Do you agree with the results? What evidence is there in the literature to support or disconfirm your personality profile? Why or why do you not think this measure is helpful in identifying how people can best adjust/grow?
- Be sure to support your post with at least one peer-reviewed article
- Use APA-formatted in-text citations and references
JBest Pract Health Prof Divers (Spring, 2017), 10(1), 1–27.
ISSN: 2745-2843 © Winston-Salem State University
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Validity and Reliability of the
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator:
A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Ken Randall,1 PhD, MHR, PT; Mary Isaacson,1 EdD;
Carrie Ciro,1 PhD, OTR/L, FAOTA
Author Affiliations: 1Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health
Sciences Center, Tulsa and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Corresponding Author: Ken Randall, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, University
of Oklahoma Schusterman Center, 4502 East 41st Street, Room 2H20, Tulsa, OK 74135
(Ken-Randall@ouhsc.edu)
ABSTRACT
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is frequently used by health professions and educational
programs to address the diversity of personalities that exist. No systematic review of the litera-
ture or meta-analysis of its validity and reliability has occurred. This comprehensive literature
search identified 221 potential studies, of which seven met our inclusion criteria. Four of the
studies examined construct validity, but their varying methods did not permit pooling for
meta-analysis. These studies agree that the instrument has reasonable construct validity. The
three studies of test-retest reliability did allow a meta-analysis to be performed, albeit with cau-
tion due to substantial heterogeneity. Results indicate that the Extravert-Introvert, Sensing-
Intuition, and Judging-Perceiving Subscales have satisfactory reliabilities of .75 or higher and
that the Thinking-Feeling subscale has a reliability of .61. The majority of studies were con-
ducted on college-age students; thus, the evidence to support the tool’s utility applies more
to this group, and careful thought should be given when applying it to other individuals.
Keywords n Myers-Briggs Type Indicator n Personality n Reliability n Validity
2 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
INTRODUCTION
Personality is a commonly used term with a meaning that most of us readily comprehend, and
yet it is an elusive concept to fully describe or quantify. Broadly defined, it is the combination
of an individual’s cognitive, emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral response patterns (Angler,
2009; McAdams, 2009). It has been studied since antiquity, with Hippocrates being among
the first to describe personality by grouping individuals into temperaments that related to
particular characteristics or types (Hippocrates 1923). Since then, countless theories and
instruments have attempted to explicate and measure differences in personality more fully.
Included in these instruments is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which is reported
to be one of the most widely used instruments in the world for understanding personality
differences (Briggs Myers, 1998; Jackson, Parker, & Dipboye, 1996; Lorr, 1991; Saggino &
Kline, 1996; Salter, Evans, & Forney, 2006; Tzeng, Outcalt, Boyer, Ware, & Landis, 1984;
Zumbo & Taylor, 1993).
The MBTI is used extensively in human resource management and is one of the most
commonly used instruments in higher education research and counseling (Hojat, Erdmann,
& Gonnella, 2013). Its application in medical education is quite varied and includes studies
of how certain preferences affect decision making (Pretz & Folse, 2011) and how knowledge
of an individual’s type can enhance communication (Eksteen & Basson, 2015). Moreover,
addressing the differences in type and preferences between instructors and students may mini-
mize negative outcomes in both academic and clinical settings (Bell et al., 2011). In the au-
thors’ experience, we use the MBTI as both an educational and an academic advisement tool.
Our occupational therapy and physical therapy students learn about the 16 MBTI types and
about how differing preferences can influence interactions with members of the health care
team and with patients and their loved ones. We also provide academic advisors and clinical
instructors with information about individual student types that includes tips grounded in
the MBTI literature on how to enhance their learning, communication, and feedback based
on each student’s preference. Although we pay attention to the preferences of all students,
we also examine the preferences of learners from diverse backgrounds to determine if any
trends exist in personality type. In an ongoing effort to use the best evidence to inform our
educational program, we wanted to understand the psychometric properties of the MBTI to
determine whether we should continue to use it with our students.
Since its inception in the 1940s, numerous studies have examined various aspects of the
MBTI, including many related to validity and reliability. Over the past 35 years, a number
of relatively thorough reviews of the literature regarding these features of the MBTI have ap-
peared (Carlson, 1985; Carlyn, 1977; Gardner & Martinko, 1996; Murray, 1990; Pittenger,
1993), including a compendium of research by the publishers of the tool itself (Thorne &
Gough, 1999). However, none of these reviews was systematic in nature, nor did any apply
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 3
the guidelines of the Cochrane Collaboration (2016), considered the standard for compre-
hensive literature searches (Sampson et al., 2006) and quality appraisal. In 2002, Capraro
and Capraro conducted a meta-analytic reliability generalization study of articles investigating
a number of the psychometric properties of the MBTI; however, the scope of the study was
limited to articles published between 1998 and 2001. To date, we could find no completed
systematic review of the literature or in-depth meta-analysis of studies that meet the standards
suggested by the Cochrane Collaboration to assess the psychometric properties of the MBTI.
THE MYERS BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
The MBTI measures the degree to which an individual prefers to operate from four dichoto-
mous type pairs using a series of forced-choice questions that represent behavioral prefer-
ences. In accord with Jung’s theory of types, it proposes that everyone has a natural preference
for one of the two opposites on each of four scales, emphasizing that one preference is not
better than another. According to supporters of the MBTI, this distinguishes it from most
psychological assessments, which quantify personality traits, many of which consider one end
of the scale to be more positive and the other more negative (Schaubhut, Herk, & Thompson,
2009, p. 4). The MBTI emphasizes the word preference and uses single letters of the alphabet
to denote its eight preferences. The definitions for each MBTI preference show a distinct link
with Jung’s original definitions:
Extraversion (E) is the tendency to focus on the outer world of people and
external events. People who prefer extraversion direct their energy and at-
tention outward and receive energy from external events, experiences, and
interactions.
Introversion (I) is the preference to focus on the inner world of ideas and ex-
periences. Individuals direct their energy and attention inward and receive
energy from their internal thoughts, feelings, reflections, and time alone.
Sensing (S) is the preference to take information in through the eyes, ears,
and other senses. People who are predominantly sensing are observant of
what is going on around them and are especially good at recognizing the
practical realities of a situation.
Intuition (N) is the ability to take in information by seeing the big picture,
focusing on relationships and connections between facts. People who prefer
intuition tend to grasp patterns and are especially adept at seeing new pos-
sibilities and different perspectives.
4 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Thinking (T) is the preference in decision making to look at the logical con-
sequences of a choice or action. People who prefer this type try to mentally
remove themselves from a situation to examine it objectively and analyze
cause and effect.
Feeling (F) is the use of emotion in decision making, and people with this
preference tend to consider what is important to them and to other people.
They mentally place themselves in a situation and identify with the people
involved so that they can make decisions based on person-centered values.
Judging (J) is the preference to organize life in a planned, orderly way, with
a desire to regulate and control it. People who prefer judging make deci-
sions, achieve closure, and appreciate an environment that is structured
and organized.
Perceiving (P) is the tendency to live in a flexible, spontaneous way, seeking
to experience and understand life rather than control it. People who are
perceiving prefer to be open to experience and last-minute options. They
enjoy and trust their resourcefulness and ability to adapt to the demands of
a situation (Briggs-Myers, 1993; Hall & Nordby, 1973).
The MBTI treats each preference equally, so there are no principal functions or sub-
ordinate functions as described by Jung. Given four sets of dichotomous preferences that
can occur in any combination, the MBTI proposes that there are sixteen different personality
types. With the MBTI, four letters represent each type, which indicate the four dominant
preference areas. For example, ENFP is Extraversion Intuitive Feeling Perceiving, which has
its own set of characteristics, some like and some different from the other fifteen types. Simi-
lar to Jung’s work in Psychological Types (1923), the MBTI addresses various combinations of
each type, such as introverted-sensing or intuitive-thinking-perceiving. The MBTI allows its
user to describe two people with the exact four-letter combination of preferences in generali-
ties similar to both, yet accounts for the individual differences produced by variation of the
extent (or strength) of each person’s preference. This echoes Jung’s belief that his types can
be used to describe groups of people as well as individuals (Jung, 1921/1923).
According to the companion manual to the MBTI, Introduction to Type (Briggs Myers,
1998; Myers, Kirby, & Briggs Meyers, 2015), which was first published in 1970 and is currently
in its seventh edition, the goal of the instrument is to foster self-understanding, enhance
learning and communication, assist with conflict management, and enhance relationships. It
is a tool “with intent not to stereotype, but to allow understanding of individual preferences”
(Jessup, 2002, p. 503). Between 1943 and 1975, the MBTI evolved through a number of itera-
tions, spanning Forms A through F. In 1975 Consulting Psychologist Press acquired the rights
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 5
to sell the MBTI as a proprietary instrument (Pittenger, 1993), and it became readily available
for widespread use as Form G (McCaulley, 1990). In 1998, Form G underwent revision and
was published as Form M, which can be administered by the publisher, by computer, or by
using a self-scorable version. Additionally, two MBTI instruments that explore type more
deeply are the Step II (first published as Form K in 1989 and subsequently revised as Form Q
in 2001) and Step III (published in 2009). Step II explores differences within the same type,
and Step III is administered only by counselors specifically trained in the tool in one-on-one
sessions (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Mitchell, 2009). There are currently four distinct
forms of the MBTI, each differing in its use and scoring: Form M and Form M self-scorable,
Step II Form Q, and Step III. The MBTI has a European version and has been translated into
21 languages, including Chinese, German, Italian, Japanese, Norwegian, and Spanish (Myers
& Briggs Foundation, 2016).
Most criticisms of the MBTI relate to the dichotomous nature of the instrument, its
translation of continuous scale scores into nominal categories of preference, and whether it
reflects the theory on which it is based (Barbuto, 1997; Daisly, 2011; Pittenger, 1993; Zemke,
1992). The forced-choice nature of the MBTI does not allow respondents to select a median
or neutral response (Barbuto, 1997); they must choose a response that places them into one
preference or the other (either Extraversion or Introversion, Sensing or iNtuition, Thinking
or Feeling, Judging or Perceiving). Scoring for the MBTI reflects the most frequently selected
side of the four dichotomies, which determines preference, reflected in the four-letter com-
bination that expresses overall type. Barbuto (1997) suggests that this nominal aspect of
the MBTI results deviates from Jung’s original theory. These observations lead to questions
regarding the validity and reliability of the MBTI (Zemke, 1992).
Key properties of an assessment tool such as the MBTI are validity and reliability. These
relate to aspects of its construction, evaluation, and documentation as described by the Stan-
dards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Associa-
tion, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Educa-
tion, 2014). Validity is the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations
of scores for the proposed uses of the test. Construct validity refers to the extent to which a test
actually measures what the theory says it does. Reliability is the degree to which scores for an
individual or group are consistent over repeated administrations of the same test. Test-retest
reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration
to the next. Internal consistency reliability assesses the stability of results across items within a
test (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, &
National Council on Measurement in Education, 2014, chaps. 1, 2).
At present, no complete study has investigated the breadth of articles published about
the MBTI or performed an in-depth analysis of the psychometric properties of the instru-
ment as a whole or its various forms. This systematic review/meta-analysis seeks to inform
our research question: in the adult population, is the MBTI a useful test in terms of construct
6 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
validity, test-retest reliability, and/or internal consistency reliability in determining personal-
ity preference in the areas of inward or outward focus (extraversion/introversion), informa-
tion processing (sensing/intuition), decision making (thinking/feeling), and organization
(judging/perceiving)?
METHODS
Rationale for Methods
This systematic review of the key psychometric properties of the MBTI adhered to the
Cochrane guidelines and consisted of a priori identification of inclusion criteria, which
determined our search strategy, followed by a two-phase process of critical appraisal of in-
cluded studies with the intent to extract data for analysis. Inclusion criteria for this review
incorporated the Cochrane Collaboration guidelines (Cochrane Collaboration Diagnostic
Test Accuracy Working Group 2011; Deeks, Wisniewski, & Davenport, 2013; Higgins et al.,
2011) and contained questions extracted from its tool for assessing risk of bias (Higgins & Alt-
man, 2008), as well as strategies for systematic reviews proposed by Meline (2006) and Slavin
(1986). Some Cochrane criteria, such as those pertaining to randomized controlled trials or
multiple-group designs, were not applicable and thus not used. Other recommended criteria
were incorporated into the rubric we applied to assess each article’s quality.
Inclusion Criteria and Rationale
The inclusion criteria for studies in this systematic review/meta-analysis were as follows:
• The study was consistent with the research question.
• The study examined construct validity, test-retest reliability, and/or internal
consistency reliability for the MBTI as new data.
• Subjects in the study were adults (18 years or older).
• The study was written in English and published in a peer-reviewed journal
in 1975 or later, or the study was a dissertation written in English and pub-
lished in 2011 or later.
• Sample size and level of significance were reported or were obtainable from
study authors.
• The study authors expressed data for reliability as alpha coefficients, item-
total correlations, corrected item-total correlations, intraclass correlation
(ICC) coefficients, Pearson correlation coefficients, Spearman rank correla-
tion coefficients, or kappa coefficients; and/or expressed data for validity
as structural equation modeling, alpha coefficients, item-total correlations,
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 7
corrected-item total correlations, ICCs, Pearson r, Spearman r, kappa, or
item-level ICCs or factor analysis.
The publication date of 1975 or later was selected based on the assertion by McCaul-
ley (1990) that in 1975 the MBTI was readily accessible for use. We elected to study any of
the three forms of the MBTI (Form F, G, or M) that were in use from 1975 to the present
day, since they all measure the same theoretical construct and are simply refinements of the
instrument. We did not use any articles related to the MBTI Step II or Step III instruments
because these are different versions of the MBTI that are scored only through the publisher
or by a certified MBTI counselor, and more pragmatically, no studies were found when we
conducted our literature search. Given the potential time lapse between completing a dis-
sertation and submitting it for publication, we selected five years as sufficient time to do so; a
dissertation that was completed longer than five years ago likely will not have been accepted
for publication due to failure to meet certain quality thresholds (Meline, 2006). If a study did
not report its level of significance (alpha) and we could not confirm it with study authors, we
excluded it from analysis.
Search Strategy
The comprehensive literature search was conducted by a librarian with a master of library and
information science degree and who is a distinguished member of the Academy of Health
Information. Databases searched were Ovid MEDLINE®, OVID OLDMEDLINE®, OVID
MEDLINE® In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, OVID MEDLINE® Without Re-
visions, EMBASE+EMBASE CLASSIC, ERIC, PsycINFO, and HEALTH AND PSYCHO-
SOCIAL INSTRUMENTS (HAPI). Search terms used were Myers-Briggs, validity, reliability,
and statistics. Results were limited to articles published in 1975 or later on adult populations
(older than 18 years). When possible, MeSH terms and descriptors were used and exploded.
Truncation was employed for a maximum number of results. Reference results from each
database were reviewed, and the authors examined reference lists of individual articles for ad-
ditional studies. A hand search was conducted on numerous compendiums of psychometric
assessment and measurement for additional studies. The literature search produced 221 po-
tential studies, which were assembled into the EndNote (Clarivate Analytics 2014) reference
management software system.
Study Selection Process
The application of this study’s inclusion criteria occurred in two phases, depicted in the flow
diagram of Figure 1. Phase I involved independent and blinded assessments of the assembled
abstracts by two of the authors (MI and KR), applying the first four inclusion criteria. If a
8 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Figure 1. Flow diagram of systematic study selection.
1
Fig u re 1 . Flo w d ia g ra m o f s ys t e m a t ic s t u d y s e le c t io n .
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 9
study did not meet one or more of the criteria, the reviewer identified it as excluded from
the review. During this phase of the appraisal process, the two assessors agreed on 24 studies
for inclusion and 185 for exclusion, for an agreement of 94.57%. They differed in opinion
on 12 studies, for which the remaining author (CC) served to break the tie. If the reviewers
were unsure that a study met one or more criteria and no other reasons for exclusion existed,
they then retained the study for Phase II, which involved review of the entire article. In total,
26 abstracts were included for the second phase of appraisal.
Prior to Phase II, a graduate assistant obtained complete copies of the articles, removed
all identifying information about the authors, placed them in random order, and assigned a
study number. Both reviewers then screened each study, applying all six of the inclusion criteria.
One study (Levy & Padilla, 1982) did not report an alpha level. The reviewers contacted both
authors and received a response from one (Padilla) who was unable to provide the alpha level
for this study; therefore, it was excluded. During the process both reviewers conferred on four
studies; however, their initial determinations were in complete agreement. Of the 26 studies
in Phase II, both reviewers excluded 17 studies and included 8, for 96.15% agreement. The
third author broke the tie on the only study (Tzeng, Ware, & Bharadwaj, 1991) on which the
reviewers disagreed, determining that is should be excluded, bringing the total excluded to 18.
Nearly half of the included studies did not report the specific ages of subjects; however, they did
report them as “college-age students” or similar description. The reviewers agreed that this met
the criterion that the subjects were adults. Once the articles were unblinded, the reviewers dis-
covered that two of them (Thompson & Borrello, 1986a, 1986b) analyzed data from the same
study and both reported on construct validity of the MBTI, with the second study (Thompson
& Borrello, 1986b) reporting a second-order factor analysis. After conferring, both reviewers
agreed that these studies met the inclusion criteria but decided to consider them as only one
study for analysis. Excluded studies with rationale are listed in Table 1.
Data Abstraction and Quality-of-Study Score
Descriptive characteristics of each study were abstracted during the Phase II review process
for use in description and sensitivity analysis as follows:
• Characteristics of the article: author, journal, year published, publication
type
• Characteristics of the MBTI: form used, translation into another language,
format or delivery method
• Characteristics of the sample: age, gender, race/ethnicity, education level,
country of delivery, sample size
• Characteristics of the study: primary question, study design, sampling pro-
cedures, statistics collected
10 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
To quantify the quality of included studies, we devised a 20-point quality scoring ru-
bric that incorporated elements of five sets of quality assessment guidelines: recommenda-
tions of the Cochrane Collaboration Diagnostic Test Accuracy Working Group (2011), the
Cochrane Assessing Risk of Bias in Included Studies document (Higgins & Altman, 2008),
the Guidelines for Reporting Reliability and Agreement Studies (Kottner et al., 2011), the
Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy (Bossuyt et al., 2003), and the Strengthening
the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines (von Elm et al., 2007).
The scoring rubric consisted of 20 statements extracted from one or more of these resource
guidelines; if a reviewer determined that an article satisfied a particular statement (“yes”), the
article received one point; if the study did not fulfill a statement (“no”), it did not receive a
point. Both Phase II reviewers scored each article. The reviewers discussed any difference in
scores until they reached a consensus score. If the reviewers could not reach a consensus score
within one point, the third reviewer adjudicated the score. Table 2 contains the rubric used
to determine study quality score.
Table 1. Studies Excluded in Phase II of Appraisal
Author (Year) Study Rationale for Exclusiona
Bents & Blank, 1992 2
Broer & McCarley, 1999 4
Johnson, 1992 1
Kubinger, Karner, & Menghin, 1999 1, 5
Levy & Padilla, 1982 4
Lorr, 1991 4
Nordvik, 1994a 5
Nordvick, 1994b 5
Nordvik & Brovold, 1998 1
Posey, Thorne, & Carskadon, 1999 1
Ruisel & Ruiselova, 1995 4
Saggino & Kline, 1995 2
Saggino & Kline, 1996 2
Sipps, Alexander, & Friedt, 1985 2
Tzeng, Ware, & Bharadwaj, 1991 5
Tzeng, Ware, & Chen, 1989 5
Rationales for exclusion: 1, did not answer primary question; 2, included ages <18 years; 3, non-English and/or not published in peer-reviewed journal; 4, statistics not reported in format desired or obtainable; 5, format of MBTI test inconsistent with versions examined for this review.
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 11
Table 2. Rubric Used to Determine Study Quality Score
Score:
Manuscript Yes = 1
Section Description of Item Supporting Study Qualitya No = 0
Title and abstract Identifies that validity and/or reliability was investigated (GRRAS,
STARD)
Introduction Names the MBTI explicitly as the test of interest (GRRAS)
Specifies the subject population of interest (GRRAS)
Describes what is already known about validity and/or reliability
and why this study is needed (GRRAS)
Methods Clearly reports study location (country or setting ) (STROBE)
Provides the eligibility criteria and the sources and methods of
selecting participants (STROBE—cohort study criteria)
Describes inclusion/exclusion criteria (STARD, STROBE)
Clearly indicates sampling procedures (GRRAS, STARD,
STROBE)
The study reports statistical power of .80 or otherwise reports how
the researchers determined the appropriate sample size for the
study (CCDTAWG)
Describes evaluator/rater(s) and training (STARD)
Describes the time interval between measurement (if applicable—for
test-retest reliability studies) or describes the consistency of results
across items (if applicable—for internal consistency reliability) or
describes the reference standard test for determining validity
(GRRAS, STARD)
Describes statistical analysis (GRRAS, STROBE)
Describes the completeness of outcome data for each main
outcome, including attrition and exclusions from the analysis
(STROBE, CCDTAWG)
Results States the actual number of subjects that were included
(GRRAS, STARD, STROBE)
Clearly describes the population by gender, race/ethnicity, and age
(GRRAS, STARD, STROBE)
Reports calculations of reliability and/or validity using the outcomes
discussed in the methods section (GRRAS)
Describes how missing data or outliers were managed (STROBE)
Discussion Discusses the practical relevance of results in light of previous
research (GRRAS, STROBE)
(continued)
12 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Data Analysis
We conducted a preliminary analysis of the data using MedCalc statistical software (MedCalc
Software 2016) to calculate I2 and Cochran’s Q to assess for heterogeneity. The literature var-
ies on exactly how many studies are required to effectively conduct a meta-analysis. When
studies are statistically homogeneous, they can be viewed from a fixed-effects perspective
and subjects from as few as two studies can be pooled for meta-analysis (Borenstein, Hedges,
Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009; Field & Gillett, 2010). The alternative, using a random-effects
approach in which some variability of studies is assumed, is appropriate only for studies in
which the variability is reasonable. As the heterogeneity of the effects of multiple studies
increases, the appropriateness for pooling the data decreases (Higgins & Green, 2011).
RESULTS
Included Studies
The seven studies that met our inclusion criteria are listed in chronological order in Table 3,
which includes the MBTI form and psychometric property studied, number of subjects strati-
fied by gender (if reported), demographic information provided, and the reviewers’ combined
quality ranking based on the 20-point scale developed a priori. Only validity and reliability
studies involving Forms F and G of the MBTI were included in this systematic review; no
studies of the most current form (Form M) were among those that remained after the two
Table 2. Rubric Used to Determine Study Quality Score (continued)
Score:
Manuscript Yes = 1
Section Description of Item Supporting Study Qualitya No = 0
Limitations Describes limitations to include internal and external biases and
confounding factors ( Cochrane Collaboration, 2016)
Discloses potential conflicts of interest (with funding source,
journal of publication, etc.) (STROBE, CARBIST)
Total Score /20
CARBIST, Cochrane Assessing Risk of Bias in Included Studies document (Higgins & Altman, 2008);
CCDTAWG, Cochrane Diagnostic Test Accuracy Working Group (2011); GRRAS, Guidelines for
Reporting Reliability and Agreement Studies (Kottner et al., 2011); STARD, Standards for Reporting
of Diagnostic Accuracy (Bossuyt et al., 2003); STROBE, Strengthening the Reporting of Observational
Studies in Epidemiology guidelines (von Elm et al., 2007).
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 13
Table 3. Studies Included in the Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Subjects Quality
Psychometric (total and by Subject Score
Author(s) MBTI Property gender if demographics (20 points
Studya Form Examined reported) Demographics maximum)
*Carskadon, Form F Test-retest n = 134 Subjects reported as 14
1977 reliability 70 female college students
64 male
Cohen, Form F Construct n = 48 Subjects reported as 13
Cohen, & Validity 24 female married couples; one
Cross, 1981 24 male member of each couple
was an undergraduate
student
Tzeng, Form G Construct n = 444 Subjects reported as 9
Outcalt, validity via subjects stratified college students and
Boyer, Ware, factor by gender for clerical employees
& Landis, analysis analysis, but n
1984 for females and
males not
reported
*Leiden, Form F Test-retest n = 81 Subjects reported as 10
Veach, & reliability college students
Herring,
1986
Thompson Form F Construct n = 359 Subjects reported as 13
& Borrello, validity: students enrolled in
1986a, convergent- an urban university
1986b divergent in the southern US
validity
Jackson, Form F Construct n = 1,030 Subjects reported as 13
Parker, & validity of 407 female working adults,
Dipboye, four alter- 753 male 18–69 years old
1996 native models
*Salter, Form G Test-retest n = 99 Subjects reported as 14
Evans, & reliability master’s level college
Forney, students in an
2006 education program
a Asterisks (*) indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.
14 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
phases of review. Of the included studies, four examined the construct validity of the MBTI,
and three investigated test-retest reliability. No study that met the inclusion criteria investi-
gated internal consistency reliability.
Quality scores of the included studies ranged from 9 to 14 out of a possible 20. The
most frequent missing information that resulted in decreased quality scores for the included
studies were description of missing data or management of outliers, disclosure of potential
conflicts of interest, rationale supporting the choice of sample size, description of evaluator
training, and description of criteria used to include or exclude participants.
Studies of MBTI Construct Validity
Meta-analysis of the four studies of construct validity as a pooled group was not possible be-
cause they examined different aspects of construct validity or differed in method of
analysis
(American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & Na-
tional Council on Measurement in Education, 2014). Because we were unable to pool data
for meta-analysis, we can only summarize the findings of these individual studies.
Cohen, Cohen, and Cross (1981) examined convergence of the MBTI Form F with
the Behavioral Styles Inventory, which supported the construct validity of the Extraversion-
Introversion, Sensing-iNtuition, and Thinking-Feeling scales. The study did not confirm the
Judging-Perceiving scale. Subjects were married couples, with at least one member of each
couple being an undergraduate college student. The remaining three studies applied different
types of factor analysis to examine validity of the MBTI. Jackson et al. (1996) used confirma-
tory factor analysis of a sample of 1,030 working adults (407 female, 753 male) 18–69 years
of age to compare the MBTI Form F to the Five Factor Model (McCrae & Costa, 1989)
and two models suggested by Sipps, Alexander, and Friedt (1985). The results of this study
supported a “four-factor structure similar to the original Jungian structure” (Jackson et al.,
1996, p. 111) and also concluded that there were no significant differences in scores on the
MBTI between genders. Factor analysis on intercorrelations conducted on Form G by Tzeng
et al. (1984) yielded four “clear simple structures with the resultant empirical factors being
matched almost perfectly with the theoretical scales of the MBTI” (p. 255). They also found
no differences between males and females; however, they did not report the exact number of
each in their study. Further, correlations of subjects’ raw scores of the eight preference poles
of the MBTI scales indicated strong negative relationships (r < –.84) between the dichoto-
mous poles of each MBTI dimension. Finally, the studies by Thompson and Borello (1986a,
1986b) conducted first-order and second-order factor analyses of the MBTI Form F scores of
359 university students. The authors reported “consistent supportive evidence regarding the
construct validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator” (1986a, p. 750) and that use of both
first-order and second-order methods with a single data set “allowed a determination that the
structure of the MBTI is both generalizable and accurate” (p. 751).
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 15
Studies of MBTI Test-Retest Reliability
The three studies that examined test-retest reliability and met our inclusion criteria all re-
ported Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients for each of the MBTI subscales,
allowing for pooling of the data for meta-analysis.
Sample Characteristics. The pooled number of subjects from the three studies of test-
retest reliability of the MBTI totaled 314, which included 70 females and 64 males, with a
remaining 180 subjects from two studies that did not report subject gender. All three studies
occurred in the United States. The subjects in all of the studies were college-age students,
differing only by education level: some were in medical school, others were seeking master’s
degrees, and others were enrolled in a psychology course.
Test and Study Characteristics. Two hundred and fifteen of the subjects completed
print versions in English of Form F, and 99 completed print versions in English of Form G.
The time frames between administration of the MBTI were seven weeks (Carskadon, 1977),
9 months and 21 months (Leiden, Veach, & Herring, 1986), and 24 months (Salter, Evans,
& Forney, 2006), for a mean of 13.93 months. The samples were drawn from the student
populations of the academic institutions affiliated with one or more of the authors from each
of the three studies.
Results of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis. Because Carskadon (1977) strati-
fied test-retest correlations by gender and did not report combined correlations, we input the
data separately for males and females. I2 values for the four subscales of the MBTI ranged
from 57.37% to 73.35%, which the Cochrane Collaboration considers “substantial” hetero-
geneity (Higgins & Green, 2011, section 9.5.2). Cochran’s Q for the subscales produced low
p-values, again indicating a moderate degree of heterogeneity of studies (Hatala, Keitz, Wyer,
& Guyatt, 2005).
The literature abundantly reflects the quandary researchers and statisticians face about
whether to proceed with a meta-analysis when heterogeneity is present. The Cochrane Col-
laboration acknowledges the argument that methodological diversity will always occur in a
meta-analyses and that heterogeneity is inevitable (Higgins & Green, 2011). Borenstein et al.
(2009) reflect this challenge as well, which they report is magnified when few studies are being
examined. Further, they propose that “people have the almost irresistible tendency to draw
some summary conclusions” and suggest that a statistical summary with known but perhaps
suboptimal properties such as high uncertainty may be preferred to inviting an ad hoc sum-
mary with unknown properties (chap. 40). With this in mind, we decided to conduct the
meta-analysis, albeit with caution.
The total random effects correlations of the four subscales of the MBTI produced by our
16 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
meta-analysis for test-retest reliability are .764 (Extravert-Introvert), .753 (Sensing-iNtuition),
.612 (Thinking-Feeling), and .775 (Judging-Perceiving), and all are significant at p < .001. We
conducted a sensitivity analysis by adding studies that we eliminated based on the criterion
that all studies had to be published prior to 1975. We located two such studies, both of
which were conducted in the United States using print versions in English. Stricker, Schiff-
man, and Ross (1965) administered the MBTI to 41 college psychology students, and Levy,
Murphy, and Carlson (1972) gave it to African American college students (n = 146 males and
287 females). Neither study reported which version of the MBTI was used. The sensitivity
analysis produced coefficients that are very close to those calculated for each subscale in the
meta-analysis, with the largest difference (.049) noted in the Thinking-Feeling subscale. Tables
4–7 and Figures 2–5 summarize the findings of the meta-analysis and provide forest plots for
each subscale, including the summary data of the sensitivity analysis.
Figure 2. Forest plot for Extravert-Introvert (E-I) Subscale.
Table 4. Summary Data of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis of MBTI
Extravert-Introvert (E-I) Subscale
Sample
Correlation
Study Size Coefficient 95% CI p -Value Weight (%)
Carkscadon, 1997 (females) 70 .830 .739 to .891 23.94
Carkscadon, 1997 (males) 64 .790 .675 to .867 22.95
Leiden et al., 1986 81 .640 .490 to .753 25.52
Salter & Evans, 1997 99 .770 .675 to .840 27.59
Total (random effects) 314 .764 .680 to .828 <.001 100.00
Sensitivity analysis 788 .783 .735 to .823 <.001
7
Table 4
Summary Data of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis of MBTI Extravert-Introvert (E-I)
Subscale
Study Sample
Size
Correlation
Coefficient
95% CI p-
Value
Weight (%)
Carkscadon,
1997 (females)
70 .830 .739 to .891 23.94
Carkscadon,
1997 (males)
64 .790 .675 to .867 22.95
Leiden et al.,
1986
81 .640 .490 to .753 25.52
Salter & Evans,
1997
99 .770 .675 to .840 27.59
Total (random
effects)
314 .764 .680 to .828 <.001 100.00
Sensitivity
analysis
788 .783 .735 to .823 <.001
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 17
DISCUSSION
The seven studies that met the inclusion criteria for this systematic review of the literature
consisted of four that examined construct validity and three that looked at test-retest reli-
ability. Based on available published literature, we were able to combine the three articles for
test-retest reliability and can cautiously conclude that the MBTI performs reliably over time.
Given the small number of studies that met our inclusion criteria, a meaningful analysis
for publication bias for either group was not possible. Cochrane guidelines recommend that
tests for bias via funnel plot asymmetry must involve at least 10 studies, because the power
of the test with fewer studies is too low to distinguish chance from real asymmetry (Higgins
& Green, 2011). The quality of the included studies was variable, with the highest ranked
Table 5. Summary Data of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis of MBTI
Sensing-Intuition (S-N) Subscale
Sample Correlation
Study Size Coefficient 95% CI p -Value Weight (%)
Carkscadon, 1997 (females) 70 .820 .725 to .885 23.90
Carkscadon, 1997 (males) 64 .790 .675 to .867 22.88
Leiden et al., 1986 81 .630 .477 to .746 25.53
Salter & Evans, 1997 99 .750 .649 to .825 27.69
Total (random effects) 314 .753 .668 to .819 <.001 100.00
Sensitivity analysis 788 .744 .694 to .787 <.001 9
Figure 3. Forest plot for Sensing-Intuition (S-N) Subscale.
Figure 3. Forest plot for Sensing-Intuition (S-N) Subscale.
18 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
article meeting only 70% of the criteria developed a priori from a number of Cochrane Col-
laboration resources.
The number of studies investigating various aspects of validity of the MBTI that met the
inclusion criteria for this systematic review is small. The four that met our inclusion criteria
agree that the instrument has reasonable construct validity and that it appears to measure
aspects of personal preferences as described by Jung’s theory of psychological types (Jung,
1921/1923) and as expanded upon by Briggs and Myers (1998). The negative correlations of
the eight preferences reported by Tzeng et al. (1984) seem to support the theoretical concept
of dichotomous poles of the four subscales; however, our systematic review of the literature
revealed considerable disagreement (see Cowan, 1989; Healy, 1989; McCrae & Costa, 1989).
Table 6. Summary Data of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis of MBTI Thinking-
Feeling (T-F) Subscale
Sample Correlation
Study Size Coefficient 95% CI p -Value Weight (%)
Carkscadon, 1997 (females) 70 .730 .598 to .824 24.33
Carkscadon, 1997 (males) 64 .560 .364 to .708 23.66
Leiden et al., 1986 81 .410 .210 to .577 25.36
Salter & Evans, 1997 99 .690 .570 to .781 26.65
Total (random effects) 314 .612 .456 to .732 <.001 100.00
Sensitivity analysis 788 .661 .527 to .762 <.001
10
Table 6
Summary Data of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis of MBTI Thinking-Feeling (T-F)
Subscale
Study Sample
Size
Correlation
Coefficient
95% CI p-Value Weight (%)
Carkscadon,
1997 (females)
70 .730 .598 to .824 24.33
Carkscadon,
1997 (males)
64 .560 .364 to .708 23.66
Leiden et al.,
1986
81 .410 .210 to .577 25.36
Salter & Evans,
1997
99 .690 .570 to .781 26.65
Total (random
effects)
314 .612 .456 to .732 <.001 100.00
Sensitivity
analysis
788 .661 .527 to .762 <.001
Figure 4. Forest plot for Thinking-Feeling (T-F) Subscale.
Figure 4. Forest plot for Thinking-Feeling (T-F) Subscale.
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 19
Jackson et al. (1996) demonstrated convergence of the MBTI with the Five Factor Model;
however, their factor analysis revealed a structure comprising four factors instead of five. This
study is one among many that compares the MBTI and the Five Factor Model (also known
as the Big Five model or the NEO Personality Inventory) (Costa & McCrae, 1985), which
is a data-driven model (Boyle, Stankov, & Cattell, 1995) and parallels the MBTI in its usage
(for a measured comparison and discussion of these two instruments, see Furnham, Moutafi,
& Crump, 2003). Scores on the MBTI appear to have no difference between genders, and
according to one study (Thompson and Borello, 1986a) it is accurate and generalizable; how-
ever, the subjects in three of the four validity studies were college age, with only Jackson et al.
(1996) administering the MBTI to people up to 69 years of age.
Table 7. Summary Data of Meta-analysis and Sensitivity Analysis of MBTI Judging-
Perceiving (J-P) Subscale
Sample Correlation
Study Size Coefficient 95% CI p -Value Weight (%)
Carkscadon, 1997 (females) 70 .870 .798 to .917 24.29
Carkscadon, 1997 (males) 64 .760 .632 to .847 23.58
Leiden et al., 1986 81 .660 .516 to .768 25.38
Salter & Evans, 1997 99 .770 .675 to .840 26.75
Total (random effects) 314 .775 .675 to .847 <.001 100.00
Sensitivity analysis 788 .782 .731 to .825 <.001 12
Figure 5. Forest plot for Judging-Perceiving (J-P) Subscale.
Figure 5. Forest plot for Judging-Perceiving ( J-P) Subscale.
20 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Meta-analysis of the three reliability studies that met our inclusion criteria showed signifi-
cant test-retest correlations of .612 for the Thinking-Feeling subscale and .753, .764, and .775
for the Sensing-iNtuition, Extravert-Introvert, and Judging Perceiving Subscales, respectively.
Most statistical resources for psychological instruments support a correlation coefficient
of .70 or greater as being satisfactory reliability between administrations of an instrument
(Coolican, 2014; Haslam & McGarty, 2014); however, the length of time between taking and
retaking the instrument is important. The sensitivity analysis produced similar coefficients
that had narrower confidence intervals, and although the pooled number of subjects for test-
retest reliability increased, we still lacked sufficient studies to adequately decrease heterogene-
ity or perform additional analyses, including funnel plots. All of the subjects in the studies
of reliability were university students.
Given that the subjects in the included studies were college age, the MBTI’s most appro-
priate applications may be in academic settings. Our review of the literature reveals that the
MBTI has been used in combination with other variables as part of the admissions process or
following acceptance to predict grade point average, academic difficulty, and clinical perfor-
mance in various health professions (Ferguson, James, & Madely, 2002; Lowenthal & Meth,
1989; Turner, Helper, & Kriska, 1974; Schurr, Ruble, & Henriksen, 1988; Stricker et al., 1965);
however, these studies also discuss that many other variables have influence on these outcomes.
Aspects of diversity, particularly ethnicity and gender, have also been linked with personality
preference (Hammer & Mitchell, 1996; Levy et al., 1972; Oakland, Stafford, Horton, & Glut-
ting, 2001). Given the multiple variables that can influence academic success and that a key
element of the MBTI’s theoretical perspective is that one preference is no better or worse than
another, the MBTI might best be used to inform teaching and advisement methods rather
than as a screening tool for admissions. By understanding how students prefer to process and
evaluate information and make decisions, educators can tailor curricula to meet various modes
of learning (Harrington & Loffredo, 2009; Sefcik, Prerost, & Arbet, 2009; Shuck & Phillips,
1999), as well as one-on-one academic advisement (Crockett & Crawford, 1989; Gordon &
Carberry, 1984; Salter, Evans, & Forney, 2006). With consideration for all the variables that
can influence the academic experience, perhaps the greatest utility of the MBTI is to reinforce
appreciation of the diversity of perspectives and preferences that exist among students.
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
Limitations of this systematic review of the literature include the small number of studies,
which were of medium quality, as well as the substantial heterogeneity of the studies assessing
test-retest reliability. Suggestions for future research include conducting studies of the current
forms of the MBTI (M and Q) with a diversity of subjects ranging in age, vocation, culture,
and other demographics. Further, an investigation of the reasons for study heterogeneity via
metaregression might prove illuminating.
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 21
Future research might address questions specific to how MBTI scoring is being used and
the validity of results for these purposes. For example, if educators are using MBTI scores to
provide context for individual and team member behavior, does knowledge of MBTI prefer-
ence improve performance or relations within teams? Another potential line of inquiry could
relate to whether certain instructional strategies produce different outcomes based on student
preference. The quantity of potential studies of the MBTI or similar such instruments and
their properties are as many and varied as their possible applications.
CONCLUSIONS
A small number of studies met our inclusion criteria to examine the validity and reliability of
the MBTI. Published works were also limited to earlier versions of the instrument (Forms F
and G). The quality of the included studies was variable, with the highest ranked article meet-
ing only 70% of the criteria developed a priori from a number of Cochrane Collaboration
resources. Four studies of construct validity individually lend support that the instrument is
a valid representation of the theory of personality preferences on which it is based; however,
their disparate methodologies did not allow for meta-analysis. The three studies of test-retest
reliability of the subscales of the MBTI demonstrated strong heterogeneity, and guarded
meta-analysis produced acceptable correlation coefficients for Extraversion-Introversion,
Sensing-iNtuition, and Perceiving-Judging, with weaker reliability for Thinking-Feeling. The
populations in six of the seven studies were college-age students in various academic pro-
grams; thus, interpretations of the tool are perhaps more applicable to this population than
to others. Given this, we have a relatively good degree of confidence that we can generalize
the findings from this systematic review of the literature in our university classrooms. That
said, the paucity of good-quality studies that meet the rigor of the Cochrane Collaboration
indicates that our effort to employ an evidence-informed curriculum by using a valid instru-
ment that reliably measures personality preferences is an ongoing task. The MBTI has been
widely used for many years, and not unlike any other psychometric instrument, the evidence
to support its validity and reliability—among other attributes—should be current and of the
highest quality possible.
REFERENCES
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, &
National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for educational and
psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
Angler, B. (2009). Personality theories (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
22 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Barbuto, J. E. (1997). A critique of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and its operationaliza-
tion of Carl Jung’s psychological types. Psychological Reports, 80, 611–625.
Bell, M. A., Wales, P. S., Torbeck, L. J., Kunzer, J. M., Thurston, V. C., & Brokaw, J. J.
(2011). Do personality differences between teachers and learners impact students’
evaluations of a surgery clerkship? Journal of Surgical Education, 68(3), 190–193.
Bents, R., & Blank, R., (1992). The development of a personality assessment tool: The
Myers-Briggs Typenindicator. European Review of Applied Psychology/Revue
Europeenne de Psychologie Appliquee, 42, 1–9.
Borenstein, M. Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to
meta-analysis. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Bossuyt, P. M., Reitsma, J. B., Bruns, D. E., Gatsonis, C. A., Glasziou, P. P., Irwig, L. M., . . .
Lijmer, J. G. (2003). The STARD statement for reporting studies of diagnostic accu-
racy: Explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 138, 1–12.
Boyle, C. J., Stankov, L., & Cattell, R. B. (1995). Measurement and statistical models in the
study of personality and intelligence. In D. H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Interna-
tional handbook of personality and intelligence (pp. 431–433).
Briggs Myers, I. (1998). Introduction to type (6th ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist
Press.
Broer, E., & McCarley, N. G. (1999). Using and validating the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
in mainland China. Journal of Psychological Type, 51, 5–21.
Capraro, R. M. & Capraro, M. M. (2002). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator score reliability
across studies: A meta-analytic reliability generalization study. Educational and Psychologi-
cal Measurement, 62, 590–602.
Carlson, J. C. (1985). Recent assessments of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 49, 356–365.
Carlyn, M. (1977). An assessment of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 41, 461–473.
Carskadon, T. G. (1977). Test-retest reliabilities of continuous scores on the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator. Psychological Reports, 41, 1011–1012.
Clarivate Analytics. (2014). EndNote (version 7.02) [computer software]. Retrieved from
http://endnote.com/downloads/30-day-trial
Cochrane Collaboration (2016). Cochrane: Our vision, mission, and principles. Retrieved from
http://www.cochrane.org/about-us/our-vision-mission-and-principles
Cochrane Collaboration Diagnostic Test Accuracy Working Group (2011). Cochrane hand-
book for systematic reviews of diagnostic test accuracy. Retrieved from http://srdta.cochrane
.org/handbook-dta-reviews
Cohen, D., Cohen, M., & Cross, H. (1981). A construct validity study of the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41, 883–891.
Coolican, H. (2014). Research methods and statistics in psychology (6th ed.). New York: Psychol-
ogy Press.
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 23
Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1985). The NEO Personality Inventory manual. Odessa, FL:
Psychological Assessment Resources.
Cowan, D. A. (1989). An alternative to the dichotomous interpretation of Jung’s psycholog-
ical functions: Developing more sensitive measurement technology. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 53, 459–471.
Crockett, J. B., & Crawford, R. L. (1989). The relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) Scale scores and advising style preferences of college freshmen. Jour-
nal of College Student Development, 30, 154–161.
Daisly, R. (2011). Considering personality type in adult learning: Using the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator in instructor preparation at PricewaterhouseCoopers. Performance Im-
provement, 50, 15–24.
Deeks, J. J., Wisniewski, S., & Davenport, C. (2013). Guide to contents of a Cochrane
diagnostic test accuracy protocol. In J. J. Deeks, P. M. Bossuyt, & C. Gatsonis (Eds.),
Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of diagnostic test accuracy, version 1.0.0.
The Cochrane Collaboration. Retrieved from http://srdta.cochrane.org/
Eksteen, M. J., & Basson, M. J. (2015). Discovering the value of personality types in com-
munication training for pharmacy students. African Journal of Health Professions Educa-
tion, 7(1), 43–46.
Ferguson, E., James, D., & Madely, L. (2002). Factors associated with success in medical
school: Systematic review of the literature. British Medical Journal, 324, 952–957.
Field, A. P., & Gillett, R. (2010). How to do a meta-analysis. British Journal of Mathematical
and Statistical Psychology, 63, 665–694.
Furnham, A., Moutafi, J., & Crump, J. (2003). The relationship between the revised NEO-
Personality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Social Behavior and Personal-
ity, 31, 577–584.
Gardner, W.L., & Martinko, M.J. (1996). Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to study
managers: A literature review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 22, 45–83.
Gordon, V. N., & Carberry, J. D. (1984). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A resource for
developmental advising. NACADA Journal, 75–81.
Hall, C. S., & Nordby, V. C. (1973). A primer of Jungian psychology. New York: Mentor.
Hammer, A. L., & Mitchell, W. D. (1996). The distribution of the MBTI types in the US
by gender and ethnic group. Journal of Psychological Type, 37, 2–15.
Harrington, R., & Loffredo, D. A. (2009). MBTI personality type and other factors that
relate to preference for online versus face-to-face instruction. The Internet and Higher
Education, 13, 89–95.
Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C. (2014). Research methods and statistics in psychology (2nd ed.).
Los Angeles: Sage.
Hatala, R., Keitz, S., Wyer, P., & Guyatt, G. (2005). Tips for learners of evidence-based
medicine: 4. Assessing heterogeneity of primary studies in systematic reviews and
whether to combine their results. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 5, 661–665.
24 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Healy, C. C. (1989). Negative: The MBTI not ready for routine use in counseling. Journal of
Counseling Development, 67, 487–488.
Higgins, J. P. T., & Altman, D. G. (2008). Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In
J. P. T. Higgins & S. Green (Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions
(pp. 187–241). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Higgins, J. P. T., Altman, D. G., Gotzsche, P. C., Juni, P., Moher, D., Oxman, A. D., . . .
Sterne, J. A. C. (2011). The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in
randomized trials. British Medical Journal, 343. doi:10.1136/bmj.d5928
Higgins, J., & Green, S. (Eds.). (2011). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions.
Retrieved from http://handbook.cochrane.org/front_page.htm
Hippocrates (1923). Hippocrates Collected Works (Vol. 1). W. H. S. Jones (Ed. and Trans.).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/stream
/hippocrates01hippuoft/hippocrates01hippuoft_djvu.txt.
Hojat, M., Erdmann, J. B., & Gonnella, J. S. (2013). Personality assessments and outcomes
in medical education and the practice of medicine: AMEE guide no. 79. Medical
Teacher, 35, e1267–e1301.
Jackson, S. L., Parker, C. P., & Dipboye, R. L. (1996). A comparison of competing models
underlying responses to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Journal of Career Assessment, 4,
99–115.
Jessup, C. M. (2002). Applying psychological type and “gifts differing” to organization
change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 5, 502–511.
Johnson, D. A. (1992). Test-restest reliabilities of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the
Type Differentiation Indicator over a 30-month period. Journal of Psychological Type, 24,
54–58.
Jung, C. G. (1923). Psychological types. (H. G. Baynes, Trans.). London: Kegan Paul. (Origi-
nal work published 1921)
Kottner, J., Audige, L., Brorson, S., Donner, A., Gajewski, B.J., Hrobjartsson, A. . . .
Streiner, D. L. (2011). Guidelines for reporting reliability and agreement studies
(GRRAS) were proposed. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 64, 96–106.
Kubinger, K. D., Karner, T., & Menghin, S. (1999). Multiple moderator effects on a testee’s
answer to personality questionnaire items. Review of Psychology, 6, 1–2.
Leiden, L. I., Veach, T. L., & Herring, M. W. (1986). Comparison of the abbreviated and
original versions of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality inventory. Journal of
Medical Education, 61, 319–321.
Levy, N., Murphy, C., & Carlson, R. (1972). Personality types among Negro college stu-
dents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 32, 641–653.
Levy, N. & Padilla, A. (1982). A Spanish translation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Form G. Psychological Reports, 51, 109–110.
Lorr, M. (1991). An empirical evaluation of the MBTI typology. Personality & Individual Dif-
ferences, 12, 1141–1145.
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 25
Lowenthal, W., & Meth, H. (1989). Myers-Briggs Type Inventory personality preferences
and didactic performance. American Journal of Pharmacy Education, 54, 226–228.
McAdams, D. P. (2009). The person: A new introduction to personality psychology (5th ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
McCauley, M. H. (1990). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A measure for individuals. Mea-
surement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 22, 181–196.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1989). Reinterpreting the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator from
the perspective of the NEO-PI. Journal of Personality, 57, 17–40.
MedCalc Software. (2016). MedCalc (Version 16.4.3) [computer software]. Retrieved from
https://www.medcalc.org/index.php
Meline, T. (2006). Selecting studies for systematic review: Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 33, 21–27.
Murray, J. B. (1990). Review of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
70, 1187–1202.
Myers, K. D., Kirby, L. K., & Briggs Myers, I. (2015). Introduction to type: A guide to under-
standing your results on the MBTI assessment (7th ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psy-
chologist Press.
Myers, I. B., McCaulley, M. H., Quenk, N. L., Hammer, A. L., & Mitchell, W. D. (2009).
MBTI® Step III manual: Exploring personality development using the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator® instrument. Mountain View, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Myers & Briggs Foundation. (2016). International use. Retrieved from http://www
.myersbriggs.org/more-about-personality-type/international-use/
Nordvik, H. (1994a). Two Norwegian versions of the MBTI, Form G: Scoring and internal
consistency. Journal of Psychological Type, 29, 24–31.
Nordvik, H. (1994b). Type, vocation, and self-report personality variables: A validity study of a
Norwegian translation of the MBTI, Form G. Journal of Psychological Type, 29, 32–37.
Nordvik, H., & Brovold, H. (1998). Personality traits in leadership tasks. Scandinavian Jour-
nal of Psychology, 39, 61–64.
Oakland, T., Stafford, M. E., Horton, C. B., & Glutting, J. J. (2001). Temperament and
vocational preferences: Age, gender, and racial-ethnic comparisons using the student
styles questionnaire. Journal of Career Assessment, 9, 297–314.
Pittenger, D. J. (1993). The utility of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Review of Educational
Research, 63, 467–488.
Posey, A. M., Thorne, B., & Carskadon, T. G. (1999). Differential validity and comparative
type distributions of blacks and whites on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Journal of
Psychological Type, 48, 6–21.
Pretz, J. E., & Folse, V. N. (2011). Nursing experience and preference for intuition in deci-
sion making. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 20, 2878–2889.
Ruisel, I., & Ruiselova, Z. (1995). Validation of Slovak version of MBTI (preliminary stan-
dardization results). Studia Psychologica, 37, 209–216.
26 J Best Pract Health Prof Divers: Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2017
Saggino, A., Cooper, C., & Kline, P. (2001). A confirmatory factor analysis of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator. Personality & Individual Differences, 30, 3–9.
Saggino, A., & Kline, P. (1995). Item factor analysis of the Italian version of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 243–249.
Saggino, A., & Kline, P. (1996). The location of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in person-
ality factor space. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 591–597.
Salter, D. W., & Evans, N. J. (1997). Test-retest of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: An
examination of dominant functioning. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57,
590–597.
Salter, D. W., Evans, N. J., & Forney, D. S. (2006). A longitudinal study of learning style
preferences on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Learning Style Inventory. Journal of
College Student Development, 47, 173–184.
Sampson, M., Shang, L., Morrison, A. Barrowman, N. J., Clifford, T. J., Platt, R. W., . . .
Moher, D. (2006). An alternative to the hand searching gold standard: Validating
methodological search filters using relative recall. British Medical Research Methodology, 6,
1–9. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-6-33
Schaubhut, N., Herk, N. A., & Thompson, R. C. (2009). MBTI Form M manual supplement.
Retrieved from https://www.cpp.com/pdfs/MBTI_FormM_Supp
Schurr, K. T., Ruble, V. E., & Henriksen, L. W. (1988). Relationships of Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator personality characteristics and self-reported academic problems and skill rat-
ings with scholastic aptitude test scores. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48,
187–196.
Sefcik, D. J., Prerost, F. J., & Arbet, S. E. (2009). Personality types and performance on
aptitude and achievement tests: Implications for osteopathic medical education. Journal
of the American Osteopathic Association, 109, 296–301.
Sipps, G. J., Alexander, R. A., & Friedt, L. (1985). Item analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 45, 789–796.
Shuck, A. A., & Phillips, C. R. (1999). Assessing pharmacy students’ learning styles and
personality types: A ten-year analysis. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 63,
27–33.
Slavin, R. E. (1986). Best-evidence synthesis: An alternative to meta-analytic and traditional
reviews. Educational Researcher, 15(9), 5–11.
Stricker, L. J., Schiffman, H., & Ross, J. (1965). Prediction of college performance with the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 25, 1081–1095.
Thompson, B., & Borrello, G. M. (1986a). Construct validity of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 46, 745–752.
Thompson, B., & Borrello, G. M. (1986b). Second-order factor structure of the MBTI: A
construct validity assessment. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,
18, 148–153.
Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator 27
Thorne, A., & Gough, H. (1999). Portrait of type an MBTI research compendium. Gainesville,
FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.
Turner, E. V., Helper, M. M., & Kriska, S. D. (1974). Predictors of clinical performance.
Journal of Medical Education, 49, 338–342.
Tzeng, O. C. S., Outcalt, D., Boyer, S. L., Ware, R., & Landis, D. (1984). Item validity of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 255–256.
Tzeng, O. C. S., Ware, R. & Bharadwaj, N. (1991) Comparison between continuous bipo-
lar and unipolar ratings of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 51, 681–690.
Tzeng, O. C., Ware, R., & Chen, J. M. (1989). Measurement and utility of continuous
unipolar ratings for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Journal of Personality Assessment, 53,
727–738.
von Elm, E., Altman, D. G., Egger, M., Pocock, S. J., Gotzsche, P. C. & Vandenbroucke,
J. P. (2007). The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiol-
ogy (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. Lancet, 370,
1453–57.
Zemke, R. (1992). Second thoughts about the MBTI. Training, 29, 43–47.
Zumbo, B. D., & Taylor, S. V. (1993). The construct validity of the extraversion subscales of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Cana-
dienne des Sciences du Comportement, 25, 590–604.
Copyright of Journal of Best Practices in Health Professions Diversity: Education, Research
& Policy is the property of University of North Carolina Press and its content may not be
copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s
express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.
Latest Tweets
Your email address S E N D
Get Our Newsletter
Receive our informative weekly newsletter
C O P Y R I G H T © 2 0 2 1 , T R U I T Y . A L L R I G H T S R E S E R V E D .
5 January 8, 2022 – 3:53pm
5 January 8, 2022 – 4:42am
5 January 8, 2022 – 4:40am
5 January 7, 2022 – 12:23am
5 January 6, 2022 – 4:37am
4 January 2, 2022 – 8:13am
5 January 2, 2022 – 3:11am
5 January 1, 2022 – 3:15am
5 December 30, 2021 – 1:08pm
4 December 30, 2021 – 12:06pm
Your Personality Trait Scores
This Big Five assessment measures your scores on five major dimensions of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion,
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (sometimes abbreviated OCEAN). Check out your scores on each of the five dimensions in the graph below,
then read on to discover what each score means.
8 3 %
5 6 %
2 7 %
6 0 %
3 5 %
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0
O
C
E
A
N
O p e n n e s s
Openness describes a person’s tendency to think in abstract, complex ways. High scorers tend to be creative, adventurous, and intellectual.
They enjoy playing with ideas and discovering novel experiences. Low scorers tend to be practical, conventional, and focused on the concrete.
They tend to avoid the unknown and follow traditional ways.
Openness is strongly related to a person’s interest in art and culture. People who are high in openness tend to enjoy the arts and seek out
unusual, complex forms of self-expression. People who are low in openness are often suspicious of the arts and prefer to focus on more
practical pursuits.
C o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s
Conscientiousness describes a person’s ability to exercise self-discipline and control in order to pursue their goals. High scorers are organized
and determined, and are able to forego immediate gratification for the sake of long-term achievement. Low scorers are impulsive and easily
sidetracked.
The concept of Conscientiousness focuses on a dilemma we all face: shall I do what feels good now, or instead do what is less fun but will pay
off in the future? Some people are more likely to choose fun in the moment, and thus are low in Conscientiousness. Others are more likely to
work doggedly toward their goals, and thus are high in this trait.
E x t r a v e r s i o n
Extraversion describes a person’s inclination to seek stimulation from the outside world, especially in the form of attention from other people.
Extraverts engage actively with others to earn friendship, admiration, power, status, excitement, and romance. Introverts, on the other hand,
conserve their energy, and do not work as hard to earn these social rewards.
Extraversion seems to be related to the emotional payoff that a person gets from achieving a goal. While everyone experiences victories in life,
it seems that extroverts are especially thrilled by these victories, especially when they earn the attention of others. Getting a promotion,
finding a new romance, or winning an award are all likely to bring an extrovert great joy. In contrast, introverts do not experience as much of a
“high” from social achievements. They tend to be more content with simple, quiet lives, and rarely seek attention from others.
A g r e e a b l e n e s s
Agreeableness describes a person’s tendency to put others’ needs ahead of their own, and to cooperate rather than compete with others.
People who are high in Agreeableness experience a great deal of empathy and tend to get pleasure out of serving and taking care of others.
They are usually trusting and forgiving.
People who are low in Agreeableness tend to experience less empathy and put their own concerns ahead of others. Low scorers are often
described as hostile, competitive, and antagonistic. They tend to have more conflictual relationships and often fall out with people.
N e u r o t i c i s m
Neuroticism describes a person’s tendency to experience negative emotions, including fear, sadness, anxiety, guilt, and shame. While everyone
experiences these emotions from time to time, some people are more prone to them than others.
This trait can be thought of as an alarm system. People experience negative emotions as a sign that something is wrong in the world. You may
be in danger, so you feel fear. Or you may have done something morally wrong, so you feel guilty. However, not everyone has the same
reaction to a given situation. High Neuroticism scorers are more likely to react to a situation with fear, anger, sadness, and the like. Low
Neuroticism scorers are more likely to brush off their misfortune and move on.
Your Traits in Depth
Now, we’ll take a detailed look at each of your scores and how they compare with average scores for the population. We’ll see what your scores
mean for your individual experiences, and how the latest scientific research can help you to understand what your traits really mean.
Yo u r O p e n n e s s S c o r e i n D e p t h
Openness describes an individual’s tendency to think in complex, abstract ways. People who are high in Openness are abstract thinkers, while
people who are low in Openness are concrete thinkers.
8 3 %
5 8 %
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0
Y O U R S C O R E
A V E R A G E
As a person high in Openness, you are more able than the average person to connect seemingly unrelated concepts. This makes you more
creative and imaginative than average, and more likely to appreciate unusual ideas.
Because you are high in Openness, you are more likely to appreciate art, music, and various cultural activities. You may notice that you are
more interested in such things than the average person. Your mind is better able to process loosely connected ideas, and so you are more apt
to appreciate, say, a sculpture of an elephant built out of forks. While many people would find such a thing bizarre, you enjoy considering the
meaning of things and working to understand how seemingly unrelated ideas might be connected.
Unlock your full report to discover the complete story of your personality traits.
UNLOCK MY REPORT
Or, check out a sample report
Your Personality Patterns
Your personality traits interact to create unique patterns of thought and behavior. In this section, you’ll learn how your traits work together to
drive the way you interact with the world.
To describe your personality patterns, we use a circular graph called a circumplex. The circumplex is used by psychologists to illustrate how
two traits intersect to create more complex patterns of thought and behavior. Each circumplex has four sections, with each section describing
a typical pattern. The area of each section shows how well that pattern describes you. A larger area indicates a better fit for that pattern.
Some circumplex graphs will show a clear preference for one pattern. Others will show a more even spread over two or even three patterns.
Where you have nearly equal scores for two or more patterns, you can expect that both patterns may describe you equally well.
C o r e P a t t e r n
This circumplex describes the essential role you take on in approaching the world. This role is a reflection of your core values and motivations,
as well as the way you think about things.
Unlock your full report to see all 9 of your personality patterns.
UNLOCK MY REPORT
Or, check out a sample report
Your Traits in Action
Now we’ll look at how your personality traits express themselves in all areas of life, from your daily routine to your relationships and your
work life. Each section covers one key area and explains how your individual traits influence your experiences in this aspect of life.
Yo u r I n n e r L i f e
Your personality governs the most fundamental things about you, including how you think, what you value, and what motivates you. This
section explores how your traits drive your internal life.
H o w d o e s y o u r m i n d w o r k ?
You have a highly creative and imaginative way of thinking and you often see connections that others do not. You are uninterested in the dull
facts of a situation, preferring instead to interpret its meaning and implications. You have unusual ideas and sometimes perceive things that
other people are not aware of. You are easily absorbed by fantasy and enjoy envisioning alternate realities as well as possibilities for the future.
W h a t d o y o u v a l u e?
Your ideal world is a kind, equitable one, where people treat each other fairly and with compassion. You value justice and mercy in equal
measure, believing that people should be forgiven when it is reasonable to do so. You do your best to make the world a better place, although
you also work toward your own personal achievements. You want to distinguish yourself, but you do not want to step on any toes to do so.
You have a genuine love of ideas, and value originality, creativity, and imagination. It is important to you to have consistent opportunities to
learn new things and improve your mind. You value intellectual challenge, depth of thought, and insight. Because of your interest in
enlightenment and novel ideas, you place great value on artistic and cultural endeavors. You believe that the improvement of the mind is an
important and worthy goal.
Unlock your full report to find out how your traits impact every area of your life.
UNLOCK MY REPORT
Or, check out a sample report
W h a t o u r c u s t o m e r s t h i n k
Check out reviews from customers who have purchased their premium reports.
B Y B S K
Very accurate. Provides insights to your personality, and how to get the best out of you personal traits.
B Y E L I C
Very accurate. Allows me to have more insight into my character.
B Y E C
Very accurate. I always wanted to see my characters from another pov
B Y B R U C E Z H A O
It was an interesting an insightful look into myself. The most helpful part is where I place compared to other people.
B Y H I M A
This test helped me understand myself better in different perspectives and depth, and I truly appreciate the details in each area. Thank you
very much.
B Y A N O N Y M O U S
The results are very accurate. But they are not for Free as stated at the beginning and USD 19 is pretty overpriced for the actual results, was
expecting way more insight for that amount of money, nothing I didn’t already know.
B Y S O P H I E
The test was about 95% accurate. It really put things in perspective for me. I’m glad I took the step to upgrade.
B Y R U B Y
I found it helpful to check out the full results – at $9 discounted it’s only the price of a drink out, so worth the investment.
B Y E M I L Y
Descriptions are spot on. The results also helped to clarify a few personal preferences that I was blind to/unsure of.
B Y R I S I
This can provide helpful insights to understanding who you are, and the reason you do what you do, when you do it vs. being “different than
the others”.
O u r n o – r i s k g u a r a n t e e
We’re so sure that your results will bring you insight and improve your understanding of yourself, we offer a no-questions-asked money-back
guarantee.
If you purchase your results and don’t find them accurate, enlightening, and full of new discoveries, we’ll promptly provide you with a full
refund.
UNLOCK MY REPORT
E m p a t h i c I d e a l i s t
Uses insight and creativity to help
others. Thinks about how the
world could be a better and more
beautiful place.
P r a c t i c a l C a r e t a k e r
Helps other people in practical,
everyday ways. Uses established
institutions to maintain stability
and security.
AT
LM
PC
EI
A n a l y t i c a l T h i n k e r
Solves logical problems with
rational, complex analysis. Thinks
about innovative ways to improve
systems.
L o g i c a l M e c h a n i c
Ensures accuracy and efficiency in
logical systems. Uses proven
methods to accomplish real-world
goals.
E m o t i o n a l P a t t e r n M o t i v a t i o n P a t t e r n S o c i a l P a t t e r n
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 … N E X T › L A S T »
C O N T I N U E Y O U R S E L F D I S C O V E R Y J O U R N E Y
Get a Free BetterUp 1:1 Coaching Session
The guide you want, the push you need.
BetterUp’s world-class network of Coaches and programs in positive
psychology, peak performance, wellness and mental health can level
up your personal growth journey. Whether you’re feeling stuck in
your career or are seeking more balance and fulfillment in your
personal life, you no longer have to navigate your life on your own.
Get your free 1:1 BetterUp coaching session.
Just take an assessment, choose your coach, and get started today.
7 fictional characters you might relate to if you’re an
#INTP: t.co/Y7SMlcFPaA t.co/mmVtf WqMot
P E R S O N A L I T Y B L O G A B O U T U S C U S T O M E R S E R V I C E S E A R C H P R I V A C Y P O L I C Y
W O R K F O R T R U I T Y A F F I L I A T E P R O G R A M C A R E E R T E S T I N G F O R N O N P R O F I T S P E R S O N A L I T Y T E S T A P I
R E S U L T S F O R G U E S T
J A N U A R Y 1 0 , 2 0 2 2 , 4 : 5 1 P M
T H E B I G F I V E
P E R S O N A L I T Y T E S T
F R E E R E S U L T S A R E D E L E T E D A F T E R 1 4 D A Y S . U P G R A D E O R R E G I S T E R T O S A V E Y O U R R E S U L T S F O R E V E R !
1
L O G I NP E R S O N A L I T Y T E S T S F O R B U S I N E S S M Y E R S B R I G G S T Y P E S E N N E A G R A M T Y P E S
https://www.truity.com/
https://www.facebook.com/TruityPsych
https://www.youtube.com/user/personalitydesk/videos
https://www.linkedin.com/in/mollyowens
https://www.truity.com/upgrade-test-results/25919934
https://www.truity.com/sites/default/files/big_five_sample.html
https://www.truity.com/upgrade-test-results/25919934
https://www.truity.com/sites/default/files/big_five_sample.html
https://www.truity.com/upgrade-test-results/25919934
https://www.truity.com/sites/default/files/big_five_sample.html
https://www.truity.com/upgrade-test-results/25919934
Order an Essay Now & Get These Features For Free:
Turnitin Report
Formatting
Title Page
Citation
Outline
