POST:
First, explain to the class the relationship between victimization and offending (section II), making certain to draw support from the readings for your explanation. Then, you will need to conduct a 20-30 minute internet investigation and locate an empirical research article focused on female offenders or female victims. Summarize the article and present the major findings to the class.
THEORIES OF
VICTIMIZATION
SECTION II
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Victims and the Criminal Justice System
Victims play an important role in the CJ process
Instead, often treated as a “tool” and experience frustration
Victim-assistance programs/organizations introduced in the 1970s provided support for crime victims
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Victims and the Criminal Justice System
Victim-oriented federal and state legislation
Violence Against Women Act
Crime Victims’ Rights Act of 2004
“Dark figure of crime”
Reasons why crimes go unreported
Reporting varies by type of offense
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Victims and the Criminal Justice System
Women tend to seek help from resources outside police
Positive informal support seeking formal services
Formal services: law enforcement and therapeutic resources
Informal Services: family, friends, clergy, etc.
Fear of retaliation, especially in intimate partner violence
Embarrassment
Self-Doubt
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Victim Blaming
Victim blaming is shifting the blame from the offender to the victim
Victim’s engagement in atypical, risky, or careless behavior
The presence of victim blaming has been linked to the low reporting rates of crimes
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Victim Blaming
Victim blaming has been most related to sexual assault and intimate partner violence, but also occurs in property victimizations
“Victims should have known better”
Can lead to victim self-blame
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Secondary Victimization
Victims traumatized by CJ response to their victimization
Influence of rape myths
Introduction of rape shield laws
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Secondary Victimization
Just World Hypothesis
People deserve what comes to them
Raises questions like, “why didn’t’t you fight back” and/or “why didn’t’t you leave?”
Allows us to shield ourselves from feelings of vulnerability
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Secondary Victimization
Just World Hypothesis
3 problematic assumptions
Ability to change environment
“Innocent” victims as “true” victims
Diffusion of responsibility
False sense of security
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Secondary Victimization
Just World Hypothesis
Occurs without conscience awareness
Subtle victim blaming permeates culture through media
Messages increase victim self-blame
Self-blame may increase likelihood for re-victimzation
Solidify beliefs associated with increased likelihood of offending
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Fear of Victimization
Media representations of crime
Distorted view of the criminal justice system
Over-exaggerations lead to increases in fear
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Fear of Victimization
Higher levels of fear among women
Gendered socialization experiences
Fear of sexual assault
Extended to all crimes through “shadow of sexual assault”
Vulnerability
Media influence
The Shadow of Sexual Assault Thesis
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Fear of Victimization
Negative consequences of fear
Isolation
Impacts self-worth and self-esteem
System/political responses to community fear
Example: Sentencing laws, such as “three strikes” and the war on drugs
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Theories of Victimization
Victimology
Early explanations focused on victim responsibility
Mendelsohn’s (1963) 6 categories of victims
Innocent victim and (5) victim precipitated categories varying in victim culpability
Victim with minor guilt
Voluntary victim
Victim who is more guilty than the offender
Victim who alone is guilty
Imaginary victim
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Theories of Victimization
Victimology
Early explanations focused on victim responsibility
von Hentig (1948)
Factors (biological, psychological, and social) that “made a victim a victim”
Typology included 13 categories
Multiple factors for women beyond gender
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Theories of Victimization
Routine Activities (Cohen & Felson, 1979)
Impact of society and personal choices
Changes in daily routines
Convergence of 3 essential components
Motivated offender
Available target
Absence of capable guardians
Focused primarily on risk for property crime
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Theories of Victimization
Routine Activities Theory
Feminists disagree that men are more vulnerable
Guardianship is often misleading
Lifestyle Theory
Impact of everyday activities on risk for victimization
“Risky” lifestyles
Due to similarities between these two theories, often their tenets are combined for research
Risk of sexual assault on college campuses
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Theories of Victimization
Feminist Pathways Perspective
Cycle of CJ involvement and victimization
Victimization sets women on a “pathway” to offending
Pathway often begins during youth
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Reading 3
Cognitive Mapping and Fear-Provoking Cues
Cues are important to individuals safety; they protect people from harm
Personal cognitive maps define:
Places
Times
Categories
A constellation of cues influence fear
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Reading 3
Are the cues that predict crime-related fear gendered?
Lighting and Gender
Foliage and Gender
Youth Loitering and Gender
Police Visibility and Gender
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Reading 3
Method
Data Collection
Survey
Random sample of undergraduates
Dependent Variables
Fear of criminal victimization while on campus
Independent Variables
Poorly lit parking lots, poorly lit sidewalks and common areas, overgrown or excess shrubbery, groups congregating or loitering, visibility of public safety officials
Control Variables
Results
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Reading 3
Findings
Lack of gendered findings
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Reading 4
Formal and informal resources for help and support
Cultural sensitivity
Poor access to services
Study Method
Participants
Procedures
Measures
Results
Discussion
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Mallicoat, Women and Crime: A Text/Reader 2e © 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.
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