AdolescentandRiskTakingBehavior x
need annotated bibliography for the 10 references used in the paper attached
RunningHead: ADOLESCENTS AND RISK TAKING BEHAVIOR 1
ADOLESCENT AND RISK TAKING BEHAVIOR 11
Adolescents and Risk Taking Behavior
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Introduction
Adolescents are prone to risk-taking behavior which can be attributed to biological changes and their inability to control situations effectively
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Compared to adults, adolescents make risky decisions thus parents and guardians should play a direct positive role in helping these individuals through this exciting transition. To understand why adolescents behave the way they do, we will learn the stages of development through the help of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development.
Identify some of the major domains of human development and how they explain why adolescents are more likely to engage in risk-taking behavior than older adults
The development of the brain involves a gradual transition from being dependent and immature to relative independence and adulthood whereby one may experience hormonal and physiological changes such as puberty, growth spurt and certain behavioral changes (McCarty & Montgomery, 2011). These changes are usually accompanied by increased preference to socialize with their peers and adaptive behavior that helps them to develop social skills required in adulthood. This development is also accompanied by neural plasticity which facilitates the growth of social cognitive skills needed in adulthood and adaptive behavior such as risk-taking and novelty seeking, a behavior that is expressed in character change (Thomas & Cauffman, 2015). The brain regions that are associated with social recognition include the parietal, prefrontal and superior temporal cortex which undergo the most distinct and prolonged change during development. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development explains increasing sophistication in children thinking process as a result of the remodeling that the brain goes through. Piaget’s four stages of mental development are sensorimotor stage which is between birth to 2 years and Preoperational stage between ages 2 and 7. Concrete operational stage is experienced between ages 7 to 11 and formal operational stage is from the ages of 12 years going forward. During early childhood, after children cultivate internal representation of items & objects and referential thinking, they get to the stage where they experience emergence of concrete operations. At ages between 7 and 11, their ability to deal with hierarchies and classes are restricted to physical entities and they don’t progress to abstract thoughts. At this stage, they are not able to distinguish between perceptual phenomena and mental construction. (Development of executive function during childhood, 2016). However, at the age of 12years, emergence of formal operational thought enables children at this age to differentiate between their mental construction of an object and its perception which allows them to objectify their thoughts and reason through them clearly. According to Piaget, this new system of thinking in children at early adolescence enables them to conceptualize their thoughts and other people’s and take different perspectives (McCarty & Montgomery, 2011). At this stage, their relationships with family, peers and society is faced with distinct changes as they begin to assert more autonomous and self-directed control over their emotions, actions and decisions and they begin to disengage from family and parental control. In addition, they become more involved in school context which involves increased socialization a process whereby adolescents become more aware of the perspectives of their peers, classmates, teachers and societal influences (Goswami & Wiley, 20I2). The development of social self is accompanied by a period of increased self-consciousness whereby these adolescents become more preoccupied with people’s concerns about their concerns, actions and appearances. The biological and environmental changes experienced at this stage leads to increased social encounters and intensified awareness and interest in other people. At this stage, adolescents are more likely to engage in impulsive and risky behavior such as drug taking, binge drinking, and reckless driving among others. According to a study carried out at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development, adolescents lack mature cognitive skills and they are not interested in studies and information that would be helpful in gauging the risks associated with their behavior (Max Planck Institute for Human Development. (n.d.). In addition, they are motivated to try out new thrill-seeking activities and seek new experiences with classmates and peers thus they record the highest criminal behaviors, morbidity and mortality rates and a high rate of sexually transmitted diseases (Harden & Mann, 2015). According to Bandura’s Social Learning theory, individuals can learn from each other through modeling, imitation and observation. This is the reason why children learn to express aggressive and risky behaviors because they have observed other people who are acting such negative or positive behaviors or it has been reinforced or modeled over time. Adolescents’ ability to reason is influenced by physiological factors and social persuasion and their lack of maturity increases their chances of getting influenced by peers and societal behaviors which breeds risky and impulsive activities (Thomas & Cauffman, 2015)
Examine the physical, biological, emotional, cognitive, and social factors that explain why adolescents are more likely to engage in risk-taking behavior than older adults
Adolescence is growth stage that is characterized by emotional, biological, physical and cognitive changes that give adolescents the urge to explore and experiment older experiences on their way to independence and maturity. To most adolescents, this stage is marked by heightened independence from family, intimate relationships, a consciousness of morals and values, identity formation, and an overall emotional and cognitive maturity (Benes & Alperin 2016). Despite the rapid changes experienced in the adolescence period, a majority of individuals cope with the physical, emotional and cognitive changes successfully. However, this stage is also characterized by risk-taking behaviors and challenges that are a concern to parents, teachers, peers and the society at large. Adolescents are in constant strive to develop their values, opinions and identity and peer relationships are very critical in their life (Harden & Mann 2015). Adolescents are more likely to engage in risky activities in the company of their peers than when they are alone. Studies have shown that adolescents are more likely to participate in risky activities such as substance abuse, careless driving when in the company of their peers compared to when they are alone. This likelihood is supported by the fact that adolescents are sensitive to rejection by their peers and they spend most of their time with their friends and peer than with their relatives. The heightened social influence on risky behavior can be explained by the perception that adolescents in the presence of their peers perceive situations as less harmful, controllable and fun. This kind of social influence poses dangers in adolescents that are likely to progress in adulthood. Social and cognitive factors play a critical role in the engagement in the engagement of unprotected sex among adolescents whose likely consequences are emotional instability which is the reason for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unwanted pregnancies among others ( Mahat & Ayres, 2014). During adolescence, individuals experience physical changes of puberty and biological, hormonal changes which are associated with changes in the brain structure. Commonly referred to as brain plasticity, constant brain development increases adolescents’ vulnerability towards unhealthy life decisions. This is because their brain circuitry is being formed and the associated neuron proliferation makes it hard for adolescents to think critically when making life choices. As a result, their well-being and health are threatened by engagement in reckless behavior which is facilitated by social and family contexts, physical growth and rapid developmental changes (Chang & Isoda, 2015).
Identify the stages of development (early adolescence, late adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and older adulthood) that are affected if adolescents are more likely to engage in risk-taking behavior than older adults
The psychosocial and cognitive development experienced in adolescents is adaptable which may limit their ability to judge and perceive risks effectively which may result in adolescent views, ideas and perceptions that are incompatible with parents or guardians. Development into adulthood is a process of different stages whereby one experiences a lot of biological and physical changes that are accompanied by an impulsive and lacking cognitive control (Bonino & Ciairano, 2005). Studies have revealed that individuals with weak cognitive control and high rates of aggression during adolescence are likely to develop this behavior into early and old adulthood. Substance abuse in early stages of life may result in neurobehavioral characteristics such as impulsivity which is characterized by impatience when presented with long-term benefits and a tendency to act without thinking. Behavioral genetics and neuroscience reveal that early exposure to life stressors such as substance abuse likely to affect health in later life. Persistent life stressors especially when the individual loses control may have adverse and toxic effects on a wide array of health outcomes and increased chances of risky behavior in adulthood. Such stressors may be parental substance abuse; emotional abuse and neglect, exposure to violence, rape, and unintended pregnancy are likely to cause substance abuse, addiction, and suicide in adulthood (Benes & Alperin, 2016). Maturing into adulthood is a period of biological and psychological change and maturation with changes that are less striking than during adolescence and childhood. As individuals progress through different stages of development, various physical changes take place in the body. In early adulthood, most of the physical abilities such as reaction time, muscle strength and cardiac functioning are at their peak. As one progresses in development, the aging process kicks in during early adulthood whereby the lens of the eyes begin to thicken and stiffen which results in changes in vision. At the age of 35 years, hair begins to thin; skin becomes drier, a decline in reproductive capacity, and the immune system becomes weaker. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, early adulthood is the period when young people become aware of different complexities in life. The aging process increases in middle adulthood whereby the eyes gain a likelihood of losing eyesight; the skin becomes more prone to wrinkles and muscle to fat ratio changes significantly. During this period, cognitive changes are numerous, complex and more active than the cognitive development experienced in infancy and early adulthood. Early, middle and older adulthood is influenced by emotional and social factors such as interpersonal relationships and lifestyle (Chang & Isoda, 2015).
Influences of family, culture, and environment and the roles they play in motivating adolescents into risk-taking behavior as well as preventing adolescents risking taking behavior, do the same for older adults.
Social and cultural contexts where young people grow may have a lot of influence on the psychological and behavioral perspectives on the adolescents’ behavior. Adolescents experience cognitive and biological changes which may be affected by the environment, family or culture during development. They are prone to socially deviant behavior however with proper guidance from parents and guardians; their behavior can be controlled. This is because, adults have a mature and stable cognitive control system hence they can guide adolescents in learning consequences associated with certain behaviors (Benes & Alperin, 2016). A family has a great role in shaping and modeling the behavior of children; they may impact effective social and emotional skills or model risky behaviors in children or endow them with genes that increase their chances of engaging in risky activities and substance abuse. Poor communication skills and consistent family conflicts may disrupt efficient parenting and family relations which may reinforce interpersonal hostility, aggression and a reduced emotional security and stability in children. However, effective interventions and parenting which includes supportive parents, nurturing and consistent discipline can promote pro-social values and behaviors which may prevent negative manners (Goswami & Wiley, 20I2). Also, efficient supervision and parental monitoring help children develop protective competencies which are helpful in preventing children and adolescents from associating themselves with deviant peers. Studies have shown that families with warm relationships and adequate supervision and monitoring without any models of drug use, protect the adolescent from forming possible substance abuse disorders (Development of executive function during childhood, 2016). The environment can affect the behavior of an individual positively or negatively. For instance, research shows that unfavorable social conditions and economic circumstances may influence emotions and behaviors in both parents and children. The characteristics adults and students bring to school is difficult to separate from the context of the school itself. However, efficient student monitoring, properly organized patterns of social organizations in schools and employing behavior management strategies are effective in reducing negative effects on students and teachers. Other approaches that can be applied include counseling, improving school climate, reinforcing policies that address relationships and social structure, enhancing security and surveillance and enforcing instructional programs (Harden & Mann, 2015). Other than family and environmental factors, cultural differences may affect behavioral characteristics of both adults and adolescents. Racial and ethnic diversity experienced in school or the community may influence psychosocial risk and the likelihood of adolescents’ risky behavior. In school particularly, an ethnic and racial composition may impact an adolescents’ development through peer victimization, discrimination, school transition and the achievement gap. Peer victimization may subject an adolescent to verbal and physical abuse, social exclusion and racial slurs which may encourage them to engage in risky behaviors for emotional support. However, with the appropriate approach, diversity and cultural differences can help individuals feel safer due to less victimization, more friends, and improved self-esteem. Adolescents and young children require monitoring and guidance from responsible adults since they are more vulnerable to substance abuse and risky behaviors. Unlike children and adolescents whose growth and learning process is constant, adults have experienced consequences for their actions or learned lessons from their peers thus they are more careful. Adolescent’s lack of maturity and cognitive control over their hormones and emotions during physical and biological development is the reason for their risky behavior (McCarty & Montgomery, 2011).
Conclusion
Adolescence is a period of development accompanied by disruption of the comfortable old to adopt a new exciting world which is associated with risky behaviors such as drug abuse, careless driving, and unprotected sex among other. Adolescents’ lack of maturity, impulsiveness, and lack of cognitive control over their actions is the reason why they engage in risky behaviors. Considering most of them learn from their mistakes, consistent monitoring and guidance from a reasonable and responsible adult are advised. Therefore, parents, guardians, justice system and institutions should encourage and guide adolescents through the transition into adulthood while keeping them and the society stable.
References
Benes, S., & Alperin, H. (2016). The essentials of teaching health education: Curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
Bonino, S., Cattelino, E., & Ciairano, S. (2005). Adolescents and Risk: Behavior, Functions, and Protective Factors.
Chang, S. W. C., & Isoda, M. (2015). Neural basis of social learning, social deciding, and other-regarding preferences. s.l: Frontiers Media SA.
Development of executive function during childhood. (2016). Frontiers Media SA.
Goswami, U. C., & Wiley InterScience (Online service). (20I2). Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.
Harden, K. P., & Mann, F. D. (2015). Biological Risk for the Development of Problem Behavior in Adolescence: Integrating Insights From Behavioral Genetics and Neuroscience. Child Development Perspectives, (4), 211. doi:10.1111/cdep.12135
MAHAT, G., SCOLOVENO, M. A., & AYRES, C. (2014). COMPARISON OF ADOLESCENTS’ HIV/AIDS KNOWLEDGE AND SELF-EFFICACY ACROSS TWO CULTURES. Journal Of Cultural Diversity, 21(4), 152-158.
Max Planck Institute for Human Development. (n.d.).
McCarty, C., Prawitz, A. D., Derscheid, L. E., & Montgomery, B. (2011). Perceived Safety and Teen Risk Taking in Online Chat Sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 14(3), 169-174. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0050
Thomas, A., Monahan, K., Lukowski, A., & Cauffman, E. (2015). Sleep Problems Across Development: A Pathway to Adolescent Risk Taking Through Working Memory. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 44(2), 447-464. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0179-7
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