOTE UNNECESARILY
State what you have read in your own words. You do not need to rely on the words of the authors of your articles. Quotations are reserved for statements where the importance would be lost if you were to change the wording.
4)
Method
is the next major heading (not methodology or methods) that is centered and written in future tense. The method section is where you will have clearly identified subsections – Participants, materials and procedures are what is typically added as subheadings that are left justified.
a) Participants is the subheading under which you will indicate the targeted number of participants; the manner in which they will be selected; the targeted characteristics of the participants; the targeted local(s) for selecting your sample; and any screening criteria for not allowing participation
b) Materials is where you identify the specific operational definitions (measures and or experimental apparatus) for you variables. You are to report the reliability and validity of your operational definitions. You will provide detailed descriptions of each one of each separately. Citations of articles where the instruments have been used and reliability and validity can be substantiated must be included in this subsection of the method section.
c) Procedure is the explicit detailing of what will occur during the gathering of data for your study. Specific directions given to participants. Whether they are randomly assigned to groups. How informed consent is obtained, if possible. How you intend to do any validity checks and debrief participants is to be included.
5)
Results
is the last major section of your proposal. This is where you will indicate the method of analysis you will use and why. Those who undertake a qualitative investigation will identify how they intend to analyze their obtained information qualitatively. Those who have undertaken a quantitative investigation will identify the statistical analysis they will use to analyze the data. Those who undertake a mixed methods investigation will do bot.
Lived Experiences of college graduates in the Job Market: A Phenomenological Study
Lived Experiences of college graduates in the Job Market: A Phenomenological Study
20
Ms. Thornton, you must use the format that I have specified for the cover page and remove the table of contents. Though I recognize your initiative, the APA style format of the publication manual is what an undergraduate thesis should follow. This is not a doctoral dissertation.
Kandra Thornton
Professor Kevin Favor
March 9, 2022
Lincoln University of PA
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………7
Statement of the Problem…… …………………………………………………………………….8
Purpose Statement…………………………………………………………………………………9
Introduction to Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………9
Introduction to Research Methodology and Design……………………………………………..10
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………………10
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………………………11
Definitions of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………………11
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………12
Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….13
Procedure…………………………………………………………………………………………14
Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………………21
Research Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..21
Research Design…………………………………………………………………………………22
Population and Sample…………………………………………………………………………..23
Materials or Instrumentation……………………………………………………………………..24
Study Procedures…………………………………………………………………………………25
Assumptions………………………………………………………………………………………25
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………….26
Ethical Assurances……………………………………………………………………………….26
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………27
Chapter 4: Results………………………………………………………………………………..28
List of Tables
List of Figures
Figure 1 Framework Diagram for the Theory of Planned Behavior 7
Chapter 1: Introduction
Comment by Favor, Kevin: Not APA style!
The unemployment of college graduates is an issue of concern as it is associated with numerous including poverty, wastage of manpower resources, increase in economic overload, slow economic growth, anti-social activities, discrimination, and poor health (Herber et al., 2019; Krug et al., 2019; Fergusson, 2022). Recent standings indicate that the unemployment rate of college graduates stands at 5.9 percent (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). Comment by Favor, Kevin: …associated with numerous what? Comment by Favor, Kevin: Not the word to be used
In the job market, college graduates face a lot of challenges including lack of employable skills, the wrong field of study, incorrect perception about employment, poor performance in job interviews, misplaced expectations, poor priorities, and over-education (Hwang, 2017; Onoyase, 2019; Banerjee et al., 2019; Garibaldi et al., 2020; Agopsowicz et al., 2020; Choi & Hur, 2020; Rios‐Avila & Saavedra-Caballero, 2019). According to Krug et al. (2019), unemployed individuals tend to be disadvantaged in the labor market due to the stigma associated with a lack of a job. Unemployment has also been associated with poor health outcomes among college graduates (Omoniyi, 2016). The COVID-19 pandemic had a great impact on the unemployment of college graduates. According to Wachter (2020), college graduates who entered the labor market between December 2019 and March 2020 found that their job prospects had shifted drastically.
The proposed qualitative phenomenological study aims at exploring college graduates’ lived experiences in the labor market. The target population will include college graduates who have been in the job market. The college graduates were selected for this study because they are affected by challenges in securing jobs. Additionally, college graduates have experienced the impacts of college education on employment. Therefore, their perception of college graduates will improve the understanding of the relationship between college education and the job market.
This phenomenological study is significant because it helps address the literature gap on the match between college education and the job market. Many studies have explored the issue of unemployment among college graduates (Krug et al., 2019; Fergusson, 2022; Hwang, 2017; Meyer & Mncayi, 2021). However, the majority of these studies do not address the mismatch between college education and the job market. Thus, there is a need to explore the role of college education in unemployment, especially from the perspectives of college graduates. The college graduates’ perspectives are very important in this study because they are the victims of a mismatch between education and the job market.
Statement of the Problem
The problem to be addressed in this study is the alignment of college education to the job market (Hwang, 2017; Rios‐Avila & Saavedra-Caballero, 2019). Studies have shown that college graduates face employment challenges due to over-education, job mismatch, misplaced priorities, lack of employable skills, the imbalance between individual perspectives and reality, the gap in skills and practical Job requirements, and over-education, the wrong field of study, poor performance in job interviews, misplaced expectations, poor priorities, and over-education (Hwang, 2017; Onoyase, 2019; Somers et al., 2019; Banerjee et al., 2019; Garibaldi et al., 2020; Mok & Qian, 2018; Agopsowicz et al., 2020; Choi & Hur, 2020; Rios‐Avila & Saavedra-Caballero, 2019). In the job market, education level and area of specialization play a critical role in determining the employability of individuals as the skills and knowledge of individuals. The negative impacts of unemployment do not only affect college graduates, but also the economy, society, and the government. For unemployment of graduates affects society and the economy through increased through poverty, wastage of manpower resources, increase in economic overload, slow economic growth, anti-social activities, and discrimination (Nguyen, 2016; Sage, 2016; Ominiyi, 2016; Herber et al., 2019; Krug et al., 2019; Fergusson, 2022). Therefore, there is a need to understand the role of college education in the job market. Comment by Favor, Kevin: Previously stated. No need for redundancy. Comment by Favor, Kevin: This does not make sense. Comment by Favor, Kevin: Possible typo
Purpose statement
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study is to explore the lived experiences of college graduates in the labor market from Alpine County, California. Understanding how college education affects the job market can help address the challenges that graduates face getting employment (Hwang, 2017). Education is expensive, and graduates and their families invest many resources and time to ensure the success of college courses (Currie & Goodman, 2020). Securing employment after graduates helps their families to reap the benefits of investing in education. However, the unemployment of college graduates complicates the ability to reap the benefits of investing in education. The current study being proposed will increase awareness of the issues faced by graduates and the perceived role of college education in the labor market. The study will target college graduates in Alpine County, California. The researcher believes that graduates can best explain their view of the role of college education in the job market. Random sampling will be used to recruit 14 college graduates from the area. Data from the study will be collected using interviews. The collected data will be analyzed using thematic analysis through the use of Nvivo software. Comment by Favor, Kevin: I don’t believe this is what you mean to express. Check Currie & Goodman again. Comment by Favor, Kevin: Graduation? Comment by Favor, Kevin: Random sampling cannot be done in the absence of a sampling frame.
Introduction to Theoretical Framework
The theoretical foundation of this qualitative phenomenological study will employ the theory of effective demand. The theory is attributed to the work of Keynes. According to Keynes, unemployment is an involuntary phenomenon that results from a deficiency in aggregate demand. In a capitalist society, workers are hired and invested to produce output when there are favorable expectations about profits and the improvement of the economy. When expectations about the future are favorable, capitalists invest more and employment raises until it reaches equilibrium. The equilibrium is reached when aggregate demand intersects with aggregate supply. In situations where expectations about the future are unfavorable, capitalists reduce their investment and employ fewer people: Leading to equilibrium being reached at the point of cyclical unemployment. This unemployment can be attributed to a deficiency in aggregate demand. Davidson (1996) points out that involuntary unemployment can be due to insufficiency of effective demand, insufficiency of effective demand, and instability of exchange rate. Comment by Favor, Kevin: Good but when you rewrite your work to conform to APA style, you will have to identify this theory within the two pages of the introduction. You can discuss the particulars of the theory within the literature review, as it appears that you are currently doing. The heading Literature Review should come after the introduction. Comment by Favor, Kevin: You still need to identify the source as an intext citation. If you read something other than the article by Keynes, then in parentheses you would write – (as cited by Whomever, 2022) Whomever were the authors of the source would also have to be added to your reference list.
Introduction to Research Methodology and Design
This study will use qualitative methodology to explore college graduates’ lived experiences in the labor market. A qualitative methodology is ideal for collecting and understanding college graduates’ perceptions, attitudes, and opinions (Rahman, 2017). However, the qualitative methodology can be disadvantageous because the results of a qualitative study cannot be generalized as they are subjective rather than objective.
This study used qualitative phenomenological design to examine college graduates’ lived experiences in the job market. The rationale for selecting a qualitative phenomenological design because it enables the exploration of participants’ attitudes, behavior, and perceptions about the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). Comment by Favor, Kevin: What study? Is this still the literature review?
Research Questions
The researcher has formulated the following research questions to guide this study:
RQ1
What are the lived experiences of college graduates about securing jobs in the labor market?
RQ2
What are the college graduates’ perceptions about unemployment and participation in the labor market?
RQ3
What are college graduates’ perceptions regarding the major challenges of securing a job in the labor market?
Significance of the Study
This phenomenological study can have various empirical, practical, and theoretical implications by increasing the understanding of the job market based on college graduates’ perspectives. The empirical implications are from the improved awareness of college graduates’ perspectives of the job market (Donald et al., 2018). The practical implications can be attributed to the application of the results of the study to improve the performance of college graduates in the job market (Drydakis, 2016; Tudy, 2017). Policymakers could use the results of the study to formulate policies that reduce unemployment of college graduates (Ma’ dan et al., 2020). Also, this study can generate methods of improving college education to match the labor market. College graduates are more successful in the job market when they have a clear understanding of the requirements and demands of employers (Cheng et al., 2021; Pang et al., 20118). The current study enhances the understanding of the alignment of college education with the job market.
Definitions of Key Terms
Unemployment
Refers to a situation in which individuals are unable to secure a job despite being qualified and actively looking for jobs. College graduates who are unemployed have the necessary qualifications but are unable to secure jobs. Unemployment is normally represented as a rate.
College education
Courses offered by colleges and other tertiary institutions. Employees provide the supply of labor while employers provide the demand.
College graduates
Individuals who successfully underwent a college education.
Labor market
Demand and supply of labor.
Summary
Comment by Favor, Kevin: I expect this to be removed in your next revision!
Chapter 2 presents a comprehensive literature review on the alignment of college education and the job market. Chapter 3 offers the methodological processes that the researcher will use in this phenomenological qualitative study, while Chapter 4 will provide the findings of the study based on the analysis of the data.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Comment by Favor, Kevin: Your literature review must begin much earlier than here. Also, remove the redundancies.
This qualitative phenomenological study aims to explore the lived experiences of college graduates in the labor market from Alpine County, California. The problem to be addressed in this study involves the challenges encountered by college graduates, including lack of employable skills, the wrong field of study, incorrect perception about employment, poor performance in job interviews, misplaced expectations, poor priorities, and over-education (Hwang, 2017; Onoyase, 2019; Somers et al., 2019; Banerjee et al., 2019; Garibaldi et al., 2020; Mok & Qian, 2018; Agopsowicz et al., 2020; Choi & Hur, 2020; Rios‐Avila & Saavedra-Caballero, 2019). Graduate unemployment has been an issue of concern for a long time in the United States (Hwang, 2017). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021), the unemployment rate of college graduates in April 2020 was 15.0 percent. In March 2021, the unemployment rate of college graduates dropped to 5.9 percent. Despite this drop, the rate remains higher than it was in January 2020, when the percentage of unemployed graduates was 2.7. Unemployment of graduates is associated with various negative outcomes including poverty, wastage of manpower resources, increase in economic overload, slow economic growth, anti-social activities, discrimination, and poor health (Nguyen, 2016; Sage, 2016; Ominiyi, 2016; Herber et al., 2019; Krug et al., 2019; Fergusson, 2022). According to Krug et al. (2019), unemployed individuals tend to be disadvantaged in the labor market due to the stigma associated with a lack of a job. Unemployment has also been associated with poor health outcomes among college graduates (Omoniyi, 2016).
The proposed qualitative phenomenological study aims at exploring college graduates’ lived experiences in the labor market. The target population will include college graduates who have been in the job market. The college graduates were selected for this study because they are affected by challenges in securing jobs. Findings from the phenomenological study can help address the literature gap on the match between college education and the job market. Many studies have explored the issue of unemployment among college graduates (Krug et al., 2019; Fergusson, 2022; Hwang, 2017; Meyer & Mncayi, 2021). However, the majority of these studies do not address the mismatch between college education and the job market. Thus, there is a need to explore the role of college education in unemployment, especially from the perspectives of college graduates. The college graduates’ perspectives are very important in this study because they are the victims of a mismatch between education and the job market.
This section provides a comprehensive review of literature on college education and the job market. The chapter begins with an introduction section that addresses the purpose of the study and the major sections. The introduction is followed by the theoretical framework section that provides an in-depth discussion of the theory that formed the foundation for this phenomenological study.
Procedure
The literature search used five reliable online databases, including Google Scholar, EBSCOHOST, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and ProQuest. Additionally, the investigator used other databases including SAGE Journals, Springer, Research Gate, and Wiley Online Library to supplement the findings from the five selected databases. Studies to be included in the study have to meet specific inclusion/exclusion criteria. For inclusion, the researcher selected studies that (a) were published after 2016, (b) are available in the full-text format, (c) are published in English, (d) are peer-reviewed, and (e) is relevant to the issue of college education and the job market. Conversely, the researcher eliminated articles that were (a) published before 2016, (b) published in a non-English language, (c) non-peer-reviewed, (d) not available in full text, and (e) not relevant to the research problem. Comment by Favor, Kevin: All of what follows up to Market Conditions subheading must be eliminated. What you have written is the description of a procedure for conducting a meta-analysis of prior investigations which I know you have not done. Also, a meta-analysis is a method for answering a different question that you are proposing and would not be done in conjunction with a qualitative study!
The keywords that the researcher used to search the studies included unemployment, college graduates, job market, courses, job mismatch, skill mismatch, lack of employment, and skill gap. First, the researcher carried out a general search using the right keywords to identify the studies that are relevant to the study problem and research questions. Secondly, the researcher used different combinations of keywords to limit the literature search and narrow it to a few relevant studies on the topic. The following combinations of keywords were used to find specific studies to address the research question: unemployment AND college graduate; skills mismatch AND job market; Job mismatch AND college education; Job mismatch AND unemployment; courses AND Job mismatch; lack of employment AND education; Skill gap AND job market. In total 935 studies were collected from the four databases. 164 studies were excluded from the review because they never met one criterion: they were published before 2016. Another 624 studies were excluded because they used other populations rather than college graduates. In addition, 34 studies were excluded from the review as they were not peer-reviewed. 67 studies were excluded because they used languages other than English. This brought the number of articles excluded to 889. The remaining 46 studies were used in the literature review to support the research problem and questions.
After identifying and assembling the selected studies from the databases, the researcher started the process of critically reviewing them. First, the researcher examined the abstracts of all the studies to confirm their relevance to the research topic. After reviewing the abstracts, the researcher proceeded to review the full research articles. The researcher carried out the critical review of the articles by assessing the purpose, sample size, methodology and design, findings, discussions, limitations, conclusion, and direction for future research. The reviewing of the studies helped in the formation of themes and subthemes.
Market condition
Wachter (2020) explored the impacts of market conditions on the employment of college graduates. According to the author, college graduates are vulnerable to adverse labor conditions as new entrants into the job market. The adverse initial entry was found to have persistent impacts on college graduates as it affects various social outcomes including marriage and divorce, timing, and completing fertility and attitudes.
Hwang (2017) also explored the role of market conditions on the employment of college graduates. From the study, Hwang (2017) identified changes in market conditions as one of the contributors to unemployment. Market conditions contribute to the unemployment of college graduates by affecting the demand and supply of labor. During the recession, the unemployment rate increases due to a drop in demand for labor drops due to the deterioration of market conditions. The recession also contributes to the unemployment of college graduates due to layoffs.
Fernández-Kranz and Rodríguez-Planas (2017) explored the impacts of graduating during a recession. The finding of their study indicates that the employment probability of college graduates reduces during a recession. Additionally, the study found that recession reduces the likelihood of having a permanent contract. Graduating during a recession was also associated with lower wages among college graduates.
The gap in skills and practical Job requirements
Most employers consider the hard and soft skills when employing college graduates (Steward et al., 2016). However, evidence indicates the presence of a gap between employers’ expectations and abilities of college graduates (Steward et al., 2016; Hwang, 2016; Abel & Diaz, 2016; Patacsil & Tablatin, 2017). Steward et al. (2016) found that college graduates lack the soft skills required by employers in the job market. Therefore, most college graduates find it difficult to secure employment due to a lack of soft skills.
In a similar study, Patacsil and Tablatin (2017) found that employers and college graduates consider soft skills as important for employment. In particular, the researcher identified communication and teamwork as the most important soft skills that college graduates must possess to be employed. However, the researcher found that employers and college graduates have different views on the importance of hard skills. The college graduates were found to perceive hard skills to be more important than soft skills. Employers, on the other hand, considered soft skills to be as important as hard skills.
A study by Hossain et al. (2018) found that lack of employability skills is the greatest contributor to unemployment among college graduates in Malaysia. Employable skills such as job application, resume writing, communication, and interviews, enable college graduates to secure job placement. Lack of these skills makes it difficult for college graduates to secure job placement.
Hwang (2017) identified a gap in skills and practical job requirements as a key reason for college graduate unemployment. The employability of a college graduate depends on the skills and experiences gained from the college curriculum and in life. At times, the college curriculum is limited to the general level, which is insufficient to provide the skills required in the market. This lack of skills and experience makes it hard for college graduates to be employed as the market requires a sufficiently trained labor force.
Abel and Deitz (2016) found that college graduates tend to experience underemployment due to their skill and knowledge orientation. College graduates that have taken quantitatively oriented and occupation-specific majors experience relatively lower underemployment. Therefore, the employability of college graduates was due to their courses.
The Imbalance Between Individual Perspectives And Reality
Hwang (2017) identified the imbalance between the college graduates’ perspectives and reality as one of the reasons for unemployment. Decisions made by college students about their future careers are influenced by their expectations. However, these expectations are at times misplaced as they might not reflect on reality. Therefore, a lack of balance between college students’ perspectives and the job market affects their employability.
Hossain et al. (2018) found that the attributes of college graduates play a critical role in determining their employability. In the study, most of the participants attributed their challenges in securing employment to being selective. The researchers attributed the selectiveness of college graduates in the labor market to their desire to live comfortably. Therefore, most graduates are unable to secure jobs due to negative attitudes towards certain positions.
Mansour and Dean (2016) examined the employability skills of college graduates as perceived by university faculty of human resource development (HRD), and employers. The study found that HRD faculty are providing the skills that employers require. This finding is unexpected as available evidence indicates that the skills obtained from colleges do not match the skills required in the market (Hwang, 2017; Hossain et al., 2018).
Over-education
Hwang (2017) found over-education as one factor that contributes to unemployment among college graduates. According to the author, over-education occurs when college graduates exceed the socially optimal education level. This implies that over-education results in more candidates available for a given job than the required amount.
Job Mismatch
Another factor that studies have identified as responsible for the unemployment of college graduates is job mismatch. Hossain et al. (2018) found a positive correlation between job mismatch and unemployment. College graduates who have the greatest skills and knowledge get hired first in the market.
Pang et al. (2018) examined the competencies that fresh college graduates need to possess to succeed in the job market. According to the researchers, employers require college graduates to have the ability and willingness to learn, be hardworking, have teamwork and collaboration, analytical thinking, and self-control (Patacsil & Tablatin, 2017; Steward et al., 2016). Additionally, employers were found to value both soft and hard skills in the labor market (Patacsil & Tablatin, 2017; Steward et al., 2016; Pang et al., 2018). However, most graduates do not have these skills, especially soft skills: Making it hard for them to be employed (Steward et al., 2016). Therefore, college graduates do not meet the demands of the market, which contributes to their unemployment.
Negative Impacts of Unemployment of Graduates
The unemployment of college graduates is associated with various negative outcomes including impacts at the individual level, family, societal level, and economic level. At the individual level, graduates have been shown to experience discrimination, poor mental, and low standards of living (Rafi et al, 2019). Families suffer from unemployment of college graduates through increased dependence, financial difficulties, high poverty rate, wastage of manpower resources, increase in economic overload, slow economic growth, engagement in anti-social activities, discrimination, and poor health (Sage, 2016; Nguyen, 2016; Ominiyi, 2016; Krug et al., 2019; Fergusson, 2022; Herber et al., 2019; Rafi et al., 2019).
Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the methodology used to address the research question. In addition to describing the methodology, the chapter provides an overview of the specific research design to be used and the rationale. The chapter will also provide a description of the participants, materials, procedures, and role of the researcher. The chapter will also address issues relating to data analysis, trustworthiness, and ethics. The issues of trustworthiness that will be covered in this chapter include credibility, confirmability, dependability, and transferability.
Research Methodology
This study will use qualitative methodology to explore college graduates’ lived experiences in the labor market. The rationale for choosing qualitative methodology is it is ideal for collecting and understanding college graduates’ perceptions, attitudes, and opinions (Rahman, 2017). The advantage of selecting a qualitative methodology is that it provides researchers with in-depth information about a given phenomenon (Vasileious et al., 2018; Rahman, 2017). However, the qualitative methodology has numerous limitations. For example, the results of a qualitative study cannot be generalized as they are subjective rather than objective. Additionally, qualitative methodology is susceptible to bias as researchers have control over sampling, collection, and analysis of data.
In this study, the researcher considered quantitative and mixed methodologies. However, the two methodologies were not chosen due to their limitations and the purpose of this study. For example, the quantitative methodology was not selected because it focuses on relationships between variables rather than the themes from the participants’ responses (Rahman, 2017). Despite being overlooked, the quantitative methodology could have improved the outcome of the study because of its objective in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data (Pietilä et al., 2020).
The mixed methodology was overlooked because the process of collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data is complex, and requires experienced researchers to effectively collect, analyze and interpret data (Pietilä et al., 2020). The mixed methodology was not suitable for this study because it was time-consuming and confusing due to the difficulty of compiling qualitative and quantitative data to provide a common conclusion (Pietilä et al., 2020). Despite being overlooked, the mixed methodology was an attractive option since it combines the advantages of quantitative and qualitative methodology.
Research Design
This study used qualitative phenomenological design to examine college graduates’ lived experiences in the job market. The researcher selected a qualitative phenomenological design because it enables the exploration of participants’ attitudes, behavior, and perceptions about the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). In the present study, the phenomenological study design facilitates the understanding of the college graduates’ perception of the job market.
The ethnography study design was overlooked because it focuses on specific aspects of peoples’ lives (Moustakas, 1994). Additionally, the qualitative phenomenological design was in the present study over grounded theory design because the focus is on describing the college graduate’s lived experiences in the job market rather than developing a theory (Pietilä et al., 2020; Rahman, 2017). The phenomenon in this study is unemployment among college graduates in the job market. College graduates are known to have various challenges securing jobs in the labor market due to job mismatch, over-education, misplaced priorities, the imbalance perspectives and reality, lack of employable skills, and wrong field of study (Hwang, 2017; Onoyase, 2019; Somers et al., 2019; Banerjee et al., 2019; Garibaldi et al., 2020). In this phenomenological study, the college graduates’ descriptions of challenges in the job market is presented. The rationale for using a phenomenological design is to improve the understanding of college graduates’ perspectives regarding the job market.
Population and Sample
In this phenomenological study, the target population is college graduates from Alpine County, California. College graduates are the most suitable for the present study because they have a better understanding of challenges in the labor market. One benefit of qualitative study is its flexibility in selecting sample size (Kim et al., 2017). Alase (2017) suggests a range of two to 25 as the most suitable sample sizes in qualitative studies. However, studies have shown that saturations occur when the sample size is between 12 and 15 (Alase, 2017).
A sample of 14 was selected through random sampling, which involves giving individuals in the target population equal chances of participating in the study. The rationale for choosing random sampling is because it reduces bias in the recruitment of the participants (Taherdoost, 2016). However, random sampling can be costly and time-consuming considering that the research has to give everyone a chance to participate in the study.
Establishing Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is one way in which researchers can convince themselves and others that their studies are worthy of attention (Nowell et al., 2017). The criteria of establishing trustworthiness in this study will follow the four criteria highlighted by Nowell et al. (2017): transferability, dependability, credibility, and confirmability. Credibility in this study will be achieved through persistent observation and prolonged engagement. The utilization of peer-reviews will help establish credibility as they provide an external check of the research process.
Transferability improves the trustworthiness of the study by improving the generalizability of the study. The researcher aims at ensuring that the finding of the study is transferable by providing a clear description of the study setting. A clear description of the study setting will improve the transferability of the study as the study can be carried out in another setting (Nowell et al., 2017).
Dependability will also improve the trustworthiness of the study. the researcher aims at improving the dependability of the study by ensuring that the research process is logical and traceable. Additionally, the researcher will ensure that the research process is clearly documented to improve dependability (Nowell et al., 2017).
The researcher will also promote the trustworthiness of the study through confirmability. Confirmability involves ensuring that the interpretations and findings of the study are derived from the collected data. Confirmability will also be achieved by ensuring that credibility, transferability, and dependability have been achieved (Nowell et al., 2017).
Materials or Instrumentation
The researcher utilized an interview (see Appendix A) protocol to collect data from the participants. Three experts were involved in the development of the interview protocol. The interview protocol was developed based on the contents of previous literature on the topic. The interview protocol was for semi-structured interviews and contained open-ended questions that address the three research questions. The researcher performed a field test to evaluate the suitability of the interview protocol. Additionally, the field test was aimed at ensuring that the research questions and purpose of the study were consistent.
Study Procedures
Prior to starting the phenomenological study, the researcher sought approval from the university’s review board. After getting approval from the board, the researcher visited the area of the study and interacted with some of the potential studies while familiarizing themselves with the setting. The college graduates were contacted through social media and recruited to participate in the study. In total, the researcher conducted 35 college graduates from Alpine County, California. The participants were identified through referrals and college groups. 28 students responded to the request to participate in the study. consent forms were sent to the 28 respondents. Out of the 28 consent forms, 22 were returned while six were not returned. Further filtering resulted in 14 participants being recruited for the study, with most of the removed individuals lacking a computer or were willing to participate only after being paid.
The researcher observed the ethical considerations involving human participants in the study. The participants were given unique identification codes to make them anonymous. Confidentiality was achieved through storing interview transcripts in a secure and password-protected computer. The researcher intends to destroy the data in a safe manner after they have been used.
The interviews were administered through the use of the Zoom application. Each interview took between 20 minutes and 35 minutes. The questions were read directly from the interview protocol.
Assumptions
The major assumption in this study is that the college graduates provided honest responses about their experiences in the job market. However, the risk of social desirability bias was apparent as participants tend to provide responses that are socially acceptable. Another assumption is that college graduates have adequate experiences in the job market to provide reliable responses.
Limitations
The primary limitation of this study is the use of the qualitative methodology. the qualitative study method tends to be subjective rather than objective. This lack of objectivity increases the risk of researcher bias. Although the recruitment of participants used random sampling, there is a risk of bias as the researcher controls data collection and analysis. The current study addressed the limitations of a qualitative study by using interview protocol to collect data and member checking. Another limitation is that the responses of participants cannot be proven to be honest. However, the participants explained to the participants the need to be honest in providing responses. Member checking also helped confirm the responses as honest.
Ethical Assurances
Abiding by the ethical norms of research promotes knowledge, accountability, collaboration and avoidance of error (Resnick, 2020). In this study, the researcher observed the ethical standards by seeking approvals from ethical committees. The seeking of consent from the participants helped ensure that ethical standards and norms are made. The following ethical principles ensured that the researcher observed ethical standards.
·
Autonomy
: the researcher explained to the participants that participation in the study is voluntary. The researcher avoided inducing or coercing the participants to participate in the study. Moreover, the researcher assured the participants that their rights, dignity, and autonomy will be respected in the study.
·
Beneficence and nonmaleficence
: The researcher aims at maximizing the benefits of the study while reducing the risk of harm on the participants.
·
Justice
: the research assured the participants that he will not discriminate against any of them.
·
Confidentiality and data protection
: The researcher ensured participants of confidentiality in handling of their data. Confidentiality in the study was achieved by the maintenance of anonymity of the participants.
·
Integrity
: The researcher ensured that the integrity of the study ensuring that correct or factual data are collected and used, seeking continuous review by professionals, and avoiding misrepresentation of data
Summary
This study used a qualitative methodology and phenomenological design. The rationale for selecting a qualitative methodology is that it provides a deeper insight into the issue of education alignment to the job market. The researcher used phenomenological design because it provides insight into the opinions, experiences, and attitudes of the participants towards a given phenomenon. The study used 14 participants, who were recruited through the use of random sampling. The participants were contacted through social media. Data collection was done through interviews with the participants. The interviews were done through the Zoom application. The interview took between 20 and 35 minutes. The interviews were recorded automatically, transcribed, and downloaded. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the collected data. Nvivo software helped in thematic analysis. The thematic analysis process involved several steps: familiarization with data, generation of initial codes, searching themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and presenting and discussing the results. The primary limitation of this phenomenological study is the lack of objectivity in the qualitative methodology. Chapter 4 will provide the results of the study.
Chapter 4: Results
This study examined college graduates’ lived experiences in the job market in Alpine County, California. The problem that the study wanted to solve was the alignment of college education to the job market. This chapter provides an insight into the methods of analyzing data that the researcher intends to use in the present study. Additionally, the researcher will provide the rationale for using a given data analysis method.
Data Analysis: Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis is a common method for evaluating qualitative data in various fields including sports, healthcare, and psychology (Xu & Zammit, 2020; Khokhar et al., 2020). Some scholars have argued that thematic analysis is a foundational method of qualitative analysis (Nowell et al., 2017). According to Xu and Zammit (2020), thematic analysis involves focusing on repeated meaning across the collected data set. After the repeated meaning has been identified, they are identified and organized into relevant themes and subthemes (Labra et al., 2020). The themes and subthemes are then used for thematic analysis, which occurs in a systematic manner (Labra et al., 2020; Khokhar et al., 2020). A rigorous thematic analysis can provide trustworthy and insightful results in qualitative studies (Nowell et al., 2017). The rationale for using the thematic analysis method is that it provides a highly flexible approach to the evaluation of qualitative data (Nowell et al., 2017). Additionally, thematic analysis is attractive in the current study because it offers accessible means of analyzing qualitative data (Nowell et al., 2017). However, the limitation of thematic analysis is that it can lead to inconsistency and lack of coherence when developing themes from the research data.
Thematic analysis will be carried out through six phases proposed by Labrat et al. (2020). in the current research: familiarization, generating initial codes, searching themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and presenting and discussing the results. Familiarization with collected data involves examining the data to understand themselves. In qualitative studies, data come from numerous forms including recorded observations, texts, multimedia, public domain sources, photographs, videos and policy manuals (Nowell et al., 2017). Familiarizing with the collected data also enables researchers to understand the depth and breadth of the collected data.
After familiarization with the collected data, the researcher will generate the initial codes. Generation of initial codes involves the researcher revisiting the data. Coding allows the researcher to simplify and focus on specific features of the data. During the generation of codes, the researcher will identify the important sections of the text and attach a label index to them as they relate to an issue or theme from the data. Searching for themes is the third step in the thematic analysis process and involves examining and categorizing codes. The results of searching for themes will result in main themes and subthemes. The fourth step would be reviewing the generated themes. The review process involves examining the code of individual themes. The process of reviewing themes is aimed at establishing whether they appear in a coherent pattern or not. Additionally, reviewing themes helps establish whether the generated themes reflect the intended meaning in the data. The fifth step involves defining and naming themes, which involves determining the aspect of data captured by the theme.
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